00002171

A Study of Educational Change in the Use of ICT:
Teachers Behavioural Perspective in 1990s
By
David Jhong Kyu Leeh

A Doctoral Student in Education Management,
School of Education and Lifelong Learning,
University of Exeter,
Exeter.
(e-mail : leeh-jhong-kyu@exeter.ac.uk)
Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the British Educational

Research Association, University of Exeter, England, 12-14 September
2002
Paper to be presented at the Annual Conference of BERA. Exeter, 12 – 14. September 2002
ABSTRACT
In organisation theory, and in cognate disciplines of the social sciences, institutional

arrangements, which are essentially regulatory, normative and/or cognitive in origin, play a
key role in shaping collective action. Some institutions are regulated by formal, written codes
of conduct: legal constitutions, mandates, manuals of procedures, and so on, which are then
given effect by the coercive power of social agencies. The social organisation of the school in
technological societies, in which the latter are themselves undergoing rapid and pervasive
structural change, has been studied in detail, from ‘a rational action’ perspective, since at least
the early 1950s. In contrast, since the 1970s, scholars have reported on the more non-rational
tendencies of institutions, including schools, to incorporate rule-like assumptions regarding
how best to organise themselves. A body of contemporary research in this area, employing
both qualitative and quantitative approaches, has investigated behavioural relationships
between teachers’ professional practice and organisational development, guided and informed
by organisational and institutionalisation change theory. In particular, there is now a
burgeoning literature on teacher use of ICT in schools, under the rubric and for the purpose of
further testing current education change theories. ‘Coercive isomorphism’ is a concept in
which organisations in a sector follow the formal rules and regulations laid down by the state
and its agencies and thereby end up with similar structures or procedures. A number of such
policy instruments in education manifest themselves through inducements, mandates and
capacity building (i.e., professional development). One dimension of a coercive isomorphism
includes an educational effectiveness. This is illustrated for example, through teachers’
change in their professional practice, the social political framework of planned change at
national level in the UK, which in turn is attributable to the use of ICT in schools. This has
been studied under the aegis of national level planned change. In this context, ‘gravity’ was
coded as a teachers’ behavioural pattern in the use of ICT to understand a new dynamic that is
global in scope and characterised by universal values that transcend national boundaries. I
argue that this stands in marked contrast to the conflicting ideology of globalisation, in
seeking to effect positive educational change in the promotion of the common good.
Key Words: Educational Change, Information and Communication Technology, Behavioural
and Organisational Change, Coercive Isomorphism, Cultural theme, gravity.
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
1.2 Rationale of the Study: Aims, Purposes and Significance
2.0 Research Design
2.1 The Instrument
2.1.1 The A-Victory Model
2.1.2 Null-Hypothesis
2.1.3 Interview Protocols
3.0 Findings
3.1 Findings of Phase One and Phase Two
3.2 Findings of Phase Three
4.0 Discussion
4.1 Homogeneous Teacher Behavioural Patterns
4.2 Teachers’ Cultural Theme
5.0 Concluding Remarks
Bibliography
Appendix one: Questionnaire for Teachers’ Perception Survey
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1.0 Introduction
Information and communication technology (ICT) has become a conventional necessity to
promote national productivity and an essential tool for the efficient management of
government. However, the educational impact of information technology for
educational change in schools has not stimulated as much research
attention compared to other areas such as educational ideology, politics
and school effectiveness studies. It is for this reason that this study draws
upon the researcher’s interest in educational information and communication technology, and
examines its impact on educational change which involves an appraisal of teachers’
propensity for behavioural and cultural change.
Long standing educational concerns which centre on the reluctance of school
teachers to change their general teaching practices are discussed in the concept of reflexive
conservatism (Lortie 1975). Strommen (1992) and Crawford (1998) similarly agree that
teachers in state funded secondary schools in England are largely unwilling to alter their
teaching practices to include maximum use of information and communication technology
(ICT). Nevertheless, many research studies confirm the importance and usefulness of ICT to
enhance the processes of classroom teaching and pupil learning. Yet teacher behavioural
change in the classroom has not attracted great research interest. Crawford (1998) points out
that the current problems of classroom teaching and teacher use of ICT in state funded
secondary schools relates to ineffective teacher training, insufficient strategic planning and
inadequate resource management, and the reluctance of change agents to recognise the nature
of complexity for change within the state secondary school sector. Since 1995, ICT has been
promoted and used extensively in state funded schools, but the use of expensive hardware,
software and prevalent unplanned technological development have created significant
problems (1998:1-13).
Sarason (1971:218) comments that any conceptualisation of an educational change
process could include a process to acquire relevant information that an agent of change should
understand when researching target groups in an organisational setting. However,
organisational factors which interact and affect the process of educational change are often
overwhelming and complex (Fullan 1993:47).
Fullan (1993:17-29) comments that the nature of educational change should be
understood in terms of its sources and purposes to apprise educational innovation and reform.
These innovations are generated from a blend of political and educational motives. Politically
motivated change is usually accompanied by significant commitment from leaders, the power
of new ideas and dedicated resources. Also, politically motivated change might increase the
likelihood of work overload, unrealistic time scales, uncoordinated demands, simplistic
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solutions, misdirected efforts and inconsistency. In relation to the purpose of educational

innovation, Fullan (1993) argues that agents of change should neither accept nor reject
educational change without a process of evaluation because the nature of the educational
change can be compared to organizational core values, strategic goals and resultant
consequences.
1.1 Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

