International Journal of Thermal Sciences 83 (2014) 33e44

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International Journal of Thermal Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijts

Free convection from a heated circular cylinder in Bingham plastic

fluids
N. Nirmalkar, A. Bose, R.P. Chhabra*
Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur 208016, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this work, the equations of motion and energy have been solved numerically using Comsol Multi-
Received 16 September 2013 physics (version 4.3a) for the laminar free convection heat transfer from a horizontal heated cylinder to
Received in revised form Bingham plastic fluids over the range of conditions as: Rayleigh number, 102
Ra
106; Prandtl number,
7 April 2014
30
Pr
100 and Bingham number, 0
Bn
104. Extensive results on the streamline and isotherm
Accepted 7 April 2014
contours, yielded/unyielded regions, local and average Nusselt numbers are presented and discussed.
Available online 14 May 2014
Owing to the presence of the fluid yield stress, both fluid-like (yielded) and solid-like (unyielded) regions
coexist in the flow domain depending upon the prevailing stress levels vis-a-vis the value of the fluid
Keywords:
Convection
yield stress. Naturally, heat transfer in the solid-like regions occurs purely by conduction and convection
Rayleigh number is thus restricted to the fluid-like regions. Furthermore, the yielded regions progressively diminish with
Bingham number the increasing value of the Bingham number and/or the decreasing value of the Rayleigh number as the
Heat transfer buoyancy-induced flow weakens. All in all, the overall rate of heat transfer is determined by the gra-
Non-Newtonian fluids dients on the surface of the heated cylinder. Finally, the present numerical values of the average Nusselt
Transport processes number have been correlated in terms of the modified Rayleigh number (Ra*) and Prandtl number (Pr*).
Fluid mechanics Ó 2014 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction unyielded portions occurs mainly by conduction whereas convec-

Owing to their wide ranging applications in geophysical, oil
wells, food processing and allied engineering settings [1], there has
been a renewed interest in studying the flow and convective heat
transport in visco-plastic fluids [2e4] in a range of geometrical
configurations including duct flows [3e6], in mixing tanks [2,3], in
porous media [2,3], for instance. A quick inspection of the pertinent
literature clearly shows that the fluid mechanical aspects have been
studied much more thoroughly than the corresponding heat/mass
transport in general. Furthermore, the bulk of the literature on heat
transfer relates to forced convection in ducts of various cross-
sections, e.g., see Refs. [2,3,7]. On the other hand, due to the pres-
ence of the yield stress, natural convection heat transfer in such
systems differs significantly from that in Newtonian fluids and in
purely viscous fluids without a yield stress. One of the main dis-
tinguishing features of the visco-plastic fluids is the coexistence of
the fluid-like (yielded) and solid-like (unyielded) regions in the
flow domain depending upon the local stress levels vis-à-vis the
yield stress of the fluid. Thus, for instance, heat transfer in the
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ91 512 2597393; fax: þ91 512 2590104.
E-mail address: chhabra@iitk.ac.in (R.P. Chhabra).
tion is limited only to the yielded fluid-like parts of the system. In
the limit of a large value of the fluid yield stress (Bn / N), it is
conceivable that there would be no yielding and heat transfer will
thus occur solely by conduction under such extreme conditions.
Indeed, such limiting conditions have been extensively investigated
by Turan et al. [8e11] in the context of free convection in square
and rectangular enclosures under wide ranges of thermal boundary
conditions prescribed on the walls of the enclosure. These results
have been complemented by studying free convection from a
heated circular cylinder located at various relative positions in a
duct of square cross-section filled with a Bingham plastic fluid [12].
In this instance also, the numerical results in the limit of Bn / N
were found to be in perfect agreement with the limiting conduction
values of the Nusselt number. Furthermore, due to the dual nature
of such fluids, the phenomena of onset and/or stopping of natural
convection in such fluids also differ significantly from that in fluids
without a yield stress [13,14]. Thus, for instance, for a given value of
the fluid yield stress, a minimum strength of the buoyancy-induced
flow is needed to overcome the yield stress barrier. Conversely, for a
given value of the Rayleigh number, there must be a limiting
Bingham number above which no yielding will occur, as shown by
the results for a cylinder submerged in confined Bingham media
[12]. Aside from such fundamental significance of studying free

