Geomorphology 336 (2019) 77–94

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Geomorphology

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Soil-landscape interplays at Harmony Point, Nelson Island, Maritime

Antarctica: Chemistry, mineralogy and classification
William Fortes Rodrigues a,⁎, Fábio S. Oliveira b, Carlos E.G.R. Schaefer c, Mariangela G.P. Leite a,
Teodoro Gauzzi a, James G. Bockheim d, Jair Putzke e
a
Departamento de Geologia, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Campus Morro do Cruzeiro, s/n, Ouro Preto 35400-000, MG, Brazil
b
Departamento de Geografia, Instituto de Geociências, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, UFMG, Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, MG, Brazil
c
Departamento de Solos, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Brazil
d
Department of Soil Science, UW-Madison, 1525 Observatory Drive Madison, WI 53706-1299, USA
e
Universidade Federal do Pampa, Campus São Gabriel, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Soils and landforms of Nelson Island remain one of the least studied in the South Shetlands Archipelago, despite
Received 3 December 2018 that it is one of the oldest ice-free areas and is strongly vegetated. In this paper, we examine the main processes
Received in revised form 26 March 2019 and factors of soil formation at Harmony Point and the relation of soils to landforms, vegetation and lithology.
Accepted 26 March 2019
To achieve the goals, 26 pedons were collected and studied from a 4 km2 ice-free area at Harmony Point (S62°18′;
Available online 1 April 2019
W059°10′) on the southern area of Nelson Island (Maritime Antarctica). The soils were sampled on all represen-
Keywords:
tative local landforms, including three levels of uplifted marine terraces up to cryoplanated plateau, waterlogged
Cryosols depressions, rock felsenmeer, debris slopes and patterned ground, and a paraglacial border of the ice cap (270 m
Pedogenesis a.s.l). Sampling along the cryoplanated plateau was carried out along a gradient extending inland from the mar-
Ornithogenic soils gins of the Ice Cap; and sampling of the marine terraces was performed along a chronosequence under varying
Harmony Point bird-nesting influence and age. The main pedogenetic processes observed in this area are marked phosphatiza-
Landforms tion, melanization from the accumulation of organic matter, and cryoturbation. Soil development varies from
weakly developed, shallow, stony and cryoturbated to well-developed and organic-rich, phosphate soils with
colors ranging from grayish to brown. The mineralogical composition of the clay fraction contains secondary
minerals, indicating the active role of chemical weathering. Ornithogenic soils have mature phosphate minerals
such as vivianite and taranakite, as well as poorly crystalline leucophosphite. Intensively cryoturbated soils are
underlain by permafrost and are classified as Typic Haploturbels; polygonal soils are widespread on the
cryoplanated plateau. Areas without permafrost were classified as Typic Gelorthents. Phosphatization is a
dominant soil-forming process in this area and is associated with past and present-day guano accumulation by
bird nesting and has led to the the development of deeper Ornithogenic Haplorthels. The ornithogenic soils
occur at different topographic levels on the cryplanated platform and marine terraces. High P concentrations
can be used as a proxy of the past nesting birds' activities, with far-reaching implications, especially with regards
to vegetation growth and microbial activity and diversity.
© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In Antarctica, soils mainly occur in ice-free areas found across the
Antarctic continent from inland parts of the Transantarctic Mountains
and Dry Valleys to the wet coastal zone of Antarctica Peninsula and Mar-
itime Antarctica (Campbell and Claridge, 1987; Bockheim, 1997; Ugolini
and Bockheim, 2008). Antarctic soils vary greatly to according to cli-
mate, vegetation, permafrost influence and periglacial processes
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: willfordrigues@gmail.com (W.F. Rodrigues).
(Bockheim and Hall, 2002), resulting in endemic soils typical of each
region (Bockheim, 2005).
In Maritime Antarctica (MA), especially in the South Shetland
Islands (SSI), higher temperatures and water availability enable greater
soil development and vegetation abundance, compared to dry conti-
nental areas (Campbell and Claridge, 1987; Bockheim, 1997; Simas
et al., 2006; Simas et al., 2007). In addition, widespread breeding of
birds transfers a high amount of nutrients from the sea to terrestrial
ecosystems, allowing the formation of fertile ornithogenic soils in
these islands (Ugolini, 1972; Tatur, 1997).
Robust analytical and morphological data of soils from MA have en-
abled an understanding of their genetic processes (Simas et al., 2015).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.03.030
0169-555X/© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
78 W.F. Rodrigues et al. / Geomorphology 336 (2019) 77–94
Acidification, redoximorphic features (RMF), podzolization, cryoturbation,
brunification, paludification, organic matter accumulation, sulfurization,
and phosphatization are key soil-forming processes in this zone. (Simas
et al., 2008, 2015; Bockheim, 2015; Schaefer et al., 2015), and all soils
are classified according to the international classification systems of
FAO (IUSS, 2015) and Soil Taxonomy (Schaefer et al., 2004; Simas et al.,
2007; Francelino et al., 2011).
In the South Shetlands Islands, soils have been investigated primar-
ily for the last two decades (Beyer, 2000; Jeong and Yoon, 2001;
Tscherko et al., 2003; Jeong et al., 2004; Lee et al., 2004; Michel et al.,
2006, 2014; Navas et al., 2006, 2008, 2018; Simas et al., 2007, 2008,
2015; Ugolini and Bockheim, 2008; Schaefer et al., 2008, 2015;
Francelino et al., 2011; Moura et al., 2012), and mapping of ice-free
areas has allowed an understanding of the spacial distribution of these
soils (Francelino et al., 2011; Almeida et al., 2014; Moura et al., 2012;
Michel et al., 2014; Schaefer et al., 2015). Despite recent studies on
these remote islands, some islands still remain unknown regarding
soil genesis, landscape evolution, and soil-vegetation relationships.
One such ice-free area, Harmony Point, is located in the western sector
of Nelson Island (NI) and is part of Antarctic Specially Protected Area
n°133. ASPA represent a priority area for biodiversity preservation,
where a better understanding of soils may allow for more effective con-
servation strategies.
On the basis of the foregoing considerations, this study examined the
soils of Harmony Point, as part of a broader study of the properties,
classification, geographic distribution, and genesis of soils of Maritime
Antarctica. The results will allow an understanding of the main pedoge-
netic processes, landform relationships and landscape evolution in this
periglacial zone. Results will also provide a baseline for future monitor-
ing of warming terrestrial ecosystems of MA.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Site description
Nelson Island (Fig. 1) has a total area of 165 km2 with only 5%
(8 km2) of the island ice-free. The two ice-free regions are Harmony
Point (4 km2) and Duthoit Point (2 km2), with several minor areas
scattered along the coast.
Harmony Point is recognized as ASPA because of its rich biota, espe-
cially birds. The island has an ice cap that is a remnant of a larger one
that once covered the entire SSI (Pallàs et al., 1995). The island is geolog-
ically composed of an andesite core surrounded by pillow lavas, tuffs
and agglomerates (Smellie et al., 1984). Nelson Island was extensively
glaciated during the Last Glacial Maximum, at around 16 kyr B.P. (Qin
et al., 1994). Stoss and lee topography, erratic boulders, rock striations
and ventifacts are found on the upland plateau, but the drift cover is
thin patchy, and mixed with debris. The island has been subjected to
post-glacial cryoplanation, resulting in successive uplifted marine
terraces, separated by scarps, and felsenmeers on resistant rock cores
(mainly igneous andesites).
There is no climate station on study area. The nearest station is
17 km to the north on the Fildes Peninsula at King George Island
where the mean annual temperature is −1.6 °C and the mean annual
precipitation is 630 mm. A borehole drilled in 1985 on Nelson Island
Ice Cap revealed a temperature of −1.5 °C at the 10-m depth, which
would approximate the mean annual air temperature at that time
(Ren, 1990). However, ubiquitous permafrost at elevations above
26 m may imply a colder climate on the ice-free areas. The abundance
of ventifacts on rocks outcrops indicate suggests that wind is an impor-
tant geomorphic agent on the island.
The vegetation of Harmony Point is composed of a variety of plant
communities, dominated by bryophytes and lichens, similar to those
on King George Island (Pereira et al., 2007). The most common mosses
are Sanionia uncinata and Polytrichastrum alpinum (Ochyra, 1998). The
grass Deschampsia Antarctica is rare, and Colobanthus quitensis has not
been reported on the island.
2.2. Field work and landform identification
Field activities were carried out during the 2015 summer expedition
of Terrantar Group. A total of 26 representative soil profiles were dug,
described and collected in the southern part of Harmony Point, to
support pedological mapping. The soils collected include at least three
pedons on each landform, and were systematically located across the
landscape (Fig. 1). This enables an understanding of soil-landform
relationships and identification of the main soil-forming factors and
processes. Preliminary geomorphological mapping of the study area
was carried out on satellite imagery during field work, and further
refined for the final product based on landscape units. The following
landscape units were identified: (1) present beaches, (2) uplifted ma-
rine terraces (1St level, HP-4, HP-8, HP-9; 2nd level: HP-1, HP-5, HP-7;
3rd level: HP-2 and HP-3; 4th level: HP-24; and 5th level: HP-26),
(3) a cryoplanated platforms (plateau) at 40 m or higher (HP-10,
HP-11, HP-13), (4) rocky outcrops influenced by marine birds
(penguins, skuas, and giant petrels), (5) talus slopes, (6) waterlogged
depressions with mosses and lakes (HP-20, HP-21, HP-23), (7) rocky
felsenmeer (HP-12, HP-14, HP-16, HP-17), (8) debris slopes (HP22
and HP25), and (9) patterned ground (HP-15, HP-18 and HP-19).
Soils were described according to Schoeneberger et al. (2012), and
samples were collected for recognizable genetic horizons, including
the upper 10 cm of frozen ground (permafrost), when present. Soil clas-
sification followed two classification systems: Soil Taxonomy (Soil
Survey Staff, 2014) and the World Reference Base for Soil Resources
(IUSS Working Group WRB, 2015).
Landforms were identified and interpreted according to previous
geomorphological studies in Maritime Antarctica (Olsacher, 1958;
Serrano et al., 1996; Moura et al., 2012; Michel et al., 2014; López-
Martínez et al., 2012, 2016; Navas et al., 2018). Soil and landscape
units mapping were based on the studied soil profiles and field observa-
tions and interpretation of PlanetScope image (3 m of spatial resolu-
tion), obtained on 15 March 2018, and combined by high resolution
DRONE imagery by TERRANTAR and QuickBird satellite images.
2.3. Vegetation description
The vegetation description was performed in the field in each land-
form and around each soil profile described. Species not identified in the
field were collected for laboratory identification. Some classification
guides were used, such as Ochyra (1998), Putzke and Pereira (2001)
and Ochyra et al. (2008) for mosses, Ochyra et al. (2008) for liverworts,
Redon (1985), and Olech (2004) for lichens.
2.4. Physical, chemical and mineralogycal analyses of soils
Moist soil colors were determined using the Munsell Soil Color Charts
(1994). Physical and chemical analysis were carried out on b2 mm fine
earth (air-dried, quartered, and homogenized). Soil texture was ana-
lyzed by mechanical dispersion in distilled water, sieving and weighing
of the coarse and fine sand, separation of the silt fraction by sedimenta-
tion, followed by siphoning of the b2-μm fraction (Gee and Bauder,
1986). All routine analytical chemical and physical determinations
were obtained using standard procedures (EMBRAPA, 1997; Klute,
1986). Soil pH (determined in 1:10 soil/water solution) and exchange-
able cations were determined according to EMBRAPA (1997). Mg2+
and Al3+ were extracted with 1 mol L−1 KCl and P, Na and K were ex-
tracted with Melich-1 (EMBRAPA, 1997). All elements in the extracts
were determined by atomic absorption (Ca2+, Mg2+ and Al3+), flame
emission (K and Na) and photocolorimetry (P) (Murphy and Riley,
1962). The Total Organic Carbon (TOC) was determined by dry combus-
tion methods using PerkinElmer 2400 Series II CHNS/O Elemental
 W.F. Rodrigues et al. / Geomorphology 336 (2019) 77–94 79

Fig. 1. Location of soil sampling sites and landscape units with representative pedons and landform at Harmony Point, Nelson Island (South Shetland Islands, Maritime Antarctica). A: Marine
terrace; B: Cryoplanated platform (Plateau); C: Waterlogged depression; D: Rock Felsenmeer; E: Debris Slopes; F: Patterned Ground. Soils imagens: HP-3and HP-22 Ornithogenic
Gelorthents; HP-10: Ornithogenic Haplorthels; HP-17: Ornithogenic Hemistels; HP-21: Typic Umbrorthels.

