imensional stress. All stresses have positive sense.

ize that when we move from point Q to point Q′ the values of stress will, in
body forces can exist. However, these cases are not discussed here (see Sec.
erely interested in establishing the terminology necessary(1.7a)
to specify a stress
Preparation for the mid-term exam.
= 0, we have
nt subjected
Theto three-dimensional
positive stress. All stresses have positive sense.
directions of stresses..

(1.7b)
ing stresses are commutative, and the stress tensor is symmetric.
on mutually perpendicular planes of the element are equal.
after be made between the stress components τxy and τyx, τxz and
e isofshown
stress rigorously
is shown inthat Fig.the1.2. Consider
foregoing is the stresses
valid to stress
even when
distributed on each face, represented by a single vector
another.
e with the foregoing, a total of nine scalar stress
nt. The stress components can be assembled in the
eresents
generalthestate
group
three-dimensional
of stresses
of stress
state(Fig.
acting
1.2) is
of stress
on a plane
reduces passing
showntoinsimpler
Fig. 1.2.stress states,the stresses to
Consider
Qresses,
and Q′which are commonly
The stress
and uniformlytensor: encountered
distributed on eachinface,
practice, are given
represented by a single vector
the text.
each face. In accordance with the foregoing, a total of nine scalar stress
indicates
vee state of that
in Section theatpreceding
1.13
stress that stresses
an element
a point. The are the principal
subjected
stress to onlycan
components stresses
stresses σ1,for
σ2, in the
be assembled
axial
m,
dicularstress,
wherein known
each
directions rowisasrepresents
spherical
said to be in oragroup
the dilatational stress,
oftriaxial
state of stresses occurs
acting
stress. on if
Sucha aplane passing
ee Sec. 1.14). Equal triaxial tension is sometimes called
of equal triaxial
Triaxialcompression
stress: is found in a small(1.6)
element of liquid
. 1.17), a stress component is written as τij , where the
s.y,Inand
thisz case,
as required
only thebyx the
andforegoing
y faces ofequation.
the elementTheare subjected
llows: to
arallel Thethefirst
x andsubscript
y axes, indicates
as shownthe direction
in Fig. of a plane stress
1.3a. The
s component acts; the second subscript relates to the (a) (1.6)
Plane stress:
lipts are avoided
notation (refer into this
Sec.text, so athe
1.17), normal
stress stresses is
component τxxwritten
, as τij , where the
dicated
assumeinthe Eq. (1.6).ofAx,face
values or plane
y, and is usually
z as required by the foregoing equation. The
le,
tiontheis xinterpreted
faces are perpendicular
as follows: The to first
the xsubscript
axis. indicates the direction of a
(1.8)
face on which the stress component acts; the second subscript relates to the
stress;Repetitive
itself. (b) two-dimensional
subscripts are presentation
avoided in thisof plane stress;
text, so (c) stresses τ ,
the normal xx
oth element
stresses labeled
in pure τyx tend to twist the element in a
shear.
ted σx, σy, and σz, as indicated in Eq. (1.6). A face or plane is usually
herefore, if a sign convention were adopted under
normal to it; for example, the x faces are perpendicular to the x axis.
pplying a convention relying solely on the coordinate
oduce the desired result, inasmuch as the τyx stress acting
e 1.2,
x direction,
we observe while τyxboth
that acting on the labeled
stresses lower surface
τyx tendisto twist the element in a
wing
t would signbeconvention,
convenient, which applies
therefore, to both
if a sign normal and
convention were adopted under
influence
arried the of a stress
same sign. and is based
Applying on the relationship
a convention relying solely on the coordinate
es would clearly not produce the desired result, inasmuch as the τyx stress acting
ature of the element under stress should not be forgotten, for the
directed in the positive x direction, while τyx acting on the lower surface is
raw only a two-dimensional view of the plane stress element
e x direction. The following sign convention,
al stresses are present, the state of stress is called biaxial. which applies to both normal and
These
ed tointhe
sed twodeformational influence of
mutually perpendicular a stress and is based on the relationship
directions.
