Working Report 2000-25

Measurement of thermal conductivity

and diffusivity in situ: measurements and
results obtained with atest instrument

llmo Kukkonen

llkka Suppala

Kalevi Sulkanen

Teemu Koskinen

May 2000

POSIVA OY

Mikonkatu 15 A, FIN-00100 HELSINKI, FINLAND

Tel. +358-9-2280 30
Fax +358-9-2280 3719
 Working Report 2000-25

Measurement of thermal conductivity

and diffusivity in situ: measurements and
results obtained with atest instrument

llmo Kukkonen

llkka Suppala

Kalevi Sulkanen

Teemu Koskinen

May 2000
 Working Report 2000-25

Measurement of thermal conductivity

and diffusivity in situ: measurements and
results obtained with atest instrument
llmo Kukkonen

llkka Suppala

Kalevi Sulkanen

Teemu Koskinen

Geological Survey of Finland

May 2000

Working Reports contain information on work in progress

or pending completion.

The conclusions and viewpoints presented in the report

are those of author(s) and do not necessarily
coincide with those of Posiva .
AUTHOR ORGANIZATION: Geological Survey of Finland
P.O. Box 96
FIN -02151 Espoo
Finland

ORDERER: Posiva Oy
Mikonkatu 15 A
FIN -00100 Helsinki
Finland

NUMBER OF THE ORDER: 9643/98/ AJH

CONTACT PERSON OF
THE ORDERER: f:!~~~
CONTACT PERSON OF THE
AUTHOR ORGANIZATION: Ilmo Kukkonen

WORKING REPORT 00- 25

MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AND

DIFFUSIVITY IN SITU: MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS
OBTAINED WITH A TEST INSTRUMENT

NAMES OF THE AUTHORS:

~~,/~~~ .. --
Kalevi Sulkanen, Electrical engineer

(\'~~
Teemu Koskinen, Electrical engineer

EXAMINER OF THE Lr~~

AUTHOR ORGANIZATION: Lauri Eskola
Research Professor
Research & Development, Geophysics
MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AND DIFFUSIVITY IN
SITU: MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS OBTAINED WITH A TEST
INSTRUMENT

ABSTRACT

The report presents results of constructing and using a prototype version of a thermal in
situ drill hole tool for the measurement of thermal conductivity and diffusivity of the
crystalline bedrock. The constructed apparatus is based on the conduction of heat from a
cylindrical heat source placed in the drill hole with 56 mm diameter. The probe diameter
is 42 mm, and its length is 1.5 m. The probe is built of a hollow aluminum cylinder, and
the heating wire is installed in six longitudinal grooves at the probe surface. Temperature
sensors are installed at the inner surface of the 5 mm thick cylinder wall. The applied
heating power ranged from 10 to 16.7 W m-I, and the experiments included heating
durations from seconds to 24 hours. To prevent any harmful flow of fluid in the drill hole
at the depths of measurement, the probe is equipped with simple concave plastic/silicon
rubber packers with the shape of a tea saucer. The test measurements were carried out in
the test hole facility of the Geological Survey of Finland in Espoo. The hole is 302 m deep
and it intersects mainly granite and granitic gneisses. In situ measurements of thermal
properties were made at the depths of 60 m and 95 m which were found to be relatively
little fractured according to a prior short normal galvanic log.

The measurements were interpreted using an infinite cylinder model and a Levenberg-
Marquardt inversion technique. The results were found to be sensitive for several factors,
such as the applied heat capacity of the probe, the time window of measurements used in
the inversion, length of heating time, and the axial conduction of heat in the probe and in
the surrounding rock. A correct combination of the parameter values can be determined
with instrument calibration in known thermal materials, which however, is a complex
problem from the practical point of view for probes with the length of 1.5 m. The
mechanical and electronic structure of the probe decrease the diffusion rates within the
probe, which result in uncertainties in estimating the parameters needed in inversion. The
packers were found to leak in one of the experiments.

When the properties of the probe and the simulation method were taken into account, the
in situ conductivities could be estimated with a reasonable accuracy when compared to
drill core measurements. Diffusivity was noted to be much more sensitive for various
factors in the inversion, and the present results can be considered only preliminary in this
sense.

The physical functioning of the in situ test probe was found to be reasonably good, but
many factors need to be improved before a probe able for production measurements can
be constructed.

Key words: Thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, in situ measurement, inverse

solutions, crystalline rocks, nuclear waste
LAMMONJOHTAVUUDEN JA TERMISEN DIFFUSIVITEETIN IN SITU -
MITTAUS: MITTAUKSET JA TULOKSET TESTILAITTEISTOLLA

TIIVISTELMA

Tassa raportissa esitetaan tuloksia hankkeesta, jossa rakennettiin ja kaytettiin kallion

lammonjohtavuuden ja termisen diffusiviteetin in situ -mittauksiin tarkoitetun
reikamittauslaitteen prototyyppiversiota. Rakennettu laite perustuu lammonjohtumiseen
sylinterin muotoisesta lampolahteesta kairareiassa, jonka halkaisijaksi oletetaan 56 mm.
Anturin halkaisija on 42 mm ja sen pituus on 1.5 m. Anturi koostuu ontosta
alumiinisylinterista, jonka pinnalle tehtyihin pitkittaisiin uriin on asennettu vastuslanka.
Lfunpotila-anturit on asennettu alumiinisylinterin sisapinnalle. Laitteessa kaytettiin
lammitystehoja 10 - 16.7 W m- 1 ja lammityskokeiden kesto ulottui aina 24 h asti. Jotta
reikafluidi ei paasisi virtaamaan anturin ohitse ja haittaamaan mittauksia, anturi varustettiin
silikonikumisilla teelautasen muotoisilla pakkereilla.