Analyzer (Culmo et al., 1989). Analyses were made on samples obtained
from a calibrated scoop and not from weighed samples, which makes
comparison with other data problematic.
Mineralogical analysis of the clay fraction (b2 μm) was carried out by
X-ray Diffraction (XRD) using an Empyrean Panalytical diffractometer
with CuKa radiation. Clay oriented preparations were mounted, dried,
solvated, with ethylene glycol, and heated to 100 °C and 550 °C. XRD
patterns were acquired using the same step and counting time, in the
range of 2°–35° 2θ, and interpreted using High Score X'Pert Plus soft-
ware and known patterns from the literature (Brindley and Brown,
1980).
Pedogenic Fe and Al oxides (FeDCB and AlDCB) were extracted from
clay (b2 μm) with dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate (DCB) (McKeague
and Day, 1966). For the analysis of Fe and Al forms (FeOx and AlOx),
80 W.F. Rodrigues et al. / Geomorphology 336 (2019) 77–94
0.2 mol L-1 ammonium oxalate at pH 3.0 was used in the absence of
light (Schwertmann, 1973). Fe and Al (Fep and Alp) bound to soil
organic matter were extracted by sodium pyrophosphate, according to
Wada (1989). The determination of Fe and Al in the extracts was done
by atomic absorption spectrometry.
3. Results
3.1. Landforms and landscape units at Harmony Point
We recognized two landscape domains at Harmony Point, coastal
and upper platform, with their respective landscape units (Fig. 2). The
coastal landscape occurs between sea-level and the slope that limits
the highest uplifted marine terrace. Above that, extending inland to the
glacier border and paraglacial area, the upper platforms (cryoplanated
surface and felsenmeers) occur.
The coastal domain is constituted by rocky cliffs, the present-day
sand gravel beaches, uplifted marine terraces, and volcanic stacks, that
form resistant intrusive bodies (microgabbros) or basaltic lavas dikes.
These landform features are all related to the Holocene deglaciation
and glacio-isosthatic rebound, as reported elsewhere at the South
Shetlands (Pallàs et al., 1995; Hall and Perry, 2004).
There are three distinct levels of marine terraces at Harmony Point at
elevations of 3, 8, and 12 m, but there is evidence of at least two higher
terrace levels, and some wave-cut platforms.
The Holocene deglaciation and exposure of the stepped upper
platforms is not yet dated in Harmony Point, but in the nearby Fildes
Peninsula, it ranges from 9.7 to 6.2 ka, and should be considered as
the minimum age. The resulting glacio-isosthatic uplifit revealed a
former glaciated surface, with many evidences of overrunning by ice,
in the form of striated pavements and degraded “Roche Moutoneé”.
After exposure periglacial processes became established, enabling the
widespread occurrence of debris slope, patterned ground, laminated
cracking and thermokarst on H.P.
At the upper platform, three landscape units dominate: (1) water-
logged depressions with mosses, (2) felsenmeers, and (3) patterned-
Fig. 2. Landforms map of Harmony Point, Nelson Island with the respective extensions in hectares.
ground. Besides these, the transitional slopes to the coastal uplift marine
terraces are also contrasting landscape units, not easily separated by the
scale of mapping employed. They have minor associated landforms,
such as debris cones and talus. The active layer at lower landscape
units (b 30 cm) is approximately 100 cm; the depth to permafrost var-
ied from 11 cm (soil HP-16 on felsenmeer) to 70 cm (HP-10 on high
cryoplanated platform); the average is 30 cm. Continuous permafrost
was observed above 26 cm height (flat-floored depression with moss)
up to 61 m on felsenmeer.
3.2. Soils of Harmony Point
3.2.1. Morphological and physical properties
The pedons examined have physicochemical properties (Table 1)
related to the parent material (andesitic composition, specifically lavas
and tuffs), and have coarse textures with abundant coarse fragments
(N2 mm), consistent with Simas et al. (2008). Consequently, these
soils are gravelly sandy loams (gsl) (Table 1). The highest coarse/fine
sand (CS/FS) ratio occurs on soils on marine terraces (HP1, HP2 and
HP7). Soils in MA have an overall skeletal character, associated with in-
tense physical weathering of coarse igneous rocks, especially andesites,
as reported by several studies (Simas et al., 2008; Francelino et al., 2011;
Michel et al., 2014).
Soil color is highly influenced by parent material composition. Soils
developed from a mixture of tuffs, andesitic basalts and andesites
display grayish to greenish dark colors, in the range between 7.5YR to
10YR. These andesitic rocks are typically grayish/greenish due to hydro-
thermal alteration and chloritization processes during crystallization
(Moura et al., 2012). Poorly drained areas show strong grayish colors,
whereas more evolved, deeper soils, notably ornithogenic ones, show
yellowish- reddish colors (5YR and 2.5YR), revealing an advanced
degree of weathering.
Soils have subangular to granular structures, range between
moderate to weak degree. Soils with granular structure occur on volcanic
tuffs and agglomerates at the 38 m high platform, with association to in-
tense cryoturbation processes and in situ fragmentation of tuffs. These
 W.F. Rodrigues et al. / Geomorphology 336 (2019) 77–94
features are combined with a vertical orientation of the rock's slabs, sur-
face organic-rich horizons and the presence of permafrost. In addition,
we observed irregular horizons, incipient illuvial organic matter and
silty layers, all features related to cryoturbation processes (Bockheim
and Tarnocai, 1998; Tarnocai et al., 2004). Most of the soils at H.P. have
an abundance of organic matter in the surface mineral horizons,
which constitutes an unusual degree of humification by Antarctic soil
standards.
Ornithogenic soils present clear horizonation, and clear to gradual
transition between surface and subsurface horizons. In these soils, B or
C phosphate-rich horizons are light-colored and can be easily distin-
guished from the adjacent layers. Non-ornithogenic soils have horizons
with diffuse transitions, highlighting the importance of bird guano in
the horizonation associated with phosphatization (Simas et al., 2008;
Pereira et al., 2013).
3.2.2. Chemical and mineralogical properties
Soils are mostly dystrophic (Table 1), except pedons HP-9, HP-19,
HP-25 and HP-26. The concentrations of exchangeable cations Ca2+,
K+ and Mg2+ show three distinct groups. In soils without ornithogenic
influence (pedons HP-18 and HP-19), the highest values were obtained
in C, Cgf and Cjff horizons. This implies young soils, directly influenced
by the parent material, in this case a plagioclase and orthoclase-rich
andesitic tuff. In the soils influenced by ornithogenic activity, two obser-
vations were made. Pedons within recent nesting sites on marine ter-
races (HP-2 and HP-3), have high concentrations of exchangeable
cations, specifically in the upper O and A horizons. Pedons with past
ornithogenic influence show high P amounts but show no current
evidence of nesting sites (i.e. HP-10). In this soil (old rookeries), the in-
crease in the P content is accompanied by increase in the Al content.
This is clearly related to greater chemical weathering caused by the
mineralization of guano, which has promoted acidification and leaching
resulting in the formation of chemically stable P\\Al and P\\Fe phases
(Tatur and Barczuk, 1985; Simas et al., 2008).
High Na+ levels, ranging between 359 and 469 cmolc/dm3, were ob-
served in soils from coastal areas affected by salt spray (Lee et al., 2004;
Navas et al., 2008). Na+ concentration is high in both surface and sub-
surface soils on the first level of marine terrace (i.e. HP-9), which indi-
cates Na+ leaching.
The pH values range from 3.4 to 7.6. Soils with a neutral pH appear to
be less developed than in soils located in areas of andesitic, agglomer-
ates, and tuffs. Soils with an acid pH are mainly located in coastal and in-
land ornithogenic areas, where acidification caused by guano originates
strong acids, such as H2SO4 and HNO3 (Tatur and Barczuk, 1985; Pereira
et al., 2013). Soils with present day breeding bird colonies are more acid,
and are located mainly on marine terraces (i.e. HP-2, HP-3 and HP-7)
and on the top of felsenmeers nesting sites (HP-14). Besides
ornithogenesis, low pH values in Maritime Antarctic soils can be also
assigned to sulphide oxidation in some hydrothermal rocks.
In ornithogenic soils, Al2+ concentrations are higher (0.1–5.6 cmolc/
3
dm ), although lower than figures reported for other ornithogenic soils
from elsewhere in M. A. (Schaefer et al., 2004; Michel et al., 2006; Simas
et al., 2007). High exchangeable Al2+ and P concentrations in pedons
HP-10, HP-11 and HP-12, suggest the occurrence of low crystallinity
Al\\P phases (Tatur and Myrcha, 1984). Values of CEC at pH = 7 condi-
tions are high in ornithogenic soils, especially for pedon HP-3 (between
32 and 43 cmolc/dm3). These soils show the highest potential acidity
(H++Al3+), corroborating Almeida et al. (2014).
Available P in ornithogenic soils varies between 524 and
6547.20 mg/dm3; these values are among the highest values detected
in this part of Antarctica. Phosphorus concentrations in these soils are
proof of past or present bird activity, which resulted in phosphatization
process (Michel et al., 2006; Simas et al., 2007, 2008; Almeida et al.,
2014; Moura et al., 2012). The lowest P concentration is observed in
pedon HP-24 (marine terrace), where penguin only occur sporadically.
81
The total C concentrations are higher in the O and A horizons in most
pedons. The highest concentrations (up to 26.4%) are found in soils in
felsenmeers and waterlogging depressions, generally covered by moss
carpets (i.e. HP14, HP1, HP17, HP-20, HP-21 and HP-23), besides the A
horizon of pedon HP-22, located on the debris slope, in the hole pedon
HP-1, and in the A horizon of the non-phosphatized pedon HP-24, on
the marine terrace.
The clay fraction composition is strongly related to the parent
material and/or to the ornithogenic activity (Table 2). Primary minerals
are found in the clay fraction of most soils, highlighting the influence of
cryoclastic processes and physical weathering (French, 2007). The main
minerals are feldspars, especially plagioclase, quartz, chlorite, smectite,
and illite, all essentially derived from local volcanic rocks. Soils located
in the marine terraces show a greater variety of primary minerals in
the clay fraction, due to a mixture of glacio-marine sediments.
Smectites and kaolinite are the main clay minerals, consistent with
previous studies (Michel et al., 2006; Simas et al., 2007, 2008;
Schaefer et al., 2008, 2015). While some authors propose an authigenic
genesis to both minerals, due to their presence in the sand fraction and
possible inheritance from physical breakdown of hydrothermally
altered volcanic rocks, cannot be ruled out (Jeong and Yoon, 2001; Lee
et al., 2004; Simas et al., 2006; Srivastava et al., 2011). On the other
hand, chemical weathering may lead to the alteration of micas into ver-
miculite, and the weathering of mafic minerals and volcanic rocks into
smectite (Boyer, 1975; Bockheim, 1980; Gibson et al., 1983; Campbell
and Claridge, 1987; Borchardt, 1989; Vennum and Nejedly, 1990;
Hillenbrand and Ehrmann, 2001).
Kaolinite was identified in pedons HP-9, HP-19 and HP-20 on the
lower marine terraces, patterned ground, and waterlogged depressions,
respectively. This mineral has been reported in soils from Maritime
Antarctica (Blume et al., 2002; Simas et al., 2008; Schaefer et al., 2015)
and in Continental Antarctica (Parker et al., 1982; Vennum and
Nejedly, 1990). According to Bockheim (1980) and Simas et al.,
(2008), kaolinite occurs in leached soils, affected by intense acid sulfate
weathering, and plagioclase alteration.
Phosphate minerals, such as leucophosphite [KFe3+ 2 (PO4)2
(OH)·2H2O], taranakite [(K,NH4)Al3(PO4)3(OH)·9H2O], struvite
[(NH4)Mg(PO4)·6H2O] and vivianite [Fe2+ 3 (PO4)2·8H2O] were identi-
fied in the ornithogenic soils. According to Table 2, Fe concentrations
are consistently higher in soils where vivanite was identified.
The Fed concentrations extracted by DCB vary between 0.54 and
13.10% (Table 2). The lowest concentrations are observed in the
mosses-covered poorly drained areas or under patterned ground.
Pedons with higher ornithogenic activity are Fed- and Feo-rich. The ob-
served high Feo/Fed ratios (12.92%) indicate the dominance of poorly
crystalline Fe-minerals and are corroborate study on similar soils
(Almeida et al., 2014). In addition, the low crystallinity of Fe-minerals
in these soils may also be explained by the presence of high organic
matter contents and formation of Al and Fe organometallic complexes
(Simas et al., 2007). Soils HP-14 and HP-17 are located on felsenmeers,
and have the highest and the lowest Feo/Fed ratios, 0.48 and 12.92%,
respectively. HP-14 shows higher Feo/Fed ratios at the OC rich surface
(TOC-rich) compared with deeper layers, highlighting the role of
organic matter in maintaining low-crystalline Fe-phases.
The Alo values range between 0.40 and 4.90% and Ald between 0.40
and 2.70%. In close association with the Fe-phases, the Al-phases have
a predominantly low crystallinity. Consistent with results of pyrophos-
phate extractions, the mean Alp are lower than the Fep concentrations.
Higher Fed, Ald and P-extractable concentrations all indicate a high
P-sorption potential by these phases and, consequently, complexation
and migration of Al, Fe and organic matter compounds.
3.2.3. Soil classification
The 26 pedons are classified into three orders (Gelisols, 11; Entisols,
11 and Inceptisols, 4), five suborders (Orthents, Orthels, Turbels, Histels,
and Gelepts), and 11 great groups in Soil Taxonomy (SSS, 2014). Eight
 82
Table 1
Morphological, physical and chemical properties of studied soils from Harmony Point, Maritime Antarctica.