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2014.04.004
1290-0729/Ó 2014 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
34 N. Nirmalkar et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 83 (2014) 33e44
Nomenclature
Bn Bingham number (dimensionless)
C dimensionless constant, Eq. (24)
cp specific heat of fluid (J/kg K)
d diameter of cylinder (m)
DN diameter of computational domain (m)
Gr Grashof number (dimensionless)
g acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
h local heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)
k thermal conductivity of fluid (W/m K)
m regularization parameter (s)
m* regularization parameter (dimensionless)
n dimensionless constant, Eq. (24)
NuL local Nusselt number (dimensionless)
Nu average Nusselt number (dimensionless)
p pressure (Pa)
Pr Prandtl number (dimensionless)
Pr* modified Prandtl number (dimensionless)
(hPr(1 þ Bn))
Ra Rayleigh number (dimensionless)
Ra* modified Rayleigh number (dimensionless) (hRa/
(1 þ Bn))
r radial coordinate (m)
r* distance along the radial direction (dimensionless)
((rRa1/4)/d)
0 0
T fluid temperature (dimensionless) (h(T  T0)/(Tw
 T0))
convection in visco-plastic fluids, process engineering applications
often necessitate the estimation of the rate of heat transfer and/or
the unknown temperatures in a given application. Typical exam-
ples include thermal treatment of food particles in polymer solu-
tions [15e17], melting of polymer pellets, etc. This work is
concerned with the laminar free convection heat transfer from an
isothermal horizontal cylinder submerged in quiescent Bingham
plastic fluids. Prior to undertaking the detailed presentation and
discussion of the new results obtained in this work, it is instructive
and useful to review the pertinent scant studies available in the
literature.
2. Previous work
The existing literature on free convective heat transfer from a
circular cylinder in Newtonian media has been thoroughly
reviewed, amongst others, by Lee et al. [18], Martynenko and
Khramstov [19], Prhashanna and Chhabra [20] and Eslami and
Jafarpur [21] in recent years. Suffice it to add here that based on a
combination of the approximate analytical treatments, numerical
studies and experimental investigations, it is now possible to pre-
dict the value of the average Nusselt number for an unconfined
horizontal cylinder over most conditions of practical interest in
Newtonian fluids. The next generation of studies in this field dealt
with the laminar free convection from a heated cylinder in power-
law fluids which have been pioneered by Acrivos and co-workers
[22,23] and subsequently by others [24e26] within the frame-
work of the standard boundary layer equations. Notwithstanding
the inherent limitations of this approach, it has been shown to yield
reliable scaling relationships for skin friction and Nusselt number in
the forced-, free- and mixed-convection regimes which, of course,
work well up to the point of flow separation and/or at high values of
the Rayleigh number or Reynolds number depending upon the heat
T0 temperature of the fluid far away from the cylinder (K)
Tw temperature on the surface of the cylinder (K)
V velocity vector (dimensionless)
Vr r-component of the velocity (dimensionless)
Vx x-component of the velocity (dimensionless)
Vy y-component of the velocity (dimensionless)
Vq q-component of the velocity (dimensionless)
Greek symbols
b coefficient of volumetric expansion (1/K)
g_ rate of strain tensor (dimensionless)
h viscosity of the fluid (Pa s)
q position on the surface of the cylinder (deg)
mB plastic viscosity (Pa s)
mY yielding viscosity (Pa s)
r density of the fluid (kg/m3)
r0 density of fluid at the reference temperature T0 (kg/m3)
s extra stress tensor (Pa)
s0 fluid yield stress (Pa)
4 dependent variable like Vx, Vy and T
Subscripts
x, y Cartesian coordinates
w cylinder surface condition
Superscript
dimensional variable
transfer regime. Indeed, the numerical solutions based on the
complete form of the governing differential equations for a hori-
zontal cylinder have been reported only recently even for forced-
and mixed-convection [27] and free convection [20] in power-law
fluids. Broadly, all else being equal, shear-thinning fluid behavior
(power-law index, n < 1) promotes heat transfer whereas shear-
thickening behavior (n > 1) impedes it with reference to that in
Newtonian fluids at fixed values of the relevant parameters like
Reynolds number, Grashof number, Richardson number and
Prandtl number. Besides, the comparisons between the predictions
and scant experimental results in the forced- and free-convection
regimes are also affirmative and encouraging. Most of the literature
in this field, mainly restricted to the so-called laminar, two-
dimensional flow regime has been reviewed recently [27].
In contrast, as far as known to us, there has been only one study
on free convection from a horizontal heated cylinder in Bingham
plastic fluids confined in a square enclosure with two adiabatic and
two isothermal walls [12]. For a fixed value of the Rayleigh number,
the fluid-like (yielded) zones diminish in size with the increasing
Bingham number, eventually approaching the pure conduction
limit. For the sake of completeness, it is appropriate to add here that
the analogous results for forced convection heat transfer in yield-
stress fluids from a heated sphere and square bars [28e30] have
been reported only recently, though the corresponding drag results
were reported almost ten years ago [31e33]. As expected, the
average Nusselt number shows a positive dependence on each of
the Reynolds, Prandtl and Bingham numbers. From the foregoing
discussion, it is thus abundantly clear that no prior results are
available on the laminar free convection heat transfer in Bingham
plastic fluids from a heated horizontal cylinder. This work aims to
fill this gap in the literature.
In particular, the governing (mass, momentum and energy)
differential equations have been solved numerically to delineate
 N. Nirmalkar et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 83 (2014) 33e44 35

the effects of the Rayleigh number, Prandtl number and Bingham Continuity equation:
number on the velocity and temperature fields for free convection
from a heated cylinder in quiescent Bingham fluids. Extensive re-
sults on streamline and isotherm contours, morphology of the vVx vVy
yielded/unyielded regions and heat transfer are presented and þ ¼ 0 (2)
vx vy
discussed in order to elucidate the influence of Rayleigh number,
102
Ra
106, Prandtl number; 30
Pr
100 and Bingham
number; 0
Bn
104 on free convection in Bingham plastic media x-momentum equation:
from a heated horizontal cylinder.

