Capacitors and Dielectrics

Capacitors and Capacitance C  Q / Vab

1 1 1
Capacitors in Series and Parallel    ... Ceq, p  C1  C2  ...
Ceq , s C1 C2
Q2 1 1 1
U  CV 2  QV u  U / Vol   0 E 2
Energy Storage in Capacitors and Electric Field Energy 2C 2 2 2

C E V
Dielectrics and molecular model of Induced Charge K , E 0 ,V  0
C0 K K

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Capacitors and Capacitance An abstract capacitor
Capacitors are one of the three basic electrical elements in any electrical circuit (the other
two are resistors and inductors). Electrical circuits form the basis of the majority of devices
in our modern technological society.
A capacitor is any configuration of two conductors separated by an insulator.
Capacitors are an efficient way to separate charge in order to store energy electrically.
Vertical lines represent the conductors.
Capacitor symbol: Horizontal lines represent wires

When we „charge a capacitor‟ (via a battery for example), we transfer charge –Q onto one
conductor, and the other conductor acquires a charge of +Q. However, the net charge on a
capacitor is always zero. When we refer to the charge of a capacitor, we refer to the magnitude
of the charge on either of the two conductors.

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Capacitors and Capacitance
Once the capacitor is charged, a potential difference exists between the two capacitors. If the battery is removed
after the system reaches equilibrium, the potential difference is equal to that of the battery.
Experiments1 show that the quantity of charge Q on a capacitor is linearly proportional to the potential difference
between the capacitors. The constant of proportionality is called the capacitance C:
Q
C capacitance = amount of charge the capacitor can store
Vab per unit of potential difference

Surprisingly C depends only on the geometry (shapes, sizes, orientations) of the conductors, and the insulating
material that exists between them. The greater the capacitance, the greater the magnitude of charge Q that can
be put on each conductor for a given voltage.
Thus capacitance is a measure of a capacitor to store energy. SI Unit: 1 C/V = 1 F(arad)

Cylindrical capacitors
1or Coulomb‟s law

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Example 1: The isolated charged sphere (See YF 24.67 – Capacitance of the Earth)
Although we said that a capacitor consists of two conductors, we can consider the simple case of an isolated
charged sphere and an imaginary spherical shell “at infinity” (playing the role of the second conductor) on which
the field lines from the sphere terminate: the E-field surrounding the real sphere is the same. Thus we can speak
of the capacitance due to the real sphere of radius R.
1 Q
In Ch. 23 we computed the potential outside a charged spherical shell relative to infinity as: Vr 
4 0 r
Q
Thus the capacitance is immediately given by: C   4 0 R
VR

Notice the capacitance depends only on R, i.e. the geometry.

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Example 2: Parallel Plate Capacitor
Start with the E-field between the two sheets of charge. Superposition gives us:
  ˆ  ˆ
E  E  E  ( ˆj )  ( j)  j (Recall Ch 21/22)
2 0 2 0 0
The voltage between the plates is thus: In detail:
b  b  d l  yjˆ  dl  ˆj dy
Vab   E  dl    dy  (a  b)   Ed
a 0 a 0 0
This simple result holds only for uniform fields!
Q A
and the capacitance is C  0
(recall:   Q / A )
 d / 0 d This depends only on the geometry (i.e. A and d).

Notice: The capacitance is proportional to the area, and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates.

Notice that [ε0] = Farad/m

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Example 3: Cylindrical Capacitor
Consider an inner cylindrical conductor of radius ra carrying linear charge
density +λ and an outer cylindrical shell of radius rb, with charge density –λ.

