Cell division is the mechanism by which DNA is passed from one generation of cells to the next and ultimately,

from parent organisms to

their offspring. Although eukaryotes and prokaryotes both engage in cell division, they do so in different ways. In particular, eukaryotic
cells divide using the processes of mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is common to all eukaryotes; during this process, a parent cell splits into
two genetically identical daughter cells, each of which contains the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Meiosis, on the other
hand, only occurs in eukaryotic organisms that reproduce sexually. During meiosis, the cells needed for sexual reproduction divide to
produce new cells called gametes. Gametes contain half as many chromosomes as the other cells in the organism, and each gamete is
genetically unique because the DNA of the parent cell is shuffled before the cell divides. This helps ensure that the new organisms formed
as a result of sexual reproduction are also unique.Unlike eukaryotes, prokaryotes (which include bacteria) undergo a type of cell division
known as binary fission. In some respects, this process is similar to mitosis; it requires replication of the cell's chromosomes, segregation
of the copied DNA, and splitting of the parent cell's cytoplasm. However, binary fission is less complex than mitosis due to the fact that
prokaryotic cells have a simpler structure than eukaryotic cells.This unit concentrates primarily on the two types of cell division used by
eukaryotes. It begins by explaining the major steps involved in mitosis, and it next examines the major similarities and differences between
this process and meiosis. The unit then explores recombination and mutation — two of the primary reasons why daughter cells don't
always contain the same DNA as their parent cells.

Chloroplast and Mitochondria are organelles found in the cells of living organisms and perform functions vital for the cell to live. This
article will go over the characteristics of these organelles as well as the major differences and similarities of these organelles. Chloroplast
and Mitochondria are organelles found in the cells of living organisms and perform functions vital for the cell to live. This article will go
over the characteristics of these organelles as well as the major differences and similarities of these organelles.
1. Similarities and Differences

Like the mitochondria, the chloroplast has an inner and outer membrane. Inside the membranes are its different parts. These include
thylakoids and stroma. A stack of thylakoids is called a grana. Chlorophyll molecules on the thylakoids capture sunlight and begin the
process of photosynthesis.

 Similarities of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

 convert energy
 have its own DNA
 enclosed by two membranes
 oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are involved in its processes
 both have fluids inside of them
Differences Between Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

Chloroplast Mitochondria
Plural: chloroplasts Plural: mitochondria
Usually found in plants and unicellular Found in almost all cells.
organisms.
Converts solar/light energy into chemical Converts chemical energy (sugar) into another
energy (sugar). form of chemical energy (ATP), which is
simpler and could be used by the cell.
Process is photosynthesis: composed of Light Process is cellular respiration: composed of
Reactions and Calvin Benson Cycle. Glycolysis, ETC, and Oxidative
Phosphorylation.
Has three compartments(parts): thylakoids Has two compartments. Crista (pl:cristae) is
(traps sunlight), granum (pl: grana; stacks of the compartment formed by the inner and
thylakoids), stroma (fluid inside the outer outer membrane of the mitochondria; it is the
membrane, which interacts with the layer of folds in the mitochondria and is
cytoplasm. It surrounds the granum and studded with proteins. The other
thylakoids. compartment is called matrix; it is the fluid
inside the foldings (cristae).

A nuclear membrane or envelope surrounds every nucleus. It's composed of an inner membrane and an outer membrane separated by
the perinuclear space. The nuclear membrane keeps DNA inside the nucleus and protects it from materials in the cytoplasm.

Acetylcholine is a chemical that is found between the nerve synapses, or gaps, between nerve cells. When activated, it causes the
contraction of skeletal muscles and activates glandular functions in the endocrine system. Think of acetylcholine as a mailperson;
residents cannot receive their mail until he or she comes and delivers it to the mailbox. Like mailpersons who deliver the mail and move
on to the next house, acetylcholine acts quickly and does not hang around. As a result, acetylcholine is rapidly broken down by another
chemical substance called cholinesterase. Acetylcholine was the first neurotransmitter scientists discovered, as well as the most
abundant neurotransmitter in the body. A neurotransmitter is a chemical that is released by a neuron, or nerve cell, that sends a signal
to another neuron across a synapse. The neurotransmitter binds to receptors to affect how the signal is received. The purpose of the
neurotransmitter is to either amplify or inhibit the signals sent between the neurons. Like mailpersons who can both deliver and pick
up envelopes and packages, acetylcholine functions in the peripheral nervous system and central nervous system both as an activator
and inhibitor. In the peripheral nervous system, it causes skeletal muscles to contract. In the central nervous system, it inhibits the
activation of the cholinergic system.
Acetylcholine plays an important role in the signal of muscle movement, sensation of pain, learning and memory formation, the
regulation of the endocrine system and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep cycles.
 As nouns the difference between telophase and prophase is that telophase is (biology) the final stage of mitosis or meiosis during which
the daughter chromosomes move towards opposite ends of the nuclear spindle while prophase is the first stage of mitosis, during which
chromatin condenses to form the chromosomes.