  rffiffiffiffiffiffi

3. Problem formulation and governing equations vðVx Vx Þ v Vx Vy vp Pr vsxx vsyx
þ ¼  þ þ (3)
vx vy vx Ra vx vy
Consider a horizontal cylinder of diameter d (infinitely long in
the z-direction whose surface is maintained at a constant temper-
ature of Tw) submerged in a quiescent Bingham plastic medium at a
temperature T0 < Tw, as shown schematically in Fig. 1. Owing to the y-momentum equation:
existing temperature difference between the fluid and the cylinder,
the density of the fluid gradually increases away from the cylinder
ultimately attaining the value r0 corresponding to the far away
    rffiffiffiffiffiffi

temperature, T0. Therefore, heat transfer takes place by free (or
v Vy Vx v Vy Vy vp Pr vsxy vsyy
þ ¼  þ þ þT (4)
natural) convection from the cylinder to the fluid or vice versa vx vy vy Ra vx vy
depending upon the direction of the imposed temperature differ-
ence. Over the range of conditions encompassed here, the flow field
Thermal energy equation:
is assumed to be laminar, steady, two-dimensional and incom-
pressible (except for the body force term in the y-momentum
equation). The other thermo-physical properties of the fluid (heat   !
capacity, cp, Bingham viscosity, mB, yield-stress s0 and thermal vðVx TÞ v Vy T 1 v2 T v2 T
þ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi þ (5)
conductivity, k) are considered to be independent of temperature. vx vy Ra$Pr vx2 vy2
For small values of DT (¼Tw  T0), the variation of the fluid density
with temperature is approximated by the widely used Boussinesq In order to keep the level of complexity at a tractable level, the
approximation given as effect of the viscous dissipation in the energy equation has also
been neglected at this stage. For a Bingham plastic fluid, the extra
0
r0  r ¼ r0 bðT  T0 Þ (1) stress tensor, s is written as follows:

Under these assumptions, the coupled velocity and temperature s0 ¼ s0 þ mB g_ 0 ; if js0 j > js0 j (6)
fields are described by the following differential equations (in their
dimensionless forms): g_ 0 ¼ 0; if js0 j
js0 j (7)

Eqs. (6) and (7) can be re-written in their dimensionless form as

follows:


Bn
s¼ 1þ g_ ; if jsj > Bn (8)
jg_ j

g_ ¼ 0; if jsj
Bn (9)
Owing to the inherently discontinuous form of Eqs. (8) and (9),
the numerical solution of the governing equations together with
this form of the constitutive relation poses enormous difficulties.
This difficulty is, however, obviated by employing a regularization
scheme due to Papanastasiou [34] which provides both good
convergence characteristics and a smooth transition between the
unyielded- and yielded-regions of the fluid. Within the framework
of this approach, Eqs. (8) and (9) are re-written as follows:


Bn½1  expðmjg_ jÞ
s¼ 1þ g_ (10)
jg_ j

where m is a regularization parameter which determines the level

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of flow configuration.
of abruptness in going from the yielded to unyielded (or vice versa)
regions. Clearly, in the limit of m / N, Eq. (10) reduces exactly to
Eq. (8). Thus, a sufficiently large value of m would result in a smooth
transition from the yielding to unyielding fluid behavior. Of course,
there are other regularization schemes also available in the litera-
ture [35] and the so-called bi-viscous fluid model has also gained
36 N. Nirmalkar et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 83 (2014) 33e44

wide acceptance. While a detailed discussion of the relative merits
and demerits of each of these approaches is available elsewhere
[35], suffice it to say here that both the exponential and bi-viscous
regularization methods have been shown to yield comparable re-
sults for a sphere [28,30] and a square bar [29] in the forced con-
vection regime and in other configurations also, as noted in
Glowinski and Wachs [35]. Therefore, while the bulk of the results
reported herein are based on the exponential regularization, Eq.
(10), limited results were also obtained using the bi-viscous model
approach to corroborate the present results. In this approach, the
fluid is assigned a very high value of viscosity (yielding value, mY
which could be several orders of magnitude higher than the
Bingham plastic viscosity mB) for the stress levels below the fluid
yield stress.
For incompressible fluids, the deviatoric stress tensor is written
as follows:
s ¼ hg_
and, finally, for a Bingham fluid, the scalar viscosity h is given as
Bn    
h ¼ 1 þ   1  exp m g_ 
g_ 
where g_ is the rate-of-strain tensor.
The aforementioned
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiequations
ffi have been rendered dimen-
sionless using d, dgbDT and mB as the characteristic length, ve-
locity and viscosity scales, respectively. Thus, for instance, the rateffi
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
of strain and g bDT=d,
ffi extra stress components are scaled as
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
mB ð gbDT=dÞ, pressure as r0dgbDT, and so on. The temperature is
0
non-dimensionalized as T ¼ (T  T0)/(Tw  T0). The dimensional
considerations suggest the velocity and temperature fields to be
functions of these three dimensionless groups, namely, Bingham
number (Bn), Rayleigh number (Ra) and Prandtl number (Pr) or
combinations thereof. For a Bingham plastic fluid, these are defined
as follows:
Bingham number:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
s d
Bn ¼ 0
mB gbDT
Clearly, vanishingly small values of Bn / 0 denote the limiting case
of Newtonian fluid behavior. On the other hand, Bn / N corre-
sponds to the fully plastic solid-like behavior.
Naturally, these definitions are based on these specific choices of
the scaling variables, and indeed as will be seen later it is possible to
use different scaling variables in the present case leading to the
modified definitions of the Rayleigh and Prandtl number. However,
these are inter-related via the Bingham number and it is thus
possible to use either of them.
The physically realistic boundary conditions for the present
problem are essentially that of no-slip (Vx ¼ Vy ¼ 0) and of the
constant temperature, T ¼ 1 on the surface of the cylinder. On the
far field boundary, both the radial velocity and its gradient, i.e.,
Vr ¼ 0, vVr/vr ¼ 0 and the free stream temperature, T ¼ 0 are pre-
scribed. These conditions are similar to that used by Kuehn and
Goldstein [36] in the context of Newtonian fluids. For sufficiently
large values of DN, the far field boundary conditions exert virtually
no influence on the results [20,37]. Over the range of conditions
spanned here, the flow is expected to be symmetric about the
vertical centerline of the cylinder, i.e., vVy/vx ¼ 0, Vx ¼ 0 and vT/
(11) vx ¼ 0, so only half domain has been used here for computations to
economize on the computational effort.
The aforementioned governing equations subject to these
boundary conditions have been solved numerically together with
(12) the regularized Bingham plastic model to map the flow domain in
terms of the primitive variables (uevepeT). Subsequently, the
resulting velocity and temperature fields are post-processed to
obtain streamline and isotherm contours, size and shape of the
yielded/unyielded regions, the local Nusselt number distribution
over the surface of the cylinder.
The Nusselt number (Nu) gives the non-dimensional rate of heat
transfer between the fluid and the cylinder. Its local value, NuL, at a
point on the surface of the cylinder is given as