The general term information and communication technology (ICT) in the The Qualification
and Curriculum Agency (QCA1999) refers to: the range of tools and technologies relating to
computer-based hardware and software; communications (both directed and broadcast);
information sources such as CD-ROM, the Internet and associated technologies such as
robots, video-conferencing and digital (or analogue) TV. In England, the National
Curriculum includes, as appropriate, requirements for pupils to use ICT to support their
classroom learning and achievement.
The government has declared that ICT promotes positive change in all sectors
including education (DTI 2000). The teaching and learning impacts of using ICT in
education have been researched actively since the 1980s. In the 1990s, scholars predicted that
ICT could produce a revolutionary change in education and that technology was playing an
increasingly prominent role (Toch 1991, Dece 1992, Levin 1993, Picciano 1994, Papert 1993,
Lockard et al. 1990, Reyes et al. 1999, NAESP, 1990). Toch (1991), Dece (1992), Levin
(1993) and Picciano (1994) predicted that new computer technology would break traditional
teaching models. Whilst scholars have argued that the potential of ICT seems limitless,
teachers must introduce modern technology into the classroom environment (Papert 1993,
Lockard et al. 1990, Reyes et al. 1999). Orwig (1994) and Toch (1991) have insisted that the
use of ICT for teaching within effectively organised state schools could significantly increase
pupil academic attainment if teachers are permitted the appropriate ICT training. Discussions
and declarations about change in education standards in the use of ICT have been abstract and
little evidenced in the field of educational change. The ‘information age’ demands a more
technically sophisticated view of teacher training because teachers need to be equipped with
skills and knowledge of ICT to be effective in their classrooms. Also, teachers should act
proactively as catalysts as well as implementers in order to meet educational standards in ICT
required by the government. Correspondingly, the adoption of ICT in state funded secondary
schools requires user expertise because nation-wide investment for system compatibility
involves considerable expense.
The National Grid for Learning (NGFL) was established to implement ICT for
National Curriculum delivery in state funded schools between 1997-2003, and aims to raise
standards and protect equal opportunities in education. For this, teachers’ training and
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resources have increased continuously, however, arguably educational standard raising and
equal opportunities will not automatically be achieved without changing some traditional
educational teaching practices. The Office for Standard in Education (OFSTED) annual
inspection reports state that national surveys of school ICT equipment and teachers confident
use of ICT provide evidence for the increased status of ICT in state funded secondary schools
(OFSTED 2001, OFSTED 2002). However, teachers, policy makers and administrators
involved in the NGFL are aware of the utility, effectiveness and barriers for use of ICT in
state funded schools though these factors have not been accurately identified, nor has any
detailed study of the situation been conducted.
In ethnography, the term culture is used as to represent the sum of a social group’s
observable behavioural pattern (Harris 1968:16; Fetterman 1989:27). It is believed that the
growing culture of a social group’s behavioural pattern in the use of educational technology in
state funded schools has significant organisational value and might form a tool kit to promote
change (Firestone & Louise 1999). This culture can be divided into: national level, school
level, and adult (staff) and student levels (Firestone & Louis 1999:300). It is argued that state
funded school cultures are most amenable to administrative influences and provide useful
motivating factors for staff behaviour (Schein 1992, Deal & Kennedy 1982). However, the
precise types of culture rooted in the use of new educational ICT have yet to be explored.
Firestone and Louise (1999:317) continue to argue that research on organisational culture has
been too narrow and has focused little attention on the linguistic and behavioural codes that
provide the materials for individual and group change. They emphasise the importance of
linguistic and behavioural codes for theoretical and practical reasons. Theoretically, attention
to codes might help to integrate sociological and anthropological studies within organisational
research. Practically, codes are generally easier for administrators and researchers to identify
and label. Therefore, they can address them directly, rather than the underlying values, which
often are tacit.
1.2 Rationale of the Study: Aims, Purposes and Significance

This study aims to discover implications arising from teachers’ behavioural patterns in the use
of ICT based on the measurement of a selected group of teachers’ propensity to use ICT,
identification and analysis of resultant teacher behaviour, and variations of teachers’
behaviour in the use of ICT. It draws upon the management of change from the particular
perspectives of prevailing administrative and psychological theory. The study employs the
behavioural and organisational change model test to assess the current propensity for change
of teacher behaviour in state funded secondary schools. Change patterns could provide
important information and knowledge for the audience of this thesis to inform education
practices, pedagogy, problem solving and policy-making. In addition, the study aims to
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explore cultural (behaviour) themes rooted in teacher behavioural patterns in the use of ICT.
Furthermore, these themes are explored from teachers’ perceptions in a context of
accumulated change for educational ICT use in state funded secondary schools over the last
decade.
This study focuses on the perceptions of teachers and heads of ICT, to inform the
use of ICT in Devon state funded secondary schools, and to discover behavioural teaching
patterns and deep-seated cultural (behavioural) themes in the use of ICT within a general
educational change perspective. The discussion of cultural themes in this study could
provide greater understanding of school culture as a ‘code’ for the use of ICT within a general
framework of educational change. This ‘code’ could be particularly relevant to theory
development and significant to educational practices.
More specifically, the study seeks to answer the following. (a) What patterns of
teacher behaviour are evident from the use of ICT in state secondary schools? (b) What is the
behavioural theme embedded in the current teacher behavioural patterns from the use of ICT
in state secondary schools? A brief description of each question follows.
Q1.What patterns of teacher behaviour are evident from the use of ICT in state
secondary schools? This question provides insights on teachers’ demographic variance of
ICT use, educational effectiveness of ICT use, and the variance of ICT use for delivery across
the National Curriculum. The teachers’ behavioural patterns are identified by a comparison of
different category groups classified in the study.
Q2.What is the cultural themes embedded in the current teacher behavioural patterns
from the use of ICT in state funded secondary schools? This question explores the
behavioural themes of educational change perceptions for teachers’ over the last decade. For
this study, the eight areas to depict teachers behavioural patterns in the interview protocols.
They were (i) curriculum delivery (ii) teacher training (iii) pupils motivation (iv) educational
technology (v) pedagogy (vi) national value (vii) strategic aims of ICT use in education, and
(viii) contribution of ICT in education. This provides a further validation method for
behavioural pattern information explored in the teacher perception survey.
2.0 Research Design

This study has three phases. Phase one is based on a statistical approach using a
questionnaire derived from the A-Victory model. It was sent to sixteen randomly selected
state funded secondary schools. Five representative state secondary school heads of ICT and
one LEA ICT inspector were interviewed (N=6) in Devon, England. The overall teacher
population in the study area was 2.2 thousands. The survey sample was 95.8 per cent
(N=317) of the established target (N=331) and this satisfied P < 0.05 level of significance in
the analysis. Field records, primary documents from heads of ICT, secondary documents
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from government and government-affiliated agencies were collected and anecdotal stories
were recorded.
Design considerations focused on the robustness of the model the dimensions
around which further claims on validity were sustainable, and subjecting the model to
empirical test and further refining it in the light of the emergent data.
Information required Instrument or methods Tools for analysis

