MOVE TO GLOBAL WAR:

EUROPE
Interwar Conditions in Europe 2
The Great Depression 2
Economic Effects: 2
Political Effects: 2
International Diplomacy: 4

Italy’s Foreign Policy 5

Mussolini and the Fascist Party 5
Pre-Great Depression 5
Great Depression 5
Outline of events Pre-WW2: 6
Austria, July 1934 6
Stresa Front, April 1935: 6
The Abyssinian Crisis 6
Albania 8
World War 2 9

German’s Foreign Policy 9

Hitler and Nazi Germany 9
Domestic Events in Germany 9
Consolidation of power 9
Economy: 9
March ‘35: Rearmament 10
Germany’s Foreign Policy 10
Nazism and Foreign Policy 11
Jan ‘34: The Polish-German Non-Aggression Pact 11
‘34 Austria 11
Jan ‘35: Saar Plebiscite 11
June ‘35: Anglo-German Naval Treaty 11
7 March ‘36: Remilitarization of Rhineland 11
Pacts 12
March ‘38: Anschluss 12

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 Oct ‘38: Sudeten Crisis 13
Polish Crisis 1938-39 14
Historiography on Causes of WW2 15

Interwar Conditions in Europe

The Great Depression

How were European states affected by The GD?

Economic Effects:
❖ ‘29-’32: world trade ↓ 70%
❖ USA (world largest economy):
➢ 25% unemployment
➢ 9k banks closed
➢ International trade ↓ 70%
➢ Turned inward, reduce international trade, as contained many resources
needed (USSR too)

❖ Germany:
➢ 26% unemployment
➢ US trade barriers caused 61% ↓ in industrial production

❖ Britain:
➢ International trade ↓ 60%
➢ Imperial preference (lowering import taxes of empire and increasing taxes on
goods from outside empire)
■ Australia and Canada sell products to India and B
■ Half of B products sold to other parts of empire (which encompassed
half the world)

❖ France
➢ Imperial preference:
■ ⅓ of F industrial production sold to empire (which encompassed 9% of
the globe)

❖ An empire seemed to be able to alleviate economic crisis

Political Effects:
❖ US
➢ Republican Party lost ‘32; Democrats led by Franklin Roosevelt won
➢ Law and executive orders:
■ Banks temporarily closed
■ Taxes raised
■ Gov spending increased, gov salaries decreased
■ More trade barriers erected
➢ Policy of deficit spending
■ Republican policies unpopular as did not alleviate the effects of GD
➢ FDR to Adolf Berle: ‘90% of all national deficit from ‘21-’39 were payments for
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 past, present and future wars.’
■ Hence, US isolated itself
❖ Britain
➢ Headed by Labour party until ‘31
➢ Attempted to borrow from US banks
■ US placed many conditions that B was unwilling to accept
➢ Aug ‘31: coalition gov (dominated by Conservative, PM from Labour)
➢ Some in Labour not in support coalition (minority supported coalition)
➢ Historiography:
■ PMH Bell: B trade barriers cause countries from Eastern and Western
Europe to gravitate towards Germany. This helped Germany’s
economy and formed closer political relationships. “Over-dependent
on the German market”
➢ Labour Party did not believe in military spending (stockpiling of weapons key
reason of WW1)
■ Military remained weak
■ Economic stress meant that no funds to invest in rearmament
● Worked to limit arms through treaties (London Naval
Conference ‘30 & 2nd London Naval Conference ‘35)
❖ France
➢ Self sufficient in food production
➢ France and colonies established exclusive trading zone
➢ 1935: only had 500k unemployed
➢ Unstable government: `32-`34: 11 governments
❖ Germany
➢ Decided on reduced spending, keeping currency high
■ German goods more expensive; policy failed: 6 million people
unemployed
➢ B and F suspended reparation payments at Lausanne Conference 1932
■ Treaty of Versailles 1919
● Limited 100k troops
● War reparations to France
● Germany’s overseas colonies, sliced off large sections the
country and granting to other states
➢ National Socialist and Communist grew in power (viewed as having a legit
solution to the crisis) as traditional parties were linked with economic failure
➢ `32: Hitler higher majority than communist leader Ernst Thalmann but lost to
president since ‘25: Paul Von Hindenburg; took 1.3 mil votes out of 36 mil
➢ Nazi party appealed more as:
■ communist was against nationalism
■ violent Bolshevik takeover in `17
■ Russian civil war in `18-`21
■ Landowners and industrialist against communism and poured money
into Nazism
● Alan Bullock: Army officers and industrialists supported Hitler’s
stance against communism
➢ 2.6% (`28) -> 37.3% (`32) Nazis representatives in the Reichstag
➢ Late ‘32: coalition gov could not be formed (no party had the majority, but
Nazi party had more than any other party)
➢ Jan `33: President Von Hinderburg appointed Hitler as chancellor
➢ Mar `33: election called to endorse and confirm appointment
■ 44% of seats won (however Hitler outlawed the Communist Party,
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 other candidates were harrassed)
➢ Enabling Act: government can rule by decree instead of through parliament