Soil Deph Structure Transition Moist Gravels N 2 mm Sandy Silt Clay Textural pH P K Na Ca2+ Mg2+ Al3+ H + Al SB CEC BS m TOC
Profile Color Class
% H2O mg/dm3 cmolc/dm3 %

HP1- Typic Gelorthents

O 0–2 29,2 90 1 9 Sandy 4,4 299,6 149 156 1,04 1,4 1,3 7,9 3,5 11 31 27 7,3
A 2–6 sg Abrupt wavy 2.5Y 4/4 29,7 90 4 6 Sandy 4,5 376,8 77 140 0,71 0,78 2,1 9 2,3 11 20 47 4,3
C1 6–58 sg Clear wavy 10YR 3/6 37,0 92 2 6 Sandy 5,6 615,5 92 169 1,32 1,21 1,9 6,9 3,5 10 34 35 6,2
C2 58–90 sg Clear wavy 5YR 4/4 17,6 80 6 14 Sandy loam 5,8 400,7 169 189 3,68 3,26 0,4 10,9 8,2 19 43 5 7,3

HP2- Ornithogenic Haplogelepts

O 0–2 w m pl/md m gr 21,3 74 14 12 Sandy loam 4,6 3.514,50 311 319 10,2 3,23 0,1 9,5 16 25 62 1 5,0
A 2–18 w m sb Clear, wavy 10YR 3/3 53,3 68 17 16 Sandy loam 4,8 802 172 184 7,74 2,03 0,8 17,1 11 28 39 7 5,7
B 18–26 md m bl Clear wavy 7.5YR 4/2 26,8 66 17 17 Sandy loam 4 1.048,00 105 82 1,79 0,76 3,4 26,9 3,2 30 11 52 6,7
(BC) 26–60 Sg Abrupt wavy 7.5YR 6/4 46,4 68 14 19 Sandy loam 3,9 711,9 154 98 1,39 0,73 5,2 25,8 2,9 29 10 64 4,9
C1 60–80 Sg Clear wavy 10YR 3/6 25,0 89 2 9 Sandy 4 1.184,10 90 70 1,18 0,67 5,5 16,4 2,4 19 13 70 3,6
C2 80–100 Sg Clear wavy 7.5YR 5/4 8,9 81 7 12 Sandy loam 3,8 818,9 85 68 1,04 0,49 5 23,2 2 25 8 71 4,8

HP3- Ornithogenic Gelorthents

A 0–5 md f gr Abrupt wavy 10YR 3/1 7,3 65 22 13 Sandy loam 4,6 2.768,00 271 329 10,3 3,24 0 16,3 16 32 49 0 5,1

W.F. Rodrigues et al. / Geomorphology 336 (2019) 77–94

AB 0–15 W f pl Abrupt wavy 10YR 4/2 26,8 44 35 22 – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
BC 15–20 Md m sb Abrupt wavy 10YR 5/3 9,4 44 35 22 Clay loam 3,6 2.742,30 156 126 1,55 0,26 4 34,1 2,8 37 8 59 5,3
2C1 20–65 Sg Clear wavy 10YR 4/6 7,3 44 35 22 – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
C2 65–70 Sg – 7.5YR5/6 2,2 71 12 17 Sandy loam 3,4 2.216,00 176 127 1,39 0,23 4,1 40,4 2,6 43 6 61 6

HP4- Ornithogenic Gelorthents

A 0–17 md m gr Clear wavy 10YR 2/1 2,2 78 11 12 4,2 526,2 118 186 2,3 2,28 3 15,5 5,7 21 27 35 2,12
Bw 17–27 W f bl Clear wavy 10YR 2/1 – – – – Sandy loam – – – – – – – – – – – – –
C 27–70 Sg – 27–70 cm – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

HP5- Ornithogenic Gelorthents

O 0–3
A 03–8 Md f gr Clear wavy 5YR 3/2 34,1 80 6 15 Sandy loam 4,2 390,4 129 209 1,81 1,01 3 18,7 4,1 23 18 43 9,5
AC 8–18 Sg Clear wavy 10YR 3/4 66,8 86 3 10 Loamy sand 4,4 640,5 131 209 1,67 0,77 5,2 19,5 3,7 23 16 58 12,2
2C1 18–50 Sg Clear wavy 10YR 4/4 72,5 89 2 9 Sandy 4,7 928,1 117 164 1,82 0,67 3,8 8,4 3,5 12 29 52 10,0

HP7- Typic Gelorthents

A 0–25 md f gr Abrupt wavy 10YR 3/1 26,1 73 14 13 Sandy loam 4,1 336,8 191 329 3,22 3,58 3,8 15,5 8,7 24 36 30 5,6
2C 25–45 sg Abrupt wavy 2.5Y 4/2 9,1 83 8 10 Loamy sand 4,5 296,4 176 209 1,45 1,3 3,2 8,4 4,1 13 33 44 6,4
3Oib 45–55 – Abrupt wavy 2.5YR3/2 19,0 93 2 5 Sandy 3,9 378,5 118 163 1,14 0,77 2,2 10,3 2,9 13 22 43 2,7
3Cb 55–65 sg Abrupt wavy 2.5Y 4/2 26,4 80 10 11 Loamy sand 4,3 446,5 181 199 1,97 1,8 3,2 8,8 5,1 14 37 39 2,0

HP8- Typic Gelorthents

A 0–4 sg Abrupt wavy 5Y 5/2 85 2 12 Loamy sand 4,4 816,4 196 219 2,56 1,81 0,3 6,4 5,8 12 48 5 1,06
10,9
C 4–60 – – 2.5YR 3/4 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
A 0–12 md f gr Clear wavy 10YR 3/2 10,8 76 7 17 Sandy loam 4,2 597,1 261 429 2,86 3,73 1,3 8,7 9,1 18 51 12 9,1
C 12–40 sg Gradual wavy 10YR 4/3 11,4 72 10 18 Sandy loam 4,7 307,6 251 419 1,74 2,9 1,3 6,3 7,1 13 53 15 5,7
2Cb 40–54 sg – 10YR 3/3 10,4 68 13 18 Sandy loam 5,1 901,8 201 359 3,05 2,13 0,8 4,5 7,3 12 62 10 4,4

HP10- Ornithogenic Haplorthels

A 01–8 md co gr Abrupt wavy 10YR 2/2 22,0 68 13 19 Sandy loam 5,1 1.319,10 168 269 2,03 1,47 1,7 5,8 5,1 11 47 25 10,4
AB 08–11 md f pl Abrupt wavy 7.5YR 4/4 30,0 64 16 20 Sandy loam 4,8 1.893,70 186 239 2,07 1,12 2,8 19,8 4,7 25 19 38 7,4
Bw 11–29 w f pl Clear wavy 7.5YR 6/4 34,2 64 14 22 Sandy clay loam 4,4 2.061,10 181 194 1,11 0,45 4,2 17,1 2,9 20 14 59 4,8
BC 29–65 Sg Clear wavy 7.5YR 4/4 34,6 49 26 26 Sandy clay loam 4,3 3.033,30 281 159 1,22 0,51 5,2 12,2 3,1 15 21 62 1,1
Cf 65–70 Sg Abrupt wavy

HP11- Ornithogenic Gelorthents

O 0–2
A 2–17 w m gr Abrupt wave 5YR 2.5/1 59 19 21 Sandy clay loam 4,3 636,3 104 184 1,35 0,58 3,3 20,4 3 23 13 53 13,3
AB 17–26 w f pl Abrupt irregular 5YR 4/4 48,1 57 24 20 Sandy loam 5,6 335,1 87 159 1,59 0,85 1,7 18 3,4 21 16 33 12,0
 CR 26–50 Cobbles Gradual irregular 16,8 70 15 15 Sandy loam 4,7 1.080,60 197 179 0,92 0,64 5,6 19,3 2,8 22 13 66 5,0
R 50+