From Ch 21/22: E  rˆ between the cylinders.
2 0 r
Integrating along a radial path dl  rˆ dr , the voltage between the two cylinders is:
rb  rb dr  r 
Vab   E  dl    ln  b   0
ra 2 0 ra r 2 0  ra 

Q 2 0 L
and the capacitance is C  
 ln(rb / ra ) / 2 0 ln(rb / ra )

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Example 4: (Concentric) Spherical Capacitor
With the Gaussian surface as shown, Q
E rˆ for ra  r  rb
Gauss‟s law gives us: 4 0 r 2

Integrating along a radial path dl  rˆ dr , the voltage between the two shells is
rb Q rb dr Q  1 1  Q(r b  ra )
Vab   E  dl       0
ra 4 0 ra r 2 4 0  rb ra  4 0 ra rb
4 0 ra rb
The capacitance is: C  4 0 ra rb
rb  ra Notice that lim  4 0 ra recovering our earlier result.
rb  r  r
b a

Note: The geometric mean of two quantities a and b is ab

4 ra rb is the geometric mean of the areas 4 ra2 , 4 rb2
rb  ra is the distance between the spheres.
so we can write the result as C  Agm 0 / d 7
YF24.10 A cylindrical capacitor has an inner conductor of radius 0.250 cm, surrounded by an outer hollow
conducting tube. The two conductors are separated by air, and the length of the cylinder is 12.0 cm. The
capacitance is 36.7 pF. (a) What is the inner radius of hollow tube? (b) When charged to 125 V, what is λ?

YF 24.54 In one type of computer keyboard, each key holds a small metal plate
that serves as one plate of a parallel-plate air-filled capacitor. When the key is
depressed, the plate separation decreases and the capacitance increases. Electronic
circuitry detects the change in capacitance and thus detects that the key has been
pressed. In one particular keyboard the area of each metal plate is 42.0 mm2, and the
separation between the plates is 0.700 mm before the key is depressed.
(a) Calculate the capacitance before the key is depressed.
(b) If the circuitry can detect a change in capacitance of 0.250 pF, how far must the
key be depressed before the circuitry detects its depression?

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Capacitors in Circuits: Series Configuration
Capacitors often occur in combination as parts of electrical circuits. One configuration
is a series configuration1 in which the capacitors occur in sequence as we trace along
one path in a circuit.

Claim: In series, the charge on each plate of each capacitor has the same magnitude.
The total voltage across both capacitors is the sum of the voltages across each.

Proof: The part of the circuit containing c has zero net charge before the circuit is
connected to a battery. It is isolated and so the net charge cannot change. When we
connect a battery (so Vab > 0), electrons flow from the top plate of C1 and are deposited
on the bottom plate of C2. Eventually equilibrium is reached, and the positive charge +Q left behind on the top plate
of C1 attracts a charge of –Q to the bottom plate of C1, which means that charge +Q must be left at the top of C2.

1Generically, a series configuration is one in which the current flow through

both of the elements in series is the same. However, for „capacitors‟ specifically
this is misleading since no current flows through the capacitor. This interpretation
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of the word series is more appropriate for resistors (Ch 25) and inductors (Ch 29/30).
Capacitors in Circuits: Series Configuration
In equilibrium, the configuration is electrostatic and the E-fields inside the conducting
wires are 0, i.e. the potential at pt a is the same as the top plate of C1 (same with pt
b & bottom plate of C2). Thus the total voltage across both capacitors is the same
as that across the battery. Since the bottom plate of C1 and the top plate of C2 are
also at the same potential in equilibrium, the sum of the voltages across both are
Vac  Vcb  Vab
The equivalent capacitance of the series combination is the capacitance required of a single capacitor if it was to
replace the two capacitors with the same charge and voltage. Using our two claims,
Q Q Q 1 1 1 Similarly, if we have more than two in series:
Ceq     
Vab Vac  Vcb Q / C1  Q / C2 Ceq C1 C2 1/ Ceq ,series  1/ C1  1/ C2  1/ C3  ...

Memorize: In series Vtotal = V1 + V2 + ...

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Capacitors in Circuits: Parallel Configuration
Circuit elements that are in parallel have the same voltage drop across them1.
In other words the upper/lower plates of the two capacitors and the wire that
connects them are equipotential surfaces in equilibrium.