International Diplomacy:
❖ LON
➢ ‘33: included all European states except USSR
➢ Manchurian Crisis proved that collective security was flawed
➢ GD reduced strength of LON as the strongest nations in it were not equipped
to enforce collective security:
■ B owed huge sums to US and reduced military to save money
■ F maintained army but mostly on used at the border with G; navy also
occupied with G
❖ France
➢ Early ‘20s: alliance with Poland and Czechoslovakia to isolate G
➢ Worked with Italy to isolate G (Italy wanted Corsica: southeast of France: not
a concern: weak)
➢ Kept millions of men in military compared to G who was reduced to 100k
➢ ‘23: F invaded G for not making war reparations
➢ Gov instability: foreign policy inconsistent
■ Different parties grew:
● ‘30s conservatives & fascists popular: supported Abyssinia;
fear USSR & G -> desired large military
● Socialist & Communist parties grew: military funds -> social
welfare programmes; supported LON & collective security
(directed by USSR)
➢ ‘35: most difficult year in GD: G announced rearmament, Italy attacked
Abyssinia (F cannot address it properly due to political unrest and economic
instability)
❖ Britain
➢ More concerned with communism
■ Wanted G to return to normalcy (on B terms)
● Develop stronger economic ties (needed in GD)
■ Believed TOV should be adjusted
■ Did not want to work alone on G issue: x support France in alienating
G; encourage arms reduction
❖ Germany
➢ ‘32: war reparations suspended due to GD M
Ba e
➢ Foreign policy: wanted to end TOV Da m
■ Poland was created in 1919 from G territory lticnzi e
■ Memel: under international administration; ‘23: F Ger Se g
Pola
l
Lithuania annexed it r man asnd
■ Danzig: full G population; LON control;
a S y Cz
n aa Au ec
surrounded by Poland
■ Saar: iron/coal rich; ruled by F
❖ Soviet Union c r stri h
e a
➢ More focussed on domestic issue
■ Late ‘20s: 5 year plan of industrialization
■ ‘32: 2nd Five Year Plan
➢ Perceived Nazi Germany, J and Italy as a threat: joined LON
■ However, other western powers distrustful of communism

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Italy’s Foreign Policy

Mussolini and the Fascist Party

How did the Fascist Party affect Italy’s Foreign Policy?

Pre-Great Depression
❖ Victor in WW1: weak: Treaty of London ‘15: not granted territory
❖ Effects of WW1:
➢ 2 million soldiers promised farmland (x)
➢ Huge amounts owed to banks and industrialists
❖ Lead to: riots; strikes; dysfunctional parliament; religious interference by the Catholic
church; spread of communist ideology
❖ Mussolini: formed a group financed by bankers and industrialist (Black Shirts)
❖ 1922: March on Rome and threatened to seize government
➢ King named Mussolini PM (soon M called Il Duce)
❖ National Fascist Party only party:
➢ Ban publications
➢ Outlaw labour unions
➢ Resolve long-term disputes with Catholic Church
➢ Create youth groups to teach about fascist ideology
➢ Violence against opponents
❖ Tried to depict fascist Italy as ancient Roman empire:
➢ Usage of fasces (a bundle of bound rods that included an axe carried by
important Roman officials)
➢ Usage of Roman numerals