Proteins are the workhorses of the cell, controlling virtually every reaction within as well as providing structure and serving as signals to
other cells. Proteins are long chains of amino acids , and the exact sequence of the amino acids determines the final structure and
function of the protein. Instructions for that sequence are encoded in genes . To make a particular protein, a messenger ribonucleic
acid (mRNA) copy is made from the gene (in the process called transcription ), and the mRNA is transported to the ribosome . Protein
synthesis, also called translation , begins when the two ribosomal subunits link onto the mRNA. This step, called initiation, is followed
by elongation, in which successive amino acids are added to the growing chain, brought in by transfer RNAs (tRNAs). In this step, the
ribosome reads the nucleotides of mRNA three by three, in units called codons , and matches each to three nucleotides on the tRNA,
called the anticodon. Finally, during termination, the ribosome unbinds from the mRNA, and the amino acid chain goes on to be
processed and folded to make the final, functional protein.

Cellular Respiration: breaking down sugar in the presence of oxygen (aerobic). Photosynthesis is the process by which CO2 and H2O are
used to make sugars and starches. During Cellular Respiration, sugar is broken down to CO2 and H2O, and in the process, ATP is made that
can then be used for cellular work.

Why are enzymes important? Enzymes are proteins that control the speed of chemical reactions in your body. Without enzymes, these
reactions would take place too slowly to keep you alive. ... Enzymes also help cells to communicate with each other, keeping cell growth,
life and death under control.

The rigid cell wall of plant cells prevents them from bursting in hypertonic solutions. Water going into the cell are taken up by the central
vacuole, causing the plant to become turgid.

Enzymes exist in all biological systems in abundant numbers, but not all of their functions are fully understood. Enzymes are important
for a variety of reasons, most significantly because they are involved in many vital biochemical reactions. Increasing the reaction rate of
a chemical reaction allows the reaction to become more efficient, and hence more products are generated at a faster rate. These
products then become involved in some other biological pathway that initiates certain functions of the human body. This is known as
the catalytic efficiency of enzymes, which, by increasing the rates, results in a more efficient chemical reaction within a biological system.

Transport of solutes across cell membranes by protein carriers can occur in one of two ways:

 The solute can move "downhill," from regions of higher to lower concentration, relying on the specificity of the protein carrier to pass
through the membrane. This process is called passive transport or facilitated diffusion, and does not require energy.
 The solute can move "uphill," from regions of lower to higher concentration. This process is called active transport, and requires some
form of chemical energy.

Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus. Eukaryotes can be single-celled or multi-celled, such as you,
me, plants, fungi, and insects. Bacteria are an example of prokaryotes. Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus or any other
membrane-bound organelle. Prokaryotes include two groups: bacteria and another group called archaea.

Auxins alone or in combination with other hormones are responsible for many aspects of plant growth. IAA in particular: Activates the
differentiation of vascular tissue in the shoot apex and in calluses; initiates division of the vascular cambium in the spring; promotes growth
of vascular tissue in healing of wounds. Activates cellular elongation by increasing the plasticity of the cell wall. Maintains apical dominance
indirectly by stimulating the production of ethylene, which directly inhibits lateral bud growth. Cytokinins are found in sites of active cell
division in plants—for example, in root tips, seeds, fruits, and leaves. They are transported in the xylem and work in the presence of auxin
to promote cell division. Differing cytokinin:auxin ratios change the nature of organogenesis. If kinetin is high and auxin low, shoots are
formed; if kinetin is low and auxin high, roots are formed. Lateral bud development, which is retarded by auxin, is promoted by cytokinins.
Cytokinins also delay the senescence of leaves and promote the expansion of cotyledons.

Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have structures in common. All cells have a plasma membrane, ribosomes, cytoplasm, and DNA.
The plasma membrane, or cell membrane, is the phospholipid layer that surrounds the cell and protects it from the outside
environment. Ribosomes are the non-membrane bound organelles where proteins are made, a process called protein
synthesis. The cytoplasm is all the contents of the cell inside the cell membrane, not including the nucleus.

The Na+/K+ pump illustrates "active transport" since it moves Na+ and K+ against their concentration gradients. That is because there is
already a high concentration of Na+ outside the cell and a high concentration of K+ inside the cell. In order to move the ions (Na+ and K+)
againts their gradients, energy is required. This energy is supplied by ATP (adenosine triphosphate). An ATP molecule floating inside the
cell, binds to the pump transferring some energy to it. As the energy is used, the ATP falls off and having lost its energy it is converted into
ADP (adenosine diphosphate).
Blood-clotting proteins circulate in the blood plasma in an inactive form, poised to participate in blood coagulation upon tissue
injury. Blood-clotting proteins generate thrombin, an enzyme that converts fibrinogen to fibrin, and a reaction that leads to the
formation of a fibrin clot.

Plasmolysis is the process in which cells lose water in a hypertonic solution. The reverse process, deplasmolysis or cytolysis, can occur if
the cell is in a hypotonic solution resulting in a lower external osmotic pressure and a net flow of water into the cell.

Ribosomes are a cell structure that makes protein. Protein is needed for many cell functions such as repairing damage or directing
chemical processes. Chloroplasts absorb sunlight and use it in conjunction with water and carbon dioxide gas to produce food for the
plant. Chloroplasts capture light energy from the sun to produce the free energy stored in ATP and NADPH through a process called
photosynthesis.

The released fatty acids are catabolized in a process called β-oxidation, which sequentially removes two-carbon acetyl groups from the
ends of fatty acid chains, reducing NAD+ and FAD to produce NADH and FADH2, respectively, whose electrons can be used to make ATP
by oxidative phosphorylation.

The nucleolus makes ribosomal subunits from proteins and ribosomal RNA, also known as rRNA. It then sends the subunits out to the
rest of the cell where they combine into complete ribosomes. Ribosomes make proteins; therefore, the nucleolusplays a vital role in
making proteins in the cell.