Now the charges on each are (in general) different. Now the equivalent
capacitance is determined from: Q Q1  Q2
Ceq    C1  C2
Vab Vab

The same argument extends to parallel configurations of more than two capacitors:
Ceq, parallel  C1  C2  C3  ...

Memorize: In parallel Qtotal = Q1 + Q2 + ...

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1as opposed to the same current through them
Capacitor Networks: Circuit Reduction Example (SJ26.3ex)
Find the equivalent capacitance between a and b: The key is to reduce the circuit one step at a time...
1.0

4.0 μF
4.0 4.0 2.0
3.0
6.0

a b a b a b a b
6.0
8.0 8.0 4.0
2.0 8.0

Ceq= 1.0 + 3.0 = 4.0 μF 1/Ceq = 1/4.0 + 1/4.0 = 1/2.0 Ceq = 2.0 + 4.0 = 6.0 μF
Ceq= 6.0 + 2.0 = 8.0 μF 1/Ceq = 1/8.0 + 1/8.0 = 1/4.0

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YF24.59 (What is equivalent capacitance good for?)
In the figure, C1=C5= 8.4 μF and C2=C3=C4= 4.2 μF. The applied potential is
Vab= 220 V. (a) What is the equivalent capacitance of the network between
a and b? (b) Calculate the charge and potential difference across each capacitor.
(The key idea is to work backwards from the reduced circuit applying
the rules for parallel and series that determine charges and voltages.)

This question motivated part of the Fall 2009 Final Exam Question…

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Energy Storage in Capacitors (A mechanical analogue)
Recall the argument that takes us from Hooke‟s law F=kx to U=1/2 kx2 :

Force applied to stretch a spring from equil. to to x=X: F ( x)  kX

Differential work1 done to stretch it from X to X+dX: dW  kX dX
x 1 2

Work done to stretch it from 0 to x is thus: W  dW  0
kXdX 
2
kx
dX
1
The work we do to stretch the spring is stored as potential energy, so U  kx 2
2
1 2
If we agree to define the spring as having no potential energy when it is unstretched, then U ( x)  kx
2

1We have a variable force here so your high school definition of

work “W=Fd” only holds infinitesimally, where we can treat
14 F as
constant. The point is F=kX depends on X!
Energy Storage in Capacitors In the analogy with the spring,
the charge q plays the role of
Similarly, suppose we‟ve already placed a charge q on a capacitor of capacitance C. stretch x, and the inverse
q capacitance (called elastance)
The voltage across the capacitor (when the charge is q) is then V (q)  plays the role of the force
C
q constant k.
The differential work we do to add another charge dq is: dW  V (q) dq  dq
C
(Since the voltage varies while we‟re adding charge, just as a force on the spring varies
as we‟re adding stretch, we again have to consider the differential work and integrate.)
Q q Q2
Thus the work done to charge the capacitor from q=0 to q=Q is: W   dW   dq 
0 C 2C
Q2
If we agree to say that the electrical potential energy of an uncharged capacitor is zero then U 
2C

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Energy Storage in Capacitors (using Q=VC)
Q2 1 1
Alternate forms of this expression: U   CV 2  QV
2C 2 2
Electric-Field Energy (NOT a new kind of energy)

We can think of the work done to charge a capacitor as energy stored in

the charge separation/distribution itself (as we did in the last chapter), OR
alternatively, we can think of the energy as being stored in the electric field
between the conductors of the capacitor. They are the SAME energy.
A dramatic application of capacitors
“The Z-Machine”
Let’s see how this works for a simple parallel plate capacitor...