ent is subjected to plane shearing stresses only, for example, τxy
hear occurs over the cross sections and on longitudinal planes of
n.
 mplicity, the stress components may be considered to be distributed uniformly
gure they are shown by a single vector representing the mean values (c)
applied at

ero, the quantity

Figure 1.9. in the parentheses
Element with stressesmust vanish. A similar expression is
Variation of stress within a body: and body forces.
uilibrium of y forces. The x and y equations yield the following differential
al two-dimensional
or stress σx′ and shearing
stress: stress τx′y′ with angle θ (for θ ≤ 180°).

(1.13)
of equilibrium for the case of three-dimensional stress may be generalized
sions to
point asanother,
follows: for equations
Differential example,offrom the lower-left
equilibrium corner tostresses:
for three dimensional the upper-right
ne stress component, say σx, acting on the negative x face, changes in value on
rces in theσ x, and
stresses y directions requires that
y τxy, and τyx similarly change. The variation of stress with position
truncated Taylor’s expansion:
es
vary in thefrom x and
0° toy 180°
directions requires of
in increments that15° leads to the data from
Fig. 1.13b are obtained [Ref. 1.7]. This Cartesian representation
(1.16)
e normal and shearing stresses versus θ ≤ 180°. Observe that the
(a)
mum)
re the shear stress bisects
components of stress theresultant
angle between acting on theAB maximum
in the xand and y (1.14)
directions,
Equilibrium
snormal
usedthe
over, because of forces
normal σxstress infunction
istheeither
x and
is atransformation: yxmaximum
ofax′ directions
and y.(AB orrequires
Treating allare
a minimum thatcomponents
the on planes (1.16)
and Plane stress
shear stresses on the plane plane) obtained byθprojecting px
of thethese
pectively, expressions,
components for which on the
the
of stress shearbasis
resultant of acting
stress the range
is zero. andinsummation
onNote
AB asthe a check yconventions
x and that σx +
directions,
d
n as y′ directions:
pected.
ormal and shear stresses on the x′ plane (AB plane) are obtained by projecting px
y′foregoing
directions: polar and Cartesian representations are valid for any state (1.16)
next section. A more convenient approach to the graphical
where px and py are the components of stress resultant acting on AB in the x and y directions,
idered in Sections 1.11 and 1.15. The manner in which the three- (a)
espectively. The normal and shear
g stresses vary is discussed in Sections 1.12 through 1.14. stresses on the x′ plane (AB plane) are obtained by projecting px
ng
and it is clearthe that . Upon substitution of the stress resultants(a) from
andpyy in x′ andrequires
directions y′ directions:
that
d become
a)
the Maximum
principal In-Plane
directions, alongShear which Stress
the principal or maximum and minimum
itiumis of
clearforces
that in the x and y directions
. Upon requires
substitution that of the stress resultants from
ct. Two values of θpstress
r two-dimensional , corresponding
indicate that to the
the normal
σ1 and σstress
2 planes, are represented
σx′ and by
become
ely.
ously as the axes are rotated through the angle θ. To ascertain the (1.17a)
(1.16) (a)
g is to compared
maximum or minimum
with Eq. (a),σitx′,becomes
the necessary clear condition
that τx′y′ = dσ x′/dθ
0 on = 0 is plane. A
a principal
From (1.16) from
onents
ng,
thuswe atheplane
offoregoing
havestress
of zero it shear.
is clear
resultant thatprincipal
acting
The on AB instresses
the x andare . yUpon substitution
directions,
determined of the stress resultants
(1.17a)
by substituting
Eq.
q. and
xshear
(1.16),
(1.18a): Eqs.