hd vT
NuL ¼ ¼  (17)
k vns
where ns is the outward drawn unit vector normal to the surface of
the cylinder. From a practical standpoint, the surface averaged
value of the Nusselt number is frequently required in process en-
gineering calculations which is calculated simply by integrating
such local values over the surface of the cylinder. Obviously, the
average Nusselt number is expected to be a function of the Rayleigh
number (Ra), Bingham number (Bn) and Prandtl number (Pr) or
(13)
combinations thereof and this work endeavors to develop an un-
derstanding of this relationship.
4. Numerical methodology and choice of numerical
parameters

Rayleigh number: In this work, the aforementioned governing equations subject to

the foregoing boundary conditions in conjunction with the Bing-
ham constitutive relation have been solved numerically using the
r20 cp gbDTd3 finite element based solver Comsol Multiphysics (version 4.3).
Ra ¼ ¼ Gr$Pr (14)
mB k Since detailed descriptions of the numerical solution methodology
are available elsewhere [28e30], only the salient features are
where Gr is the usual Grashof number defined as recapitulated here. In essence, a triangular mesh (fine in the vicinity
of the cylinder) has been used to solve the discretized forms of the
r20 gbDTd3 governing equations in terms of the primitive variables, i.e., ve-
Gr ¼ (15)
m2B locity, pressure and temperature (uevepeT). Furthermore, the
regularized-viscosity approach of Papanastasiou [34] is introduced
here via a user defined function. The solution was always initiated
Prandtl number: using the converged Newtonian flow field at the same value of the
Rayleigh number in order to eliminate the potential convergence
It is defined as follows: problems. A relative convergence criterion of 107 for the both
cp mB momentum and energy equations has been used in this work.
Pr ¼ (16) Within the framework of this stopping criterion, the values of the
k
drag coefficient (monitored only for this purpose) and Nusselt
 N. Nirmalkar et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 83 (2014) 33e44 37

number had also stabilized at least up to four significant digits.

Initially, a few time-dependent simulations were performed at
extreme values of Ra ¼ 106, Pr ¼ 30 and Pr ¼ 100, Bn ¼ 0 to ascertain
the nature of flow and it was found to be steady. The yield stress is
known to stabilize the flow further postponing the cessation of the
steady flow regime even to higher values of the Rayleigh number.
Thus, on both counts, the assumption of the steady flow over the
range of conditions spanned here is reasonable.
Similarly, much has been written about the importance of a
prudent choice of the computational parameters for the results to
be free from such numerical artefacts [28,30,31]. In the context of
the present work, it is thus instructive to choose optimum values of
DN, type of mesh and the value of m or m*, the regularization
parameter in the Papanastasiou model or of the yielding viscosity,
mY, in the bi-viscous model scheme. Following the strategy
employed elsewhere [35,37,38], the value of (DN) was systemati-
cally varied as 80, 120 and 200. The resulting values of the drag
coefficient and Nusselt number corresponding to DN ¼ 120 and
DN ¼ 200 were found to differ by less than 1% and therefore,
DN ¼ 120 is considered to be adequate over the present range of
conditions. Similarly, since the boundary layers are expected to be
very thin at high values of the Rayleigh number and/or Prandtl
number and/or Bingham number, grid independence of the results
was checked for the maximum values of these parameters. Suffice it
to add here that a grid with the smallest element size of d ¼ 0.0079
and consisting of the total number of elements ¼ 124,206 was
found to denote a good compromise between the precision of the
present results on one hand and the required computational effort
on the other. Finally, the value of the regularization parameter was
varied between 105 and 108 p s ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
(which fficorresponds to its non-
dimensional values, m* ¼ m ðg bDTÞ=d of 106 to 109 respec-
tively) and Fig. 2 shows its influence on the results. Even though the
results obtained with m ¼ 107 s and m ¼ 108 s were virtually
indistinguishable from each other for Pr ¼ 100, the value of
m ¼ 108 s (or m* ¼ 109) has been used in this study. Interestingly,
the effect of m (or m*) is seen to be more dramatic at Pr ¼ 100 than
that at Pr ¼ 30. This is presumably so due to the fact that the
boundary layer at Pr ¼ 30 will be thicker than that at Pr ¼ 100.
Conversely, the gradients inside the boundary layer will be sharper
at Pr ¼ 100 than that at Pr ¼ 30. This is why there is virtually no
effect of m (or m*) on the results at Pr ¼ 30. Also, an attention is
drawn to the fact that the value of m* used here is much larger than
that used in previous studies, e.g., see Refs. [28e31]. While the
exact reasons for this are not immediately obvious, it could be due
to the scaling used here and/or due to the inherently weak nature of
the buoyancy-induced flow. Fig. 2. Influence of growth rate parameter (m*) on the local Nusselt number on the
cylinder surface at Ra ¼ 106, Pr ¼ 100 and Bn ¼ 10.
5. Results and discussion

