SEXUAL REPRODUTION IN HUMANS
 All humans begin their lives as a single cell that
was formed by the fusion of two sex cells
(sperm call and egg cell) from parents
 During adolescence stage, sex organs mature
and undergo changes to be able to produce sex
cells that will participate in a process of
producing new individuals
 Sex cells contains structures call chromosomes
Chromosomes- threadlike structures in the
nucleus of a eukaryotic cell, consisting of DNA and
proteins that carry genetic information such as hair
and skin color
 Each sex cell contains only half the number of
chromosomes(23) which is called haploid (n)
 Regular sex cells contains 46 chromosome
called diploid (2n)
 During the fusion of the egg and the sperm, the
resulting fertilized egg, known as zygote, will
contain 46 chromosomes
Copulation- sexual intercourse
HUMAN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 -sexual intercourse is to merge two sets of
genetic information, sperm from the father and
egg from the mother to create an offspring that
is genetically different from either parent
 Sex= human sexual reproduction
MALE REPRODCTIVE SYSTEM
 The male reproductive system produces sperm
cell (male gametes) and delivers them inside
the female reproductive system
Gametes- sexual reproductive cell (sperm cell for
male and egg cell for female)
Testis- the site of sperm production
- Male primary reproductive organ
- Testis is singular of testes
- Oval-shaped organs found inside a
protective sac called scrotum
 Inside are clusters of hundreds compartments
with many tiny coiled tube called seminiferous
tubules
 Strategically located outside the body for the
development of the sperm
 Since it is located outside the body its
temperature is 1°C to 3°C lower than internal
body (37°C) making it ideal for sperm
reproduction which requires lower temperature
 Testes begin to produce sperm only after males
reach adolescence stage known as puberty
 How sperm cells are produced?
- Sperm cells are produced in the lining of the
seminiferous tubules through a cell division
called meiosis
- This process reduces the number of
chromosomes form 46(diploid) to half,
23(haploid)
MALE HORMONES
 Anterior pituitary gland in the bran secretes
two hormones to regulate the function of the
testes.
o Luteinizing hormone (LH) - stimulates the
secretion of sex hormones, testosterone
o Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) –
stimulates sperm production in the
seminiferous tubules
Testosterone – responsible for the development of
secondary male characteristics during puberty such
as:
1. Deepening of the voice
2. Growth of facial hair
3. Broadening of the shoulders
4. Development of muscles
 An adult male produces several hundred million
of sperm cells each day
 After they were produced the sperm mature and
travel through a series of tubes
 They enter a long coiled tube called epididymis,
where they will mature until they are capable of
swimming and moving
EXIT POINT OF SPERM CELLS
 Mature sperm cells ravel from the epididymis to
another long tube called the vas deferens
 The sperm then exits the body through the
urethra, the same tube through which urine
passes and exits the body
PARTS OF THE MALE’S SPERM CELL
1. Head- has a very little cytoplasm that contains
chromosomes
- Made up of a nucleus covered by cap called
acrosomes, protects the nucleus
2. Midpiece- contains mitochondria that supply
the energy needed to propel the sperm through
the female reproductive system
Mitochondria- powerhouse of the cell
3. Tail- a powerful flagellum that whips back and
forth enabling it to move
TRANSPORATION OF THE SPERM
 As the sperm passes through the urethra it
mixes with the fluids produced by neighbor
glands. The accessory glands (prostate gland,
seminal vesicle, and bulbourethral gland)
 The combined secretion of these glands,
collectively known as semen, nourish the sperm
sells
 Prostate gland- alkaline fluid that neutralizes
the acids in the female reproductive system
 Seminal vesicle- fluid rich in sugars that
sperm cells use for energy
 Bulbourethral gland- alkaline fluid that
neutralizes traces of acidic urine in the urethra
Penis- male organ that deposits the sperm in the
female reproductive system
 Why is the penis erect and rigid during sexual
reproduction?