❖ Fascism: Foreign Policy:

➢ Advocated war and imperialism (policy of state gaining control of foreign
lands)
➢ However, Italy economically weak: dependant on B, F & USA in 1920s
■ If USA/B embargoes fuel: restrict economy
■ F reduce food to Italy: food shortages, price increase
■ Historiography: Philip Morgan: “the damage he could do in the 1920s
was limited because of Italy’s intrinsic economic and military
weakness
➢ Opportunist in 1920s (take advantage of small incidents)
■ Greece: Italy officers assassinated -> shelling Corfu -> Greece weaker
(forced to offer an indemnity (financial penalty))
■ Fiume, Yugoslavia: handed over to Italy to avoid attack
■ Desired Corsica (as people there spoke dialects of Italian and not
French) but did not act on it
➢ Creation of an Italian Empire (policy since before WW1)
■ Before WW1: took Libya from the Ottoman Empire

Great Depression
❖ To survive: traded more extensively with Yugoslavia, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria,
Romania (they provided raw materials, Italy provided manufactured goods)
➢ Less fear of economic retaliation from West
❖ Created ‘Corporate state’: gov took control of industries through trying to get
industries to cooperate with the gov

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 ➢ Industrial boards established with gov and industrial rep to cooperate policy
■ Effect: prices of goods were standardised, and market divided among
competitors (elimating competition) -> all major industries survived:
eg: steel
❖ Started deficit spending: borrow large sums of money to stimulate and help the
cooperating industries
➢ Started making large order for military equipment
➢ Provided jobs to 1 million men by ‘35
■ Historiography: Philip Morgan: “recovery was certainly aided by the
government’s war-related commissions and contracts”
❖ 1933: Mussolini reorganised government
➢ Now: in charge of Ministries of War, Air and Navy, Minister of the Interior,
Minister of Foreign Affairs and PM
❖ Ultimately, GD allowed Italy to pursue a foreign policy more in line with Fascist
ideology compared to that of 1920s

Outline of events Pre-WW2:

❖ Austria, July 1934
➢ Italy wanted to prevent any expansion into Austria (will replace Italy’s interest
in Central and Southeastern Europe)
➢ 1934: Austrian version of Nazi Party assasinated Austria’s leader: Engelbert
Dollfuss
■ Immediately, Mussolini announced troops were heading to Italy’s
border with Austria -> G did not intervene
■ Italy’s power was demonstrated

❖ Stresa Front, April 1935:

➢ B, F, Italy met in Stresa, Italy to form a diplomatic front against G
➢ Response to attempt of annexation of Austria and announcement of
rearmament

❖ The Abyssinian Crisis

➢ Reason for invasion
■ Had Libya, Eritrea, Italian Somaliland (poor countries ->
embarrassment)
■ Wanted an empire for prestige and economy (but economic reasons
not known to public)
■ Choice of Abyssinia: neighbours with Eritrea and Somaliland; loosely
defined borders OR Liberia: under indirect supervision and
sponsorship of USA
➢ Wal-Wal Incident, Dec 1934
■ 80km on the Abyssinian side of the Somaliland-Abyssinia border
■ 2 Italians dead; 100 Abyssinian troops dead
■ Italy demanded $100k and official apology
■ Abyssinia appealed to LON
■ Dec ‘34: Mussolini told army to prepare for invasion
■ Sep ‘35: established arbitration committee announced no party at fault
and was a minor incident (B&F aware of Italy’s intentions but did not
want to jeopardise relationship)
➢ Oct ‘35: INVASION BOOM BOOM
■ Aerial bombing & Poison Gas usage
■ Haile Selassie (emperor of Abyssinia) escaped to B

