AEC LABORATORY

PROJECT: AUTOMATIC DARKNESS DETECTOR

SUBMITTED BY-
NAME- ASHIS KUMAR PRADHAN
ID- B317015
NAME- RIYA MOHANTY
ID- B317034
NAME- AUROSHIS RAY
ID- B317012
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS
AND
TELECOMMUNICATION
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 INDEX

TOPIC
1.PROJECT NAME
2.APPARATUS REQUIRED
3.THEORY
4.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND EXPLATION
5.RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
6.APPLICATIONS
7.PRCAUTIONS
8.CONCLUSION

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 APPARATUS REQUIRED

BREADBOARD

TWO NPN BCS547 TRANSISTOR

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE(LED)

JUMPER WIRES

RESISTORS

LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR(LDR)

BATTERY SOURCE(9V)

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 THEORY

BIPOLAR JUNCTION DIODE-

A bipolar junction transistor (bipolar transistor or BJT) is a
type of transistor that uses both electron and hole charge
carriers. BJTs are manufactured in two types, NPN and PNP.
The basic function of a BJT is to amplify current. This allows
BJTs to be used as amplifiers or switches, giving them wide
applicability in electronic equipment, including computers,
televisions, mobile phones, audio amplifiers, industrial
control, and radio transmitters.

BJTs come in two types, or polarities, known as PNP and NPN

based on the doping types of the three main terminal
regions. An NPN transistor comprises two semiconductor
junctions that share a thin p-doped region, and a PNP
transistor comprises two semiconductor junctions that share
a thin n-doped region.
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Charge flow in a BJT is due to diffusion of charge carriers
across a junction between two regions of different charge
concentrations. The regions of a BJT are called emitter,
collector, and base. A discrete transistor has three leads for
connection to these regions. Typically, the emitter region is
heavily doped compared to the other two layers, whereas
the majority charge carrier concentrations in base and
collector layers are about the same (collector doping is
typically ten times lighter than base doping). By design, most
of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charge
carriers (electrons or holes) injected from a high-
concentration emitter into the base where they are minority
carriers that diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are
classified as minority-carrier devices.

In typical operation, the base–emitter junction is forward-

biased, which means that the p-doped side of the junction is
at a more positive potential than the n-doped side, and the

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base–collector junction is reverse-biased. In an NPN
transistor, when positive bias is applied to the base–emitter
junction, the equilibrium is disturbed between the thermally
generated carriers and the repelling electric field of the n-
doped emitter depletion region. This allows thermally excited
electrons to inject from the emitter into the base region.
These electrons diffuse through the base from the region of
high concentration near the emitter toward the region of low
concentration near the collector. The electrons in the base
are called minority carriers because the base is doped p-type,
which makes holes the majority carrier in the base.

NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, consisting

of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the "base") between
two N-doped layers. A small current entering the base is
amplified to produce a large collector and emitter current.
That is, when there is a positive potential difference
measured from the base of an NPN transistor to its emitter
(that is, when the base is high relative to the emitter), as well
as a positive potential difference measured from the
collector to the emitter, the transistor becomes active. In this
"on" state, current flows from the collector to the emitter of
the transistor. Most of the current is carried by electrons
moving from emitter to collector as minority carriers in the P-
type base region. To allow for greater current and faster
operation, most bipolar transistors used today are NPN
because electron mobility is higher than hole mobility.

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The BC547 is a general-purpose NPN bipolar junction
transistor commonly used in European and American
electronic equipment. It is notably often the first type of
bipolar transistor hobbyists encounter and is often featured
in designs in hobby electronics magazines where a general-
purpose transistor is required. It is low in cost and widely
available.

PHOTOCONDUCTIVITY-
Photoconductivity is an optical and electrical phenomenon in
which a material becomes more electrically conductive due
to the absorption of electromagnetic radiation such as visible
light, ultraviolet light, infrared light, or gamma radiation.

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When light is absorbed by a material such as a
semiconductor, the number of free electrons and electron
holes increases and raises its electrical conductivity. To cause
excitation, the light that strikes the semiconductor must have
enough energy to raise electrons across the band gap, or to
excite the impurities within the band gap. When a bias
voltage and a load resistor are used in series with the
semiconductor, a voltage drop across the load resistors can
be measured when the change in electrical conductivity of
the material varies the current through the circuit. Some
examples of photoconductive materials are lead sulphide,
selenium.

One of the application of photoconductivity is in Light

Dependent Resistor (LDR) .
Light Dependent Diode

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A LDR is a light-controlled variable resistor. The resistance of
a LDR decreases with increasing incident light intensity; in
other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A LDR is made of a
high resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a LDR can have a
resistance as high as several mega ohms (MΩ), while in the
light, a LDR can have a resistance as low as a few hundred
ohms.
If incident light on a LDR exceeds a
certain frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor
give bound electrons enough energy to jump into
the conduction band. The resulting free electrons (and
their hole partners) conduct electricity, thereby
lowering resistance. The resistance range and sensitivity of a
LDR can substantially differ among dissimilar devices.
Moreover, unique LDR may react substantially differently to
photons within certain wavelength bands.

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 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND
EXPLANATION

When light is flashed on the Light Depended

Resistor (LDR), the resistance becomes
comparably low which drives the Q1-BC547 into
conduction but it keeps the Q2-BC547 in the off
state as the input from Q1 gets grounded and not

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enough current reaches the Q2-BC547.As a result
LED does not glow.
When light is turned off, the resistance of the
Light Dependent Resistor increases in terms of
mega ohms. Thus, almost no current passes
through Q1-BC547 which puts it in off state and
the input goes to the second transistor i.e. Q2-
BC547 which in turn turns the LED ON.

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 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
Following observations were made while testing the
circuit-
When light was turned on VB across BJT Q1 was found
to be 0.781V and VB across BJT Q2 was found to be
5.149mV which shows the BJT is in off state which was
further confirmed by the LED in off state.
When light was turned off VB across BJT Q1 was found
to be 4.26mV and VB across BJT Q2 was found to be
0.749V which shows the BJT is in on state which was
further confirmed by the LED in on state.

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 APPLICATIONS
Power conserving street lamps

As a sensor along with microcontrollers for

various projects.

Smart phones for auto-brightness and flash.

Camera shutter control and flash control.

Light intensity meters.

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 PRECAUTIONS
 Check if the all the connections are intact i.e.
no loose connection.

 Check if the components are not internally

short circuited.

 Use proper insulation of components.

 Ensure the electronic equipments are

properly grounded.

 Do not power the circuit without rechecking

the connections.

 Have safety equipments.

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 CONCLUSION

HENCE, AUTOMATIC DARKNESS DETECTOR

USING LDR WAS SUCCESSFULLY
CONSTRUCTED AND TESTED. IN THE
PRESENCE OF LIGHT THE LED STAYED IN THE
OFF STATE INDICATING THE PRESENCE OF
LIGHT AND WHEN THE LIGHT WAS TURNED
OFF, THE LED TURNED ON INDICATING THE
ABSENCE OF LIGHT WHICH IS IN COMPLIANCE
WITH THE OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT.

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