- Because during sexual excitation the blood
rushes into the penis making it rigid and
erect
 Sperm exits the penis through ejaculation, the
forceful expulsion of the sperm outside the
male’s body
SPERM DELIVERY
 After the semen is deposited in the female
reproductive system, the sperm cells swim until
they encounter the egg cell
 If any of the sperm does not encounter the egg
cell, fertilization does not occur
 About 3.5 ml of semen is expelled during
ejaculation. It contains 300 to 400 million sperm
cells
 Most sperm cells die before they reach the egg
cell because of the acidic environment of the
female reproductive system
Glucose- main source of energy of the sperm
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Ovaries – primary reproductive organ of female
- Responsible for producing egg cells (female
gametes)
- Produce estrogen
- Located inside the abdominal cavity located
just slightly below the waist, having one
ovary on each one
Estrogen – responsible for the development of
secondary female characteristics
1. Widening of the hips
2. Enlargement of the breast
3. Stimulation of egg development
EGG CELL PRODCTION
 Starts around the ages of 11 to 14 years, during
the first discharge of blood from the vagina
called menarche
Menarche- the beginning of menstrual function
 Normal adult female releases a mature egg cell
or female gamete in one of her ovaries every
month
 After fertilization, when the sperm has been
deposited inside he female reproductive
system, the role of male reproductive system is
complete
 Initially, females are born with 2 million egg
cells, but upon reaching puberty it will be down
to 400 000
 Egg cells contains haploid chromosomes and
are produced through meiosis
 The increase production of hormones enables
one immature egg to complete its development
each month
Ova- plural
Ovum- singular
- Unfertilized egg cell
Ovulation – process of releasing ovum
 Every 28 days, an ovum is released in an adult
female body
Cilia- hair like structure that sweep the ovum from
the ovary into either fallopian tube
 Stages of the location of egg cell:
1. Ovary
2. Fallopian tube
3. Uterus
 Resulted from rhythmically contraction of the
smooth muscles in the fallopian tube that takes
about 3-4 days
 Ovum can only liv for 1 to 3 days, and if not
fertilized the ovum will die
Fertilization - the process of union of two gametes
whereby the number of chromosomes is restored
and development of new individuals is initiated
Vagina - passage that leads from the outside of the
body to the entrance of the uterus
Cervix - narrow end ate the opening of the
woman’s uterus
 After fertilization, the zygote will travel down an
implants itself in the uterus
 Normally, a baby passes through the cervix and
leaves through the vagina
FEMALE REPRODUTION CYCLE
1. Ovarian cycle- series of events that
prepared the female body for possible
pregnancy
2. Ovulation- monthly release of an ovum
from the body
Ovarian cycle (menstrual cycle)
 Experienced monthly by all females who have
reached puberty stage
 The released ovum is swept into the fallopian
tube and begins to move toward the uterus to
await fertilization
Anterior pituitary gland and hypothalamus-
regulates the hormones
 The cycle span is about 28 days, but varies
from female to female
 Stages of ovarian cycle
1. Follicular phase
a. Anterior pituitary gland releases follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing
hormone (LH) into the bloodstream
b. FSH and LH cause the follicle to produce
estrogen
c. Follicle burst and ovulation occurs
2. Luteal phase
d. The ruptured follicle grows because of the
Luteinizing Hormone, forming a corpus
luteum
e. Luteinizing Hormone- cause the corpus
luteum to secrete estrogen and
progesterone
f. Progesterone signals the body for
fertilization
Follicle- clusters of ells the surround the immature
egg cell and provided it with different nutrients
Corpus luteum- yellowish mass of follicular cells
that functions like endocrine gland, produces
progesterone
Progesterone- thickens the uterine lining as to
support implantation of zygote
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
 When fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum
continues to produce progesterone for several
weeks
 Occurs in the uterus
 Last for 28 days
 Main purpose: to prepare uterus for possible
pregnancy
 Fertile lining – uterine lining grows and thickens
 The increased level of estrogen and
progesterone cause the lining of the uterus to
thicken and become conducive place for a
fertilized ovum
 If pregnancy does not occur, the level of
hormones decreases causing the lining of the