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 ➢ Early ‘36: all opposition collapsed
➢ May ‘36: Total defeat in Abyssinia
➢ Italian East Africa formed: Italian Somaliland, Abyssinia and Eritrea combined;
King of Italy -> Emperor of Ethiopia; Addis Ababa, Abyssinia new capital of
East Africa

❖ Response to Abyssinian Crisis

➢ Abyssinia
■ 75k people killed
■ Guerilla attempts minor but continued throughout the occupation
■ Mussolini ordered prisoners to be shot, various villages gassed where
there was resistance, execution without hesitation
➢ LON
■ Oct 1935: led by B & F: condemned Italy -> vote for gradually
escalating economic sanctions
■ However, no oil embargo on Italy
■ B refused to close the Suez Canal to Italian shipping, claim to prevent
war in Mediterranean
■ June ‘36: Haile Selassie spoke in LON
● Italy withdrew from LON
■ Effects:
● Collective security viewed to be a failure in LON
● Ceased to be an influential body
● Italy drew closer to G
■ Historiography:AJP Taylor: [Abyssinia] was the deathblow to the
League
➢ Britain & France
■ Jan ‘35: Laval (F foreign minister): verbally promised not to interfere in
Abyssinia
■ B foreign office wanted to avert crisis either by: 1) offering other land
2) negotiate for Italy to virtually have control over Abyssinia but not
formally annexing
● Fail: Nov ‘35 election, so under pressure to support LON
policies (June ‘35: unofficial ballot 10/11 mil votes backed the
usage of economic sanctions as oppose to military aggression)
■ F divided: Socialist supporting LON, Conservative supporting Italy
● Needed Italy to guarantee borders of its Little Entente allies
■ Both weak after GD, no resources to military oppose Italy
■ Mussolini (anti-communist): could aid against USSR
■ These factors + G rapid expanding economy: focus on G not on Africa
■ Hoare-Laval Pact, Dec ‘35:
● ⅔ of Abyssinia under Italy
● ⅓ under independent Abyssinia with small ‘corridor of camels’
to the sea
● Failed as public finds out about it
■ Historiography: F.S. Northedge: The fact is that B and F governments
never had any intention of using force against Italy to stop its advance
in Abyssinia
➢ USA
■ Blocked sales of ammunition, weapons & war supplies through
Neutrality Acts (acts that imposed weapon embargos on states at war)
■ Refused to recognise annexation of Abyssinia (Stimson Doctrine)
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 ➢ USSR
■ 1935: in the midst of nation building
■ Not in position to have aggressive foreign policy: but issued
declaration that independence of Abyssinia must be protected by LON
■ Embargo on all trade to Italy
➢ Italy
■ Further isolated economically from Western Europe and restricted
trade with US
● Seeked solution with expanding economic ties in
central/Southeastern Europe (further granting it independence
from Western Europe)
■ Diplomatic isolated:
● X participate in London Naval Treaty Dec ‘35 although part of
the initiators of Washington Naval Conference in 1922
■ May ‘36: Left LON
■ Oct ‘36: Rome-Berlin Axis
● Highlight mutual foreign policies & spheres of interest
❖ Albania
➢ Reason for expansion:
■ aided Franco’s forces in Spain in ‘36-’39, try to provoke France to be
involved -> allow for Italy to annex Corsica, France did not get
involved (hence supplies Italy could not afford to lose wasted); now
needed a foreign policy success as G was annexing Austria and
Czechoslovakia
■ Small country with few people and great resources of forests, fields,
metals, petroleum
■ Formed during Balkan Wars in ‘12-’13
■ 1915: Italy seizes Albania for Port of Durres
■ After WW1: work to define Albania’s borders to prevent Greece from
occupying it -> Italian military officer assasination -> Corfu incident ->
Italy assumed protectorate over Albania
➢ ‘26: President Zogu: signed alliance with Italy
➢ June ‘31: Italy tried to gain more economic control of Albania through a loan
➢ ‘32-’33: Zog removed Italian military instructors and Italian operated schools
to demonstrate independence
■ Italy suspends the loan money of ‘31
■ Zog appeals to F; but F demands greater as called for lands to be set
aside for F poor farmers -> return negotiating with Mussolini
➢ June ‘34: Italian navy laned in Durres; demands Zog allow the military
advisors back; forbids any alliance; end all trade restrictions on Italy; Port
Durres made to be a naval base for Italy
➢ March ‘39: sent an ultimatum (essentially wanted complete control) w/out G
knowledge
➢ 7 April: 30k soldiers landed at Durres
➢ 10 April: Albania occupied
➢ Responses
■ B&F: did not protest (occupied with Poland)
■ Greece & Yugoslavia: afraid of Italy but hoped to gain some land from
Albania so no protest
■ LON: ignored the situation
■ USSR: verbal condemnation