In this work, extensive numerical results have been obtained
over wide range of dimensionless parameters as: Rayleigh number,
102
Ra
106; Prandtl number, 30
Pr
100 and Bingham
number, 0
Bn
104. The purpose of varying each of these pa-
rameters is to delineate their influence on the rate of heat transfer
rather than these results being applicable to a specific fluid. Most
aqueous polymer solutions (model Bingham fluids) exhibit Prandtl
number values in excess of that of water and hence the minimum
value of the Prandtl number is 30 here. Similarly, the boundary
layers become very thin at very large values of the Prandtl number
which necessitate ultra-fine computational meshes to adequately
resolve such steep gradients. On the other hand, a threefold vari-
ation in the value of the Prandtl number spanned here is considered
to be adequate to establish its influence on the Nusselt number.
However, prior to undertaking a detailed presentation and dis-
cussion of the new results, it is instructive to establish the accuracy
and precision of the present results. This objective is accomplished
here by performing a few benchmark comparisons in the next
section with the prior results available in the literature.
5.1. Validation of results
Excellent numerical and experimental results are available in
the literature on the laminar free convection in Newtonian media
from cylinder [20,36e38]. While the first three studies [36e38]
employed the finite difference method, Prhashanna and Chhabra
[20] solved the governing differential equations using the finite
volume method. Table 1 shows a comparison between these pre-
dictions in the limit of Bn ¼ 0 for a range of values of the Rayleigh
and Prandtl numbers where an excellent correspondence is seen to
exist between the present values and that of [20,37,38] whereas
these differ from that of Kuehn and Goldstein [36] by up to w3%,
38 N. Nirmalkar et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 83 (2014) 33e44

Table 1
Comparison of the present values of the average Nusselt number with the literature
values in Newtonian fluids.

Ra Pr Nu

Prhashanna and Kuehn and Saitoh Wang Present

Chhabra [20] Goldstein [36] et al. [37] et al. [38]

103 0.7 3.0207 3.09 3.024 3.06 3.0057

104 0.7 4.805 4.94 4.826 4.86 4.8035
105 0.7 7.9365 8 7.898 7.97 7.9702
104 1 4.9710 5.06 e e 4.9634
104 5 5.5517 5.66 e e 5.5407
104 10 5.7228 5.81 e e 5.7245

especially at low Rayleigh numbers. This order of divergence is not

uncommon in such numerical studies due to the grid and domain
issues and the numerics used [39]. Table 2 presents a comparison
between the present numerical and the available experimental
values calculated using the following expression due to Fand et al.
[40]:

Nu ¼ 0:47Ra0:25 Pr 0:047 (18)

Fig. 3. Distribution of temperature along the radial direction in Newtonian fluids at
Once again, the two values are seen to deviate at most by 7% Ra ¼ 105, Pr ¼ 0.7.
which is well within the error band of Eq. (18). In addition to the
preceding comparisons in terms of the average Nusselt number,
Figs. 3 and 4 compare the present predictions of the dimensionless discussion, the new results reported herein are believed to be
temperature and the local Nusselt number respectively with the reliable within 1.5% or so.
literature values for Newtonian fluids (Bn ¼ 0). Indeed, the com-
parisons shown in these figures constitute a much more stringent 5.2. Streamline and isotherm contours
test than that shown in Tables 1 and 2. In assessing the comparison
shown in Fig. 3, it must be borne in mind that the results of Kuehn Due to the lower density of the fluid in the vicinity of the heated
and Goldstein [36] have been extracted from a figure which adds to cylinder, the mass of hot fluid rises and is replaced by cold fluid
the degree of uncertainty. Similarly, their results are based on a from the sides and/or from beneath the heated cylinder depending
rather coarse computational mesh and a very short domain of upon the value of the Rayleigh number. This, in turn, sets up an
DN ¼ 20. Bearing in mind these factors, the correspondence be- upward current leading to the formation of a plume above the
tween their and the present results is regarded to be satisfactory. heated cylinder. This phenomenon is typically visualized in terms
Finally, accurate numerical results on the lid-driven square cavity
flow of Newtonian [41] and Bingham plastic fluids [42,43] are also
available. Limited simulations were also conducted for this geom-
etry in the present study to perform additional benchmarking. The
resulting values of the centerline velocities in the cavity were found
to be within 2.5% of the literature values in each case. Similarly,
reliable results are also now available on the detailed temperature
and velocity distributions for natural convection in Bingham plastic
fluids in a two-dimensional differentially heated square cavity [43].
Finally, suffice it to add here that several other benchmark com-
parisons for a square cylinder and sphere in Bingham plastic fluids
have been reported elsewhere [28e30]. Based on the preceding

Table 2
Comparison between the present values of the Nusselt number and the experi-
mental results calculated using Eq. (18).