Koemittaukset tehtiin Geologian tutkimuskeskuksen koereiassa Espoossa. Reika on 302

m syvaja se lavistaa etupaassa graniittista gneissiaja graniittia. In situ -mittauksia tehtiin
60 mja 95 m syvyyksilla,joissa galvaanisen luotauksen perusteella on vain vahan rakoilua.

Mittaukset tulkittiin kayttaen aarettoman pitkan johtavan, lampoa tuottavan sylinterin

mallia ja siihen sovitettua Levenberg-Marquardt-inversioalgoritmia. Tulokset osoittavat,
etta menetelma on herkka useille tekijoille, mm. anturin lampokapasiteetin arvolle,
inversiossa kaytety lie mittausaj alle j a lammitysaj alle seka aksiaalisen lammonj ohtumisen
vaikutuksille. Oikean parametriarvojen kombinaation loytfuninen edellyttaa laitteen
kalibrointia termisesti tunnetuissa materiaaleissa, joka kaytannossa on kuitenkin
ongelmallista anturin pituuden ollessa 1.5 m. Anturin mekaaninenja elektroninen rakenne
aiheuttavat lammonjohtumisen hidastumista anturin sisalla, ja lampotilavasteiden
muuttumista, mika haittaa tulosten inversiotulkintaa varsinkin lyhyilla ajoilla. Pakkereiden
havaittiin vuotaneen eraan kokeen aikana valiaikaisesti.

Kun anturinja kaytetyn simulointimallin ominaisuudet huomioitiin, voitiin koereian in

situ -lammonjohtavuus maarittaa kohtuullisella tarkkuudella vastaaviin
kairasydannaytemittauksiin verrattuna. Diffusiviteetin havaittiin olevan huomattavasti
herkempi eri tekijoille inversioissa, ja tassa esitettyja tuloksia voidaan toistaiseksi pitaa
lahinna suuntaa antavina.

Laitteiston toiminta havaittiin sinansa onnistuneeksi, mutta useita tekijoita on viela

parannettava ennen kuin laitteella voidaan tehda tuotantomittauksia.

Avainsanat: lammonjohtavuus, terminen diffusiviteetti, in situ, inversioratkaisut, kiteiset

kivilajit, ydinjate
 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract

Tiivistelma

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 CONSTRUCTION OF THE IN SITU PROBE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.1 Principle of the in situ measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Mechanical construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 Temperature sensors and heating wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4 Calibration of the temperature sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3 MEASUREMENTS IN SITU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1 The test hole of the Geological Survey of Finland . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 In situ temperature in the test hole and thermal
conductivity of drill core samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.3 Measurements with the in situ probe -test arrangements . . . 10
3.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.5 Interpretation of the results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

5 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
 2

Preface

This study was carried out at the Geological Survey of Finland on a contract from Posiva
Oy. Ilmo Kukkonen was responsible for the coordination of the project, Kalevi Sulkanen
and Teemu Koskinen for the electronic and mechanical design and construction of the in
situ test probe and Ilkka Suppala for the theoretical modelling and inverse simulations.
The work has been supervised by Aimo Hautojarvi at Posiva Oy and Erik Johansson at
Saanio & Riekkola Consulting Engineers.
 3

1 INTRODUCTION

The present study is related to the investigations ofPosiva Oy for disposing spent nuclear
fuel in the Finnish bedrock at depths of about 400-700 m. Investigations were recently
finished in four candidate sites, and the future studies will concentrate on the Olkiluoto site
in western Finland.

Due to the radiogenic heat production of spent fuel, the thermal regime of the repository
and its surroundings is expected to change (Raiko 1996). This depends on the heat
producing properties of the spent fuel, but also on the thermal properties of the rock
formation where the repository is built. The most important thermal rock properties are
thermal conductivity and diffusivity.

Earlier investigations (Kukkonen and Lindberg 1995, 1998, Kukkonen 2000) have been
conducted on the thermal properties of the rocks in different study areas in Finland. These
studies utilized drill core samples (about 42 mm in diameter) measured in laboratory.
Kukkonen and Suppala (1999) surveyed the relevant literature on different methods and
applications of in situ measurement techniques, and presented theoretical forward and
inverse modellings of in situ measurements with a cylindrical heat source placed in a drill
hole. Based on these results it was decided to proceed with construction of a test instrument
and its application in drill hole measurements.

The present working report discusses the first experimental results obtained with this test
instrument for in situ measurements in slim (56 mm) boreholes.
 4

2 CONSTRUCTION OF THE IN SITU PROBE

2.1 Principle of the in situ measurement

The constructed apparatus is based on conduction of heat from a cylindrical source placed
in the borehole. The relevant physics of the conduction problem for the present task is
discussed by Kukkonen and Suppala ( 1999) in some detail. Only a short qualitative
description is given here.

When the cylinder is placed in the borehole and it generates heat at a constant power, the
temperature of the probe starts to change in a characteristic way. It depends on the heating
power, thermal conductivity and diffusivity of the bedrock as well as the thermal contact
resistance between the cylinder (probe) and the borehole wall. The early part of a heating
experiment is dominated by the thermal properties of the probe and the contact layer, but
times beyond a certain (case-dependent) value are controlled by conduction in the rock. In
a theoretical case with an infinite cylinder the warming of the probe becomes linear vs.ln
(time) for long times. However, any practical application must be finite in length, and
probe lengths of 1- 2 m are typically used. The finite length of the probe results in an axial
loss of heat which becomes more serious toward the ends of the probe, and finally,
according to a finite line source approximation (see, e.g., Kukkonen and Suppala 1999)
when heating times exceed 20,000- 50,000 s the axial conduction begins to affect also the
central part of the probe. This loss complicates the use of very long measurement times
when infinitely long cylinder solutions are used.

