Gauss’s Law

 
Charge and Electric Flux  E   E  dA
Electric flux computations   Qenc
Gauss‟s Law   dA 
E
S 0 spherical symmetry
EP 
1
4 0

q
r2
rˆ , ...

Using Gauss‟s Law to Calculate the E-field 

cylindrical symmetry EP   rˆ
in high-symmetry situations 2 0 r
planar symmetry 
E  const
2 0
Charges on conductors

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Recall our chapter 21/22 roadmap… Two basic problems in electrostatics:

1) Given a charge distribution determine the electric field at point P

Coulomb‟s Electric We used Coulomb‟s law for a (point charge) & superposition
Law Fields principle to determine this question in Chapter 21.

2) Given the electric field in a region, determine the charge distribution

that produced it.

In this chapter we discuss a law that answers this question in principle,

but also allows us to easily answer the first question (i.e. the
Gauss‟s determination of E itself) in situations with sufficient SYMMETRY.
Law

Problem-solving tip: We use Coulomb‟s Law/Superposition in situations of low symmetry,

and Gauss‟s Law in situations of high symmetry. As we will show, the two laws are equivalent
to each other. The situation is analogous to calculating integrals via Riemann sums or using
antiderivatives and the fundamental theorem of calculus. 2
Gauss‟s Law - Overview
Gauss‟s law, like Coulomb‟s law, is a relationship between electric charge and the electric field charge sets up.
Central to Gauss‟s Law is a hypothetical, closed1 surface in space called a
Gaussian surface. The closed surface is arbitrary – YOU CHOOSE IT.

A encloses the positive charge.

4 Gaussian surfaces: B encloses the negative charge.
C encloses both and D encloses neither.

Gauss’s Law tells us how the fields at and over the Gaussian surface are
related to the charges contained within that surface.

To make this idea quantitative requires us to introduce the notion of an electric flux through the surface.

1The fact that it is closed means there is a well-defined outside and inside.

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Electric Flux – Fluid Flow Analogy
Suppose you dip a rectangular loop enclosing an area A in a uniformly flowing stream
with velocity v ) so the loop is perpendicular to the current stream. The rate at which water
flows through the loop (in say m3/s) is simply:   dV  Av This is the called the flux.
dt
If the loop‟s cross-sectional area is not perpendicular to the velocity, then less water
flows through the loop. If we DEFINE the vector A  Anˆ A  area of loop
nˆ  unit normal vector
which is perpendicular to the plane defined by the cross-sectional area, then the
volume flow rate, or the flux, through the loop can be written as
 is the angle between
  A v  Av cos  nˆ (or A) and v.

For an open surface, like the loop, there is an ambiguity

in the direction of n. With closed surfaces, we will always
define n to be the OUTWARD unit normal vector. 4
Electric Flux - In the fluid analogy the collection of velocity vectors of each fluid particle collectively form the
„velocity field‟, and streamlines are the unique particle trajectories formed by „connecting‟ velocity vectors from
point to point in such a way that the velocity vectors at each point are tangent to the streamline.

The notion of flux through a surface depends

only on the existence of a vector field. Thus, we
similarly define electric flux of a uniform E-field
through an open rectangular surface as

 E  E A  EA cos 

even though nothing is actually „flowing‟ in this case, and again remind ourselves that E-field lines are not
trajectories but lines of force. Here the electric field plays the role of the velocity field in the fluid case.

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YF22.2 A flat sheet is in the shape of a rectangle with sides of lengths
0.400 m and 0.600 m. The sheet is immersed in a uniform electric field of
magnitude 75.0 N/C that is directed at 20° from the plane of the sheet.
Find the magnitude of the electric flux through the sheet.
Note carefully how the angle was measured.

As we mentioned, Gauss‟s law involves closed surfaces which intuitively divide

three-dimensional space into an „inside‟ and „outside‟ (and the surface itself). The normal
is taken to be the outward unit normal (no Klein bottles!). We are then interested in the
flux through the entire surface. As in integral calculus the idea will be to break the surface
into an infinite number of infinitesimal rectangles and define the electric flux provisionally as:

 E ~  Ei  Ai   Ei Ai cos i

A Klein bottle is a non-orientable surface

that has no inside/outside, but is not
realizable in 3D without self-intersections.