pstresses
y are theon(a) thebecome
componentsx′ planeof(AB stress
plane)resultant acting on
are obtained by AB in the xpand
projecting y directions,
x (1.17b)
Principal stresses for two dimensional problems:
vely. The normal and shear stresses on the x′ plane (AB plane) are obtained by projecting px
ons:
mal stress σy′ acting on the y′ face of an inclined element (Fig. 1.11c) (a) may readily be
(1.17b)
n the x′ and y′ directions: (1.17a)
ituting θ + π/2 for θ in the expression for σx′. In so doing, we have
l stress σy′Planes actingofon the y′ face
principal stresses: of an inclined element (Fig. 1.11c) may readily be
(1.20)
ting θ + π/2 for θ in the expression for σx′. In so doing, we have
braically larger stress given here is the maximum principal stress,(a) denoted by σ1. (1.17b)
(1.17c) (a)
ncipal
Notethat that stress is represented
the normal . Upon
stress σby σ2. It is onnecessary
substitution
acting theofy′the toofsubstitute
facestress oneelement
anresultants
inclined
(1.19) of the values
from θp
(Fig. 1.11c) may readily be
can be converted to a useful y′
form by introducing the following trigonometric
(1.17c)
o determine
e foregoing
obtained by it which of
is clear that
substituting the two corresponds
θ +perpendicular,
π/2 for θ in theare to σ
. Upon.
expression
1 substitution
for σx′. In ofsothe stressweresultants
doing, have from
), two directions, mutually found to satisfy Eq.
n6),beEqs.
ying the
(a) become
converted
preceding to aapproach
useful form and by Eq.introducing
(1.18b), we thedetermine
followingthe trigonometric
planes of maximum
hus, setting dτx′y′/dθ = 0, we now have (σx – σy)cos 2θ + 2τxy (1.17a)
sin 2θ = 0 or
(1.17c)
(1.17a)
 ng a prime
another andorleads
a double also to prime notation to θs.of
the determination Comparing
the maximum Eqs.normal
(1.19) and shear
(1.20) (1.21),stresses.
we In this
he planes of maximum *
, Eqs.
ger (1.18)
stress given arehere is shearing
depicted are inclined
by a stressprincipal
the maximum circle, called atMohr’s
stress, 45° with
denoted respect
circle.
by to the
σ1.In the Mohrplanes
Now, the
ation, from Eqs. (1.21)
normal stresses and (1.18b),
obey the sign weconvention
obtain the extreme
of Section values of shearingfor the
1.5. However,
s represented by σ2. It is necessary to substitute one of the values θp
only of constructing
Maximum shearing and reading
stress: values of stress from Mohr’s circle, the sign convention
hich of the two corresponds
stress is as follows: If the shearing to σ .
1 stresses on opposite faces of an element would produce
forces
ding
rapid that result
approach
transformation andinEq. aofclockwise
(1.18b),
stress from wecouple,
one as shown
determine in Fig.of1.15c,
the planes maximumthese stresses are regarded
ve.
ximum
x′y′
Accordingly,
/dθ =normal
0,Planes
we now andtheshear
shearing
have stresses
stresses.
(σ x – σy)cos In on the
this
2θ + 2τyxyfaces
sin 2θ of =the element in Fig. 1.15a are taken as
0 or
of maximum shearing stress:
(as before),
Mohr’s circle.but* Inthosethe on Mohrthe x faces are now negative. (1.22)
ransformation
re 1.15. (a) of
Stress stress thefrom
element; one
(b) Mohr’sand 2θcircle
of
ing Section
earing Eq.stress,1.5.