Taking into account the results reported by Kukkonen and Suppala (1999) and the
references therein, it was decided to construct the test version of the probe in such a way,
that measurements could be carried out up to heating times of 24 h in a 56 mm drill hole.
The length of the probe was decided to be 1.5 m, and the heating power would be
adjustable from 5 to 20 W/m. The number of temperature sensors was taken as five, and
the sensors should be placed in the probe at the centre, at the ends and half-way between
these. With such a construction it should be possible to monitor the axial losses during the
experiment.

2.2 Mechanical construction

The probe was constructed from a tube of aluminium alloy (EN-6063 [A1Mg0,7Si]). The
outer and inner diameters of the tube are 42 and 32 mm, respectively. The temperature
sensors are placed in small pieces of aluminum attached to a bar made of PVC plastic,
which can be removed from the tube for service and installations. Thermal contact of the
sensors is secured with silicon grease (Fig. 1).
 5

1) Front head
2) Centralization rings
3) Front fixing body
4) Packer units
5) Front tube fitting
6) Probe tube
7) Rear tube fitting
0) Rear fixing body
9) Waterproof connector
10) Heating wire
11} Temperature sensor

42

Figure 1. Mechanical construction ofthe in situ probe. Dimensions are given in mm.

The cable outlets and contacts were built with pressure-resistant parts built of POM plastic
and 10-pin SUBCONN cable connectors. The instrument is expected to be pressure-sealed
to about 100-120 m depths in water-filled boreholes.

Convection of water in the hole is prevented with simple packers of'tea-saucer-type' made
of silicon rubber/plastic and delivered by the company PRG-Tee Oy, Espoo, Finland. The
packers are curved to one direction (in the hole concave side up). When lowered to the
borehole, the packer shape allows smooth movement in the hole, but a reverse movement
turns over the flaps of the packers and closes the section between them. In the test probe,
one to three packers can be placed successively on both sides of the aluminum tube, at
distances of 10 -15 cm from each other (Figs. 1 and 2).
 6

-2550

1420

Figure 2. Outlook of the constructed in situ probe. Numbers with hatching indicate
the locations of the temperature sensors.

2.3 Temperature sensors and heating wire

Temperature sensors are semiconductive micro circuits (Analog Device AD 590) capable
for temperature measurements with a resolution of 1 mK. The circuit produces a constant
output current when a voltage above a certain limit is applied over the circuit. The output
current is very linearly dependent on temperature.

The heating wire of the probe is installed on the outer side of the aluminum tube in
longitudinal grooves with 4 mm x 4 mm cross-section, and sealed with epoxy glue. There
are six grooves placed symmetrically along the probe (Fig. 1). The resistivity of the heating
wire is 25 n.

The electronic construction of the probe is presented in Fig. 3.

 7

Cable - 50m
40V

+/-15V

+5V
Sensor 5

Power

Sensor 4 Temp.
sensor
interface 8-ch
ADC
16 bit
Sensor 3
ControRer

Sensor 2

Sensor 1 RS -232 I
L . _ __ _ __ _ _ ,

Portable PC

Probe

Figure 3. Electronic construction of the in situ probe.

2.4 Calibration of the temperature sensors

The temperature sensors were placed in the probe and calibrated in position. The complete
probe was installed in a tube made of PVC plastic and covered with stryrofoam for thermal
insulation. The probe was kept at semi-stable temperatures at room temperature (22 °C)
and out-door temperature (6 °C) and the temperature readings were controlled with a
reference thermometer. The aim of the applied calibration technique was not meant to
reach the highest requirements but it serves well for the purpose of the present study, i.e.
demonstration of the physical operation of the in situ measurement of thermal properties.
 8

3 MEASUREMENTS IN SITU

3.1 The test hole of the Geological Survey of Finland

The constructed probe was tested in realistic in situ conditions using the test hole facility
of the Geological Survey of Finland in Espoo. In the basement of the building, there is a
302.2 m deep drill hole with 56 mm diameter. The borehole was drilled in 1986 and it is
used for testing of various downhole instruments. The inclination of the hole is 61 o from
the horizontal at the surface and the final inclination at hole bottom is 52.5 o. The drill hole
intersects subverticallayers of granite gneiss, mica gneiss, hornblende gneiss and granite,
with granite gneiss being the dominant lithology (Fig. 4).

3.2 In situ temperature in the test hole and thermal conductivity of drill
core samples

Prior to the in situ thermal conductivity and diffusivity measurements with the test probe,
the temperature profile of the drill hole was logged. The temperature profile provides a test
of the temperature calibration of the conductivity probe thermal sensors and directly
indicates the geothermal conditions of the measurements. Temperature was logged with
a drill hole instrument designed and constructed at the Geological Survey of Finland. The
temperature-sensitive element is a micro circuit (Analog Device 590) used with a
resolution of 0. 01 K and an absolute accuracy of about 0.1 K. Temperature readings were
taken at 2.5 m intervals. The temperature log is given in Figure 4.