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 ❖ World War 2
➢ May, ‘39: Pact of Steel
■ Support each other in case of War; mutual cooperation in economic
areas; sharing of military aid (Italy and G military alliance; different
from Rome-Berlin Axis ‘36)
➢ Historiography:Philip Morgan: (reasons Italy didn’t want war) Italy’s military
and economic un-readiness to sustain a long war ...needed time to make the
Axis more popular in Italy and prepare the nation politically and
psychologically for war.

German’s Foreign Policy

Hit ler and Nazi Germany

Which domestic policies allowed for a more forceful foreign policy in the late 1930s?

Domestic Events in Germany

❖ Consolidation of power
➢ ‘33: Hitler became Chancellor of G
➢ Gleichschaltung ‘making same’ policy: merge the Nazi Party with government
■ Other political parties abolished
■ Labour unions abolished
■ All gov councils and governors replaced by Nazi officials
■ All police merged with the Schutzstaffel (SS)
➢ ‘34: Hitler’s party rivals executed
➢ ‘38: took control of army by replacing top commanders
■ Before that could not consolidate power as: Austrian, only obtained
corporal rank in WW1, foreigner, politician who can’t be trusted
❖ Economy:
➢ ‘New Plan’ ‘34 by Schacht: gave G government more control over the
economy: trading only with countries that would purchase equivalent value of
German goods
■ Net exports -284 million in ‘34
■ Net exports 550 million in ‘36
■ The money could be used to buy raw materials for rearmament
■ Increase trade with Central and Eastern Europe, ↑ political
influence
➢ Four Year Plan ‘36-’39 by Goering:
■ Aims
● Increase agricultural production
● Achieve self-sufficiency
● Strict gov regulations of import/export
● Increase military production in expense of consumer
production
■ Synthetic oil and rubber factories given priority in construction
■ Inflation ↑ : wages and unemployment ↓ but no goods to buy
as focussed on military production
■ Historiography:4 year plan shows G preparing for war, as G believed
to be vulnerable to embargos and blockades
❖ March ‘35: Rearmament
➢ Reasons:

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 ■
Poland had 300k active soldiers; 700k reserves
■
Creation of Little Entente in ‘20-21: France with Czechoslovakia,
Romania and Yugoslavia (millions of troops against G)
■ Jan ‘23: F & Belgium invaded Ruhr
■ ‘32: USSR completed its first Five Year Plan in ‘32
➢ World Disarmament Conference ‘32:
■ Geneva, Switzerland
■ F would not participate in disarmament talks if B and US did not
guarantee security through alliance
■ G: if F doesn’t limit, force to rearm
➢ March ‘35: introduction of conscription
➢ 2.5k construction of aircrafts
➢ Expansion of navy
➢ Mass production of weapons
➢ ‘39: 700k army with 3 mil reserves
❖ Responses to rearmament
➢ Stresa Front, April ‘35
■ Hitler assured peaceful intentions through proposal of non-aggression
pacts
■ Promised to observe Locarno Treaties ‘25
● Recognise permanent borders between G, F and Belgium after
WW1
● Continue demilitarization of Rhineland
● Negotiate (not war) of Poland’s border with G
■ If other countries limited rearmaments, G would too
➢ France
■ Franco-Soviet Treaty May ‘35 (but powerless because of distrust)
■ Throughout ‘30s: increased military spending and fortified the Maginot
Line
➢ Britain
■ Little support for B rearmament as will increase tax; suffering from the
GD
■ But G rearmament alarmed public
■ Spending on B rearmament increased over 600% between ‘35-’39

Germany’s Foreign Policy

How successful was German’s foreign policy between 1933-1939?