Pr Ra Nu

Eq. (18) Present

1 104 4.7400 4.8214

105 8.4290 8.6214
106 14.9892 15.0211

50 104 5.6968 6.0664

105 10.1305 10.0460
106 18.0148 17.0744

100 104 5.8854 6.1987

105 10.4659 10.2240
Fig. 4. Comparison of local Nusselt number (Nu) over the surface of the cylinder with
106 18.6114 17.3327
the literature values in air.
 N. Nirmalkar et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 83 (2014) 33e44
of the streamline and isotherm contours in the proximity of the
heated cylinder where the flow is expected to be the strongest.
Fig. 5 shows representative results for scores of values of the
Bingham number and Prandtl number corresponding to the two
extreme values of the Rayleigh number employed here. Such plots
also help delineate the regions of local ‘cold’ or ‘hot’ spots which
may be relevant in the processing of temperature-sensitive mate-
rials. An inspection of Fig. 5 shows that the momentum and thermal
boundary layers progressively thin with the increasing Rayleigh
number, i.e., with the increasing Grashof number or Prandtl num-
ber or both for a fixed value of the Bingham number, albeit this
effect is the strongest in Newtonian fluids, i.e., Bn ¼ 0. This is ex-
pected as with the increasing Bingham number, the yield stress
effects increasingly suppress the propensity for fluid deformation
thereby restricting fluid circulation. This line of reasoning implies
that in the limit of Bn / N, there will be no yielded zones and
under these conditions, heat transfer will occur solely by conduc-
tion. This limiting behavior is seen to be approached at Bn ¼ 104
here because the isotherms close to the cylinder are seen to be
concentric circles. Under these conditions, the yielding is seen to be
limited to an extremely thin layer adjacent to the surface of the
Fig. 5. Streamlines (right half) and isotherm contours (left half) in the vicinity of cylinder at (a) Ra ¼ 102 and (b) Ra ¼ 106.
39
heated cylinder. In summary, thus the velocity and temperature
gradients sharpen with the increasing Grashof number and Prandtl
number. This, in turn, suggests a positive influence of each of these
parameters on the rate of heat transfer from the cylinder to the
fluid or vice versa. On the other hand, with the increasing Bingham
number, the contribution of conduction spans increasingly the flow
domain the increasing Bingham number, solid-like zones grow
spatially, i.e., the thermal resistance increases thereby influencing
the temperature field and hence the rate of heat transfer. Thus, the
rate of heat transfer should exhibit an inverse dependence on the
Bingham number. Indeed, the results presented in the ensuing
sections corroborate these conjectures.
5.3. Morphology of yielded/unyielded regions
As noted earlier, the main distinguishing feature which sets
yield-stress fluids apart from the other generalized Newtonian
fluids is the simultaneous coexistence of the fluid- (yielded) and
solid- (unyielded) like regions in the flow domain. Evidently, the
unyielded-zones are not only difficult to mix, but their heating/
cooling also tends to be problematic. It is thus useful to examine
40 N. Nirmalkar et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 83 (2014) 33e44

the influence of Bn, Ra and Pr on the morphology of the flow field
in terms of the yielded and unyielded regions. Since the rate of
deformation of fluid is the greatest near/on the surface of the
cylinder, it progressively diminishes eventually becoming zero at
the outer boundary where the fluid is at rest. Fig. 6 shows the
combined influence of the Bingham number, Prandtl number and
Rayleigh number on the morphology of the yielded/unyielded
segments formed in the flow domain. A detailed examination of
these results suggests that for fixed values of the Rayleigh number
and Prandtl number, there are three distinct regimes of fluid-like
regions depending upon the value of the Bingham number. These
are designated here as: the low Bingham number regime, inter-
mediate Bingham number regime and high Bingham number
regime respectively. It is worthwhile to recall here that the Ray-
leigh number is a ratio of the buoyancy forces to viscous forces.
While the former tends to augment the flow, the latter resists it.
Thus, large values of the Rayleigh number indicate strong flow
and its small values indicate that the viscous forces outweigh the
buoyancy forces. This is qualitatively similar to the relevance of
the Reynolds number in the forced convection regime. However,
in Bingham plastic fluids, yield stress also acts in the same way as
do the viscous forces in opposing the buoyancy-induced flow.
With this backdrop, let us return to our discussion of the results
shown in Fig. 7. In the so-called low Bingham number regime (as
at Bn ¼ 1), the fluid-like region is in the form of a long channel of
accelerating fluid and thus the convection mechanism dominates
the rate of heat transfer under these conditions. Similarly, at the
intermediate values of the Bingham number, fluid-like regions are
restricted to a cavity in the vicinity of the cylinder with the bulk of
the material away from the heated cylinder being frozen like a

Fig. 6. Structure of the yielded (white color)/unyielded (blue color) regions at (a) Ra ¼ 102 and (b) Ra ¼ 106. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
 N. Nirmalkar et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 83 (2014) 33e44 41

worthwhile to corroborate these predictions using the other

commonly used regularization method, namely, the bi-viscous
model. A typical comparison between the two predictions is
shown in Fig. 7 for two values of the Rayleigh number. The two
predictions are virtually indistinguishable from each other. In view
of such close correspondence, the local Nusselt number values
obtained using the two regularization approaches are also almost
identical, as can be seen in Figs. 8 and 9 presented and discussed in
the next section.