 What are the collective teachers’ propensity to Questionnaire survey: 31 SPSS 9.0
change in ICT use in the perspective of demographic question items using four
variance, educational effectiveness and curriculum points Likert scales.
delivery practices? (The A-Victory model)
Semi-structured interviews recorder, transcripts,
Document study. field records, MS Word
Anecdotal records. for frequency counting
(content categorizing)
 What are the behavioural culture themes in the use Semi-structured interviews. recorder, transcripts,
of educational ICT? Primary documents. field records, MS Word
Secondary documents. for frequency counting
Anecdotal records. (content categorizing)
DRS (Development
Research Sequence)
(Table 1) The methods of data collection and analysis.
This study uses quantitative and qualitative inquiries because measurement depends on
statistical models and the existence of competing claims for model validation. The
quantitative analysis follows the hypothetical deductive approach. Guba and Lincoln
(1982:2) insist that evaluation and measurement were virtually inter-changeable concepts
because they are inextricably connected to the topic of inquiry. Interviews were undertaken to
confirm and support the teachers’ perception questionnaire. Although the interviews were
conducted on a similar basis to the survey, inductive data analysis was used to interpret the
survey findings. A qualitative approach can operate under different epistemological
assumptions. The explorative study on cultural themes for the use of ICT adopted content
categorising methods and Spradely’s (1980) Developmental Research Sequence (DRS)
method to analyse the semi-structured interviews. This approach forms part of an
ethnography study but DRS was used to uncover cultural domains and reveal cultural themes.
The technique for content categorising and DRS are very similar but the latter is more
systematic for analysing interview transcripts. The methods used for collection data and
analysis are summarised (Table 1). The structure and purposes of the thesis is divided into
three broad study phases [Figure 1]. Phase one frames a structured model of inquiry by
applying a statistical measurement model. Phase two is designed to triangulate data and
outcomes and by analysing teachers’ perceptions of change.
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Phase I Phase II Phase III
Quantitative Qualitative Qualitative
Teachers’ evident behavioural Teachers’ evident behavioural Cultural theme (Behavioural

patterns and effectiveness in patterns and effectiveness in code) in the use of ICT over
the use of ICT. the use of ICT. the last decade.
Structure of the study by phases. [Figure 1]
In the phase two study interviews were planned to explore staff behavioural codes (cultural
themes) for the use of ICT in state funded schools. This study is categorised as phase three.
The phase one study adopts a strictly structured approach using a questionnaire and
parametric data analysis such as the t-Test, Anova, and regression. Phase two is a less
structured framework composed of semi-structured interviews and the primary documents of
interviewees. Phase three adopts semi-structured interviews and other unobtrusive
approaches (field record, documents, personal records and anecdotal stories) to explore the
cultural themes of educational change for the use of ICT. Phase two and three adopts content
analysis and the DRS data analysis method (Spradley 1980) to create a code system and
counts the words’ segments to identify categories in the code system. Data and outcomes
were triangulated from the series of interviews, field records, primary and secondary
documents and anecdotal stories.
In the structure of the study phases [Figure 1], the arrows at the foot of the diagram
indicates the relationship between each phase. The relation of phase one and phase two infers
a meta inference by collating the findings from different data sources. The relationship
between phases one, two and three is a method for mutual validation processing of the
inquiries.
2.1 The Instrument

2.1.1 The A-Victory model
The A-Victory model was used for the quantitative study. The acronym ‘A-Victory’ is an
abbreviation of the model’s eight constituent elements and was developed to investigate
selected dimensions of institutional change. After further developmental work it entered into
the public domain as a tool for predicting organisational readiness for change (NIMH 1971,
FYA & Sharp 2000). It was employed in the current study in order to study teachers
behavioural patterns of planned organisational change as evidenced across its key elements
predicated by the model. It involved the administration of a questionnaire to staff in selected
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schools in the Southwest of England in which an individual teacher was taken as the unit of
analysis. Reasons that informed the choice of the model in this study were the: model’s
applicability to elements planned change in education policy; model’s relevance to the
researcher’s administrative career background and aspirations; model’s feasibility to assess
the initial stages of change implementation; model’s comprehensiveness in considering
organisational change variables; problem solving. The A-victory model is defined by eight
variables. Each of the variables in turn is set out and subjected to more detailed treatment.
The theory of the dynamic relationships between the variables is then analysed and use of the
model in the extant literature is subsequently reviewed. The model is linked to RD&D,
problem solving and social interaction models to aid study of the gap between theory (policy)
and practice (local sites) in organisational change.
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Research, Development & Diffusion Model. Zaltman et al. (1977) maintain that the
model depicts change from an early point in the evolutionary process of an innovation. Clark
and Guba (1965) particularly emphasised that the model can be designed as a vehicle to
bridge the gap between theory and practices. It is strengthened by previous knowledge from
research and evaluation studies of policy effectiveness. McLaughlin (1987) supports this by
stating that success depends critically on a variety of factors: local capacity and will (value
and belief), motivation, a combination of pressure and support from policy, and resistance to
change. The model proceeds through the strategies of research, development, diffusion, and
adoption. Zaltman et al. (1977:68) argue that the process concludes when the invention is
successfully assimilated or institutionalised within the adopting system. The invention ceases
to be an innovation when it becomes an integral part of the system. The success of the
institutionalisation phase can be judged by the degree to which members support and continue
to use the invention.
Problem-solving model. Davis & Salasin (1975) argue that the model starts with the
user’s need to seek for a solution. The external helper is largely non-directive, mainly
guiding the potential users through their own problem-solving processes and encouraging
them to utilise internal resources. Coughlan et al. (1972) introduced ‘the survey feedback-
problem solving-collective decision model (SF-PS-CD)’. The various stages of the problem-
solving model are illustrated in figure 2. Here, evaluation pertains to the identification of
problems as perceived by members of an organisation such as a school. This can be
undertaken by a questionnaire survey among a group of teachers. Internal diffusion refers to
the communication of suggested changes to other members of the organisation who might be
affected by them. During the legitimating phase, the proposed action plan is presented in
relation to traditional practices within the school. The adoption phase entails the acceptance
of the final change proposal agreed on by members of the group. During the implementation
phase, the final proposal is translated into practice. Routinisation refers to the successful and
lasting integration of the new program within the organisational structure (Zaltman et al.
1977:61).
Collective stimulation Internal Adoption Implementation Rutinisation