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Electric-Field Energy Volume for parallel
A plate capacitor = Ad
For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is given by: C   0
d
the charge is given by: Q   A
and the E-field mag. is given by: E   /  0
Q 2  2 A2 d 1
Let‟s re-express the potential energy in terms of the electric field: U     0 E 2 Ad
2C 2 0 A 2
1
More conveniently written in terms of the energy density u  U / Vol  U / ( Ad )   0 E 2 Electric energy
(i.e. energy per unit volume) 2 density in vacuum

The remarkable thing about this result is that although we derived it for the simple case of a parallel plate
capacitor, it holds for any geometry (in vacuum). In fact, it holds even in empty space away from any charges, i.e.
for any vacuum electric field configuration. On your assignment, you will verify this for a cylindrical capacitor.

This is a key component of the energy contained in an electromagnetic wave!

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YF24.30 A parallel-plate vacuum capacitor has 8.38 J of energy stored in it. The separation between the plates is
2.30 mm. If the separation is decreased to 1.15 mm, what is the energy stored (a) if the capacitor is disconnected
from the potential source so the charge on the plates remains constant, and (b) if the capacitor remains connected
to the potential source so the potential difference between the plates remains constant.
“Potential source” = battery for our purposes here (idealized battery that has constant potential)

YF24.56/SJEx26.4 Two capacitors C1 =4.0 μF and C2 = 9.0 μF are charged to the same
(Try for general C1 and C2.)
initial potential difference Vab = V0 = 28 V. The charged capacitors are disconnected from
the source and from each other, and then reconnected to each other with plates of
opposite sign together. Be very careful with signs in
(a) How much does the energy of the system decrease? charge conservation!
Key idea: Q1,f + Q2,f = Q1,0 – Q2,0

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Dielectrics Q0 , C0
A dielectric is a nonconducting material inserted between the two conductors in a capacitor.
Three functions of a dielectric:
1) solves mechanical problem of keeping charged sheets physically apart
2) increases the maximum possible potential difference between sheets (dielectric breakdown)
3) increases the capacitance (charge per unit potential difference) of the capacitor

Inserting a dielectric for a capacitor of charge Q0 (not connected to a battery) and capacitance C0:
1) decreases the E-field magnitude between the conductors
2) decreases the potential difference between the two conductors
3) increases the capacitance of the conductor a b
Vab

Warning: For problems involving the modification of a capacitor, you must note
whether the modifications are being made while the capacitor is connected to
a battery (so holding V fixed, Q changes), or after the capacitor is disconnected
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(so holding Q fixed, V changes).
Dielectrics: molecular model Why does this happen? With either polar or non-polar
substances, the E-field causes
a re-distribution of charge within
the dielectric. In turn this effectively
creates a formation of bound1
surface charge on each surface of
the dielectric, denoted σi (i = induced).

Net charge in dielectric remains

zero, but the material has become
polarized.

1as opposed to the free charges found in a conductor.

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Dielectrics: molecular model The effect of the polarization of
the dielectric, and the formation of
opposite surface charges σi, is to
partially cancel the „original‟
electric field.


With no dielectric: E0 
(parallel plate of course) 0
 i
With dielectric: E 
0
Note: E < E0

„0‟ subscripts denote quantities

in vacuum in this section.
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Dielectric Constant
Since we have no way (in this course) of computing the bound surface charges σi on the surface of the dielectric
from first principles (it is a material dependent question), it is very convenient to introduce an experimental
parameter K called the dielectric constant, that captures the same idea: E
K  0 1 (with Q =const)
E
b
Since Vab  a
E  dl any re-scaling of E, rescales V by the same amount, i.e. E0  KE  V0  KV

If the charge is held fixed on the capacitor (i.e. we disconnect a charge source such as a battery before inserting
the dielectric), then: Q Q Q
C   K  KC0 i.e. the effect of the dielectric is to increase the capacitance.
V V0 / K V0
  i  1
If we are given K, we can compute the bound surface charge density: E  , E     1  
0 0
i
 K
0

(for a parallel plate capacitor)

Here the subscript 0 refers to no dielectric.

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Permittivity & Dielectric Breakdown
Permittivity is defined as   K  0 , and since K = 1 for a vacuum  0 is called the “permittivity of free space”1.