Nazism and Foreign Policy

❖ TOV undone
➢ Not a new concept: Locarno Treaty example of G gov trying to gain back land
❖ All german speakers should live under an expanded Germany: Pan-Germanism
➢ Not a new concept: came from 19th century
❖ Communism should be eradicated
❖ Lebensraum (living space) for more food and land
➢ Treaty of Brest-Litovsk March 1918: Russia turn over huge lands to Germany
and left WW1
❖ Non-G were racially inferior (but made it a state policy under Nazi rule)
❖ Democratic states were fundamentally weak and greddy

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Jan ‘34: The Polish-German Non-Aggression Pact
❖ Poland did not want to enter conflict with the USSR
❖ 10 years period
➢ Recognition of Poland’s borders
➢ Better diplomatic relation
➢ Increase trade
❖ Did not need to fear Polish military intervention when rearm
❖ Weakened F-Polish alliance
❖ International response:
➢ France: outraged but could not do much (perhaps work with USSR now)
➢ USSR:
■ ‘22 Rapallo Treaty (G& USSR) where all claims against one another
renounced, economically cooperative and recognise diplomatically
(collapsed with the non-aggression pact)
■ Join LON in 1934
■ Ordered Comintern to promote peace, democracy & anti-fascist govs
‘34 Austria
❖ ‘34 June: Hitler met with Mussolini to persuade to let Austria be a satellite state
➢ Austria incident in July ‘34 (failed annexation)

Jan ‘35: Saar Plebiscite

❖ Resident of Saar voted to rejoin G; 90% voted indication to rejoin
❖ Historiography: Rafael Scheck: [Saar made] Hitler feel safe enough to introduce
general conscription

June ‘35: Anglo-German Naval Treaty

❖ About 2 months after Stresa Front
❖ G navy could only be 35% of B
➢ B viewed as tying down G resources to ships which will never be more
superior than B

7 March ‘36: Remilitarization of Rhineland

❖ Rhineland was demilitarized and acted as a buffer
❖ Abyssinian Crisis persuaded Hitler to act: as Italy isolated from B and F, which means
Italy won’t help them
❖ Justified that the Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance was contrary to Locarno
Treaties, hence G can modify it too.
❖ To reassure France, initially few and light equipped soldiers entered
❖ Reponses
➢ France and Britain
■ F x intervene as it did not violate French border, little support
domestically to prevent G from controlling its own territory
■ F military spending increased
■ B reassured if G unprovoked attack, will send aid
■ Lord Lothian: Hitler walking into his “own back garden”
■ B pleased: removed a huge grievance of G
■ Winston Churchill: G was a ‘bulwark against communism’
❖ 12 March ‘36: French foreign ministry memorandum: G was now the centre of
European power

Pacts
❖ Oct ‘36: Rome Berlin Axis
❖ Nov ‘36: Anti-Comintern Pact
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 ➢ Japan and G to oppose Communist International ; symbolic that these two
would cooperate in the future
➢ Nov ‘37: Italy joins