Variation of temperature with depth in the test hole differs from normal situations in field
conditions. This is due to the thermally disturbed condition in the uppermost 120 m of the
borehole, where the temperature decreases downward until it slowly begins to increase
with increasing depth. The high surface temperature is due to the building, but also the
conditions prior to 1986, when the drill hole site was used as a parking place from about
1950's when there was no building at the hole site. The asphalt pavement has inevitably
increased the average ground temperature. As a result the temperature curve is in a slowly
changing transient condition, and the subsurface temperatures continuously equilibrate to
the new conditions. Generally the temperature log does not indicate any particularly active
flow systems between fracture systems in the hole, excluding the depth of ea. 250 m, where
a small change with temperature level (about 0.05 K) takes place (Fig.4). It could be
interpreted as flow between the hole and a fracture zone.
 9

TEMPERATURE (°C)
5 10 15
0 •
•
•
50
• In situ measurements

100 •
•
•
•
•
E 150 •
•
:I: •
..... •
a.. •
w 200
Cl
•
250
•
•
300 ••

350
0 2 4 6 8 10

Figure 4. Temperature (solid line), thermal conductivity (squares) and a simplified

geological column of the test hole R301 at the Geological Survey of
Finland, Espoo. Rock type symbols: GG =granite gneiss, MG = mica
gneiss, HG = hornblende gneiss, G = granite.

The sections used in the in situ measurement of thermal conductivity were chosen
according to a galvanic short normal log which can be applied in selecting the less
fractured sections. The aim is to avoid fractured parts of the hole which could be
hydraulically permeable and where the hole caliper may have increased from the nominal
value of 56 mm. According to the galvanic log (Fig. 5), we chose the depths of 95 m and
60 m to be used in the in situ measurements of thermal conductivity.
 10

APP. RESISTIVITY (kohmm)

1 10 100 1000

100 In situ

-E measurements

150
:I:
I-
a.
w
0 200

250

Figure 5. Apparent elecrical resistivity ofthe drill hole R301 measured with a short
normal logging tool.

Thermal conductivity has been measured earlier of the drill cores at 10 m sampling
intervals for determination of the geothermal heat flow density (Kukkonen, 1988; Fig. 4).
Thermal conductivity was measured using a divided bar instrument (Kukkonen and
Lindberg 1995) at the Geological Survey ofFinland. Average thermal conductivity of the
samples taken from the hole is 3.51 ± 0.48 (std) W m- 1 K- 1 (n = 31).

3.3 Measurements with the in situ probe - test arrangements

After carrying out the temperature logging in the borehole (Dec. 7, 1999), the in situ probe
was lowered to the first test depth at 95 m. Due to increased friction between the packers
and the borehole wall, only one pair of packers could be used. The probe was left at 95 m
 11

for about two days for temperature equilibration.

The first measurement was conducted on Dec. 10-13 with a 24 h long heating period
followed by a cooling of about 24 h. The applied heating power was 16.67 W m- 1
corresponding to a current of 1.0 A in the heating wire. The second measurement was
carried out during Dec. 13-14 with a 6 h heating period. The heating power was kept the
same as earlier.

The probe was uplifted to the depth of 60 m. Measurements with shorter durations of
heating were carried out on Dec. 17-20. The applied heating times were 1, 5, and 10
minutes, 6, 0.5 and 1 hour. The used heating power was slightly lower, i.e., 10.0 W m- 1
(current 0.775 A).

3.4 Results

Results of the measurements are given in Figs. 6-9. A general observation is that the
temperature variations take place very smoothly, and the noise level is practically below
the resolution. This can partly be attributed to the location of the sensors which reduces the
high frequency variations because of diffusion effects. When the heating power is switched
on or off, the temperature begins to change sharply in the time scale of the experiment. The
results do not directly suggest any apparent convective fluid circulation between the probe
and the drill hole wall, but this may happen as discussed below (chapter 3.5).
Measurements are well repeatable.

Experiments carried out in a water-filled tube with very short duration of the heating signal
were made in order to find out whether there is any serious lag in temperature readings
(Fig. 10). As the distance from the heating wire to the temperature sensor is about 10 mm,
and the diffusivity of aluminum is ea. 7.9 ·10-5 m2 s-I, the expected travel time of the
heating signal can be estimated from d2/4s, where d is distance and s is diffusivity. The
travel time should be of the order of 0.3 s. However, in a very short heating experiment
with duration of 10 s, the temperature maximum is reached only after about 10-15 s after
the end of heating (Fig. 10). This can be attributed to the thermal contact resistances in the
probe between the heating wire and temperature sensors. The heating wire is surrounded
by a ceramic cover which is then embedded in epoxy glue providing the water-proof
cover. On the other hand, the temperature sensor is placed in a small brass capsule placed
in a silicon grease-filled hollow piece of aluminum. The contact between the aluminum
piece and the inner surface of the probe cylinder is also swept with silicon grease. These
arrangements are due to practical engineering factors and they ensure that the contacts
should keep constant when the removable bar for the electronics is installed inside the
probe cylinder.
 12

Test date 10.12.99

, ___________________________ _
I
I
I
I
I

:X::
a)
(/)
·;::
Q)
C\1 i
:s
ea
Ci>
c..
E
Q)
1-

0 50000 100000 150000 200000

Time, s

Figure 6. Measured temperatures during an experiment with 24 h heating period

(Dec. 10, 1999). The sensors are numbered 1 (top) to 5 (bottom). The
broken line indicates the heating period, and the arrow points at
temperature variations around t = 58, 000 s which were attributed to a
packer leak (see text).
 13

Test dates 10.12.99 and 13.12.1999

C\J

2 4 6 8 10

ln(Time [s])

Figure 7. Temperature measurements during the experiment on Dec. 13 with 6 hours

of heating (broken lines) superposed on those of Dec. 10 (solid lines).
Numbers indicate the temperature sensors as in Fig. 6.