This allows us to write the earlier expressions in terms of  instead of both K and 0 :
 A (parallel plate capacitance
E C  KC0  
 d with dielectric)

If a dielectric is subject to sufficiently strong electric fields, electrons can be torn

from the lattice of the dielectric, and what was formerly an insulator can now act
as a conductor (quite „violently‟ in fact, as lightning demonstrates). This situation
is known as dielectric breakdown. The maximum E-field a dielectric can sustain
is known as its dielectric strength. Dry air has a dielectric strength of 3×106 V/m.

1Many standards organizations now consider

this terminology misleading, and refer to it
simply as the „electric constant‟. This is related
to issues of defining “the vacuum” in a quantum
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mechanical world.
YF24.47 A 12.5 μF capacitor is connected to a power supply that keeps a constant potential difference of 24.0 V
between the plates. A piece of material having a dielectric constant of 3.75 is placed between the plates,
completely filling the space between them. (a) How much energy is stored in the capacitor before and after the
dielectric is inserted? (b) By how much did the energy change during the insertion? Did it increase or decrease?
Why?
Contrast this example with Example YF 24.11 where the charge (not the voltage) is held fixed.

Summary of Changes in Capacitor state variables under a change in dielectric

If a battery remains connected to a capacitor while we change the dielectric configuration, the voltage across it will
remain constant, and the charge will change.

If a battery is disconnected from a capacitor, and the capacitor remains isolated while we change the dielectric
configuration, the charge will remain constant and the potential difference will change.

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YF24.78 A fuel gauge uses a capacitor to determine the height of the fuel in a tank.
The effective dielectric constant Keff changes from a value of 1 when the tank is empty
to a value of K, the dielectric constant of the fuel when the tank is full. The appropriate
electronic circuitry can determine the effective dielectric constant of the combined air
and fuel between the capacitor plates. Each of the two rectangular plates has a
width w and a length L. The height of the fuel between the plates is h. You can ignore
any fringing effects. (a) Derive an expression for Keff as a function of h. (b) What
is the effective dielectric constant for a tank ¼, ½ and ¾ full if the fuel is gasoline
(K=1.95)? (c) methanol (K=33.0)? (d) For which fuel is this fuel gauge more practical?

This particular system is used on aircraft rather than on cars (which

(See also YF24.65, 24.66, 24.71, 24.72, 24.75, 24.76.) use a variable resistance) instead of a variable capacitor..

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Phys 230 Final Exam – Fall 2009 – Chapter Summary Question
9. Consider the capacitive circuit shown below. The battery is a 9.0 V battery, C2 = 2.0 pF and C3 = 3.0 pF. C1 is a parallel-
plate capacitor. Each plate in C1 has an area of 22.6 cm2, and the plates are (initially) separated by 4.0 mm, and a space-
filling dielectric of dielectric constant 2.0 sits between the plates. C1
-12 2 -4
(1 pF=10 F, 1 cm =10 m, 1 mm = 10 m.) -3

9 V+ C2

C3
(a) [4] What is the charge and potential energy stored on each of the capacitors? (If you don’t get charges that are integer multiples
of 1 pC go back and check your calculation for C1: it should be the same order of magnitude as C2 and C3.)
(b) [3] If we remove the battery from the circuit, reverse the polarity of C 1 and then re-connect it to C2 and C3, what is the
new charge on stored on (one plate of) C1? (Suggestion: Since we only want Q1, work with the C23 equivalent, and so treat the system as a
two capacitor system consisting of C1 and C23.)

(c) [3] Suppose instead of performing the transformation in (b), we remove C 1 from the rest of the circuit (so it has the same
charge as it did in (a)), and then pull one of the plates apart so they are now 12.0 mm apart while the dielectric still fills only
4.0 mm of the 12.0 mm space. What is the work required to do this? (Hint: Don’t try to compute the work directly. Compute the
change in something else.)

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