(1.18b) However,
regardless
with forsign,
of
given thedatais referred asofthe
s =to55.2°,
stress;
τmaximum (c) interpretation
x′y′ = –10.71 shearing of positive ,
stress,
MPa. Hence,
mrom normal
Mohr’s and shear
circle, stresses.
the In this
ormal
e stresses stresses
* are
Mohr’s acting
showncircle in onsign
for their
2D
convention
thecase:
planes
propershearing stresses.
ofdirections
maximum inshearing
Fig. 1.18d. stress can be determined
s circle.
osite facesInofthe anMohrelement would produce (1.21)
values
tion of 2θ
1.5. However,s from Eq. (1.21) into
for the are regarded Eqs. (1.18a) and (1.18c):
esFig.
two1.15c,
values these
of θstresses
that are 90° apart. These directions may again be
Mohr’s circle, the s
sign convention
of the element
hree-Dimensional in Fig. 1.15a
Stress are taken as
a
aces double
of an prime
element notation
would to θs. Transformation
produce Comparing Eqs. (1.19) and (1.21), we
e.
maximum
sical elements
1.15c, these shearingstudied
stresses stress
areare are inclined
always
regarded threeatdimensional,
45° with respect to the itplanes
and hence (1.23)to consider
is desirable
tress; (c) interpretation of positive
Eqs.
anes (1.21)
and andassociated
their (1.18b), arewe obtain
stresses, astheillustrated
extreme values of
in Fig.elementshearing
1.2. Wetoward
note that equations
element
strated inin Fig.
Fig. 1.15a
1.14. Note taken
that the as diagonal of a stress which the governing
formation
ct is calledofthe stress
shear in diagonal.
the three-dimensional
The shear diagonal case may of be
theobtained
element by on the usethe
which of a similar
hstresses
to interpretation
(c) that used for in
act lies theof two-dimensional
the direction of thestate
positive of stress. larger principal stress as
algebraically
r. aThis
small tetrahedron
assists in predicting isolated thefrom
proper a continuous
directionmedium (Fig. 1.19a),
of the maximum subject
shearing to a general
stress.
stress. The body forces are taken to be negligible. In the figure, px, py, and pz are the
igure 1.14. Planes of principal and maximum shearing stresses. (1.22)
n components Sign of stress resultant
convention for shearing p stresses
acting on oblique
in Mohr’s plane ABC. It is required to relate the
circle
,onσregardless
, and
ythe τxy with
of sign,
perpendicular algebraic
isplanes
referredsign inas
to accordance
intersecting at the with
the maximum origin thetoforegoing
shearing stress,
the normal sign
andconvention, the on
shear stresses
es
e foracting on the Mohr’s
obtaining planes of maximum
circle shearing
(Fig. 1.15b) is stress can be determined
as follows:
from
ish Eq. Three
(1.21)dimensional
a rectangular into Eqs.
coordinate
Figure 1.19.(1.18a)
stress
system,
Stress and
transformation(1.18c):+τ and
indicating
components on a+σ. Both stress scales must be
tetrahedron.
Stress components on a tetrahedron:
al.
the center C of the circle on the horizontal axis a distance (1.23) from the origin.
he foregoing sign convention, the
point A by coordinates σx and –τxy. These stresses may correspond to any face of an element
g.ws: 1.14. Note that the diagonal of a stress element toward which the
in Fig. 1.15a.
he shear diagonal.It is The
usualshear
to specify
diagonalthe of
stresses on theon
the element positive
which xtheface, however.
degoing
alies+σ. Both
circle sign
withstress scales
convention,
center at must
the ofberadius equal
in the direction of C
theandalgebraically largerto principal
CA. stress as
slinein predicting
AB throughthe C. proper direction of the maximum shearing stress.
stance
Planes
Both of circle
principal from
andthe origin. shearing stresses.
maximum
es on stress
the scalesaremust be
measured in the same direction as θ is measured in Fig. 1.15a. An angle
may correspond
the circle to any face
corresponds to anofanglean element
of θ on the element. The state of stress associated with the
he
x and positive A
y planesxQAB =
face, A = A
however.
corresponds · i = A(li + mj + nk) · i = Al
the origin. to points A and B on the circle, respectively. Points lying on
x
from
are similarly
orrespond
obtained. In element
so doing, we have altogether
ntation of to anyofABC
plane
Areas face of
mayanbe
tetrahedron defined
faces based inonterms ofofthe
the area angles
ABC, between
indicated by A: a unit normal n to the
d the xx,face,
itive y, and z directions (Fig. 1.19b). The direction cosines associated with these angles
however.