5.4. Distribution of local Nusselt number

The local Nusselt number is a non-dimensional measure of the

rate of heat transfer between the cylinder and the fluid. The Bing-
ham plastic fluids behave like a Newtonian fluid in so far that their
flow behavior is characterized by a constant slope (i.e., viscosity, mB)
of the shear stress-shear rate plots for the shear stress levels greater
than the yield-stress. This would suggest the scaling of Nu w Ra1/4
as that observed for Newtonian fluids. On the other hand, the
apparent viscosity defined as the quotient of the shear stress
divided by the corresponding shear rate will decrease with shear
rate in accordance with Eq. (10). Therefore, since the shear rate
varies from one point to another on the surface of the cylinder, the
apparent viscosity also changes from one point to another. This line

Fig. 7. Comparison of the yield surface predicted by the bi-viscous model (dotted line,
mY/mB ¼ 108) and the Papanastasiou regularization model at Pr ¼ 30, Bn ¼ 10 and (a)
Ra ¼ 102 and (b) Ra ¼ 106.

solid. In this regime, therefore, both the conduction and convec-

tion modes of heat transfer contribute to the overall heat transfer
in varying proportions. Finally, at very high Bingham numbers
(Bn > w103), there is very little yielding and virtually no fluid-like
region is observed. Naturally, conduction dominates the overall
heat transfer in this regime.
Furthermore, there are three distinct types of solid-like regions
observed in the intermediate range of Bingham number namely,
polar caps adhering to the top and bottom of the cylinder, almond-
like shapes at lateral sides of the cylinder and an outer far away
envelope of the unyielded fluid, as can be seen in Fig. 6(a) at Bn ¼ 10
and Fig. 6(b) at Bn ¼ 103. Further examination of these results
revealed that the polar caps are static in nature and thus heat
transfer in these regions will take place solely by conduction. On
the other hand, the unyielded regions of almond-like shape un-
dergo rigid body-like rotation and thus one can expect some
Fig. 8. Distribution of the local Nusselt number (NuL) along the surface of the cylinder
augmentation in heat transport in this part on this count. Since the
at Ra ¼ 102 (red symbols show the prediction from the bi-viscous model). (For inter-
prediction of the yield surfaces separating the yielded and unyiel- pretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the
ded fluids is one of the key characteristics of such flows, it is web version of this article.)
42 N. Nirmalkar et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 83 (2014) 33e44
of reasoning is clearly not consistent with the scaling of Nu w Ra1/4,
as also revealed by some recent studies based on the power-law
model representation of the liquid phase, e.g., see Ref. [44]. In
fact, the rate of change of viscosity modulates the dependence of
the Nusselt number on the Grashof and Prandtl numbers. Addi-
tional complications arise from the changing size of the unyielded
material adhering to the surface of the cylinder with the increasing
Bingham number. This makes the delineation of the influence of
these parameters on heat transfer in the present far from being
straight forward. Typical variation of the local Nusselt number
along the surface of the cylinder is shown in Figs. 8 and 9 at
Ra ¼ 102 and Ra ¼ 106 respectively for scores of values of the
Bingham number and Prandtl number. A detailed examination of
these plots suggests that for Newtonian fluids (Bn ¼ 0), the
maximum value of the Nusselt number always occurs at the front
stagnation point (q ¼ 0) irrespective of the value of the Rayleigh
number and Prandtl number. Since the Rayleigh number is based
on the constant Bingham viscosity, similar to a Newtonian fluid, in
view of the well-known scaling of Nu w Ra1/4, no additional effect
of Prandtl number is expected under these conditions. Indeed, this
conjecture is borne out by the results shown in Figs. 8 and 9 for
Bn ¼ 0. Interestingly, this trend is also seen for the other values of
Bn excepting minor differences due to the small unyielded regions
present in the form of polar caps, albeit there is a small influence of
.  (20)
Fig. 9. Distribution of local Nusselt number (NuL) along the surface of the cylinder at
Ra ¼ 106 (red symbols show the prediction from the bi-viscous model). (For inter-
pretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the
web version of this article.)
the Prandtl number, e.g., at Bn ¼ 5, the values of NuL at Pr ¼ 30 and
Pr ¼ 100 are seen to differ from each other. While the exact reasons
for this trend are not immediately obvious, it is possibly due to the
fact that each of these parameters Ra, Pr and Bn influences the
temperature field in the vicinity of the heated cylinder in its own
way. For instance, as the value of Pr is increased from Pr ¼ 30 to 100
at the same Rayleigh number (Ra ¼ 106), the Grashof number, i.e.,
buoyancy induced flow decreases. It is thus likely that under certain
combinations of Ra, Pr and Bn, the value of Pr does indeed influence
the local Nusselt number over and above that reflected by the value
of the Rayleigh number. Also, in the case of Bingham plastic fluids,
the maximum value of the Nusselt number is seen to be shifted
from the front stagnation point and it occurs somewhere in be-
tween q ¼ 0 and q ¼ 90 . This is also qualitatively similar to that
seen in power-law fluids [20]. Furthermore, the minimum value of
the Nusselt number is seen to occur at the rear of the cylinder
(q ¼ 180 ) for both Newtonian and Bingham plastic fluids. Next, for
a fixed value of the Rayleigh number and Prandtl number, no
variation in the Nusselt number over the surface of cylinder is
observed at very high values of the Bingham number. Clearly, this
indicates the formation of a completely solid-like unyielded region
where heat transfer occurs only by conduction. In summary, due to
the formation of the unyielded zones on the top and bottom of the
cylinder, heat transfer in these regions is somewhat impeded in
Bingham plastic fluids with reference to that in Newtonian fluids.
5.5. Average Nusselt number
While isotherm contours and the local Nusselt number distri-
bution provide detailed information on the spatial variation of
these parameters, in engineering applications, it is the surface
averaged value of the Nusselt number which is often needed to size
the heat exchange equipment. Dimensional considerations suggest
the average Nusselt number to be a function of the Rayleigh
number, Bingham number and Prandtl number, i.e.,
Nu ¼ f ðRa; Pr; BnÞ (19)
This functional dependence is shown in Fig. 10. Clearly, the Nusselt
number decreases with the increasing Bingham number eventually
attaining a constant value at high values of the Bingham number
corresponding to the pure conduction limit. As expected, the
limiting value is independent of the Rayleigh numbers and Prandtl
numbers, and this is consistent with the value given by the
following expression:
2
NuN ¼
ln DN d
Implicit in Eq. (20) is the assumption that conduction occurs across
a cylindrical shell of inner and outer diameters of d and DN
respectively, i.e., the temperature drops from T ¼ 1 to T ¼ 0 across
this shell. Now returning to the results away from the conduction
limit, the approach embodied in Eq. (19) will lead to a family of
curves (Fig. 10). Following the ideas employed in our previous
studies [28e30], in contrast to the use of the constant Bingham
plastic pviscosity,
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi one can use the local viscosity given by
ðmB þ s0 d=g bDT Þ to redefine the modified Rayleigh (Ra*) and
Prandtl numbers (Pr*) as follows:
Ra
Ra* ¼ ; Pr * ¼ Prð1 þ BnÞ (21)
1 þ Bn
In the limit of Newtonian fluid behavior (Bn / 0), these definitions
reduce to the expected forms for Newtonian fluids. Also, these
 N. Nirmalkar et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 83 (2014) 33e44
Fig. 10. Dependence of the average Nusselt number on the Bingham number (Bn), Prandtl number (Pr) and Rayleigh number (Ra).
modified definitions incorporate the effect of Bingham number
n i1=n
and the functional relationship postulated in Eq. (19) can be now
re-cast as