HP12- Ornithogenic Gelorthents

O 0–4
A 4–12 md m gr Abrupt wavy 5YR 2.5/2 22,6 67 14 19 Sandy loam 4,8 434 72 123 1,05 0,45 3,7 23,7 2,2 26 9 63 9,1
AB 12–15 md m gr Abrupt wavy 5YR 3/4 56,0 56 22 22 Sandy clay loam 4,8 659,6 77 138 0,81 0,24 3 21,9 1,9 24 8 62 5,3
R 15–20+

HP13- Ornithogenic Umbrorthels

A 0–14 md f gr Abrupt wavy 5YR 2.5/2 14,2 68 10 22 Sandy clay loam 4,3 191,5 62 128 1,13 0,63 3,2 20,4 2,5 23 11 57 14,9
AB 14–17 md f gr Abrupt wavy 5YR 2.5/2 42,5 53 35 13 Loam 4,6 2.964,70 201 169 1,68 0,4 2 29,9 3,3 33 10 37 5,8
2Bw 17–37 md f gr Clear wavy 10YR 4/4 58,1 70 18 13 Sandy loam 5,1 860,9 113 159 1,47 0,56 3,6 20,8 3 24 13 55 3,5
2BC 37–66 Sg Abrupt wavy 10YR 4/3 25,5 81 12 7 Loamy sand 4,8 1.310,60 124 192 1,28 0,53 3,8 19,6 3 23 13 56 1,3
Cf 66 + 21,7 84 9 7 Loamy sand 4,7 1.686,80 117 146 1,21 0,51 3,6 19 2,7 22 12 58 1,5

HP14- Ornithogenic Umbrorthels

Oi 0–20 Fibric – 2.5YR 2.5/4 38,1 59 16 25 Sandy clay loam 3,9 2.107,70 50 41 1,76 0,38 2,4 23,5 2,5 26 9 50 13,1
AC 20–44 md f gr Clear wavy 5YR 3/2 27,5 67 20 14 Sandy loam 3,4 1.942,70 161 91 1,53 0,32 4,5 34,8 2,7 38 7 63 10,6
2CR 44–74 Cobbles Gradual wavy 2.5YR 3/2 25,3 77 14 9 Sandy loam 3,5 840,3 243 125 2,42 0,27 3,4 36,1 3,9 40 10 47 5,4
R 74+

HP15- Typic Aquiturbels

W.F. Rodrigues et al. / Geomorphology 336 (2019) 77–94

Cgjj 0–30 Ma Abrupt Broken 2.5Y 5/4 37,8 52 26 21 Sandy clay loam 5,1 342,9 117 155 1,46 0,59 2,9 11,9 3 15 20 49 8,7
AC 0–30 w f gr Abrupt wavy 2.5YR 3/2 41,4 56 25 20 Sandy loam 5,5 253,1 127 195 1,86 1 2,3 11,4 4 15 26 36 1,4
Cf 30+

HP16- Ornithogenic Sapristels

Oi 0–5 – Abrupt wavy 5YR 3/2 20,4 59 19 22 Sandy clay loam 4,4 950,8 55 93 0,9 0,41 2,1 19,6 1,9 22 9 53 13,1
Oe 05/11 – Abrupt wavy 5YR 3/3 45,3 60 24 17 Sandy loam 4,5 757,2 66 104 1,14 0,6 2,1 20,3 2,4 23 10 47 11,8
Oaf 11–38 5YR 3/3; 30,1 61 21 19 Sandy loam 4,3 975,2 72 115 1,07 0,25 2,5 25,4 2 27 7 55 11,0

HP17- Ornithogenic Hemistels

Oe 0–20 Hm Abrupt wavy 2.5YR 2.5/2 77,6 60 19 22 Sandy clay loam 4,6 980,7 46 78 0,95 0,43 2,3 17,5 1,8 19 10 56 11,7
Oif 20–24 Fm Abrupt wavy 5YR4/3 55,8 27 10 63 Clay 4,6 524 8 26 0,54 0,22 1,3 9,2 0,9 10 9 59 14,9
Oef 24–38 Hm – 5YR 3/3 42,9 23 1 76 Clay 4,7 626,8 9 27 0,72 0,3 1,4 8,7 1,2 10 12 55 14,4
2Oaf 38–58+ Spm – 5YR 3/3, 3/4 78,9 41 25 34 Clay loam 4,7 1.212,70 63 77 0,88 0,35 1,7 15,3 1,7 17 10 50 14,7

HP18- Typic Aquiturbels

Cgjj 0–22 w m gr Abrupt broken 10YR 4/3 40,5 39 37 24 Clay loam 6,3 285,4 172 305 4,21 3,43 0,2 9,7 9,4 19 49 2 5,7
ACjj 0–18 ma/w m p Abrupt wavy 5YR 4/2 17,4 62 22 17 Sandy loam 5,6 148,2 133 196 3 2,53 0,6 9,6 6,7 16 41 8 5,5

HP19- Typic Haploturbels

Cjj 0–8 – – – 6,2 – – – Loam 6,4 95,3 170 355 5,31 5,2 0,3 5,6 13 18 69 0 2,6
Cgjj1 0–8 w m gr Abrupt wave 10YR 3/3 12,3 52 32 17 Loam 7 140,1 181 305 5,4 4,83 0 4,8 12 17 72 0 2,6
Cgjj2 8–26 m/w f pl Abrupt wave 10YR 3/3 59,2 49 34 17 Loam 6,8 95,5 156 305 4,81 4,3 0 5,4 11 16 67 0 2,2
Cgf 26+ 39,7 53 31 16 Sandy loam 5,9 81,9 151 325 3,99 4,6 0 7,3 10 18 59 3 3,3

HP20- Typic Umbrorthels

Oi 0–4 fi Abrupt Smooth 7.5YR 3/2 20,8 11 49 40 Silt clay 5,4 468,4 109 151 6,21 2,23 0,5 10,1 9,4 20 48 5 20,1
AC 4–20 w m gr Abrupt wavy 5YR 3/1 11,2 61 21 18 Sandy loam 5,9 470 132 183 5,34 1,88 1,4 10,4 8,4 19 45 0 10,5
ACf 20–28 – – 5YR 3/1 9,3 63 19 18 Sandy loam 5,9 470,2 159 190 5,36 2,06 0 11,1 8,7 20 44 0 9,9

HP21- Typic Umbrothels

Oi 0–10 fi Abrupt Smooth 5YR 4/4 27,1 11 32 57 Clay 4,9 93,9 8 18 0,71 0,2 1,4 5,9 1 7 15 58 26,4
Oa 10–18 sp Abrupt wavy 5YR 3/2 46,1 58 22 20 Sandy clay loam 4,7 158,2 38 101 0,85 0,15 1,7 14,7 1,5 16 10 53 12,4
A 18–30 sg Abrupt wavy 5YR 3/3 51,1 57 22 21 Sandy clay loam 4,7 195,3 41 80 0,83 0,12 1,4 14,7 1,4 16 9 50 11,4
Af 30–33 sg Abrupt wavy 5YR 3/3 – – – – – 4,8 367,6 63 97 0,86 0,14 1,7 16,3 1,6 18 9 52 –
Cgf 33+ – – – 43,7 67 18 15 Sandy loam 4,7 302,7 60 98 0,97 0,19 1,6 14,7 1,7 16 11 48 9,1

HP22- Ornithogenic Gelorthents

O 0–3 – – 7,0 47 4 50 Sandy clay 4,7 277,7 195 171 1,14 1,09 1,1 10,6 3,5 14 25 24 12,1
A 3–28 md m gr Abrupt wavy 5YR 3/3 13,1 71 13 17 Sandy loam 4,3 464,8 115 140 0,99 0,56 2,1 17,5 2,5 20 12 46 11,7

83
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 84
Table 1 (continued)

Soil Deph Structure Transition Moist Gravels N 2 mm Sandy Silt Clay Textural pH P K Na Ca2+ Mg2+ Al3+ H + Al SB CEC BS m TOC
Profile Color Class
% H2O mg/dm3 cmolc/dm3 %

AC 28–40 Sg Abrupt wavy 7.5YR 3/4 29,2 60 23 17 Sandy loam 4,4 816 81 139 0,93 0,3 2,9 23,6 2 26 8 59 15,5
Cr 40–64 Sg Abrupt wavy 7.5YR 3/4 24,3 79 12 9 Sandy loam 4,1 2.028,50 129 216 0,37 0,07 1,9 15,5 1,7 17 10 53 4,8
R 64+

HP23- Typic Umbriturbels

Oi 0–1 Fi Abrupt wavy 7.5YR 3/4 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 24,1
Ajj 1–20 ma/w m gr Abrupt broken 5YR 3/2 16,2 67 16 17 Sandy loam 4,9 152,6 86 168 1,68 1,15 1,6 13,4 3,8 17 22 30 10,1

W.F. Rodrigues et al. / Geomorphology 336 (2019) 77–94

AC 20–32 w m gr/sg Abrupt wavy 5YR 3/2 11,7 67 12 22 Sandy clay loam 5,6 181,3 79 178 2,07 1,32 0 12,7 4,4 17 26 19 9,3
F 32+

HP24- Typic Humigelepts

Oi 0–1 33,8 66 22 13 5 1,9 19 2,6 0,21 0,09 0,1 4,5 0,4 5 7 22 10,8
A 1–25 md m bl Abrupt Irregular 7,5YR3/3 64,0 53 26 20 Sandy loam 4,7 1,6 127 5,6 0,78 0,25 1,4 6,4 1,4 8 18 50 9,7
Bi 25–30 md m bl Abrupt irregular 10YR4/4 20,9 58 23 20 Sandy clay loam 5,3 23,5 166 2,6 2,01 0,44 0,1 4,8 2,9 8 38 3 7,8
2C 30–50+ sg 6,8 78 9 13 Sandy loam 5,5 3,2 172 1,6 2,25 0,64 0 3,5 3,3 7 49 0 7,0

HP25- Typic Humigelepts

O 0–3 12,9 58 11 31 Sandy clay loam 4 154 47 39 0,89 0,35 1,1 11,1 1,5 13 12 42 –
A 3–18 md m gr Abrupt wavy 7.5 YR 2.5/3 8,5 77 10 14 Sandy loam 4,1 141,5 16 18 0,35 0,14 1,9 9,6 0,6 10 6 76 9,0
AC 18–38 sg Abrupt wavy 7.5 YR 3/3 39,9 73 16 11 Sandy loam 5,6 215,7 114 92 3,42 0,9 0 2,8 5 8 64 0 8,4
Cr 38–50 sg – 7.5 YR 4/6, 5/8 35,3 80 13 8 Loam 7 417 156 65 3 0,71 0 1,5 4,4 6 75 0 3,7
CR 50+ – – – – – – – – 7,4 486,7 166 59 3,6 0,66 0 1 4,9 6 83 0 2,4

HP26- Ornithogenic Gelorthents

O 0–1
A 1–18 md m bl Abrupt wavy 7.5 YR 3/3 40,4 59 23 19 Sandy loam 7,6 288,6 167 59 3,22 0,48 0 1,5 4,4 6 75 0 11,1
2C1 18–38 Sg Abrupt wavy 10 YR 4/6 39,9 72 15 13 Sandy loam 4,5 115,3 33 45 1,88 0,74 0,4 6,8 2,9 10 30 12 2,1
2C2 38–72 Sg 10 YR 4/4 44,2 89 8 3 Sandy 4,9 6.187,20 69 295 6,69 1,06 0,1 10,4 9,2 20 47 1 2,5

HP27- Ornithogenic Dystrogelepts

O 0–1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
A 1–12 Sg Abrupt wavy 7.5 YR3/4 56,4 59 22 19 Sandy loam 4,3 93,9 32 49 1,66 0,68 0,7 7,1 2,6 10 27 21 10,1
Bi 12–20 Md m bl Clear wavy 7.5 YR 2.5/3 20,6 76 10 14 Sandy loam 4,8 2.657,90 36 101 2,72 0,44 0,1 6,1 3,7 10 38 3 9,1
2C 20–70 Sg 7.5 YR 4/4 20,3 83 6 12 Loamy sand 5 6.547,20 92 216 3,82 0,62 0 8,1 5,6 14 41 0 5,0

Development: w, weak; md, moderate; st, strong. Size: f, fine; m, medium. Type: ma, massive; gr, granular; bl, subangular blocky; sg, single grain; pl, platy; fm, fibric material; spm, sapric material; hm, hemic material. SB: sum of bases; CEC = cation
exchangeable capacity; BS = base saturation; m = Al saturation; TOC: Total Organic Carbon.
 W.F. Rodrigues et al. / Geomorphology 336 (2019) 77–94 85

Table 2
Mineralogical properties of the clay fraction and Fe, Al and Si contents of extracted by citrate-bicarbonate-dithionite, ammonium oxalate and pyrofosfate of the soils from Harmony Point-
Nelson Island- Maritime Antarctica.