s θ is measured in Fig. 1.15a. An angle (a)
Direction cosines:
nt. The state of stress associated with the
unit vectors
circle, in the x,Points
respectively. y, and lying
z directions,
on respectively.
measured
ibrium of in x, Fig. 1.15a. Anforces
y, z-directed angletogether with Eq. (a), we obtain, after canceling
state of stress associated with the
respectively. Points lying on (1.24)
e direction cosines for the n direction are related by

(1.26) (1.25)
 The orientation of plane ABC may be defined in terms of the angles between a unit norma
nents plane and the x, y, and z directions (Fig. 1.19b). The direction cosines associated (a) with th
AQABon =A a tetrahedron.
x = A · i = A(li + mj + nk) · i = Al
i, j, and kHere areunit
are i, j, vectors
and k are inunit
the x, vectors
y, andinz directions,
the x, y, andrespectively. z directions, respectively.
larly obtained. In so doing, we have altogether
, from the Next, from the
equilibrium ofequilibrium
x, y, z-directed of x,forces
y, z-directed
togetherforces with Eq. together(1.26)
(a), wewith Eq. (a),
obtain, afterwecanceling
obtain, after c
ntation of plane ABC may be defined in terms of the angles between a unit normal n to the
AQAB AxA,= A · i = on
= determined A(lithe+ basismj + nk) · i = Alstresses σ , σ , σ , τ , τ , and τ
disthe thus
x, y, and z directions of known
(Fig. 1.19b). The direction x cosines
y z xy associated
(a)
xz with
yz these angles
arly obtained.
orientation of A.InIn sothe doing,
limitwe as have
the sidesaltogether
of the tetrahedron approach zero,
ors in the x, y, and z directions, respectively.
. It is thus demonstrated that the stress resultant at a point is specified. This in
fponents
x, y, z-directed
acting The onforces
any three
three together
direction with
mutuallycosines Eq.for (a),the
perpendicular wenobtain, planes
direction after arecanceling
passing through
related by Q
perpendicular planes have been used there for convenience, these planes (a)
(1.26) (
ar
rs into the
definex, y,theandstress at a point.respectively.
z directions,
stress The stress
resultant on A is resultant
thus on A is thus
determined determined ofon the basis of known y,stresses, τσxzx, σand
y, στzyz
, τxy, τxz,
an x, coordinate
y, z-directed system
forcesx′,togethery′, z′, wherein
with Eq. x′on the basiswith
coincides
(a), we obtain, after
known stresses
y′, z′ lieσon
n andcanceling x, σ an σz, τxy(1.24)
and xyz and a the
knowledge ofperpendicular
the orientation of A.py Inand the
az′direction
knowledge p isof
the stressorientation
resultant ofthe
on A. In
cut the
surface.limit px,as the pzlimit
sides areof as
thethe the sides
tetrahedron
cartesian of the
components tetrahedron
approach zero,
of p. Using approach
The
systems
cosines area
are
for
force equilibrium
of
the the
related
in x,n by the
direction
y andQ. direction
are
z directions
plane
related
the
QAB,
cosines:
by
following relations
QAC,
l 1 = cosQBC
are(x′, may
x), m
obtained:
now
1 = be expressed in terms of
es ofA contains plane
the angles point
ABC, A contains
betweenQ. It
and the is
a to point
thus It
demonstrated
direction
unit normalcosines:is
n setthus
to the demonstrated
that the stress that the
resultant stress
at a resultant
point is at a point
specified. is
This specifie
in
e notation corresponding
turn gives the stressactinga complete
components of direction
actingmutually
on any three cosines is shown
mutually in
(1.26) perpendicular
gives
direction the stress components on any three perpendicular planes passingplanes through passing
Q t
ress σx′ iscosinesfound by associated
projecting with
p x , these
py , and angles
p z in the x′ direction and adding
hown next.asAlthough
hus determined shown
on the next. Although
perpendicular
basis of known perpendicular
planes
stresses haveσ been planes usedhave therebeen for used there for these
convenience, convenience,
(1.25) planes these p
x, σy, σz, τxy, τxz, and τyz
need not be perpendicular
not be perpendicular toasdefine to define
the stress at the stress at a point.