In the longest measurement (heating of24 h), there is a peculiar change in the temperature
readings at about 58,000 s after the onset of heating (Fig. 6). Temperature sensors 1 and
2 show a soft increase in temperature, whereas sensors 4 and 5 show a soft decrease,
respectively, and the sensor no. 3 at the centre of the probe keep in the steady increase rate
as would be expected (Fig. 6). A technical malfunction of the electronics cannot be
absolutely excluded but it is highly improbable in this connection. We attribute this
anomaly to a temporary leak in the packer system. The temperature recordings could be
understood as a result of slowly increasing pressure below the packers, exceeding of the
pressure tolerance and consequent movement of the fluid column upward by a few
centimetres. This was the only case when leakage of the packers could be indicated in the
present measurements. However, it is known that these simple packers can tolerate a
pressure difference corresponding to a about 1 m high column of water, but higher pressure
differences are known to develop in holes with active flow systems between fracture
systems. There are no pressure measurements available in this hole.
 14

Test date 17.12.1999

CO
c)

~ <D
c)
I
I 1
a) I
I 2
·~ I

CD
I
I 3
:J I
I
4
Cii -.;t
I
I
a; c) I
I
5
a. I
E I
I
CD I
1- I
I
I
C\1 I
c) I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

.... --------------------I..- ~----------------------------------------------- -

I I
0
c)

0 5000 10000 15000

Time, s

Figure 8. Temperature measurements during a series of consecutive experiments

with different heating times, from left: 60 s, 60 s, 5 min, and 10 minutes.
 15

Test date 17.12.1999

1
I
I 2
I
I
I
3
I
I
I
4
I
I 5
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
0
. _I••·•• - - · - ··- - - - - • ••·•• - - · · - · - • ·• • • - - · - - · · - - • .
0

0 20000 40000 60000 80000

Time, s

Figure9. Temperature measurements during a series ofconsecutive experiments with

different heating times, from left: 60 s, 60s, 5, and 10 m in, and 6 hours.
Numbers indicate the temperature sensors as in Fig. 6.
 16

C\J
CO
0
C\J

~ 0
CO
a) 0
·c
en C\J

Q)
'-
::J
......
CO
'-
Q) CO
0.
E 0""'"
Q) C\J
.....

<0

0""'" I

----··tl
C\J ~--------------------------------------------------------------·--·

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time, s

Figure 10. Measurement with a heating time of 10 s performed in a water-filled PVC

tube. The negative peak at 10-15 sandpositive peak at 20-25 s is attributed
to an inductive coupling by the transient current signal when heating is
turned on and off See text for details. The measured temperature
represents the central sensor of the probe.

3.5 Interpretation of the results

The measured temperature curves were interpreted with an inversion technique. An

infinitely long cylinder model with a Levenberg-Marquardt inversion scheme was used.
For details, refer to Kukkonen and Suppala (1999).

The assumed parameters which were kept constant in individual inversion calculations
were the heat capacity of the probe (S), probe radius (a) and heating power (Q). As these
parameters are not necessarily well-determined, they were also varied in the interpretation
process. The inverse solutions were obtained for conductivity, diffusivity and inverse
contact resistance (H) with different combinations of input parameters and duration of the
experiment.
 17

As could be seen from the measured data the temperatures for long heating periods, the
response does not remain linearly dependent with ln (time) as the pure infinite cylinder
model would suggest. The axial loss is expected to start to modify the measured
temperatures at the probe centre after about 50,000-75,000 s heating periods when a finite
line source approximation is used in estimating this effect (Kukkonen and Suppala 1999).
When the temperature sensors at the ends of the probe are used, they seem to differ from
the temperature of the central sensor from very early times (e.g. Fig 7). We attribute this
to the axial loss in general, and to the finite conductivity of the probe, which is
considerably higher than the surrounding rock. Even without heating the probe, the
conductivity contrast creates a channelling of heat flow through the cylinder when there
is an ambient temperature gradient (which is practically always present in bedrock
situations).

When heated the high conductivity probe conducts heat axially more efficiently than
anticipated from the finite line source modellings. Blackwell (1956) estimated the
maximum estimation error with a model consisting of an infinitely long well-conducting
cylinder where the heat production is constrained to a finite length. The measured
temperatures of the probe centre deviate more than 1 %from the infinite cylinder model
results when the time exceeds ea. 10,000 s (Fig. 11 ). At longer times the error increases
linearly with time. This further reduces the exact applicability of the infinite cylinder
solutions because the useful time window becomes narrower.

Examples of the inverse solutions are given in Figs. 12-18. We concentrate here in using
mainly the heating part of the measurements in the inversions. The use of complete
heating-cooling period in the inversion was not systematically included in the inversions,
mainly due to the above discussed axial heat flow effects.

Solutions were calculated using constant heating with increasing heating times ranging
from 1800 to 5585 s (probe at 95 m depth). Starting the inversion with the probe heat
capacity as 1211 J m- 1 K- 1 which corresponds to the mass of aluminum in the probe, the
obtained results range for conductivity from 1.83 to 2.64 W m- 1 K- 1, and for diffusivity
from 1.63 10-6 to 5.85 10-6 m 2 s- 1 (Figs.l2-14). Such values are not acceptable in
comparison to the drill core data (conductivity is 3.4 ± 0.3 W m- 1 K- 1 between 85 and 105
m, Fig. 4). This can be attributed to the fact that the thermal response of the probe is not
ideal. Particularly, as there are delays in the temperature readings, i.e. finite diffusion times
from the heating wire to the temperature sensor, the heat capacity of the probe appears to
be higher than the pure mass of the probe indicates.
 18

lambda= 4, s= 1.92e-006, H= 85.71, probe length= 1.5 m

0~

....:
0
t: <0
Q)
Q)
>
~
m
'--
~

0 5000 10000 15000 20000

Time, s

Figure 11. Maximum relative error due to axial flow ofheat by a finite cylinder when
the infinite cylinder approximation is used. Calculated from the
approximation by Blackwell (1956).