Pedons Mineralogy of the clay fraction CBD Oxalate Pyrofosfate Feo/Fed Alo/Ald

Fe Al Si Fe Al Si Fe Al Si

HP1- Typic Gelorthents

A Ab, Chl, Str, Vv 4,67 1,37 0,38 8,24 1,76 0,34 0,38 0,16 0,02 1,76 1,28
C1 Chl, Str, Le 10,08 2,05 0,50 12,38 2,50 0,43 0,40 0,20 0,02 1,23 1,22
C2 And, Chl, Str, Vv 10,49 1,32 0,42 14,18 1,73 0,31 1,94 0,38 0,03 1,35 1,31

HP2- Ornithogenic Haplogelepts

A And, Tc, Chl, Le 7,70 1,77 0,43 9,91 2,07 0,26 0,91 0,58 0,13 1,29 1,17
B Mc, And, Mt., Chl, Le 9,30 1,83 0,41 9,41 1,77 0,18 1,50 0,52 0,07 1,01 0,97
BC Qz, And, Mc, Sm,Chl, Le 12,98 2,73 0,22 10,19 1,87 0,17 1,20 0,41 0,09 0,79 0,68
C1 Qz, Mc, Sm, Le, Str 11,69 1,88 0,26 25,19 2,95 0,20 0,57 0,24 0,03 2,15 1,57
C2 Mc, Sm, Le, Str, Vv 11,13 2,20 0,24 17,01 2,69 0,16 1,27 0,52 0,05 1,53 1,22

HP3- Ornithogenic Gelorthents

A Qz, And, Chl, Le, Vv 4,56 1,49 0,34 6,98 2,24 0,26 0,65 0,55 0,06 1,53 1,50
BC Qz, And,Chl, Le, Vv, Ta 10,33 1,70 0,36 12,06 2,16 0,21 2,18 0,79 0,16 1,17 1,27
C2 And, Chl, Le,Ta 13,17 2,21 0,35 14,96 2,71 0,16 2,18 0,87 0,09 1,14 1,23

HP4- Ornithogenic Gelorthents

A K-f, Mc, Sm, Chl 2,76 0,54 0,41 7,22 0,82 0,25 0,85 0,21 0,05 2,62 1,52

HP5- Ornithogenic Gelorthents

A Ab, Mv, Chl 3,96 1,00 0,34 5,61 1,25 0,21 0,68 0,23 0,02 1,42 1,25
AC Mv, Chl, Str 7,77 1,21 0,23 12,04 1,61 0,24 0,85 0,24 0,03 1,55 1,33
C1 Mv, Ab, Chl, Str 10,52 1,15 0,35 14,21 1,70 0,37 0,61 0,20 0,03 1,35 1,48

HP7- Typic Gelorthents

A And, Mc, Chl 3,12 0,83 0,55 3,58 0,75 0,28 0,49 0,14 0,02 1,15 0,90
2C And, Mc, Sm 7,57 0,73 0,29 8,32 0,79 0,42 0,31 0,08 0,02 1,10 1,08
3Oib Ze, Qz, Mc, Sm, Chl 5,41 0,67 0,26 6,19 0,80 0,19 0,25 0,08 0,03 1,14 1,19
3Cb Cl, And, Mc, Chl 7,76 0,97 0,52 4,05 0,88 0,22 0,13 0,05 0,02 0,52 0,91

HP8- Ornithogenic Gelorthents

A Mc, And, Chl, Str 3,09 0,57 0,37 4,21 0,75 0,26 0,17 0,05 0,03 1,36 1,32

HP9- Ornithogenic Gelorthents

A Qz, Chl, Ko, An 2,10 0,49 0,48 2,82 0,59 0,23 0,28 0,15 0,01 1,34 1,20
C Qz, Chl, An, Ko 4,24 0,59 0,40 4,98 0,76 0,33 0,14 0,10 0,05 1,17 1,29
2Cb Qz, An, Ko, Chl 4,15 1,03 0,38 5,48 1,63 0,33 0,18 0,21 0,05 1,32 1,58

HP10- Ornithogenic Haplorthels

A And, Sm, Ko, Le 3,93 1,04 0,56 2,15 1,75 0,09 0,48 0,31 0,01 0,55 1,68
AB Qz, And, Mv, Sm, Ta, Str 8,31 1,60 0,31 7,28 1,62 0,31 0,98 0,40 0,00 0,88 1,01
Bw And, Chl, Le 7,26 1,57 0,59 7,47 1,76 0,24 0,99 0,46 0,05 1,03 1,12
BC Qz, And, Sm, Le, Ta, Str 4,65 2,02 0,34 4,05 2,34 0,35 0,16 0,40 0,12 0,87 1,16

HP11- Ornithogenic Gelorthents

A Pg, An 3,22 1,71 0,55 4,76 2,68 0,26 1,01 0,92 0,11 1,48 1,57
AB Chl, Str, Le 4,85 1,83 0,52 4,99 2,97 0,34 1,04 0,92 0,09 1,03 1,62
CR Chl, Str, Le 9,37 2,27 0,41 9,59 2,70 0,13 0,96 0,52 0,01 1,02 1,19

HP12- Ornithogenic Gelorthents

A Pg, Mc, Sm, Chl 4,71 1,70 0,34 5,17 2,62 0,14 1,19 0,91 0,09 1,10 1,54
AB Pg, Mc, Sm, An 3,78 1,66 0,44 4,12 1,98 0,19 1,26 1,03 0,10 1,09 1,19

HP13- Ornithogenic Umbrorthels

A Chl, Sm, Pg 3,05 1,12 0,33 4,04 2,21 0,14 0,68 0,54 0,03 1,32 1,97
AB And, Chl, Sm, Le 6,38 2,33 0,60 6,63 2,95 0,21 1,31 1,14 0,10 1,04 1,27
2Bw Qz, Pg, Le, Str 8,64 2,54 0,44 7,53 3,64 0,16 1,04 0,89 0,20 0,87 1,43
2BC Pg, Mv, Chl, Le 9,38 2,50 0,51 10,45 3,34 0,21 0,76 0,64 0,08 1,11 1,34
Cf Qz, Mv, Chl, Le 8,72 2,58 0,68 11,00 3,11 0,26 0,82 0,69 0,09 1,26 1,21

HP14- Ornithogenic Umbrorthels

Oi K-feld, Mv, Chl 2,28 1,38 0,26 5,88 2,56 0,13 1,13 1,38 0,04 2,58 1,86
AC Pg, Mc, Sm, Ta, Le 6,87 1,84 0,40 3,31 2,07 0,13 1,82 1,09 0,10 0,48 1,13
2CR Pg, Mc, Sm, Ta, Le 8,98 1,46 0,37 5,61 2,67 0,21 1,71 0,67 0,08 0,62 1,83

HP15- Typic Aquiturbels

Cgjj Cl, Qz, Pg, Mv, Chl 2,70 1,35 0,76 6,20 3,54 0,76 0,51 0,53 0,25 2,30 2,62
Ac Mv, Pg, Vm 3,94 1,62 0,80 6,02 2,29 0,41 0,72 0,49 0,25 1,53 1,41

HP16- Ornithogenic Sapristels

Oi Pg, Mv, Chl 3,71 1,17 0,43 4,97 2,51 0,30 0,96 1,02 0,06 1,34 2,15
Oe Cl, Mv, Chl, Le, Ta 4,27 1,56 0,48 5,05 2,18 0,32 1,62 1,25 0,09 1,18 1,40
Oaf Mv, Chl, Le 4,03 1,36 0,35 4,86 1,91 0,13 1,14 0,97 0,08 1,21 1,40

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86 W.F. Rodrigues et al. / Geomorphology 336 (2019) 77–94

Table 2 (continued)

Pedons Mineralogy of the clay fraction CBD Oxalate Pyrofosfate Feo/Fed Alo/Ald

Fe Al Si Fe Al Si Fe Al Si

HP17- Ornithogenic Hemistels

Oe Mv, Tc, An, Chl, Le 1,71 1,39 0,49 6,31 1,75 0,19 0,63 1,25 0,09 3,69 1,26
Oif Pg, Mv, An, Chl 0,64 1,94 0,32 8,27 1,91 0,26 0,41 1,64 0,06 12,92 0,98
Oef Mv, An, Chl 0,57 1,13 0,36 4,33 2,92 0,75 0,37 1,60 0,08 7,60 2,58
2Oaf Mv, Pg,Chl, Le 2,06 1,54 0,22 4,37 2,65 0,65 0,35 1,58 0,07 2,12 1,72

HP18- Typic Aquiturbels

Cgjj Mv, Pg, Chl, Ko, An 4,05 1,83 0,99 3,78 2,69 0,60 0,71 1,67 0,09 0,93 1,47
Acjj Pg, An, Chl, Ko 2,68 1,69 0,82 3,61 2,71 0,59 0,35 0,47 0,10 1,35 1,60

HP19- Typic Haploturbels

Cjj Pg, Ko, Chl 2,78 1,38 1,07 2,85 2,53 0,86 0,17 0,21 0,08 1,03 1,83
Cgjj1 Mv, Chl, Ko, An 3,20 1,70 1,01 2,94 3,24 1,02 0,17 0,19 0,06 0,92 1,91
Cgjj2 Mv, Chl, Ko, An 3,65 2,04 1,23 4,02 3,97 1,48 0,17 0,19 0,08 1,10 1,95
Cgf And, Mv, Chl, Ko 3,82 1,21 0,32 4,47 1,81 0,18 0,19 0,24 0,06 1,17 1,50

HP20- Typic Umbrorthels

Oi Mv, Pg, Chl, Ko 3,90 1,89 1,33 4,03 3,44 1,33 1,52 1,08 0,07 1,03 1,82
AC Mv, Cl, Chl, Ko 2,92 1,54 0,54 4,50 2,41 0,26 0,80 0,61 0,09 1,54 1,56
Acf Cl, Qz, Mv, Pg 2,72 1,52 0,52 3,02 2,88 0,15 0,73 0,67 0,08 1,11 1,89