a point.
tation
of the of A. In the limit
perpendicular plane the sides
QAB, of the
QAC, QBC tetrahedron
may nowapproach be expressed zero, in terms of A, the area of
sider
s the now
thusdirectionConsider
a Cartesian
demonstrated cosines:
Original now
that
coordinates: a Cartesian
coordinate
the x, y, z .system
stress coordinate
resultant
The rotatedx′, aty′,az′, system
wherein
point
coordinates: x′, y′, z′, wherein
x′ coincides
is specified. (1.26) (1.27)
This inx′ coincides
with n and y′, z′withlie nonandan y′, z′
que actingoblique
ents plane. The
on any plane.
x′ y′three
z′ and The
xyz x′systems
mutually y′perpendicular
z′ and arexyz systems
related by are
planes the relatedthrough
direction
passing bycosines:
the Q
(d)
direction cosines:
l1 = cos (x′, x),l1m=1 cos= (x′, x
TableNotation
us determined 1.2.onNotation
the basis for
of Direction
known stressesCosines σ x , σ y , σ z , τ xy , τxz , and τ yz
pendicular
x′, y), and cos(x′, planes
so y),
on. The have
for and been
so on.
notation
direction usedThetherenotation
corresponding
cosines: for convenience,
corresponding
to a complete these to aplanes
set ofcomplete
directionset of direction
cosines is shown cosines
in is sh
ation of A. In the limit as the sides of the tetrahedron approach zero,
ecate
1.2.that
define thethe
The Tablestress
stress
normal 1.2. resultant
atstress
aThepoint.σnormal muststress
x′ is found
be byparallel
(1.24)
σprojecting to the xunit
x′ is found pby
normal and
, pprojecting
y, and pz in pxthe
, pyx′, and pz in the
direction andx′ adding
direction and a
thus demonstrated
component. that
It is concluded the stress resultant
that, onx′acoincides at
plane for which a point is specified. This in
ordinate
ated by system x′, y′, z′, wherein with n σand x′ has y′, an extreme
z′ lie on anor
nts acting on any three mutually perpendicular planes passing through Q
dplane, the shearing
xyz systems are relatedstressby the direction cosines: l1 = cos (x′, x), m1 =(d)
vanishes.
endicular planes have been used there for convenience, these planes (1.27) (
indicate
rincipal
ation that the
stresses
corresponding
define the stress at a point. stress
and to resultant
threea principal
complete must set be
planes
of parallelexist.
direction to the
Denoting
cosines unit normal
the
is and
principal
shown in
ear
be component.
σx′written
is found It is concluded
asby projecting p , pythat,
Table , andon
1.2.
in xx direction
pz(1.25)
aTable
Notation plane
in x′for
the 1.2.
for which σand
direction
Notation
Direction hasadding
x′ for
Cosines (d) Cosines
an extreme
Direction or
ordinate
27) system x′,
The normal
are combined y′, z′,
stress
to yield wherein x′ coincides
after with
transformation: n and y′, z′ lie on an
pal
Cdicate
may plane,
that the
now shearing
stress resultant
be expressed stress
in terms vanishes.
must ofbeA, parallel
the area of to the unit normal and
xyz systems are related by the direction cosines: l1 = cos (x′, x), m1 =
recomponent.
principal stressesIt is concluded
and threethat, on a plane
principal planes forexist.