uterus to shed, which marks the end of the
menstrual age and results to bleeding due to
breaking of blood vessels
 Occurs after 14 days of ovulation
 At the end, neither estrogen and progesterone
is being produced
 Menopausal age: 45-55 years old
Day 11 to 17- days upon menstruation wherein
females are fertile
STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT BEFORE
BIRTH
 Fertilization of ovum
 Approximately, 300 to 400 million sperm cell
have made to journey to the fallopian tube, but
only one sperm will fertilize the egg
 During fertilization, only the head of a sperm
enters and egg, so that the father’s
mitochondria are not passed on to the offspring
 Upon fertilization, the sperm produces enzymes
stored in its acrosome, that break down the
outer layers of the ovum
 The nucleus of the sperm and egg which have
both 23 chromosomes will unite that will
become zygote, which has 46 chromosomes or
23 chromosome pairs
 In six to seven days, the zygote travels back
down to the oviduct toward the uterus, and
eventually becomes a small ball of cells
(blastocyst) called implantation
Morula= 16 cells Blastocyst= 32 cells
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
 The baby is born after 9 months, starting from
the time the embryo implanted on the walls of
the uterus
Embryo- a multicellular developing plant or animal
still enclosed inside the parent’s body or in a seed
or egg
 In the first two months of pregnancy, the
developing child is called an embryo
 Part of the uterine wall produces villi, blood
vessels, and capillaries
Villi- one of the branching process of the surface of
the chorion of the developing embryo of most
animals that helps to from placenta
 Nutrients and oxygen in the mother’s blood are
transported to the embryo through veins called
umbilical cord
Umbilical cord- a long narrow tube that connect an
unborn baby to the placenta of the mother
 Carbon dioxide and other wastes are carried
away from the embryo through an artery in
umbilical cord for disposal
 During the third week of pregnancy, amniotic
sac begins to for around the embryo
Amniotic sac- a thin membrane forming a closed
sac about the embryos or fetuses of mammals and
containing amniotic fluid
Amniotic fluid- the serous fluid in which the
embryo or fetus is suspended within the amnion
FETAL DEVELOPMENT
Fetus- an unborn or unhatched vertebrate
 Embryonic development
PERIOD DEVELOPMENT
8 weeks/ 2 months - major organs and limbs
have begun to form
12 weeks/ 3 months - skin and nails form
- internal organs start to
By the fourth month, develop
fetus’ sex can be - fetal heart can now be
determined by an heard beating
ultrasound test - The mother starts
feeling the movement of
the fetus in the uterus
- the fetus begun to suck
its thumb
21 weeks/ 7 months - hair forms and body
and head
- facial features are
obvious
- layer of fat develops
under the skin
- fetal bones begin to
harden
8 months - brain grows rapidly
- lung continuously
growing
 Bones of the fetus on head are soft so the baby
can easily pass through the birth canal
BIRTH
 Usually, the fetus rotates to a head- down
position inside the uterus in the ninth month
Labor- the beginning process of birth
 During the labor, the muscular contraction of
the uterus can be felt
 As the contractions continue and become
stronger, the amniotic beaks and releases its
fluid
 Eventually, the contractions cause the opening
of the uterine wall to widen, so the baby can
pass through the vagina, taking in his/her first
gasp of air
 Stage 1- initial phase
- Active phase
- Contraction of the uterus
 Stage 2- expanded and widened cervix
 Stage 3- expulsion of placenta
Colostrum- first milk which is very rich in
antibodies
- Yellowish
HUMAN BODY REGULATION
Hormone
 Chemical messenger, produced by the glands
of the endocrine system, that carry
instructions to cells to change their activities
 Slow- acting and longer living (can last for
hours, days, weeks, and years) messengers
 Involved in coordinating activities which are
carryout by endocrine system to keep the
body function properly
Functions:
1. Regulating many processes, including
growth, development, behavior and
reproduction
2. Coordinating the use, production and
storage energy
3. Maintaining internal homeostasis such as
nutrition, excretion, water, water and salt
balance
4. Reacting to stimuli from outside the body
Important concepts about hormones:
1. Some gland do not function until organism
reaches a certain age. E.g. reproductive
organs start producing hormones only at
puberty
2. There is a difference between short term
and long term hormones. E.g.