HP21- Typic Umbrorthels

Oi Mv, Chl, An 0,54 1,75 0,20 0,90 2,28 0,16 0,14 1,03 0,08 1,67 1,30
Ao Pg, Mv, Chl 3,40 2,32 0,99 3,97 3,65 0,91 0,73 0,95 0,17 1,17 1,57
A Mv, Chl 6,11 2,56 0,95 4,41 4,95 1,25 0,89 1,02 0,17 0,72 1,93
Af Mv, Pg, Chl 4,12 2,13 0,95 7,16 3,53 0,76 1,08 0,90 0,14 1,74 1,66
Cgf Pg, Mv, Chl 0,95 2,12 0,94 6,04 2,92 0,65 0,88 0,81 0,11 6,36 1,38

HP22- Ornithogenic Gelorthents

O Mc, Chl 0,92 0,69 0,33 2,45 1,10 0,25 0,43 0,71 0,03 2,66 1,59
A Mv, Chl 2,39 1,02 0,39 2,89 1,55 0,22 0,59 0,70 0,03 1,21 1,52
AC Mv, Chl 4,22 1,50 0,39 4,98 2,19 0,14 1,26 1,22 0,10 1,18 1,46
Cr Mv, Chl, Le 6,76 2,30 0,52 8,34 3,89 0,48 0,38 0,65 0,02 1,23 1,69

HP23- Typic Umbriturbels

Ajj Mv, Chl, An 6,43 2,33 0,39 5,01 2,11 0,26 0,72 0,62 0,07 0,78 0,91
AC Mv, Chl, Mt 5,27 1,78 0,55 4,48 2,27 0,60 0,79 0,52 0,07 0,85 1,28

HP24- Typic Humigelepts

Oi Pl, Mv, Chl 4,16 1,44 0,42 4,74 2,04 0,20 1,00 1,12 0,07 1,14 1,42
A Pg, Qz, Chl 5,26 1,64 0,44 6,35 2,52 0,20 1,45 1,51 0,14 1,21 1,54
Bi K-f, Qz, Mv, Chl 4,66 1,36 0,21 7,18 2,25 0,16 1,73 1,24 0,13 1,54 1,65
2C Pg, Tc, Mv, Chl 7,79 1,91 0,37 9,81 2,66 0,14 1,34 1,00 0,03 1,26 1,39

HP25- Typic Humigelepts

O Mc, Pg, Chl 1,86 0,75 0,47 2,40 0,78 0,09 0,41 0,42 0,04 1,29 1,04
A Mv, Pg, Chl 3,46 1,00 0,50 4,36 2,62 0,22 0,80 0,63 0,05 1,26 2,62
AC Mv, Pg, Chl 11,29 1,45 0,31 15,76 2,19 0,35 1,30 0,64 0,02 1,40 1,51
Cr Pg, Mv, Chl 12,44 1,43 0,32 15,06 2,56 0,46 1,14 0,59 0,03 1,21 1,79

HP26- Ornithogenic Gelorthents

A And, Tc, Chl, Str 4,74 1,07 0,28 7,11 1,51 0,12 1,27 0,81 0,08 1,50 1,41
2C1 Mc, Chl, Str 9,63 1,39 0,45 12,03 2,23 0,32 1,35 0,86 0,17 1,25 1,60
2C2 Pg, Chl, Str, Le 11,68 1,85 0,53 13,93 2,86 0,53 1,02 0,71 0,05 1,19 1,55

HP27- Ornithogenic Dystrogelepts

A And, Chl 10,81 1,35 0,26 17,84 2,22 0,12 1,29 0,39 0,00 1,65 1,64
Bi And, Chl, Mv, Str, Le 6,06 1,25 0,44 7,89 2,18 0,22 0,93 0,69 0,02 1,30 1,74
2C Chl, Mv, Str, Le 11,64 1,24 0,23 19,89 2,34 0,24 0,53 0,21 0,01 1,71 1,89

An, anatase; And, andesine; Chl, chlorite; K-feld, K-feldspar; Ko, kaolinite; Le, leucophosphite; Mc, mica; Mv, muscovite; Mt., montmorillonite; Pg, plagioclase; Qz, quartz; Sm, Smectite; Str,
struvite; Ta, taranakite; Tc, talc; Vv, vivianite.

pedons contain a frozen layer at an average depth of 36 cm, implying
that they are Gelisols (Table 3, Fig. 3).
Cryosols in Harmony Point key out as Turbic Cryosols (WBR 2014) or
Turbels (Soil Taxonomy, ST), as in the case of pedons HP-15, HP-18,
HP-19 and HP-23. Pedons HP-15 and HP-18 were classified as Typic
Aquiturbels, while HP-19 is a Typic Haploturbels.
Histels are organic soils which have permafrost within the first
100 cm of the surface. Pedons HP-16 (Lithic Sapristels) and HP-17
(Typic Hemistels) were classified into this order. These soils have
hemic and histic horizon to a depth of 50 cm. Both pedons are located
on felsenmeers, and have luxuriant vegetation growing on past “giant
petrel” nesting areas.
Pedons HP-10, HP-13, HP-14 and HP-20 are classified as Orthels
(Gelisols subgroup), with permafrost within the first 100 cm and little
cryoturbation. All these pedons show umbric soil features, except
HP-10. The umbric epipedon is a dark-colored thick mineral horizon
enriched in organic matter and having a low base saturation (SSS,
2014). This epipedon occurs sporadically in the Western Antarctic
Peninsula and adjacent coastal islands (Michel et al., 2006; Simas
et al., 2007), but is very common in H.P.
Table 3
Current and proposed classification for studied soils at Harmony Point, Nelson Island. Soil classification proposed from Soil Survey Staff (2014) and IUSS Working Group WRB (2015).

Pedon Location Alt. IUSS Working Group WRB (2015) Soil Taxonomy (2014) Soil Taxonomy adapted Vegetation Land. unit

HP-1 S62°18.406′ W059°12.025′ 23 m Haplic Arenosol (Dystric, Ochric) Typic Gelorthents – Sanionia uncinata carpet with Ochrolechia frigida
S62°18.493′
HP-2 26 m Haplic Cambisol (Ornithic, Arenic) Typic Haplogelepts Ornithogenic Haplogelepts Sanionia uncinata carpet
W059°12.267′
S62°18.58′
HP-3 26 m Haplic Arenosol (Ornithic, Ochric) Typic Gelorthents Ornithogenic Gelorthents Prasiola crispa
W059°12.467′
S62°18.587′
HP-4 20 m Skeletic Leptosol (Arenic, Humic) Typic Gelorthents Ornithogenic Gelorthents Sparce Prasiola crispa
W059°12.465′ Marine Terrace
S62°18.440′
HP-5 15 m Haplic Arenosol (Ornithic, Ochric) Typic Gelorthents Ornithogenic Gelorthents Bryum spp. on a Sanionia uncinata carpet
W059°11.810′
HP-7 S62°18.528′ W059°12.198′ 5m Haplic Leptsol (Ornithic, Arenic) Typic Gelorthents Ornithogenic Gelorthents Scarce Prasiola crispa
HP-8 S62°18.485′ 059°12.034′ 5m Haplic Leptsol (Ornithic, Arenic) Typic Gelorthents Ornithogenic Gelorthents No vegetation
S62°18.317′
HP-9 3m Haplic Arenosol (Eutric, Ornithic, Ochric) Typic Gelorthents Ornithogenic Gelorthents No vegetation
W059°11.593′

W.F. Rodrigues et al. / Geomorphology 336 (2019) 77–94

S62°18.219′
HP-10 37 m Haplic Cryosol (Ornithic, Cambic) Typic Haplorthels Ornithogenic Haplorthels Sanionia uncinata carpet
W059°11.697′
Cryoplanated Platform
S62°18.327′
HP-11 41 m Lithic Leptsol (Skeletic, Ochric) Lithic Gelorthents Ornithogenic Gelorthents Usnea aurantiacoatra among Andreaea gainii
W059°12.018′
S62°18.386′
HP-12 42 m Lithic Leptsol (Skeletic, Ochric) Lithic Gelorthents Ornithogenic Gelorthents Sanionia uncinata carpet Felsenmeer
W059°12.563′
S62°18.352′ Sanionia georgicouncinata and Warnsdorfia
HP-13 26 m Umbric Cryosol (Ornithic, Thixotrofic) Typic Umbrorthels Ornithogenic Umbrothels Cryoplanated Platform
W059°13.030′ sarmentosa carpet
S62°18.249′
HP-14 37 m Haplic Umbrisol (Ornithic, humic) Typic Umbrorthels Ornithogenic Umbrorthels Sanionia uncinata carpet Felsenmeer
W059°13.391′
S62°18.35442′
HP-15 33 m Turbic Cryosol (Dystric, Skeletic Thixotropic) Typic Aquiturbels – Andreaea spp.
W059°13.0240′
S62°18.119′ Scarce Sanionia uncinata associated to Andreaea
HP-16 48 m Lithic Cryosol (Ornithic, Sapric) Lithic Sapristels Ornithogenic Sapristels
W059°12.483′ spp.
Felsenmeer
S62°18.093′
HP-17 61 m Hemic Cryosol (Ornithic, Clayic) Typic Hemistels Ornithogenic Hemistels Sanionia uncinata carpet
W059°11.891′
S62°18.090′ Scarce Sanionia uncinata associated to Andreaea
HP-18 44 m Turbic Cryosol (Skeletic Thixotropic) Typic Aquiturbels – Patterned Ground
W059°12.462′ spp.
S62°17.916′
HP-19 40 m Turbic Cryosol (Eutric, Skeletic, Thixotropic) Typic Haploturbels – Andreaea spp. among scarce Sanionia uncinata
W059°12.472′
S62°18.209′
HP-20 41 m Umbric Cryosol (Dystric, Skeletic) Typic Umbrorthels – Sanionia uncinata carpet with Ochrolechia frigida
W059°11.950′ Waterlogged depressions
S62°18.346′ Sanionia georgicouncinata and Warnsdorfia with mosses
HP-21 26 m Umbric Cryosol (Dystric, Skeletic) Typic Umbrorthels –
W059°13.058′ sarmentosa carpet associated to Bryum spp.
S62°17.935′
HP-22 39 m Haplic Leptosol (Arenic, humic) Typic Gelorthents Ornithogenic Gelorthents Scarce Sanionia uncinata Debris slopes
W059°13.240′
S62°18.004′ Waterlogged depressions
HP-23 40 m Turbic Cryosol (Dystric, Skeletic) Typic Umbriturbels – Sanionia uncinata carpet
W059°12.643′ with mosses
S62°18.141′
HP-24 48 Haplic Cambisol (Arenic, Humic) Typic Humigelepts – Sanionia uncinata carpet associated to Bryum sp. Marine Terrace
W59°13.504′
S62° 17.517′
HP-25 39 Haplic Cambisol (Eutric, Arenic) Typic Humigelepts Ornithogenic Humigelepts Sanionia uncinata carpet Debris slopes
W59° 13.118′
S62° 18.107′
HP-26 34 Haplic Arenosol (Eutric, Ornithic, Arenic) Typic Gelorthents Ornithogenic Gelorthents Prasiola crispa
W59° 13.356′
Marine Terrace
S62°18.267′ Warnsdorfia sarmentosa carpet associated to Bryum
HP-27 13 Haplic Cambisol (Dystric, Ornithic, Gelic) Typic Dystrogelepts Ornithogenic Dystrogelepts
W59°12.563′ spp.