March ‘38: Anschluss

❖ Austria: hundred of factories, large reserves of gold, natural resources: iron and Mg
❖ Jan ‘36: Italy indicated no objection to Anschluss
❖ Feb ‘38: Austria complied to G demands of appointing an Austrian Nazi party
member as minster of public security, all jailed Nazis to be released
➢ Despite this, Hitler denounced Austrian independence
❖ 13 March: planned Plebiscite
➢ Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg allowed formation of labour unions and
opposition political parties (previously one party state), increased voting age
to 24 as he felt young people would side with G; in order to gain support
➢ BUT: G announce riot broke out in Austria and G needed to restore order;
Schuschnigg commanded to hand over power to Seyss-Inquart (previous
Minister of Public Security) by 11 March
➢ 12 March: G entered Austria
➢ 13 March: Austria officially annexed to G in violation of the Treaty of St
Germain-en-Laye
❖ April: plebiscite
➢ 99% approving the annexation
❖ Responses
➢ LON
■ Since G was invited and the plebiscite results confirmed, LON not
involved
➢ B&F
■ F was more concerned with Spain
■ Historiography:Gordon Martel: B had decided to accept (Anschluss in
an attempt to avoid war)
■ Both B and F believed that a strengthened G would be useful against
communism & same as Rhineland, why stop Germans who want to
live in Germany) & not strong enough militarily
■ Appeasement: policy of working with Germany to ease TOV conditions
● Give Hitler the impression that B and F were eager to let him
do what he wants
➢ USSR
■ Could only protest as domestic conflict
● Purges in ‘34: 700k executed & 1.5mil imprisoned
◆ Shocked many in B and F, ensure that they won’t work
with USSR
Oct ‘38: Sudeten Crisis
❖ 3 mil Germans lived in Czech
❖ Sudeten German Party demanded autonomy for Sudeten: seeing Anschluss
❖ March ‘38: head of SGP- Konrad Henlein met with Hitler
❖ Week later: Karlsbad Programme presented to President Edvard Benes (Czech
government does not agree to self governance)
➢ Sudeten critical as source of metal and mined products; main defense in
Sudeten
❖ Responses
➢ F:
■ Military alliance with Czech: alarmed but would not defend Czech as

12
 still developing the Maginot Line and producing weapons
➢ USSR:
■ Had mutual defence treaty in ‘35 (same with Franco-Soviet); Soviet
pledged would go to war but hollow
➢ B:
■ Public: did not oppose Germans living in Germany
■ Not willing to go to war over a state in Central or eastern Europe
■ Placed pressure on Benes to concede to Henlein
❖ July ‘38: F told C would not go to war to prevent loss of Sudeten
❖ Lord Runciman sent to demand C government to comply with demands
❖ While waiting for C to consider, G mobilise 750k troops to the border to force more
concessions
❖ Early Sep: C gave into most of the demands
❖ Henlein under orders to prevent any overall agreement
➢ 2 prominent members of SGP arrested during violent demonstration ->
Henlein ended talks with C
❖ 13 Sep: Chamberlain flew to Germany to discuss with Hitler
➢ French PM Daladier & Chamberlain agreed if any part of C that had
population of 50% G would be ceded to G
❖ 21 Sep: C no choice but to agree
❖ Immediately: H demanded areas that had hungarian/polish people should be ceded
to hungary/Poland, allow G troops to immediately occupy Sudeten (F reject)
❖ Settle on 1 Oct, ‘38 for invasion of Sudeten
❖ 30 Sep ‘38: Munich Agreement
➢ Mussolini alarmed: meeting between Italy, G, F, B in Munich, G on 28 Sep
➢ Stated
■ G recieve Sudeten
■ G troops will occupy between 1 Oct - 10 Oct
■ Plebiscites will be held to determine where the land goes to
■ G troops released from C military service
■ International commission will settle any disputes
➢ Historiography: Correlli Barnett: The Munich Agreement altered the strategic
balance of Europe in Hitler’s favour
❖ 30 Sep: Anglo-German Declaration (G and B would not go to war to resolve
problems)
❖ Result:
➢ France
■ French public in favour of Munich Agreement
■ France weakened by the crisis as lost an ally
■ Showed USSR that treaties contain little value
■ Nov ‘38: military spending increased 300%
■ Dec ‘38: Franco-German Declaration (pledge peace and respect
borders)
➢ Britain
■ B rearmament continued
➢ USSR
■ Realised B and F will accomodate fascist states
➢ Germany
■ Hitler’s popularity soared
■ Czechoslovakia dismantled quickly
● 2 Oct: Poland siezed Tesin
● 6 Oct: Slovakia (east) granted autonomy
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 ● 2 Nov: Hungary gains land from Southern C
● 20 Nov: G granted rights to build a highway across C to link G
to Vienna
■ ‘39, March 14: President Emil Hacha of C summoned and told to
either become part of G with some autonomy over internal affairs or
risk invasion
● Memel now returned