Adrenaline- short term effect and
Thyroxine- long term and permanent effect
3. The production of each hormone must be in
correct amount
 4. Hormones work only at their target cells or Glycogen- stored fat or sugar found in the liver
organs
5. Hormones are destroyed in the liver after MAJOR ENDOCRINE GLANDS
they performed their function pH level- measurement of acidity and basicity in
Gland the body
 A specialized group of cells or organs that pH 7 = normal
secretes materials to be delivered into pH 7  = basic = blue to red
different regions of the body via tube like pH 7  = acidic = red to blue
structures called ducts 37° - normal body temperature
Ducts- tube in the body that carry specific or 1. Hypothalamus
particular liquid - Obsolete master of all glands
Endocrine gland - Location: base of the brain
- From the word endo means “within” and - Functions:
krinein means “separate” a. Produces hormones that dictate the other
- Ductless gland that secretes hormones endocrine glands to turn on and off
directly into either bloodstream or the fluid b. Monitors the body for temperature, pH level,
around the cells and other conditions
Exocrine gland c. Signals pituitary gland if conditions need to
- From the word exo means “outside” and be corrected
krinein means “separate” Tissue/ Hormone Target Action/
- Transport substance through ducts which are Gland produced function
delivered to specific location in the body Hypothalamus Releasing Anterior Stimulates or
- Examples: sweat glands, mucus glands, and and pituitary inhibits the
salivary glands inhibiting gland release of
How hormones work? hormone specific
 Hormones at work pituitary
 each hormone produced by particular gland
endocrine gland, targets or receives by very 2. Pituitary gland
specific cell (called target cells) that - A pea sized gland and also called
receives its instructions hypophysis
 it binds itself and acts on its target cells - Master of all glands
 Logically, hormones act like a “key” and - Location: center of the skull, behind the
cells that act like a “lock”. Only the suited nose’s bridge and below the hypothalamus
specific key can open the lock - Divided into two: anterior pituitary gland
 First, hormone must recognize a target cell and posterior pituitary gland
through its specific receptor found either on - Functions:
its surface (cell membrane) or inside it a. Master gland that signals other glands to
(nucleus) produce their hormones when needed
 lastly, the hormone sends message to b. The anterior lobe of the pituitary receives
signal the cell to change its activity signals from the hypothalamus, and
Hormone regulation responds by sending out the appropriate
 nerve impulses can increase or decrease hormone to other endocrine glands
the secretion of some hormones c. The posterior pituitary gland receives
 hormones must be regulated to prevent oxytocin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from
internal imbalances, or body malfunctions the hypothalamus, relays them to the body
 Hormonal secretion as necessary
 A baby being fed through the mother’s Tissue/ Pituitary Action/ function
breast stimulates the secretion of oxytocin, gland hormones
which stimulates the release of more milk Anterior Adrenocorticotropin Stimulates the
Feedback mechanisms- detect and adjust the Pituitary hormone(ACTH) adrenal glands to
amount or level of circulating hormones in the blood Gland produce related
 Two kinds: steroid hormones
1. Positive feedback Growth hormones Stimulates the
- Happens when an increase hormone (GH) bones’ and
secretions is enhanced to produce even tissues’ growth
more secretions Melanocyte Regulates
- i.e women giving birth stimulating melanin
2. Negative feed back hormone (MSH) production
- Counteracts the production of more Follicle stimulating Controls sexual
hormones or decreases the deviation of the hormone (FSH) functions and sex
hormone level from the normal value and Luteinizing hormones
- High levels of hormone inhibit the production hormone (LH) production
of more hormones, and or low level of a Prolactin Stimulates
hormone stimulate the production of the women’s milk
hormone production
- Vital role of the liver, by removing hormones Thyroid stimulating Stimulates the
from the blood and breaking them down after hormone thyroid gland to
they have fulfilled their function
 produce thyroid - Locations: a top of each kidney (adrenal=
hormones above kidney)