87
88 W.F. Rodrigues et al. / Geomorphology 336 (2019) 77–94

Fig. 3. Soil map of Harmony Point, Nelson Island with the respective extensions in hectares.

Pedons HP-1, HP-3, HP4, HP-5, HP-7, HP-8, HP-9, HP-11, HP-12,
HP-22 and HP-26 are classified as Entisols (ST), having a gelic soil tem-
perature regime (Typic Gelorthents). Pedons HP-11 and HP-12 with a
lithic contact within 50 cm of the mineral soil surface are classified as
Lithic Gelorthents. Entisols (ST) are associated to Leptosols/Arenosols
(WBR) because they do not fit into the classification keys of the other
orders.
Pedons without cryoturbation processes and permafrost layer
within the first 100 cm, and with moderate pedogenetic development
structure, were classified as Inceptisols (ST) or Cambisols (WRB).
Pedons HP-2 and HP-27 (both Typic Haplogelepts), and HP-24 and
HP-25 (both Humigelepts) are classified into these categories (Table 3).
The Ornithogenic character was based on the study carried out
by Simas et al., (2007), which pointed out that soils with high
P-extractable concentrations (above 500 mg/kg) (obtained by
Mehlich-1) should be classified as ornithogenic. Around 60% of the
soils described from Harmony Point key out as ornithogenic (Table 3),
which highlights the marked influence of bird activity in this area.
Ornithogenic soils are on marine terraces, felsenmeers and the edges
of cryoplanated platforms. None of the pedons described in the hydro-
morphic depressions were affected by phosphatization. Only one
pedon located in the sloping hillside areas was influenced by bird
activity.
3.3. Vegetation-landscape units' interplay
The vegetation cover of each marine terrace level is in accordance
with age. The oldest (and highest) are covered by carpets of Sanionia
uncinate and patches of Polytrichastrum alpinum turves in drier areas,
whereas Sanionia georgicouncinata and Warnsdorfia spp. occur on the
wetter sectors, associated with occasional Bryum spp., and rarely with
Brachythecium autrosalebrosum. The intermediate terrace level is
 W.F. Rodrigues et al. / Geomorphology 336 (2019) 77–94
normally covered by crustose/fruticose lichens, mostly by Acarospora
macrocyclus and Caloplaca spp. as dominant. The most recent (first
level) marine terrace is mainly covered by Prasiola crispa formations
on certain spots, associated with guano from wandering birds.
The vegetation in the high plateau is basically composed by
nitrophobic species highly resistant to wind exposure and desiccation.
The main formation is a dense carpet of the muscicolous lichen
Himantormia lugubris, in close association with the mosses Andreaea gainii
and Andreaea depressinervis, but occasionally anchored to other carpet-
forming mosses. Other muscicolous lichens are also very common, nota-
bly Ochrolechia frigida, Psoroma hypnorum and Cladonia spp. The Andreaea
spp. formation is sometimes free of lichens, forming dark brown to black
cushions covering exposed rocks as a primary colonizer. Usnea
aurantiacoatra is found sterile in low lying hills above the plateaux, asso-
ciated to mosses and other lichens on rock outcrops.
The depressions are mainly surrounded by a dense moss carpet, com-
mon with a marginal fringe (up to 50 cm large) of Bryum spp. and/or
Brachythecium austrosalebrosum, around waterlogged areas. Farther
away, with water-saturated soil, a moss carpet formed by Warnsdorfia
sarmentosa occurs, partially parasitized by muscicolous lichens, such as
Cystocoleus niger or Ochrolechia frigida. Whenever the surrounding areas
are better drained and drier, Sanionia uncinata is dominant. On shallow
pools where birds are occasional visitors, and some guano is deposited,
waters are colonized by the alga Prasiola crispa.
Patterned ground has a distinct vegetation according to the
microtopography. The inner circle mud-boil (microdepression) is
covered with mosses, along with Sanionia uncinata in the drier parts, or
Sanionia georgicouncinata in the wet zones, closely associated to
Warnsdorfia sarmentosa. The transitional zone to the stone circle is
usually colonized by Chorisodontium acyphyllum and, less common,
Polytrichastrum alpinum. The rock fragments of the stone circle are colo-
nized by crustose lichens, like Huea austroshetlandica and Buellia spp., as-
sociated to the moss Andreaea spp. There is no influence of bird nesting on
patterned ground, hence no ornithogenic features are present.
On this landscape of strong periglacial dynamics, the typical formation
is dominated by crustose lichens that can withstand solifluction and
short-range transport. The most common are Bacidia spp., Huea spp.
and Acarospora macrocyclus, associated with common Andreaea spp.,
giving it a characteristic blackish brown color of this landscape unit
from the distance. The debris slopes are places where snow patches are
widespread, and melting water is frequently associated with periglacial
erosion downslope. Also, pure stands of Andreaea spp. occur on wetter
areas, associated with muscicolous lichens, mainly Ochrolechia frigida.
The area is frequently used by birds (giant petrels and skuas,
especially) as nesting areas, resulting in soils with guano enrichment
and mixed vegetation. Soils with high organic matter have an abundant
mixed vegetation, composed of lichens, such as Usnea spp.,
Sphaerophorus globosus and Stereocaulon spp., and mosses such as
Sanionia uncinata and Chorisodontium acyphyllum. These areas are
mainly covered by saxicolous lichen species, without a clear pattern.
In some felsenmeers where vertical to subvertical rock walls occur
below the nests, rock surfaces are covered by Umbilicaria spp. and
Usnea spp. associated to Lecidea spp. and Buellia spp. In more stable
rocky surfaces, other crustose lichens are common, particularly
Rhizoplaca spp., Lecidea spp., Carbonea spp. and Buellia spp., with
occasional occurrence of Rhizocarpon geographicum on guano-free
areas. Whenever water-saturated soil accumulates, a thick moss bank
composed by Sanionia spp., Polytrichum juniperinum and P. piliferum
are also found.
4. Discussion
4.1. Soil-landscape relationships
The main soil-forming processes are cryoturbation, humification
(melanization), paludification, and phosphatization. At elevations
89
between 26 m to 61 m, permafrost was ubiquitous and cryoturbation
was a key soil-forming process. Eleven out of 26 pedons contained per-
mafrost at an average depth of 36 cm. The frozen top soil layer (above
23 cm) in the HP-23 pedon can be interpreted as permafrost. This
shallow active-layer depth is unusual for South Shetland Islands,
but comparable to that of Deception Island, 98 km to the southwest
(Ramos et al., 2012).
At elevations below 26 m, there was no evidence of permafrost and
little of cryoturbation. Fig. 1 shows the geographical distribution of soils
and pedons across the landscape.
At Harmony Point there is a close association between landscape
units and soils. This is in agreement with Moura et al. (2012) and
Navas et al. (2018), who pointed out the close relationship between
landforms and soil formation in M.A. Fig. 4 shows the representative
diagram of the soils-landforms relationship across the landscape.
Soils from Harmony Point have basic parent materials. (i) till related
to glacial advances or retreats (Cook et al., 2005), (ii) in situ bedrock
breakdown of andesites, tuffs or agglomerates by freeze-thaw cycles
(Henry, 2007), and (iii) marine sediments on different terrace levels.
Chemical and physical weathering plays an important role in the soil
formation pathways.
The main processes of landscape evolution were: solifluction,
cryoplanation, frost heave and thermokarst, all currently reported as
key processes in Maritime Antarctica (Serrano et al., 1996, 2008, 2010;
Francelino et al., 2011; López-Martínez et al., 2012, 2016; Navas et al.,
2018).
4.1.1. Marine terraces
On the three levels of marine terraces (3, 8 and 12 m), soils are
mainly phosphatized and Gelorthents and Haplogelepts are predomi-
nant. Remnants of the fourth (16 m) and fifth (20 m) levels can be
also observed as residuals. This observation corroborates the five levels
previously described for Marine Terraces at the SSI, associated with
glacial-isostatic rebound (Araya and Hervé, 1972; Pallàs et al., 1995;
Fretwell et al., 2004; Francelino et al., 2011; López-Martínez et al.,
2012). We investigated a limited number of soils on marine terraces
to assess differences related to each different level. Based on a compar-
ison of soil development degree on eight marine terraces at Spanish Bay,
Livingston Island (Bockheim, unpublished), the marine terraces on
Nelson Island likely are of mid-Holocene age, ca. b6 kyr B.P.
At the lowest level (Holocene beaches) (0–20 m a.s.l.) physical
weathering, frost cracking and colluviation are dominant (López-
Martínez et al., 2012), resulting in skeletal soils at the lower levels,
with high percentage of gravels and cobbles. The clay mineralogy has
high amounts of primary minerals such of quartz, plagioclases, and
chlorite, as well as secondary minerals (smectite and illite) (Simas
et al., 2006; Navas et al., 2008; Moura et al., 2012). In the upper levels,
two soils had umbric or cambic horizon (HP-2 e HP-3). On higher ter-
races, soils have more developed morphological, physicochemical and
mineralogical features than the lower levels (1st and 2nd levels), so
that a chronosequences of soils occurs on the marine terraces.
At the higher levels, soils have an acid pH, and phosphatization plays
a role in the acidification processes due to guano decomposition and re-
lease of strong acids (Tatur and Barczuk, 1985). Through this process,
secondary phosphate mineral such vivianite and leucophosphite were
identified on the upper marine terraces. Vivanite was only observed in
the old marine terrace soils, associated to Fe-rich rocks (basaltic), as
reported by Tatur and Keck (1990).
Soil development is directly related with the density and diversity of
vegetation cover. On the upper marine terraces, well-developed mosses
carpets are predominant, whereas on lower terraces, mosses carpets are
only incipient, containing algae mats of Prasiola sp., which is an indicator
of acid soils on recent nesting sites of low marine terraces (Schaefer
et al., 2004; Simas et al., 2007; Pereira et al., 2013). The aforementioned
phenomena show that phosphatization is progressively greater with
 90
W.F. Rodrigues et al. / Geomorphology 336 (2019) 77–94
Fig. 4. A block-diagram illustrating the main landforms, according to the landscape chronology, ranging from the periglacial domains formed after glaciar retreat (Last 8.000 y.), uplifted marine terraces (mid to late holocene), present-day beach and
volcanic stacks. Penguin rookeries and debris slopes are not represented in this diagram, although they are very representative in the Southern part of Harmony Point. Futher information on each landscape unit is show in Table 3.
 W.F. Rodrigues et al. / Geomorphology 336 (2019) 77–94
age, resulting in higher pedogenetic evolution in older nesting sites of
marine terraces in which the main breeding species is P. Papua.
Marine birds (penguins, skuas, and giant petrels) and plants (mosses
and lichens) play a key role in soil development. The influence of
penguin activity, due to very the large, extensive guano deposits, are
essential both in pedogenesis and in the soil chemical composition, cor-
roborating previous studies (Ugolini, 1972; Tatur and Barczuk, 1985;
Tatur and Myrcha, 1989; Myrcha and Tatur, 1991; Tatur et al., 1996,
1997; Michel et al., 2006; Simas et al., 2007, 2008; Schaefer et al.,
2008; Cannone et al., 2008; Moura et al., 2012; Souza et al., 2014;
Bockheim, 2015; Haus et al., 2016; González-Guzmána et al., 2017;
Navas et al., 2018; Daher et al., 2019).
The Humigelepts pedon on the fourth marine terrace level suggests a
greater pedological development, with increasing OM accumulation by
mosses. Mosses and lichens not only protect the soils from abrupt varia-
tions of temperatures, but also provide better conditions for microorgan-
isms and organic matter accumulation (Bölter et al., 1997; Mataloni et al.,
2000; Bölter, 2011; González-Guzmána et al., 2017).
4.1.2. Cryoplanated platforms (plateaus)
Cryoplanated plataforms are flattened areas, exposed after deglacia-