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Electric Flux – General Definition
In the simultaneous limit of a larger and larger number of smaller and smaller rectangles
that cover the surface S we define the electric flux as the surface integral:
  dA  ndA
 E   E  dA   E cos  dA   E dA ˆ
S S S
„closed‟
This allows us to deal with both non-uniform fields, and curved surfaces.
θ Direction of E Sign of E·dA
>90° Into surface Negative
=90° Parallel to surface Zero
<90° Out of surface Positive

In general this multiple integral is very difficult to compute, but in every example we will consider, the integral will
reduce to at worst a (set of) single ordinary integral(s), usually because of the symmetry of the problem.

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YF22.4(a) (Simple closed surface, non-uniform field)
A cube has sides of length L = 0.300 m. It is placed with one corner at the origin as
shown. The electric field is not uniform but is given by
E  (5.00 N / C  m) x ˆi  (3.00 N / C  m) z kˆ
Calculate the electric flux through each of the six cube faces, and find the total electric flux.
(A case where we actually have to integrate to get a flux, b/c the field is nonuniform over a surface.)

YF22.5 A hemispherical surface with radius r in a region of uniform electric field

E has its axis aligned parallel to the direction of the field. Calculate the flux through E E E
the open hemispherical surface.
Hint: Given the field is uniform what is the total flux through the closed surface consisting of the hemisphere and its endcap?

8
Enclosed Charge and Electric Flux
Gauss‟s Law relates the electric flux through a Gaussian surface to the charge enclosed by this fictitious surface.

More enclosed positive charge, More enclosed negative charge,

more outward flux of field lines... more inward flux of field lines...
Positive charge = source of field lines. Negative charge = sink of field lines.

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Enclosed Charge and Electric Flux
Doubling the charge doubles the flux, but doubling the
dimensions of the Gaussian surface (here the box), does
NOT change the flux as long as we enclose no additional
charge: the same number of field lines cross the surface.
Intuitively, although the box is bigger the field lines are „less dense‟ in an exactly
compensating manner. We will make this quantitatively precise shortly.

Positive charges act as sources of field lines while negative charges act as sinks of field lines. If the net charge
enclosed by a Gaussian surface is zero, then there is no net flow of field lines into or out of the surface.

It is crucial to understand that while the presence of charge OUTSIDE the Gaussian surface affects the
electric field on the surface of the Gaussian surface, it does not affect the NET flux through the box.

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 Gauss‟s Law for a Point Charge (from Coulomb‟s law)
Consider a positive point charge and a Gaussian sphere of
radius r centered on the point charge. Last chapter we saw
the E-field is given by: 1 q
E (r )   2 rˆ (Coulomb‟s law)
4 0 r
This expression is spherically symmetric (it depends only on r): thus the
magnitude of the E-field is the same everywhere on the Gaussian sphere.
Furthermore, the unit normal on the sphere is simply r̂ itself, and r is
constant over the sphere. Thus: surface area of sphere
  1 q 1 q q
S     dA     since the area of
2
E dA ( 4 r )
rˆ  rˆ  1 4 0 r 2 S 4 0 r2 0 the sphere is 4πr2.

Doubling R quadruples the area of the

patch, but the field falls off by a factor of
4 because of the inverse square law.
Thus the flux remains unchanged.

This cancellation between the r2 coming from the surface area of the
sphere and the 1/r2 in the inverse square law is utterly crucial for
everything that follows; e.g. if Coulomb‟s law wasn‟t inverse square,
the flux would depend on the Gaussian surface chosen! 11
Generalizing Gauss‟s Law   Qenc
We show this in two parts:
Claim: IN GENERAL  E  SE  dA 
0 
1) that the choice of Gaussian surface is arbitrary (so long as Qenc doesn‟t change)1 .
2) It holds not just for point charges, but arbitrary charge configurations.

1) Surround the charge with an arbitrary closed surface, and

consider a small area element dA on the irregular surface. This
is larger than the corresponding spherical patch at the same r. If
n̂ makes an angle  relative to r̂ , two sides of the area projected onto
the spherical surface are foreshortened by a factor of cos  . Either way,
the flux is given by E cos  dA . The result follows by summing over patches.

2) This follows directly from the superposition principle and the linearity of integration.