Posterior Antidiuretic Control water loss - Parts:
Pituitary hormone in kidney a. Outer adrenal cortex
Gland (vasopressin) - Secrets corticosteroids, which regulates
Oxytocin Stimulates milk body’s metabolism, electrolyte balance,
production and immune system, and long-term stress
uterus contraction response
during child birth b. Inner adrenal medulla
Endorphin- hormones that reduce pain - Alerts the adrenal glands to produce
3. Thyroid gland adrenaline, which gives us superhuman
- Location: just under the larynx strength and coping ability to physical and
- Function: help in maintaining normal emotional stress
heartrate, blood pressure, muscle tone and
reproductive functions Tissue/ Hormone Target Action/
- Three hormones: Gland produced function
a. triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine Adrenals Epinephrine Circulatory Increases
( T₄) (adrenaline) system heart rate,
- contains iodine that regulates metabolism and blood
- plays a crucial role in development and norepinephrine pressure,
maturation and blood
- excessive amount will lead to sugar
hyperthyroidism, that makes a person Respiratory Increasing
develop high blood pressure, irritable feeling, system breathing
lose weight and profusely sweating rate and
- insufficient amount will lead to clear
hypothyroidism, that makes a person gain airways
weight, lethargy, cold intolerance, and goiter
b. calcitonin 7. Pancreas
- lower the blood calcium level of the body - Produce two hormones:
Tissue/ Hormone Target Action/ a. Insulin
Gland produced function - Produced by islets of Langerhans
Thyroid Thyroxine Most Increases - Keeps the sugar (glucose) level of the body
cell metabolic rate at normal value by helping cells absorb
and growth sugar and use it for energy
Calcitonin Bones Stimulates - Helps to change excess sugar into glycogen
calcium in the liver
uptake - Insufficient will lead to development of
4. parathyroid gland disorder known as diabetes mellitus
- four tiny glands embedded in the surface of  Hypoglycemia- excessive amount of
the thyroid insulin
- releases parathyroid hormone which - Low blood sugar level
regulates blood calcium level in the body  Hyperglycemia- insufficient amount of
Tissue/ Hormone Target Action/ insulin
Gland produced function - High blood sugar level
Parathyroid Parathyroid Bones Stimulates b. Glucagon
hormone calcium - Increase the level of sugar in the body by
release into speeding up the conversion of glycogen
the blood sugar in the body
Digestive Stimulates  Whenever sugar level drops, the pancreas
tract calcium releases more glucagon to make up for the
absorption loss, and when sugar level rises, the
5. Thymus pancreas releases more insulin to get rid of
- Location: behind the breast bones excessive sugar
- Function: responsible for the development Tissue/ Hormone Target Action/
of the defense system of body against Gland produced function
disease-causing organisms pancreas Insulin Many cells Stimulates
- Shrinks as we grow older, due to other glucose
glands take over its function uptake of
blood
Tissue/ Hormone Target Action/ Glucagon Many cells Stimulates
Gland produced function glucose
Thymus Thymosin White Stimulates release from
blood differentiation cells into
cells of white blood
blood cells Gangrene- rotting of flesh
6. Adrenals Amputation- removal of affected body parts
8. Gonads myelin that speeds up the travel of the nerve
- Human reproductive organs are under impulses
gonads 5. Axon terminals- pass messages to the
- Male: testis dendrites of other neurons
- Female: ovaries TYPES OF NEURONS
Major Hormone Target Action/ 1. Sensory neurons/ afferent neurons
organ produced function - Receive initial stimuli from the sense organs
Ovary Estrogen Many Stimulates then transmit the nerve impulses to the spinal
cells female cord and to the brain
development - Pressure, pain, outward and inward
and temperature signals sensory neurons to carry
behavior messages to the brain so that the action can be
Progesterone Uterus Stimulates don
growth of 2. Interneurons/ connector neurons/
uterine lining association neurons
Testes testosterone Many Stimulates - Location: spinal cord
cells male - Reader or interpreter of the messages of nerve
development impulses from sensory neurons to determine
and what response should be generated
behavior - If response is needed the interneurons passes
9. Pineal gland the impulse to motor neurons