evaluation adoption
Legitimation
Source : Coughlan et al. (1972 : 21). Zaltman et al (1977 : 60)
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The Collective Innovation Decision Process. [Figure 2]
Social interaction (consideration of environment). Levin (1974, Zaltman et al. 1977)

argues that educational change reflects changes in the organised society or polity, hence he
concluded that educational institutions cannot move ahead of the polity in attempting to affect
the major tenets of the social, economic or political system. Levin’s (1974) conceptual
theory implies that the polity directly influences: the goals set by the educational system and
the financial resources available to achieve those goals; the selection of non-financial
educational resources such as personnel; the process whereby resources are mobilised and co-
ordinated to achieve goals; and the social, economic, and political results of educational
processes. In relation to the polity, Levin’s model implies that: any attempted change should
be developed and presented in a way that appears consistent with the values and goals of the
larger society; major educational change should be introduced when major changes are
occurring in the larger society; and the change planner must try to identify the particular
sources of influence in the polity at large which are most important to the education reform
being attempted.
The A-Victory Model Elements. The elements in the A-Victory model of planned change
are presented by FYA & Sharp (2000) as follows (Table 2). This model elements were
developed by thirty one question items using a four point Likert scale (see appendix one) for
the a survey of teachers perception in the study. Davis and Salasin (1975) argue that there are
three reasons as to why a comprehensive model of the change process is needed. First, no
present ‘storage box’ accommodates all available information. One phenomenon repeatedly
confirmed in the dissemination field is that when information is purveyed in overwhelming
amounts which often are inconsistent if not contradictory, absorption of the information is cut
off. No one likes to have their thirst quenched by a fire hose!
Element Description of the Element

Ability Are available staff sufficiently skilled to manage and evaluate the change
project?
Values Have you identified the community needs and values which are likely to
affect participation of stakeholders in the project committee?
Information Have you gathered useful information to make a good case for the
continuation of the project and to monitor the progress of the project?
Circumstances What are the main political, social, economic and cultural factors and how
might they affect the implementation of the project?
Timing How is the timing of the project affected by these circumstances? What are
the critical steps and by when do they have to be completed?
Obligation To whom is the project accountable?
Resistance Who or what might be against the project or create unfavourable
circumstances?
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Yield What are the expected outcomes and longer-term costs and benefits?
(Table 2) The A-victory model elements.
The A-victory model allows cataloguing and retrieving of existing information and
presumably subsequent knowledge. Second, a model linked to familiar theory is needed for
flexible and inventive application. Though the A-Victory model underwent logical clustering
of information during its evolution, its development unavoidably converged with a familiar
model of human behaviour. Third, a working model is needed which meets the criteria of
adequacy. The adequacy of such a model can be viewed in a number of ways. Characteristics
include: practicality, manipulability, economy, comprehensiveness, synergy and so on (Davis
and Salasin 1975:634). Davis and Salasin (1975:637-663) suggest that the key of the A-
Victory model is that it addresses the human dimension of organisations and social systems.
It espouses a behavioural model derived from learning theory, but other human performance
theories were not neglected. This model takes account of three broad influencers: motivation,
drive, sensed obligation to ‘do something’ about a matter; availability of a selected course of
action, an idea (information) for achieving a solution; consequences of the change. If the
consequences are apt to bring about displeasure, there will be barriers against choosing that
particular idea.
Formulation of the A-victory model. Variations of the model were experimented on by
the National Institute for Mental Health (NIMH 1971), Davis and Salasin (1975) and Kiresuk
et al. (1977, 1994). The NIMH (1971) has reported that the dimensions of the A-Victory
model can be shown dynamically by the following formula:
Desired Behavioural Change =

Value + Timing + Circumstance + (Information + Yield) x (Motivation x Ability) – Resist
The NIMH explains that ‘to a large extent, determination of the probability that any specified
change will occur is a purpose of the formula’ (1971:28).
Teachers’ background information. The demographic concern sought to discover
teachers’ biological sex, age, school size and area information. Also it sought to discover
information on associated school educational effectiveness. Specifically, equipment, pupils’
attainment, training and teachers’ academic and professional qualifications. For the
educational practice study, the questionnaire sought to discover teaching subjects, number of
years teaching, and teachers’ experience in the use of ICT. This background information was
significant in the design, and to define the purpose of the study. Deciding what sort of
background data to collect was decided by assessing the feasibility of the data in the study
area. School size, area, equipment and pupil attainment information was collected in
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consultation with Devon County Council’s Education Information Officer. Particularly,

equipment and attainment groups required lengthy analysis. Background information for
equipment is based on each school’s equipment status by group graded as either good or poor.
This information was compared to the pupil to PC ratio, the ratio for access to ICT (including
Internet), school web and curriculum use of ICT. Pupil attainment data was constructed by
anlaysing two consecutive years (1999-2000) of pupil GCSE results overall in state secondary
schools in Devon.
2.1.2 Null-Hypothesis
Number Category Statement of Null-Hypothesis
Q1 Demographic Sex , H0 : man = woman. Age, H0 : 18-30 = 31-45= 45+.
study Size, H0 : big = small Area, H0 : village = town = city.
Effectiveness Training, H0 : trained = untrained, Equipment, H0 : good = average = poor
study Education, H0 : BA = MA. Pupil attainment, H0 : good = poor,
Education Career, H0 : 1-9 = 10+.
practice study Experience, H0 : nonuser = novice = some experience = very experienced
Subject, H0 : Math = Language = Humanity = Science = Art = Technology = sociology =
others
(Table 3) Null-Hypothesis.
After the development of the questionnaire for phase one study, the null-hypotheses (Table 3)
were established and tested. The survey was undertaken during May 2001 - July 2001. One
thousand questionnaire packs were dispatched and the return rates were 31.7 per cent (Table
4). This rate was 1.4 per cent less than the expected rate (33.1 per cent). Data collection
administration was undertaken by contacting deputy principals and ICT coordinators in each
school.
Sent by post Return by post Return by web Total return Rate of return (%)
1,000 307 10 317 31.7
(Table 4) Questionnaire return rate.
The questionnaire (phase one) was posted using stamped addressed envelopes. In addition,
web sites were established in advance for the convenience of responders for data collection.
But the web questionnaire was not overly effective because teachers’ responses were small
(N=10). (Web site : http://www.dawlish-cc.devon.sch.uk/research.htm.). Data was coded
by SPSS 9.0 s/w package. Data analysis was planned as follows.
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analysis of descriptive statistics;