This conclusion is supported by the inversion results when the heat capacity of the probe
is varied (Figs 12-14). Increasing the heat capacity to 2000 J m- 1 K- 1 'improves' the
conductivity estimation to values between 2.74-3.18 W m- 1 K-I, and a heat capacity value
of2500 J m- 1 K- 1 yields conductivities between 3.54 and 3.60 W m- 1 K- 1• Diffusivity values
vary still within about an order of magnitude.

Taking into account that diffusivity estimation is influenced most by results obtained
during short times of the measurement, whereas conductivity is influenced most by the
behaviour during the longer measurement times, the time period of the measurement
applied in the inversion was also shortened from the beginning. This is further supported
by the fact that the temperature readings seem to indicate problems related to the internal
contact resistances within the probe (see chapter 3.4 ). When the first 1000 s are neglected,
the inverted conductivity stabilizes between 3.01 and 3.77 W m- 1 K- 1 (Figs. 15-17).
Diffusivities are relatively poorly determined in this result, and the values are mostly too
high for rocks. In these results the reduced diffusion rate of the temperature signal within
the probe was taken into account by a transformation of the timing of the heating signal.
If not taken into account the inverted conductivities are within 0.02 W m- 1 K- 1 from the
above values.

The effect of the axial heat conduction on the inverse results can be studied by varying the
 19

end of the length of the time period applied in the inversion as longer time results in larger
deviations from the values of the infinite cylinder model in the inversion. Increasing the
time from 8995 to 11 175 s tends to increase the inverted conductivity but the results are
still of the same order as expected from the core samples (Figs. 15-17).

The inverted values of the contact resistance dependent parameter H (i.e., 1/contact
resistance) indicate that it is not easily determined. The values are highly variable between
different inversions, and usually much higher (1000-6000 W m- 2 K-1) than the theoretical
value estimated from the thickness of the water layer between the probe and the drill hole
wall (85.71 W m- 2 K- 1). In other words, the inversion would suggest that the contact
resistance is very small. Highest values of H are obtained when the heat capacity of the
probe is assumed to be equal to the theoretical value of the mass of aluminum. These
factors are possibly related to the problems of the diffusion within the probe and the
estimation of the 'apparent' heat capacity of the probe, but there is also a possibility of
convective heat transfer in the space between the probe and the drill hole wall.

Test date 10.12.1999; 5... 1800 sec

0
(") "Known• parameters : a= 0.021 m, 0 = 16.67 W/m

estimated
1.{) lambda [W/(m K)], s [m"2/s], H [W/(m"2 K)]:
C\i 1211 1.83 1.63*1()1\-6 6968 --------------
2000 2.74 8.70*1()1'-6 5241 ... ..... . ...... . ..
~
2500 3.54 2.90*1()1\-5 1618 ------
Q) 0
en
·;:: C\i
Q)

2 ~
~ ...-
Q)
c..
E
Q)
1- ~
...-

1.{)
c:i

0
c:i

2 4 6 8 10

ln(time [s])

Figure 12. Inversion results for a constant heating experiment. The applied time in the
inversion is 5-1800 s. The probe radius (a) and heating power (Q) were
kept constant, whereas probe heat capacity (S) was varied between
individual inversions, which provide the values of conductivity (lambda),
diffusivity (s) and inverse of contact resistance (H).
 20

Test date 10.12.1999; 5... 3600 sec

0
Cl) ' Known' parameters: a= 0.021 m, 0= 16.67 W/m

fixed estimated
LO S[J/(mK)]: lambda (W/(m K)], s (m"2/s], H [W/(m"2 K)]:
C\i 1211 2.40 4.04*10"-6 6611 - -- - ------- - --
2000 3.04 1.32*10"-5 4196 . . ..•... . .. ....• ..
~
2500 3.56 3.22*10"-5 2405 - -----
a) 0
(J)
·;:: C\i
Q)
:;
I§ ~
Q)
a.
E
Q)
1- ~

LO
0

0
0

2 4 6 8 10

ln(time [s])

Figure 13. Inversion results as in Fig. 12, but the applied time is 5-3600. s.

Test date 10.12.1999; 5... 5585 sec

0
Cl) ' Known' parameters: a= 0.021 m, 0= 16.67 W/m

fixed estimated
S (J/(m K)]: lambda (W/(m K)] , s [m"2/s], H [W/(m"2 K)]:
1211 2.64 5.85*10"-6 5337 --------------
~ 2000 3.18 1.61*10"-5 3565 ..................
2500 3.60 3.52*10"-5 3114 - - ----
a) 0
(J)
·;::
C\i
~
::J
"§ ~
Q)
a.
E
~ ~

LO
0

0
0

2 4 6 8 10

ln(time [s])

Figure 14. Inversion results as in Fig. 12, but the applied time is 5-5585 s.
 21

10.12.1999; 1000 ... 5585 s

0
er) "Known" parameters: a= 0.021 m. 0= 16.67 W/m

fixed estimated
S [J/(m K)J: I lambda [W/(m K)), s [m"2/s], H [W/(m"2 K)]:
1211 3.01 9.83*1QA-6 1448 --- --------- --
2000 3.35 1.86*1QA-5 1278
~
2500 3.62 3.12*10"-5 1249
0 3000 3.74 8.54*1QA-6 199
ai C\i
en 3500 3.50 1.51 *1QA-6 111
·;::
~
:J
~
Q)
~
a.
E
Q)
I-
q

l{)
c)

0
c)

2 4 6 8 10

ln(time [s])

Figure 15. Inversion results for a constant heating experiment. The applied time in the
inversion is 1000-5585 s. Thus, the early part of the measurement is
omitted. The probe radius (a) and heating power (Q) were kept constant,
whereas probe heat capacity (S) was varied between individual inversions,
which provide the values of conductivity (lambda), diffusivity (s) and
inverse of contact resistance (H).
 22

Test date 10.12.1999; 1000...8945 sec

0
C") ' Known ' parameters: a= 0.021 m, 0= 16.67 W/m

fixed estimated
l.() S[J/(mK)]: lambda (W/(m K)], s [111"2/s], H [W/(111"2 K)]:
C\i 1211 3.19 1.32*1()-'.5 1453 --------------
::::c:
2500 3.69 3.53*1()-'.5 1347
Q) 0
en
·;:: C\i 3500 3.73 2.53*1()-'.6 120
~
:::J
~
Q)
Lt?
0..
E
Q)
1- ~

l.()
0

0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . .. .... ......... ... ....