- Location: near the thalamus of the brain 3. Motor neurons/ efferent neurons
- Produces melatonin which regulates body - Transmit impulses from the brain and spinal
rhythms and sleep patterns cord to the effector cells like muscles, organs
 Circadian clock and rhythms and glands
Tissue/ Hormone Target Action/ Effectors- bodily organs that becomes active in
Gland produced function response to stimulation
Pineal Melatonin Brain Promotes Nerve impulses
gland sleep - Wave of chemical and electrical charge that is
conducted along the membrane of a neuron
- Travels to interneuron to motor neurons
Gastrin - take note: neurons do not touch each other
- Location: gastrointestinal tract neither do they tough effector organs
- Dictates the production of HCl (Hydrochloric Synapse (synaptic Cleft)- the junction or a gap
acid), aids digestion between to neurons or between a neuron and a
muscle, across which nerve impulses are
NERVOUS SYSTEM transmitted
Functions: Neurotransmitter- a substance in the body started
1. Gathers information both from the outside world in small sacs that carries a signal from one nerve
and inside the body cell to another
2. Sends, information to muscles, glands and Reflex- simplest and automatic responses of
organs so they can respond correctly nervous system
3. Transmits information to processing areas in TYPES OF FUNCTIONS
the brain and spinal cord NEURONS
4. Processes information to determine the best Sensory - conduct nerve impulses toward
response neurons the central nervous system
Stimuli (singular: stimulus)- a force which tends - transmit information from the
to produce a reaction from the body cells and organs that gather
Neurons or nerve cells- cells that are basic units information conditions in the
of the mammalian’s nervous system internal and external
Nerve impulses- chemical and electrical environment
messages by which information is transmitted - sensory receptors are
rapidly from sensory neuron to interneuron to motor specialized sensory neurons
neurons Motor - conduct impulses away from
PARTS OF THE NEURON neurons the central nervous system.
1. Nucleus- controls all the activities of the cell Nerve impulses transmitted by
2. Cell body- switchboard/ bridge of the message- motor neurons cause muscle,
carrying neuron organs, and glands to response
3. Cytoplasm- fluid that makes up the cell except - effectors are muscles, organs,
its nucleus and organelles and glands that respond to
a. Dendrites- threadlike structure which impulses from motors
receive and carry information toward the cell Interneurons - Conductor impulses within the
b. Axon- long, tail-like fiber that extends from central nervous system.
the cell body that carries messages away Interneurons connect sensory
from the cell body neurons, motor neurons, and
4. Myelin sheath- insulating covering that other interneurons
surrounds an axon with multiple spiral layers of - carry out functions of the
central nervous system;
 processing and coordinating the
incoming and outgoing impulses
of the peripheral nervous system
DIVISION OD THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Analyzes and organizes all information about
the inside and the outside world of the body is
brought to it
- Command center of the body
- Processes and responds by sending nerve
impulses to the motor nerves of the peripheral
nervous system
a. Brain
- The main control center of the CNS that is well
protected and encased in a bone(skull)
- Wrapped in three layers of connective tissue
that nourishes and protects it
- Bathed in water fluid that cushions it against
sudden impact
- Appears gray due to presence of cell bodies
which are approximately 100 billion neurons
- Underneath is white which is made up of
bundles of axons
- Approximate mass: 1.4 kg
- Ambidextrose- can write in both hands
 Three main parts:
1. Cerebrum
- Thinking capacity and emotional feelings
- Area where learning, intelligence, and
judgement occur
- Controls all the voluntary activities of the
body
- Shapes individual’s attitudes, emotions,
and personality
 IQ- intellectual quotient
 EQ- emotional quotient
- Makes up the majority of the brain by 85%
that make it most noticeable
- Surface: cerebral cortex, which is line with
deep, wrinkled grooves that increase the
occupied surface area for more thinking
activities to occur
- Divided into two: left and right
hemisphere
 Right hemisphere
- Controls the left side of the body