Polish Crisis 1938-39

❖ Polish corridor and Danzig separated East Prussia from G
❖ Oct ‘38: G requested negotiations to build rail and road links between G and East
Prussia
➢ If agree: 25 years non-aggression pact and compensated for the land
❖ Britain and France response
➢ B and F outraged thinking Munich Agreement the last of it
➢ Feb ‘39: B would support F militarily
➢ 31 March ‘39: verbal public declaration to gurantee Poland’s borders
■ But refused to send weapons or supplies (fear would provoke G) and
refused to give loans
■ Formal alliance only finalized on 25 Aug ‘39
➢ April ‘39: B conscript soldiers (Autumn: both countries resources combined
will surpass G)
➢ Mutual assistance agreements signed with Greece and Romania
➢ Attempts at negotiating with USSR
■ Historiography: M.B. Biskupski USSR had little interest in rescuing B
and G from a German threat, certainly none in aiding the despised
Poland
■ F&B could only promise to uphold 1939 borders (viewed USSR should
be thankful to be involved in International diplomacy)
■ USSR: wanted land lost post WW1: Finland, Poland, Estonia, Latvia,
Lithuania, part of Romania
■ Poland refuse to let any Soviets enter (concerned more on USSR than
G): so Soviets only fight G if they reach border
● Seemed that USSR was only a tool to be used
● Insulted F&B send low-level diplomats
❖ Germany’s response
➢ Historiography: Richard Overy & Andrew Wheatcroft: Hitler’s experience of
Western appeasement in 1938 convinced him that neither Britain nor France
would seriously fight for Poland
➢ April ‘39: Hitler ordered for plans to invade Poland (Case White)
➢ 28 April: Withdrew from Polish-German Non Aggression Pact
➢ May ‘39: Pact of Steel
➢ 23 August ‘39: Nazi-Soviet Pact: USSR and G would not fight each other,
parts of P would be reabsorbed
❖ 21 Aug ‘39: begin mobilization and implementation of Case White for invasion on
26th
❖ 25 Aug ‘39: 1) B&P formally signed alliance 2) Mussolini asked to be relieved from
Pact of Steel
❖ 28 Aug: B issue formal warning to G not to violate
➢ B issued emergency rationing of food and essential supplies
➢ Ships in Baltic and Meditarranean to relocate
❖ 31 Aug: Sign treaties in Berlin (Danzig and Polish corridor returned to G) but P
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❖ 1 Sep: BOOM BOOM INVASION
➢ 1.5 mil men invaded north, west, east
➢ Slovakia army invade South
❖ Response:
➢ 2 Sep: 5 Power Conference (where B, F, G, Poland and Italy would try and
resolve): B condition for meeting is G had to remove from Poland. G reject
❖ 3 Sep: F & B declare WAR

Historiography on Causes of WW2

❖ Not entirely Hitler’s fault
➢ AJP Taylor: Hitler’s foreign policy was similar to past western states: just
expanded on it
➢ “There was nothing wrong with Hitler except that he was German”
❖ Poland’s fault
➢ Benton L. Bradberry: Poland was the one who refused to negotiate
➢ Mike Eckel: “war began because Poland refused to satisfy German’s claims
➢ AJP Taylor, Richard Overy: A lot of Germans felt strongly about Danzig and
Polish Corridor
❖ Britain fault
➢ Richard Overy: B had to remain a world power as G now didn’t ask for
permission
➢ “The B and F decision for war...seen against the background of growing
fears ...profound threat to their existing ways of life
➢ PMH Bell: B guarantee to P in March seen as provocation
➢ AJP Taylor: war only broke out when B and F declared war 2 days later

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