reliability test (Cronbach alpha test);
parametric test;
central tendency (mean value);
missing value analysis and imputation;
group comparison through t-Test and Anova;
regression study for construct validity;
peer review;
conclusion and report.
During the data processing, distinctive in the analysis was that some data was insufficient for
significant analysis, therefore data was merged or discarded in the analysis. The categories
were age groups (four groups  three groups), education groups (four groups  two groups),
areas (four groups  three groups) and attainment (three groups  two groups). The data
shows a non-parametric structure but the procedure follows parametric analysis procedures
because the assumption supporting the data distribution was a parametric distribution. The
histogram presents the analysis and tends to be a bell shape but outliers exist. They were
maintained because when eliminated, it was very difficult to differentiate among the group
comparison. For data analysis, the model sum was calculated according to the A-victory
formula and the value was compared to the groups. For example, in the teacher biological
sex group (Male = 178, Female = 139), an A-Victory model sum was calculated and the sum
was compared to male and female groups by using mean comparison techniques (Anova, t-
Test) to identify significant differences.
2.1.3 Interview Protocols

Phase two of the study collated the findings from the different data sources used in the
phase one inquiry. The following interview protocols were used.
1. How is ICT used among the subject teachers in your school?
2. What are the differences in ICT use between the age groups of teachers in your school?
3. What are the differences in current ICT use among career-groups of teachers in your school?
4. What are the differences between trained and untrained teachers’ current ICT use in your school?
5. What are the differences in current ICT use among the various experience (skill) groups of teachers’
in your school?
6. What are the differences between well equipped teachers’ and poorly equipped teachers’ use of
ICT?’
7. What are the differences in ICT use between teachers’ education groups in your school?
8. Do you think that teachers’ effective use of ICT can produce better pupil attainment?
9. What are the differences in ICT use between gender groups of teachers in your school?’
10.What are the differences in ICT use between teachers working in large schools and small schools?
11. What are the differences in ICT use between teachers working in urban school and rural school?
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A content category method was used for analysis of the phase two study. The following
interview protocols were used for analysis of teachers’ cultural themes in the phase three
study (Research question 2).
1. What have been the changes in the use of ICT for curriculum delivery over the last decade?
2. What have been the major changes in the use of ICT for professional development over the last
decade?
3. What have been the changes in the use of ICT for pupil motivation over the last decade?
4. What have been the major changes in educational communication and technology since 1990?
5. What have been the major changes in the strategic aims of ICT use in education over the last decade?
6. What have been the changes of pedagogy in the use of ICT?
7. What are the national value systems for ICT use in education?
8. What in your view are the major contributions of ICT to education?
The interview protocols were tested in a pilot study and further refined. Spradley (1980)’s
Developmental Research Sequence, which derives from ethnography study, was used for
analysis of the phase three study. Spradley (1980) distinguishes cultural domain and cultural
theme for the understanding of human behaviour. Carter (1997:164-165) argues that cultural
domains constitute categories of meaning summarised by a cover term which includes terms
and linguistic semantic relationships between them, such as ‘X’ is a form of ‘Y’, ‘X’ is a way
to do ‘Y’ and so on (Table 5). In every culture the number of their universal semantic
relationships is small. Here, the cultural theme is a relationship between the cultural domains.
Cultural domains were categorised by finding semantic relationships between subjects and
interviews. Spradley (1980)’s DRS is a method used in ethnography study but it resembles
content analysis in the way that taxonomies find cover terms, and then makes connections
across them to find cultural themes in the analysis. Cultural themes are relationships between
cultural domains. Spradley (1980:103) developed a twelve stage developmental research
sequence (DRS) based on (1) observation making (2) domain analysis (3) making a
taxonomy analysis (4) making a theme analysis (5) writing the ethnography. Spradley (1980)
suggests nine dimensions for generating a cultural domain
Included term Semantic relationship Cover term

(X is a means to Y)
Subject matter competence ‘are means to’ Effective teaching.
Thorough preparation
Setting the environment
Stimulating through
Promoting discussion
Being respected
…
Source: Carter, D. S. G., (1997:164)
(Table 5) Example of a cultural domain.
15
For the interview analysis, forty-one category systems were analysed and these were
categorised by ten cover terms. Later one cultural theme was apparent in these cultural
domains.
3.0 Findings
3.1 Findings for Phase One and Phase Two
The phase one and phase two studies are summarised (Table 6-8).
Category Phase I Phase II Way of meta inference
Homogeneity Heterogeneity Homogeneity Heterogeneity
characteristicDemographic
Sex   Convergent
Age   Convergent
Size   Supplementary
Area   Supplementary
(Table 6) Comparison of demography.

Productive Non productive Productive Non productive
productivityEducation
Training   Convergent
Equipment   Complementary
Attainment   Convergent
Education  Not available
(Table 7) Comparison of effectiveness.

Variant Invariant Variant Invariant
Education practice
Subject   Supplementary
Career   Convergent
Experience   Supplementary
(Table 8) Comparison of practice.

The analyses focused on three dimensional aspects: (a) demographic concerns (b) educational
effectiveness concern and (c) educational practice (Table 6-8). Demographic concerns
investigated school teachers’ tendency to use ICT and to identify variants between the groups
defined. Sex, size, area groups showed homogeneous characteristics and age groups showed
a tendency for heterogeneity. Educational effectiveness research investigated effectiveness in
relation to the use of ICT. Training, equipment and pupils’ attainment categories showed that
effectiveness and teachers’ education group did not provide an answer. Education practice
research investigated the authentic use of ICT through subject, career and experience groups.
Subject groups revealed that there was a uni-dimensional perception on ICT use including a
16
sixty four percent of consensus toward ICT innovation and approximately seventy per cent of
actual use of ICT in the curriculum delivery. Teachers’ more service years did not become a
predictor of better expertise in ICT whereas more exposure to ICT was a strong predictor for
better expert use of ICT. Such trends for ICT in the three dimensional analyses are
outstanding and discernable behavioural patterns for the positive change direction as revealed
in the study.
3.2 Findings for Phase Three