- Associated with artistic ability
 Left hemisphere
- Controls the right side of the body
- Associated with mathematical and logical
ability
2. Cerebellum
- Coordination and balance
- Coordinates the actions of the muscles and
maintains balance for smooth, steady, and
efficient body movement
- Second largest part of the brain and
located behind the brain stem
Ears- body parts that help maintain balance
3. brain stem
- automatic responses and activities of the
body
- Coordinates survival functions of the body
such as breathing, heart rate, sleep and
wakefulness
- Connects the spinal cord to the rest of the
brain
 Lower brain stem
a. Medulla oblongata – controls
involuntary actions like heartbeat,
breathing and blood pressure
b. Midbrain- processes visual and auditory
reflexes
c. Pons- controls respiratory function
 Upper brain stem
a. Thalamus- relay station by directing
incoming messages from the spinal cord
to appropriate parts of the brain
b. Hypothalamus- monitors internal
conditions such as water content and
temperature
- Link between the endocrine and
nervous system
b. Spinal cord
- Tube-like organ of neurons and blood
located inside the back bone of spine that
relays nerve impulses to and from the brain
- Width: 1.8 cm
- Spinal column/ backbone- bone that
protects the spinal cord
Meninges- cushions of fluid that protect the spinal
cord
Reflex arc- carry the nerve impulses for an
automatic response. Eg. Touching hot object
Spinal reflex- reflex that does not involve the brain
that enables us to respond quickly because we do
not have to think about it
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
- Gathers and delivers information to and
from the CNS
- Consist of 43 pairs of nerves, whereby
majority of them are under direct control of
the mind
 Parts of PNS:
a. Somatic nervous system
- Part that stimulates conscious skeletal
muscle and unconscious spinal reflexes
b. Autonomic nervous system
- Controls involuntary body activities due not
being under the direct control of the
conscious mind
- Direct motor nerve fibers in smoot muscles,
cardiac muscles, and glands
 Division:
a. Parasympathetic- keeps the body
functioning even the person is not active
b. Sympathetic- dominates in times of
physical or emotional stress whenever
actions and necessary
- controls the “flight-fight” response
during stressful situations
CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
- Explains how DNA codes for RNA, which
codes for protein
 DNA- The Blueprint of life
- Established by James Watson and Francis
Crick (1950s)
- DNA contains the instruction for making
proteins within the cell
- Shape of a double helix
- Made up of repeating subunits called
nucleotides
Gene- a segment of DNA that codes for a protein,
which in turn codes for a trait (skin tone, eye
color… etc), a gene is a stretch of DNA
 Deoxyribonucleic acid- DNA
Monomer: Nucleotides
Each nucleotides has:
1. Deoxyribose sugar
2. Phosphate group
3. (1 of 4) nitrogen containing base
sequence of amino acid during protein
synthesis
- Creates amino acids and its corresponding
protein
- Codon- three-based code in the mRNA
- Anti-codon- three-based code found in
tRNA in order to bring the appropriate
amino acid to ribosome to be added to
growing peptide chain

DNA RNA
Double stranded Single stranded
polynucleotide polynucleotide
Found in nucleus, Found in the
chloroplast and cytoplasm, ribosome
mitochondria and nucleus
Contain genetic Copies information in
information about an DNA for protein
organism synthesis
Base, adenine, Base, adenine,
guanine, thymine, and guanine, cytosine, and
cytosine uracil
Replication
- DNA makes DNA
- The process of making two identical copies
of DNA from the original DNA molecule
 DNA’S REPLICATION
Thymine (T) Adenine(A)
Guanine(G) Cytosine(C)
Cytosine(C) Guanine(G)
Adenine(A) Thymine (T)
Ex. Write the complementary DNA sequence of the
following:
1. CAG-TTT-AAA-GGG
=GTC-AAA-TTT-CCC
2. GGC-TAA-ACG-GCA
=CCG-ATT-TGC-CGT

Transcription
- DNA makes RNA
- The process by which the information to
make protein in DNA is copied into
messenger RNA by the enzyme RNA
polymerase
 DNA’S REPLICATION
Thymine (T) Adenine(A)
Guanine(G) Cytosine(C)
Cytosine(C) Guanine(G)
Adenine(A) Uracil(U)
Ex. Do the transcription of the DNA sequence:
1. GTC-AAA-TTT-CCC
=CAG-UUU-AAA-GGG
2. CCG-ATT-TGC-CGT
=GGC-UAA-ACG-GCA
Translation
- RNA makes protein
- The process of translating the base
sequence of an mRNA molecule to a