0

2 4 6 8 10

ln(time [s])

Figure 16. Inversion results as in Fig. 15, but the time applied in the inversion is
1000-8945 s.

Test date 10.12.1999; 1000... 11175s

0
C") ' Known• parameters: a= 0.021 m, 0 = 16.67 W/m

estimated
l.() lambda [W/(m K)], s [111"2/s], H (W/{111"2 K)]:
C\i 1211 3.25 1.49*1()-'.5 1584
::::c:
2500 3.71 3.68*1()-'.5 1389
Q) 0
en
·;:: C\i 3500 3.n 2.80*1()-'.6 122
~
:::J
~
Q)
Lt?
0..
E
Q)
1- ~

l.()
0

0
0

2 4 6 8 10

ln(time [s])

Figure 17. Inversion results as in Fig. 15, but the time applied in the inversion is 1000
- 11,175 s.
 23

This can be estimated with the dimensionless Rayleigh number for convection in a layer
of fluid heated from below (Turcotte and Schubert,1982):

Ra = p g a ~T b 3 I (!l s) (1)

where p is fluid density, g is the acceleration of gravity, av is the volumetric thermal

expansion coefficient of water, ~ T is the temperature difference between the upper and
lower ends of the layer with the thickness b, ll is the dynamic viscosity of water and s is
the thermal diffusivity of water. Assuming a value of 1 K for ~ T, and 7 mm for b, the
Rayleigh number has a value of about 5800. The critical value of the Ra number is about
600 for such a layer geometry. Although this one-dimensional approximation is not exactly
valid in our case, it suggests that convective heat transfer may take place in the space
between the probe and the drill hole wall. Therefore, this is one potential factor why the
inverted values ofH are much higher than a purely conductive water layer would require.

Test date 17.12.1999

0 "Known" parameters: a= 0.021 m, 0= 10.01 W/m

C\1
0 fixed estimated
S: lambda , s, H:

l t
., 1211 0.92 3.32*10"-7 14650 ----------
1 1
I
I
'
I
2000 1.94 3.34*10"-6 1438
Q) 0 I
I
I
I
2250 1.67 1.18*10"-6 295
(/) I '

·c I
'
I
I
0
I 2500 0.83 9.97*10"-8 159
~
I I

f : I \
:::J 0 I I I \

~Q) 6 I I
I I I
' I
I I

0. I I

E I

Q) LO I

t- 0
0
--------- ..
0
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time, s

Figure 18. Inversion results from an experiment with heating time of 60 s. The probe
radius (a) and heating power (Q) were kept constant, whereas probe heat
capacity (S) was varied between individual inversions, which provide the
values of conductivity (lambda), diffusivity (s) and inverse of contact
resistance (H).
 24

Results of an experiment with a short duration of heating (60s) are given in Fig. 18. The
inverted values for conductivity are between water and rock and diffusivities are higher
than those of water but mostly smaller or the same order of magnitude than those of rocks.
This is expected as the short heating time influences mainly the probe itself and the water
layer. The temperature peak has a sharper form and higher amplitude when probe heat
capacity is assumed to represent only the mass of aluminum. When heat capacity of the
probe is increased the estimated contact resistance increases (H decreases). This relation
between heat capacity of the probe and estimated contact resistance could possibly be
attributed to convective heat transfer in the water layer. Further, this may indicate that the
probe heat capacity cannot be simply calculated from the mass of metal involved.

The applied interpretation model method based on a conductive infinite cylinder handles
the contact resistance effects with a thin layer between the probe and drill hole wall
(Kukkonen arid Suppala 1999). This analytical solution, however, may not be valid for a
7 mm thick layer of water, even if no convection takes place. This is due to the fact that the
contact layer is assumed to be a conductive layer but with zero specific heat capacity. As
a result, the temperature variations of the probe may not be simulated quite correctly, even
though the apparent heat capacity of the probe would be increased by adding the effect of
water to the value of heat capacity of the pure metal tube. The problem could be overcome
with a numerical solution of the heat conduction equation for a finitely long cylinder with
realistic contact layers included.
 25

4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The present results reflect the complex situations encountered in in situ measurements.
However, the gained experience is valuable for any further development of the probe.
There are relevant factors to be taken into account in the mechanical and electronic
construction of the probe as well as the modelling and interpretation techniques.

First of all, the installation of the heating wire should be re-analysed. At present, the wire
is installed in the 4 mm deep longitudinal grooves on the surface of the probe cylinder. The
required electric and hydraulic insulation is provided by the epoxy glue surrounding the
wire. Due to the thermal expansion and contraction of the material during heating
experiments, there is a risk of getting an electric leak to the heating wire circuit during
realistic long-period measurements in deep drill holes. The present probe was designed
only to tolerate pressures equivalent to 100-120 m water depths at maximum, and it is
questionable whether the present construction of the heating wire would be practical in
deeper holes and longer duration of high pressures.

Second, the temperature sensors seem to show a considerable delay in recording the
temperature signal. This is a relevant problem for the diffusivity estimation, which is
sensitive for the short time periods when the heating is turned on and off. The time
constants of the temperature sensors should be decreased, but in practice a compromise
between pressure tolerance and rapid thermal response must always be done.