tion, with low erosion rates, and permeable substrates (drifts)
(Francelino et al., 2011), described as cryoplanation benches by Hall
(1997). Periglacial processes, like thermokarst, frost heaving, fine material
accumulations by wash, take place (López-Martínez et al., 2012; Navas
et al., 2018).
At Harmony Point, cryoplanated platforms are associated with
well-developed ornithogenic soils, although present-day nesting sites
are absent. A weakly developed cambic horizon that averaged 20 cm in
thickness was present in three pedons (HP-10 and HP-13). A typical gran-
ular structure is found (pedons HP-10 and HP-13) and can be attributed
to freezing and thawing and ultradesiccation of fine soil particles during
freezing (Schaefer et al., 2004; Van Vliet-Lanoë et al., 2004), suggesting
that cryopedogenesis is an active process (Bockheim and Tarnocai, 1998).
Also, podsolization and lessivage were observed in Pedon HP-11,
with weak argillans coating gravels. We suspected the presence of a
volcanic ash deposition in the A horizon of this soil on the plateau,
due to a “greasy” dark-color, which may be associated with the volcanic
ash deposition events 1967–1970 eruptions on nearby Deception Island
(Qin et al., 1994).
Phosphatization is also the main pedogenetic process in the
area. The soils showed strong ornithogenic influence, revealed by
thixotrophic and phosphate-rich materials (HP-13) (Ugolini, 1970;
Sun et al., 2000; Michel et al., 2006), and leucophosphite and taranakite
were common in soils of the cryoplanated plateau. In agreement with
Tatur (2002), this mineral assemblage indicates a chronology of the
colonization of nesting sites. After guano deposition, mineralization of
organic matter causes the replacement of P\\Ca\\ and P-N-minerals
by P\\Al\\ and P-Fe-minerals. The P/Al ratio and the presence of crys-
talline taranakite-bearing phosphates evidence the long-term evolution
of such soils, and their high degree of weathering. Cryoturbation is also
significant, combined with P-illuviation, permafrost presence and the
influence of the freeze-thaw processes in the active layer.
Close and around the nesting sites, soils are well developed with
abundant mixed vegetation, mainly composed of lichens (Usnea
and Himanthornia lugubris, an endemic species in Antarctica) on rock
fragments and mosses, mainly Andreæ., in the depressions (Table 3).
The formation of Typic Haplorthels and Typic Umbrorthels, greater
landscape stability, a deeper active layer, and greater vegetation growth,
all suggest that the soils have required a long period to develop than in
other soils of Harmony Point. This is consistent with previous studies in
the region (e.g., Moura et al., 2012; Michel et al., 2014; Navas et al.,
2018).
4.1.2.1. Waterlogged depressions with mosses. The waterlogged depres-
sions with mosses are located on the top of cryoplanated platforms,
91
and their origin is drainage incision, permafrost degradation, solifluc-
tion and thermokarst processes, as reported by French (2007). These
waterlogged depressions may have higher contents of soluble nutrients
due to their accumulation from melting water channels during the
summer (Poelking et al., 2015).
In this landscape unit, soils are covered by mosses carpets and are
underlain by organic-rich surface horizons. Mosses grow at rates vary-
ing form 0.6 mm/y to 5 mm/y, reaching ages of ≥6000 years (Björck
et al., 1991). The soils are shallow due to high water saturation (usually
at 30 cm), compared with soils on marine terraces; they have greater
contents of fine particles (clay+silt), with textures varying from clay
to clay loam.
Moss-dominated soils are acid from two basic processes: nitric acid
produced by ortnithogenic activity or by organic acids (humic, fulvic)
from moss decomposition, as reported by Bölter (2011) and Wilhelm
et al. (2016).
The occurrence of humified organic matter-rich soils with umbric
horizons and the absence of histic horizons and phosphatization, sug-
gests that restricted drainage is only seasonal and with short duration,
three pedons showed a melanization process, with accumulation of or-
ganic matter forming Umbrorthels (HP-20, HP-21 and HP-23). Although
permafrost commonly occurs under mosses carpets, they are among the
most developed soils in Maritime Antarctica (Wilhelm et al., 2016).
4.1.2.2. Patterned ground. Patterned ground is typical of periglacial land-
forms and often is associated with permafrost (López-Martínez et al.,
2012, 2016). Patterned ground is the most common landform at
Harmony Point and elsewhere on Nelson Island, including Rip Point,
O'Cain Point, and Duthoit Point (López-Martínez et al., 2016).
Patterned ground on high cryoplanation platforms contains soils
that are neutral and base-rich (HP-19). Permafrost is continuous, and
long-term cryoclastic and cryoturbation processes have led to active
layer dynamics associated with formation of mud-boils. In addition,
surface silt-enriched layers created by frost heaving processes were
observed by the differential migration of fine particles to the surface. An-
gular clasts concentrated around the mud-boils indicate that the active
layer is initiates physical weathering, in particular frost-shattering
(Ugolini et al., 2006).
Patterned-ground at Harmony Point is strongly cryoturbated
(HP-15, HP-18, and HP-19), and Aquiturbels and Haploturbels are pre-
dominant. Hence, there is a close relationship between patterned-
ground landforms and Turbels, as suggested by Delpupo et al. (2017).
The general occurrence of Haploturbels in M.A. illustrates the key im-
portance of cryoturbation (Simas et al., 2015).
Patterned ground at Harmony Point has two types of vegetation, in-
cluding mosses in the center of mudboils and lichens (e.g., Usnea) and
mosses (e.g., Andreæ) on the rock fragments on the edges of mudboils.
Ornithogenic features are totally absent on patterned ground, and phys-
ical weathering explains the presence of primary minerals in clay frac-
tion and also the high pH. The high amounts of Ca2+, K and Mg2+ are
typical of soils developed from andesitic basalts in M. A. (Francelino
et al., 2011).
4.1.2.3. Debris slopes. Debris slopes occur on hillsides and gentle slopes
with an accumulation of angular rocky fragments (mainly andesitic
tuffs and agglomerates) that arelocated in the transition area between
the upper platform and the marine terraces, and around felsenmeers.
These landforms are generally covered by snow patches, which repre-
sent the main sources of melting water for downslope movement. The
soils are deep, receive snowmelt during the summer, and frequent
freeze-thaw cycles, keeping high soil moisture and deep active layer
(López-Martínez et al., 2012).
The O horizon of HP-22 and HP-25 is rock cryoturbation, it has sand
clay and sandy clay loam textures. The higher content the fine particles
at the surface is generated by freeze-thaw cycles and frost shattering,
leading to rock disintegration sharp-edged clasts, as pointed out by
92 W.F. Rodrigues et al. / Geomorphology 336 (2019) 77–94
López-Martínez et al. (2016). On debris slopes, Humigelepts can be
influenced by bird nesting (skuas and petrels), forming patches of phos-
phatized soils with concentrated spots of guano deposition, and patches
of vegetation. Most debris slopes, however, do no not have any bird
influence.
4.1.2.4. Felsenmeers. Felsenmeers are resistant, prominent rock land-
forms having heterogeneous features, usually with greater organic mat-
ter accumulation than volcanic stacks in the marine terraces. Most soils
on felsenmeers are ornithogenic, due widespread nesting of petrels;
they are covered by dense lichen/mosses vegetation representing of
hotspots of biodiversity in the midst of the upper platforms.
Two geomorphological features in the felsenmeer can be observed.
The first is the clear pre-weathered nature of the old igneous bodies of
andesitic basalts, with deep penetration of “saprock” along the joints
and fractures, releasing thee rounded boulders of corestones, as erosion
takes place. This indicate a mild, temperature paleoclimates during the
saprolite formation, totally out of phase with the present-day cold cli-
mate. Hence, the rocky inselbergs show juxtaposition of the current
paraglacial/periglacial condition on a former weathered bedrock,
exhumed by the glacial advances and retreats, exposing weathered
saprock. This is consistent with observations of Binkenmajer in this
region, who, identified several temperate phases after the Mesozoic
Volcanism of South Shetlands (Birkenmajer, 2001). The second aspect
is the overprinting of glacial strial and “roche mountoneé” features on
the rock surface, representing the expansion of the ice cover during
the LGM. These features can be seen across the entire area, except the
Southwestern extreme where the Penguin Rookery is located.
The felsenmeers at Harmony Point are influenced by in situ physical
weathering, with chemical weathering and soil formation along
fractures, joints and faults. For example, pedon HP-17 shows greater
clay fraction content, high cryoclastic activity and high amount of low-
crystalline Fe-oxides, suggesting a greater degree of pedogenetic devel-
opment (Schaefer et al., 2008). The luxuriant cryptogamic vegetation
markedly changes the local thermal and hydric regimes, enabling insu-
lation of the permafrost, which results in enhanced weathering and clay
formation. These features indicate a longer period of soil development,
as suggested by Navas et al. (2006).
Mosses growth and landscape stability, make the paludification an
active process in the felsenmeers, with histic materials averaging more
than of 48 cm in thickness (HP-16 and HP-17). High P-concentrations in
subsurface horizons indicate organic matter accumulation from old
guano layers and P- illuviation to subsurface layers.
5. Conclusions
Soils from Harmony Point vary according to the interplay among
landform, parent material and vegetation. The soils are mostly shallow,
rocky and cryoturbic, both dystrophic and eutrophic.
The presence of continuous permafrost below 30 cm in soils above
an elevation 26 m demonstrates the importance of cryopedogenesis in
soil formation of this area. Soils with humic (umbric) A horizons are
very common, which indicates a long-term stabilization and humifica-
tion of the organic matter. Chemical weathering is effective in soil an
umbric horizon, due to landscape stability and vegetation cover. In
addition, ornithogenesis and the formation of umbric horizons are
widespread, corroborating the importance of phosphatization as soil-
forming process in this part of Antarctica, unparalleled for other areas
of Maritime Antarctica and East Antartica.
Cryoturbation and phosphatization processes are the two key soil
forming processes in H.P., and well developed ornithogenic soils with
a high level of weathering degree and phosphate B horizons with clay
enrichment are common. On the other hand, soils without bird activity
are coarse-grained and contain primary minerals even at the clay
fraction, revealing low chemical weathering, despite active physical
weathering.
The elemental composition of the non-ornithogenic soils is similar to
soils from elsewhere in M.A., whereas ornithogenic soils were richer in
P, Ca, Mg and K, consistent with other ornithogenic soils reported from
elsewhere in Antarctica. The widespread occurrence of phosphatization
in H.P. shows the key importance of biogenic sea-land nutrient transfers
for all aspects of soil formation and vegetation development in Maritime
Antarctica.
Acknowledgements
The CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e
Tecnológico), CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de
Nível Superior) and FAPEMIG (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do
Estado de Minas Gerais) for financial support. We are grateful to INCT
da Criosfera, TERRANTAR and MARINHA DO BRASIL (PROANTAR PRO-
GRAM) are acknowledged for financial support and field assistance.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the
online version, at doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.03.
030. These data include the Google map of the most important areas
described in this article.
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