   
Rigourous Proof Divergence theorem (from vector calculus) :
(i.e. 3D analogue of the fundamental theorem of calculus)    E  
V V
E  dA
Compute the divergence of the E-field due to a point charge: (away from the origin.)
  Q rˆ  Q    x    y    z  Q  1 3x 2 1 3 y 2 1 3z 2 
   
2   x  r 3   y  r 3   z  r 3   4  r 3  r 5  r 3  r 5  r 3  r 5   0
 4 0 r  4 0        0  
where r  x 2  y 2  z 2 , rˆ  ( xiˆ  yˆj  zkˆ) / r

Apply div. theorem and the result to the region between the Gaussian sphere and the arbitrary Gaussian surface:
       
0     E   E  nˆs dA   E  dA  E  dA   E  nˆs dA
V sphere S S sphere

On the sphere‟s

surface, the „outward‟ unit normal to the enclosed volume points „inward‟, while the E-field points
outward, i.e. E  E (r )rˆ , nˆs  rˆ    q using the result on the previous slide.
Thus:
S 
E  dA  
sphere 
E  rˆ dA  QED
0
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Gauss‟s Law One of Maxwell’s Four Equations governing all electromagnetic phenomena
   Q
Equivalent statements:  E   E  dA   E  nˆ dA   E cos  dA   E dA  enc
S S S S 0
In colloquial English: The electric flux through any closed surface of any charge distribution
is proportional to the charge enclosed by the surface.

Note that Qenc itself will often be an integral of a volumetric charge density: Qenc   dq    dV
that will always collapse to a single integral (at worst) for the symmetrical configurations we consider.
So it is the right hand side of Gauss‟s law that will involve calculus in our calculations, not the LHS!

While Gauss`s law can be used to compute the E-field in highly symmetrical situations (as we`ll see), it can also
be used to determine the charge configuration if the field is known, as well as to prove certain results.

“Gauss was the greatest of all mathematicians and perhaps the

most richly gifted genius of whom there is any record.” 13
Phys 230 Fall 2009 Midterm (Short Answer 3) Gauss‟s Law example of going from E-field to charge distribution…
3. (3 marks) In a particular region of space the E-field is given by, where z is the distance along the z-axis and A= 6.00×103
N/(C·m). How much charge is enclosed by a cylinder of circular cross section (radius 2.00 m, height 3.00 m) concentric with
z
the z-axis, and whose bottom face is at z = 1.00 m?
z = 4.0 m
E
z = 1.0 m

a) 1.50 μC b) 2.00 μC c) 2.67 μC d) 3.34 μC e) 4.50 μC

Tailored specifically
Formula(e) Used: _____________________________________________________________ to the question!

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Gauss‟s Law and Symmetry
Although Gauss‟s law is always true, it is not always useful. Unless a symmetry is present to make the flux
integral tractable/easy/trivial or if a „poor‟ choice of Gaussian surface is made, then the law is harder to use than
Chapter 21 methods. In the following examples we will always have one of the following three situations:

Spherical Symmetry: Choose Gaussian surface as a concentric sphere.

Cylindrical Symmetry: Choose Gaussian surface a coaxial cylinder
Planar Symmetry: Choose Gaussian surface as a „pillbox‟ which straddles the surface.

Although the second and third of these technically require infinite lines and planes, we will often use them in an
approximate sense (as we did in Ch 21): watch out for keywords like “very large planes” or “very long lines” or
“very close to” in the sense that the edges of the charged object are very far away.

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The three standard examples: Uniformly Charged Spherical Shell (of radius R)
In the previous chapter we worked very hard to determine to the electric field of a uniformly charged spherical shell.
Inside sphere: Choose a Gaussian sphere of radius r<R centered concentrically with the
shell. The Gaussian surface lies entirely inside the hollow shell, and so encloses no r
charge. Gauss‟s law implies that E=0 everywhere on the Gaussian surface. Since r was
R
otherwise arbitrary, we conclude E=0 everywhere inside the shell!
Outside sphere: Choose a Gaussian sphere of radius r>R centered concentrically with
the shell. Since the sphere is uniformly charged, the E-field is spherically symmetric.
This implies 1) on the Gaussian sphere the magnitude of the E-field is the same everywhere,
and 2) the E-field is directed radially outward. Thus E (r )  E (r )rˆ , and comes out of
the integral over the surface:   Q Q 1
 E (r )  dA  E  dA  E (4 r )  E (r )  rˆ
2
S 0 4 0 r 2 outside the shell.

This is the shell theorem – the easy way!

Spherical symmetry is invariance under rotations (either of polar or azimuthal coordinate) about a center. 16
The three standard examples: Uniformly Charged Infinite Line
Here the symmetry is cylindrical (aka axial), so choose a cylindrical Gaussian
surface surrounding the long line charge. The symmetry implies that the E-field
must point radially outward from the line charge (otherwise there would be a
preferred direction). Thus no electric flux passes through the endcaps since cos   0 .
The flux passes perpendicularly across the „side‟ of the cylinder, which has surface
area 2πrl. Thus since E must be constant on the side of the cylinder:
  Q Q 
  dA  E (r )
E
S side
dA  E (2rl ) 
0
E (r ) 
2 0 rl

2 0 r
since the linear charge density is
uniform.