The findings for phase three of the study are depicted in figure 3.
Major cultural domains Key meaning Theme (code)

 Delivery tool
 Common area for life Natural tendency
 Incorporation in NC
 Used in the context
 Huge training
 Enhance motivation Importance
“Gravity”
 Evolving technology
 Enrich the NC
 Used for socialisation
 Classroom is changing External force
 Important to meet the need
 Make changes
Discovery of cultural theme. [Figure 3]
Possible connections were made to identify cultural themes. Spradley (1980:143) argues that
people do not express cultural themes easily, even though they know the cultural principle and
use it to organise their behaviours and interpret experiences. He also insists that themes need
not apply to every part of a culture.
The cultural domains were gathered and a cultural theme was devised by searching
central ‘code’ of the domains. ‘Gravity’ was shown to be a commonsense connection
between domains. Most teachers would use it to provide fertile resources for the curriculum,
to stimulate classroom teaching and to motivates children. These advantages should be
supported by adequate ICT training for teacher in the context of educational change. The use
of ICT is therefore necessary for effective teaching and learning and is becoming a natural
main stream of education.
4.0 Discussion
4.1 Homogeneous Teacher Behavioural Patterns
17
Teachers’ homogeneous behavioural patterns can be explained by three theories which are
derived from contemporary institutional theory: population ecology theory; resources
dependency theory; and isomorphism. Population ecology theorists (Carroll 1984: Singh
1990, Peters (2000) argue that competency is the major reason for the homogeneous
behavioural patterns in modern institutions. They explained the whole process of population
ecology process as variation  selection  retention  competition. Resource dependency
theorists argue that resource is the main reason for organisations’ homogeneity patterns
(Donaldson 1995; and Powers 2000). Powers (2000:7) illustrates the example of the
behavioural and organisational change in schools by resources.
More and more, students are a scarce resources and universities are faced with pressure
to manipulate the environment in order to attract more students. Realizing [that] IT is
causing some of the changes in education, universities are attempting to change both how
they provide services and how they think about education in order to meet the demands
of the environment.
In reference to empirical research, resources in ICT can bring about greater change. Carter &
Leeh (2002) identify that adequate resources is a motivator for teachers’ behavioural patterns.
They used the A-Victory model to identify teachers’ behavioural patterns in Korea where state
funded secondary school teachers were all given one computer and broadband Internet
connection. They found that the homogeneity patterns were greater. The study shows that
even age difference disappeared from teacher demographic behavioural patterns. In symbolic
and valuative dimensions of organisations (Peters 2000:102), isomorphism of schools as
broad social system is advocated by many scholars. These institutions show similar
organisational patterns such as organisational charts, structures, time schedules and behaviour
patterns of practices such as curriculum delivery by government mandates.
According to sociologists, isomorphism has three categories: coercive, normative and
mimeic. These patterns indicates that how the isomorphism is formed in a sector wide
institution level by showing that once a certain innovation is well formed, various processes
reduce variety and increase the homogeneity. The coercive isomorphism explains a number
of policy instruments in education such as inducement, mandates and professional
development (McDonnell and Elmore 1987). In a coercive isomorphism, organisations in a
sector follow the formal rules and regulations laid down by the state and its agencies and have
similar structures or procedures. Rowan & Miskel (1999) point out that a major problem with
coercive policy instruments is that they often drive up enforcement costs without producing
anticipated gains in efficiency. As Oliver (1991) indicates that with the growing use of
rational actor model (such as principal (government)-agent (school) theory in institutional
theory, organisations are seen as more pro-active with respect to their institutional
environment, although the three strategies are often criticised for portraying organisations as
18
relatively passive actors that simply adapt to their institutional environments. Frederickson
(2002) argues that one would logically assume that organisational change is driven by
competition and by the need for efficiency. Instead, change in the iron cage tends to make
institutions more similar without necessarily making them more efficient. Frederickson
(2002) explains the reason of the assimilation as follows.
If I may use a bit of sociological jargon, the concept of isomorphism best captures the process of
institutional homogenisation. Isomorphism means a pattern of increasing similarity among
organizations in similar fields—all research universities, all armies, all software companies, and so
forth. Isomorphism in fields of similar institutions leads to homogeneity among those institutions
in their structure, technology, culture and outputs.
At the implementation stage of innovation, a measure of a propensity of change enables us to

predict the organisational change characteristics for the future. The rationale for a measure of
propensity to change in a hypothesis of organisational isomorphism implies theoretically that
it can demonstrate, compare, differentiate, determine, and form a long run policy guide to
enhance organisational change characteristics. Theoretically, the isomorphism in behavioural
patterns predicates the famous social metaphor of the ‘invisible hand’ and ‘unintended
consequences’ because a cycle of organisational change can be viewed as variation 
selection  retention  competition. Di Maggio and Powell (1991) argue that this result
comes from the competition for political power and legitimacy. Norton (2002) describes the
metaphor of the invisible hand as follows:
The concept of unintended consequences is one of the building blocks of economics. Adam
Smith’s “invisible hand” the most famous metaphor in social science, is an example of a positive
unintended consequence. Smith maintained that each individual, seeking only his own gain, “is led
by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention.” That end being the
public interest.
In the context of these theoretical perspectives, the isomorphism of teacher behavioural

patterns is understood as a ‘public good’ that is instigated from people’s interest in use of
ICT. However, the characteristic of isomorphism in the study is understood as coercive. its
coercive nature was found from the outcomes of teachers’ encouragement systems in the use
of ICT. Interviewees perceive that national curriculum delivery through ICT is a statutory
requirement for curriculum delivery. This is understood as an explicit external environment
prescribed by government in the National Curriculum. One failure of the coercive strategy in
England’s curriculum policy implies that the degree of coercive intervention by government
should be carefully applied. Sykes (1999) and Stearns (1996) describe this as follows:
England offers the most cautionary tale […] There, a new national curriculum was mandated and
developed together with new assessment. Initially, the government agency overseeing the process
failed to consult with teachers and the results were disastrous. The curricular guidance was overly
detailed and prescriptive, covered too many topics and subjects in each of ten curricular areas and
imposed a heavy paperwork burden on teachers […] teachers effectively boycotted the system and
refused to implement the new curriculum, prompting its revision (Sykes 1999).
19
However, the homogeneity character of demography shows the current policy of effectiveness
in ICT use. Di Maggio and Powell (1983) and Meyer and Scott (1983) argued that
organisational heterogeneity in the social environment tends to inhibit planned or directed
change. In this paper the ICT use shows a certain effectiveness in education. Training,
equipment and attainment group studies relate to education effectiveness. Comprehensively,
teachers’ propensity to change is related to pupil attainment. This finding only presents the
causality between variables. It does not show whether motivated pupils influence teachers’
change in ICT use or teachers with good ICT expertise influence pupils attainment.
Notwithstanding, the meta-inference gained from qualitative study, it is clear that good
expertise in ICT does influence pupils’ achievement.
4.2 Discussion on Cultural theme