The length of the probe (1.5 m) is about the maximum length that can be used in realistic
field conditions and normal means of transportation. Longer probes would also involve the
risk of the probe to get stuck in the hole. The probe length question is also related to the
applied modelling techniques, i.e., the validity of infinite cylinder solutions in
interpretation.

The used 'tea-saucer-type' packers were found to be simple to include in the probe
construction, but the friction of several consecutive pairs of packers was found to be too
high to lower the probe easily into the hole. Thus, only one pair of packers could be used
in the present test measurements, and even then the lowering of the probe in the hole took
place quite slowly. The applied extra weight at the lower end of the probe was 10 kg.
Naturally, the effect of friction is reduced by increasing the weight, but the uplift of the
probe soon requires a motorized winch.

The packers seem to have leaked during the longest experiment. This took place when the
probe had been about 4 days at the measurement depth of95 m. This may be related to the
suspected flow system at 250 m depth (Fig. 4). As known from previous studies, the tea-
saucer packers do not tolerate pressure gradients higher than about 1 m of water column.

The electronic construction needs to be improved as well. When the heating is turned on
or off, the temperature recordings show a short peak of a few seconds' duration. When the
 26

heating is turned on the peak is negative, and positive when the heating is turned off,
respectively. This peak is apparently due to inductive or capacitive coupling produced by
the 0.77- 1.0 A current in the most transient conditions. When the electronic system was
examined in laboratory with an oscilloscope for the real signal, it was noted that the peak
is actually composed of a very sharp pair of 1-3 ms long voltage jumps. These disturbances
are filtered by the analog input low-pass filter of the temperature measuring electronics into
the shape seen in Fig. 10. The filter has been included in the application as a noise reducer.
The increased period of the signal is due to the fact that the signal amplitude exceeds the
limits of the filter circuit. As a result, the circuit is 'shocked' and does not return to normal
operation until several seconds later. In normal situations when the signal does not exceed
the circuit input limits, the time constant of the filter is considerably less than 1 s, and the
readings are not affected by the filtering. Anyway, the temperature measuring electronics
need to be re-examined carefully to avoid these problems in the future.

As the aim of the in situ thermal probe is to measure thermal conductivity and diffusivity
in sampling volumes much larger than the drill core sample scale, it is crucial to improve
the simulation and modelling techniques. This is especially important for long period
measurements where the axial conduction ofheat increases rapidly and the applied infinite
cylinder model corresponds increasingly poorly to the measured data. The only obvious
solution to this problem is to model the 3-dimensional heat transfer numerically. Such an
approach makes it possible to take the advantage of really long period measurements. At
the moment, the very strict requirements of obeying the infinite cylinder model behaviour,
limits the useful time window to less than about 10,000 s when measurements at the centre
of a 1.5 m long probe are used.

The calibration of the instrument was carried out in a relatively low accuracy level. For
temperature sensors, a good control of the rough calibration was provided by the
measurements of undisturbed temperatures in the borehole, which indicated a difference
of only a few hundredths of a degree. However, a well-controlled laboratory facility is
needed for this purpose in future studies.

The calibration of the determined conductivity and diffusivity values should be done in a
thermally known environment. It is difficult to arrange a sufficiently large volume of
thermally well-known material in laboratory conditions. The present study included only
thermal conductivity samples taken at 10 m intervals. However, the inspection of the
conductivity profile (Fig. 4) shows that the local variations of conductivity are smaller than
0.3-0.5 W m- 1 K- 1• Such a variation is normal in rocks when samples in the cm-scale are
used. The present results indicated that due to the involved problems related to mechanical
(delayed temperature readings) and electronic factors, as well as the applied theoretical
model in the interpretation, it is easier to obtain reasonable values for thermal conductivity
than for diffusivity.

The conditions for further development of in situ measurements of thermal properties of

rocks can be considered good. The main fields of development are related to numerical
 27

simulations of heat conduction from a finite cylinder with a realistic contact layer,
mechanical and electronic improvement of the probe as well as its calibration.
 28

5 REFERENCES

Blackwell, J.H., 1956.The axial-flowerrorin the thermal conductivity probe. Can. J. Phys.,
34, 412-417.

Kukkonen, I., 1988. Terrestrial heat flow and groundwater circulation in the bedrock in the
central Baltic Shield. Tectonophysics, 156, pp. 59-74.

Kukkonen, I., 2000. Thermal properties of the Olkiluoto mica gneiss: Results of laboratory
measurements. Posiva Oy, Working Report (in prep.).

Kukkonen, I. and Lindberg, A., 1995. Thermal conductivity of rocks at the TVO
investigation sites Olkiluoto, Romuvaara and Kivetty. Nuclear Waste Commission of
Finnish Power Companies, Report YJT -95-08, 29 pp.

Kukkonen, I. and Lindberg, A., 1998. Thermal properties of rocks at the investigation sites:
measured and calculated thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity and thermal
diffusivity. Posiva Oy, Working Report 98-09e, 29 pp.

Kukkonen,I. And Suppala.,I., 1999. Measurement of thermal conductivity and diffusivity

in situ: Literature survey and theoretical modelling of measurements. Posiva Oy, Report
99-01, 69 pp.

Raiko, H., 1996. Kaytetyn polttoaineen loppusijoituksen lampotekninen optimointi

(Thermal optimization of the final disposal of spent nuclear fuel). Posiva raportti - Posiva
Report 96-03, 54 pp. (in Finnish with English abstract).

Turcotte, D.L. and Schubert, G., 1982. Geodynamics- Applications of continuum physics
to geological problems. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 450 pp.