Again, this agrees with the result we found in previously, but obtained in a much easier manner.

Cylindrical symmetry is invariance under translations along the line, and rotations about the line. 17
The three standard examples: Uniformly Charged Infinite Plane
Choose the Gaussian surface to be a „pillbox‟ of cross-sectional area A
(it doesn‟t have to be circular as the diagram suggests), that symmetrically
straddles the sheet. The planar symmetry implies that the E-field is directed
perpendicular to the plane (to avoid preferred directions). Thus the flux is
directed through only the endcaps (none passes through the lateral surface).
Furthermore, translational invariance on the endcap itself implies that E is constant on
the endcaps (otherwise there are preferred points on the plane itself). Thus:
  Qenc Qenc 
 E  dA  E (r )
S endcaps
dA  E (2 A) 
0
E 
2 A 0 2 0
since the surface charge density is
uniform.
Thus far we haven’t even done any integrations...

Planar symmetry is invariance under translations along either direction parallel to the plane. 18
YF Example 22.9: Uniformly Charged Solid Sphere (Insulated)
A slightly more nontrivial example...same spherical symmetry arguments apply
Outside Sphere: Gaussian surface sphere radius r>R
  Q Q 1 as with the point charge,
S E ( r )  dA  E (4 r 2 ) 
0
E ( r ) 
4 r 2 and spherical shell.
0
Inside Sphere: Gaussian surface sphere radius r<R. Now however, we have to
determine how much (of the total) charge is contained in the Gaussian sphere.
dq Q
Uniform    const and so taking spherical shells of volume 4πr2dr
dV V
r 4 r 3 Qr 3 Qr 3 Q r
Qenc   dq    dV     4 r dr 
2
 3 E (4 r ) 
2
E (r ) 
0 3 R Gauss’s Law  0 R3 4 0 R3

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YF22.57 (Non-Uniform, but Spherically Symmetric Distribution)
A non-uniform but spherically symmetric distribution of charge has a charge density ρ(r) given as follows:
  (1  r / R) , r  R 3Q
 (r )   0 where 0 
 0 , r  R  R 3

(a) Show that the total charge contained in the charge distribution is Q.
(b) Show that the electric field in the region r≥R is identical to that produced by a point charge Q at r=0.
(c) Obtain an expression for the electric field in the region r≤R.
(d) Graph the electric-field magnitude E as a function of r.
region over which
(e) Find the value of r at which the electric field is at its maximum, and find that maximum. ρ~const
r
Again, we’ll need to calculate for (d) the enclosed charge from Qenc    dV    (r )4 r dr
2
0

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Phys 230 Fall 2009 Midterm (Long Answer 2) (See also YF 22.65) A touch of quantum mechanics 
-19
9. The neutral hydrogen atom consists of a proton of charge +Q = 1.6×10 C and a bound electron of charge
–Q = –1.6×10-19 C. In nonrelativistic quantum mechanics we model the proton as a point charge at the origin, but the
electron’s motion is inherently non-deterministic, and we can only speak of the probability of finding it somewhere. In
fact we can think of its charge as being ‘smeared out’, and an electron in the ground state can be described by the
spherically symmetric (but non-uniform) charge distribution:
Q  2 r / a0
 (r )   e where a0 is called the Bohr radius of the hydrogen atom.
 a03
 x n e  cx n n1 cx
(a) Use integration by parts to show that  x e dx 
n cx
  x e dx . [1] Hand-holding. Expect to use it in part (b)!
c c
(b) Find the total amount of the hydrogen atom’s charge that is enclosed within a sphere of radius r centered on the
proton. [4] (One check of your answer is that lim q(r )  0 , since the atom is neutral.)
r 
(c) Find the magnitude of the E-field as a function of r. [3]

A non-uniform but spherically symmetric charge distribution

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Conductors and Gauss‟s Law
Consider a conductor with no holes, aka „cavities‟ in it.
In the last chapter we showed that in an electrostatic situation, the E-field in the
interior of a conductor had to be everywhere zero. Consider what Gauss‟s law now
implies, by taking an arbitrary Gaussian surface entirely contained inside the conductor.