The discussion of productive coercive isomorphism can be extended in relation to teachers’
cultural (behavioural) themes. The culture of adult school teachers can be represented as a
behavioural codes. Teachers’ culture in a specific technological ecology might be codified as
‘gravity’. This code was selected because teachers are affected by related aspects such as
pedagogy, motivation and, enrichment of curriculum in the use of ICT. This leads teachers to
adopt ICT as a natural tendency. Furthermore there are strong government mandates and
prescriptions in the form of laws such as the national curriculum system and standard funding
for infrastructure investment. This external ecology is fostering teachers. One decisive factor
is the huge opportunity for professional development by the NOF. There is an implicit
agreement among teachers for ICT use in classroom teaching and it has become accepted in
schools has seen in the teachers’ change of realisation for the school use of ICT. One
interviewee said that current teachers’ ICT use can be divided into two categories: ‘a
consciousness confidence’ and an unconsciousness confidence.’
Five years ago, we had lots of unconscious confidence. They didn’t use IT. They didn’t realise the
fact they needed to. They didn’t realise the opportunity to do that but more and more staff have
realised that there has been a shift in confidence for the use of ICT from unconsciousness to
consciousness.
Figure 3 depicts that teachers confidence has changed from large numbers of unconsciousness
into large numbers of consciousness confidence. This contrasts to Chin and Benne’s
(1976:22) conscious utilisation and application of knowledge for educational change. They
(1976) argue that conscious utilisation and application of knowledge is a principal means for
modifying patterns and institutional practices.
20
Conscious confidence
Unconscious confidence
(A)
Change of teachers’ conscious confidence. [Figure 3]
The unconscious confidence in figure 3 implies that ICT use was adopted for the sake of it. It
changed into conscious confidence which means understanding how to use ICT, where it
should be used, and when to use it effectively. It contrasts the technological
misunderstanding of its technological role as a tool which led to teachers effective use of ICT
in the context of teaching and learning. One example of technology use for the sake of it was
described by Spolsky (1972). The US Navy adopted PERT (Programme Evaluation and
Review Technique) when it developed a Polaris Missile System. The PERT innovation was
diffused across government, but officials ignored the fact that the PERT was actually a
managerial philosophy rather than a mode of practice. The unanticipated consequence of this
was that the use of PERT in a range of developmental efforts was instrumental in limiting
organisational flexibility (Spolsky 1972; recited from Hall 1981:248). As part of planned
change, the huge opportunity of teachers’ training increases conscious confidence (utilisation)
by providing ICT knowledge and skills (information) which reinforce link between policy and
classroom practice. In brief, the cultural theme, gravity, established: i) the use of ICT is
important and significant for education ii) the use of ICT is a natural tendency for education
due to the obvious benefits iii) there are external forces for the use of ICT in education.
Teachers' cultural themes are represented at the level of cultural domains. ICT, as a
tool for teaching and learning, it is not perceived as a change agent itself. OECD (2002)
establishes a hypothesis to discover whether ICT can be a catalyst or a lever. In a twenty one
OECD country case study, OECD concluded that after analysing ninety four case study
reports that ICT is a lever: technology serves only as additional resources. OECD
distinguishes catalyst as an agent that provokes or instigates change whilst a lever, in contrast,
is not an agent but a tool. An agent once, introduced, can act beyond its immediate goal,
causing significant change; a lever can only be applied to achieve an intended goal (OECD
2002:14). One teacher mentioned:
Computer use encouraged new ways of learning that is, open learning approaches. However, it was not the
computer use per se that encouraged these new learning situations. It was the teacher who aimed to such
approaches, facilitated through by computer use (OECD 2002:14).
21
In this regard, ICT can be understood as an opening tool for change. The term, opening tool
is often confused with a generic tool. UK literature uses the generic tool as representing
software such as, word processors, spreadsheets, power point, and graphic design. OECD
(2002) uses open tools in the same meaning as generic tool. The open tools or generic tools
contribute to explore, design, create ideas, and refresh classroom activities.
Three other cover terms were used to discover and conclude the cultural theme study:
open-ended change; successful education; and unavoidable. In a perspective of change
patterns, open-ended change was applied to cover the findings of cultural domains in phase
three of the study. The meaning of open-ended change means that there is no static state in
the change process but there are incessant innovations and change will occur through the use
of ICT. But this was not supported because the definition and theoretical base of the
existence of open ended-change was not established appropriately with the findings because
ICT use cannot make change without decision making, further, the cultural domain of ‘change
maker’ in the analysis needs to be interpreted as an outcome of classroom activities.
Another cultural theme was ‘successful education’. It was evident that ICT use is
explicitly supportive for improving educational factors of pupil motivation, classroom
activities, convenience of teaching and the learning process. But successful education
depends on time, values and the goals of education in different settings. It can be an increase
of attainment ratio in one place and pupils’ lower drug use in another place. If we extend ICT
to diverse educational problems, ICT use itself might be termed as mostly unsuccessful for
educational excellence. Only we can say is that the implementation of ICT use could lead to
successful outcomes.
The last cultural theme ‘unavoidable’ was considered an appropriate cover term
representing current teachers culture for the use of ICT. The evidence based selection of this
term is that: there is no severe resistance for ICT use; helpful and supportive impact for pupil
learning; teachers’ perceptions of ICT as a convenient tool; technological development; its
embeddedness in traditional education routine (i.e., socialisation to improve citizenship for
the appropriate use of ICT). Government claims for the use of ICT are that it provides
training opportunities and fulfils the requirements of a national curriculum. In brief, one head
of ICT stated that ‘the requirements in the national curriculum state that subjects must be
delivered by ICT and we’d like to do it. They have got no choice’. But the cover term was
excluded because it contains a fairly pessimistic nuance in itself.
The sequential development of cultural theme is natural in the view of qualitative
research. Laughlin (1995:1) argues that Guba and Lincoln’s (1989:19) constructivist research
paradigm holds as its central thesis the notion that research results are not descriptions of the
way things “really are”. Instead, Guba and Lincoln (1989) work from the “ontological
22
assumption that realities, certainly social, behavioural realities, are mental constructions”.
Laughlin (1995:2) goes on to cite Guba and Lincoln (1989:145) that ‘a construction once
formed is likely to maintain itself…constructions are self-sustaining and self-renewing.
5.0 Concluding Remarks