Nu ¼ f Ra* ; Pr *
The present numerical results for the Bingham plastic fluids are
correlated in terms of the modified Rayleigh number (Ra*) and
Prandtl number (Pr*) by the following expression:
Nu ¼ NuN þ 0:242Ra*2=5 Pr *0:24
Eq. (23) reproduces the present 550 numerical data points span-
ning the ranges of conditions as follows: Rayleigh number,
102
Ra
106 or 102
Ra*
106, Prandtl number, 30
Pr
100
or 30
Pr*
106 and Bingham number, 0
Bn
104 with an
average error of 11.8% which rises to a maximum of 40% without
any discerning trends. Further attempts to improve the degree of fit
proved unsuccessful; even with the inclusion of more fitted pa-
rameters, the improvement was marginal. For instance, the widely
used ChurchilleUsagi [45] approach was attempted to correlate the
present Nusselt number values as follows:
43
h
Nu ¼ NunN þ CRa*2=5 Pr *1=4 (24)
The best fitted values of the parameters are: C ¼ 0.163 and n ¼ 0.53.
However, the resulting mean and maximum errors are w18.8% and
(22) w53% respectively which are clearly larger than the corresponding
values for Eq. (23). Therefore, Eq. (23) should be preferred for the
estimation of the Nusselt number in a new application. Further-
more, the form of Eq. (23) clearly brings out the role of the fluid
yield stress on the average Nusselt number. In Newtonian fluids, the
free convection transport vanishes when the Rayleigh number (Ra)
goes to zero i.e., the fluid density is independent of temperature
(23) thereby leading to the conduction limit. In the case of visco-plastic
fluids, this limit can also be approached in the limit of Bn / N, i.e.,
Ra* / 0. Finally, upon rearrangement, Eq. (23) predicts
Nu f wGr0.4Pr0.16 thereby suggesting the different rates of thinning
of the boundary layers with Gr and Pr.
6. Conclusions
In this paper, the laminar free convection heat transfer in a
Bingham plastic fluid from a heated horizontal cylinder has been
studied numerically using the finite element method. The
44 N. Nirmalkar et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 83 (2014) 33e44
inherent discontinuity in the Bingham constitutive relation has
been treated through the Papanastasiou regularization technique,
albeit limited results were also obtained using the bi-viscosity
model approach to corroborate these predictions. Extensive re-
sults on the streamline and isotherm patterns, morphology of the
yielded/unyielded regions and the local and average Nusselt
number have been obtained in order to elucidate the influence of
Rayleigh number (102
Ra
106), Prandtl number
(30
Pr
100) and Bingham number (0
Bn
104). Due to the
formation of the polar caps of the unyielded material in the
Bingham fluid, the maximum rate of heat transfer does not occur
at the front stagnation point. Also, the yielded regions diminish in
size with the decreasing value of the Rayleigh number and/or
increasing Bingham number. All in all, the Nusselt number is seen
to exhibit a positive dependence on the Rayleigh number whereas
it shows an inverse dependence on the Bingham number and
Prandtl number. Finally, using the modified definitions of the
Rayleigh (Ra*) and Prandtl (Pr*) numbers, the present numerical
results have been correlated using a simple expression thereby
enabling the estimation of the mean Nusselt number in a new
application. This expression also includes the expected conduc-
tion limit which can be approached either when the fluid density
is independent of temperature (b ¼ 0) or when the Bingham
number becomes infinitely large.
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