Since the E-field everywhere on the Gaussian surface is zero, Gauss‟s law implies
the net enclosed charge is zero. Since the Gaussian surface was otherwise arbitrary,
by shrinking the surface down and moving it around within in the conductor, we can
conclude that the charge everywhere inside the conductor is zero.

In other words any excess charge carried by a conductor without cavities is carried entirely on its surface.

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Conductors continued: YF 22.51/Example YF22.8 YF22.51
Warning: E  
for a thin sheet of charge
2 0

but E for a single conducting surface
0
(or between two oppositely charged conducting plates,
called a parallel plate capacitor.)

In the former case, we view the charge distribution on a charged conducting sheet as being composed of two
sheets of charge (one on each surface). In the latter case, all of the charge on each plate is drawn to one surface
(because of attraction to the other plate). Choose Gaussian cylinders with one end inside the conductor or use the
superposition principle to convince yourself of the conducting case results.

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Conductors and Cavities
What happens if there‟s a cavity in the conductor? A Gaussian surface surrounding the cavity, Gauss‟s law, and the
fact that E=0 inside an electrostatic conductor establishes that no net charge is enclosed.

If there‟s no charge in the cavity, then there‟s no net charge on the surface of the cavity (inner surface of
conductor). In the next chapter we‟ll be able to show that in fact there is no charge anywhere on the inner surface.

If there‟s a charge +Q in the cavity then a charge of –Q must be induced in the surface of the cavity. If the
conductor was neutral, charge conservation requires a charge +Q to be form on the outside surface of the
conductor. Note this means there will be a discontinuities in the E-field across surfaces.

If the conductor has a net charge on it, then charges will arrange themselves so that the E-field inside the
conductor remains zero.

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YF22.37 (The Coaxial Cable) A long coaxial cable consists of an inner cylindrical
conductor with radius a and an outer coaxial cylinder with inner radius b and outer
radius c. The outer cylinder is mounted on insulating supports and has no net charge.
The inner cylinder has a uniform positive charge per unit length λ. Calculate the
electric field (a) at any point between the cylinders a distance r from the axis,
(b) at any point outside the outer cylinder. (c) Graph the magnitude of the electric field
as a function of the distance r from the axis of the cable, from r=0 to r= 2c.
(d) Find the charge per unit length on the inner surface and on the outer surface of the outer cylinder.

Remember: Conductors have their charge spread out only on their surfaces (possibly inner and outer)
in electrostatics, whereas insulators can have their charge spread throughout their volumes.

25
Phys 230 Fall 2009 Midterm (Short Answer 4 & 5)
Use the following information for questions 4 and 5.
A hollow conducting sphere has inner and outer radii of 0.80 m and 1.20 m respectively. It carries a net charge
of –500 nC. A uniformly charged insulated ball of radius 0.20 m with a total charge of +200 nC is present at
the center of the hollow conducting sphere. 0.80 m

4. (2 marks) What is the ratio of the surface charge density on the outer surface of the conducting sphere to 1.2 m
the surface charge density on the inner surface of the conducting sphere? (Hint: Find the charge on the surfaces first.)
a) zero b) 3/2 c) 1 d) 2/3 e) 4/9

5. (2 marks) Qualitatively sketch the magnitude of the E-field as a function of distance r from the center of the
insulating ball.

26
YF22.48 A solid conducting sphere with radius R carries a positive total charge Q. The sphere is surrounded by
an insulating shell with inner radius R and outer radius 2R. The insulating shell has a uniform charge density ρ.
(a) Find the value of ρ so that the net charge of the entire system is zero.
(b) If ρ has the value in (a), find the E-field (mag. and dir.) in each of the regions 0 < r < R, R < r< 2R, and r > 2R.
Graph the radial component of E as a function of r.

Earnshaw‟s Theorem (See YF22.56) Time & Interest permitting

Prove that a point charge q cannot be held in stable equilibrium by electrostatic forces alone (from external charge
distributions).
Hint: Use Gauss’s law and a ‘proof by contradiction’. What must be the E-field look like
near a conjectured point of stable equilibrium?

27
Time Permitting: Application & Superposition Example (YF22.63)
Positive charge Q is distributed uniformly over each of two spherical volumes
with radius R. One sphere of charge is centered at the origin and the other
at x= 2R. Find the magnitude and direction of the net electric field due
to these two distributions of charge at the following points on the x-axis.

(a) x= 0, (b) x = R/2, (c) x= R, (d) = 3R

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