The study attempts to discover evident and discernable secondary school teachers’
behavioural patterns through quantitative and qualitative approaches. The findings reveal that
there are homogeneous behavioural patterns in the provision of a comprehensive behavioural
change model study. The pattern was supported by three contemporary institutional change
theories: population ecology theory, resources dependency theory, and isomorphism in
sociology theory. The teachers’ behavioural patterns were coded as ‘gravity’. Although the
study was limited by the restricted samples of teacher groups and school levels, the findings
prove that there is a natural tendency of ICT adoption along with the self-realisation of
significance for use of ICT among teachers within the external forces of education.
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Appendix One Questionnaire for Teachers’ Perception Survey

Scale 1: Strongly Disagree 2: Somewhat disagree 3: Somewhat Agree 4: Strongly Agree.
No Question SD D A SA
1 My ICT skill is appropriate to accommodate my classroom practice.
2 My ICT knowledge is appropriate to accommodate my classroom practice.
3 Current financial resources (running costs) in my school are adequate for using ICT to
support the curriculum.
4 My school has enough computers and network facilities to fulfil the needs of the
curriculum
5 Current educational ICT innovations in my school are consistent with the way I like to
organise the classroom
6 Current educational ICT innovations in my school contribute to equality of access to
education for my pupils.
7 Current practices of educational ICT innovations in my school are consistent with the
DfEE’s policies
26
8 Current educational ICT innovations in my school are useful for my classroom

teaching.
9 Current educational ICT innovations in my school are valuable in promoting children’s
learning.
10 The head teacher in my school is actively engaged in promoting ICT
11 My professional practice is increasingly dependent on ICT innovation and use.
12 I can easily access information about ICT innovations that are being used in education.
13 I can easily understand the information about ICT innovations that are being used in
education.
14 The information that I have available to me about ICT innovations influences me to
improve my classroom practice
15 The information that I have available to me about ICT innovations is useful in my
situation.
16 There are new patterns of teaching and learning related to ICT use and innovation that
are of direct advantage to my school.
17 Teaching methods are changing because of ICT innovations in my school.
18 The educational use of ICT innovation is necessary in my school to maintain our
current educational standards
19 Current ICT planning is conducive to the adoption of innovations in teaching and
learning in my school.
20 Now is a good time to use ICT in my school to get on to the Internet for educational
purposes.
21 This is a good time to use ICT in my school extensively to meet the current social and
employment needs of students (social and employment needs: school leavers can use a
computer, Internet and e-mail effectively in their situation).
22 This is a good time to use ICT in my school extensively in relation to other events
(e.g., teacher training, web based educational material services, etc.) occurring or
about to occur in my school.
23 The ICT innovations in my school probably have been evaluated soundly by external
authorities (LEA or DfEE).
24 It is probable that the current ICT innovations in my school have been compared with
other alternatives of ICT educational innovations by external authorities (LEA or
DfEE).
25 The current ICT innovations in my school are a good stimulus for teachers to be
innovative in their classroom practices.
26 There are ICT innovations that I have decided not to adopt for personal reasons.
27 At times I have considered that I have lost out rather than benefited, professionally
from the adoption and use of educational ICT innovations
28 At times I have considered the case for abandoning a particular ICT innovation
following its initial adoption by the school.
29 It is probable that authorities have carefully assessed the benefits of ICT innovations
(authorities: DfEE, LEA).
30 Teachers should be recompensed by promotion for implementing those ICT
innovations advocated by the authorities.
31 Teachers should be recompensed by payment for implementing those ICT innovations
advocated by the authorities.
☺Thank you for your co-operation☺
27

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A Study of Educational Change in the Use of ICT:

Teachers Behavioural Perspective in 1990s

David Jhong Kyu Leeh

Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the British Educational

In organisation theory, and in cognate disciplines of the social sciences, institutional

solutions, misdirected efforts and inconsistency. In relation to the purpose of educational

1.1 Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

1.2 Rationale of the Study: Aims, Purposes and Significance

2.0 Research Design

Information required Instrument or methods Tools for analysis

Phase I Phase II Phase III

Quantitative Qualitative Qualitative

Teachers’ evident behavioural Teachers’ evident behavioural Cultural theme (Behavioural

Structure of the study by phases. [Figure 1]

2.1 The Instrument

Collective stimulation Internal Adoption Implementation Rutinisation

Source : Coughlan et al. (1972 : 21). Zaltman et al (1977 : 60)

The Collective Innovation Decision Process. [Figure 2]

Social interaction (consideration of environment). Levin (1974, Zaltman et al. 1977)

Element Description of the Element

Desired Behavioural Change =

consultation with Devon County Council’s Education Information Officer. Particularly,

1,000 307 10 317 31.7

(Table 4) Questionnaire return rate.

analysis of descriptive statistics;

2.1.3 Interview Protocols

Included term Semantic relationship Cover term

(Table 6) Comparison of demography.

Category Phase I Phase II Way of meta inference

(Table 7) Comparison of effectiveness.

Category Phase I Phase II Way of meta inference

(Table 8) Comparison of practice.

3.2 Findings for Phase Three

Major cultural domains Key meaning Theme (code)

At the implementation stage of innovation, a measure of a propensity of change enables us to

In the context of these theoretical perspectives, the isomorphism of teacher behavioural

4.2 Discussion on Cultural theme

Change of teachers’ conscious confidence. [Figure 3]

5.0 Concluding Remarks

Clarke, D.L., & Guba, E.G.(1965). An Examination of Potential Change Roles in

Appendix One Questionnaire for Teachers’ Perception Survey

8 Current educational ICT innovations in my school are useful for my classroom

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