which σx′ has an
Denoting theextreme
principal or
tion corresponding to a complete set of direction cosines is (1.27)
shown in
(e)
may
al plane,be written
the as cosines
shearing
Direction stress vanishes.
for stress transformation :
(1.28a)
σx′ is found by projecting px, py, and pz in the x′ direction and adding
Table
with Eq.
principal 1.2.(1.26),
Notation
stresses andfor
lead to
three Direction
principal Cosines
planes exist. Denoting the principal
px, py, and pz in the y′ and z′ directions, we obtain, respectively,
y be written as
ations (1.26) Equations
and (1.27) (1.26) are and (1.27) to
combined areyieldcombined to yield (1.27) (e)
Stress transformation:
her with Eq. (1.26), lead to
Table 1.2. Notation for Direction Cosines (e)
(1.28b) (1
er with Eq.Principal (1.26),stresses
lead toin 3D (1.31) (1.28a)
are
larly,combined
by projectingto yield
Similarly, pby projecting pcharacteristic
, pyy′ , and
andpz′z in the y′ andwe z′vanish:
directions, we obtain, respectively,
direction cosines x, p
requires y, andthatpthez in xthe directions,
determinant obtain, respectively,
(1.31)
(1.28a)
the direction cosines requires that the characteristic determinant vanish:
re combined to yield
y, and pz in the y′ and z′ directions, we obtain, respectively,
(1.31) (1.28b) (1
(1.32)
he direction cosines requires that the characteristic determinant vanish:
to (1.28a)
, and pz in the y′ and z′ directions, we obtain, respectively, (1.28b)(1.32)
ads to (1.33)
(1.32)
s to
(1.28b)(1.33)
 (1.33)
e have
hedral plane is represented by face ABC in Fig. 1.22b with QA (1.33)= QB =
e face thus the has
stress tensor
equal τij . Since
direction the stress
cosines tensor
relative (1.34a)
is aprincipal
to the symmetric tensor whose elements are all real, i
axes.
e real eigenvalues.
Stress invariants ( That is, thetransformation
Coordinate three principal stresses
does not changeare theirreal [Refs. 1.8 and 1.9]. The directio
values)
(1.34a)
(b)
cosines l, m, and n are the eigenvectors of τij .
of eight such faces of a regular octahedron (Fig. 1.24). Equations (1.34b)(1.39) and
It is clear that the principal stresses are independent (1.34a)
of the orientation of the original coordina
ovide an expression for the octahedral shearing stress, which may be
system. It follows from Eq. (1.33) that the coefficients I1,(b) I2, and I3 must likewise be independ
(1.34b)
x, y, and z, since otherwise the principal stresses would change. For example, we can demons
ght such faces of a regular octahedron (Fig. 1.24). Equations (1.39) and
that adding the expressions for σx′, σy′, and σz′ given(1.34b) by Eq. (1.28) and making use of Eq. (1.30
e an expression for the octahedral shearing stress, which may be
to I1 = σx′ + σy′ + σz′ = σx + σy + σz. Thus, the coefficients (1.34c)I(1.43)
1, I2, and I3 represent three invarian
stress tensor in three dimensions or, briefly, the stress invariants. For plane stress, it is a simp
Figure
bic equation matter
1.24.
(1.33) Stresses
to show
Octahedral are that
plane: on an octahedron.
the principal
the following stresses, corresponding
quantities are invariantto which
(Prob. 1.27):
(1.34c)
es, which establish the relationship of the principal planes to the (1.43)
eThestress cubic equation
principal stresses are (1.33) are the principal
the characteristic stresses,
values corresponding
or eigenvalues of to which
Figure 1.24. Stresses on an octahedron. (1.34c)
ction cosines, which establish the relationship of the principal planes to the
ic equation
cipal axes. The (1.33) are thestresses
principal principal arestresses, corresponding
the characteristic values to orwhich
eigenvalues of (1.
sses
es, which establish(1.34)
the relationship
Equations and (1.35)of aretheparticularly
principal planes helpfultointhe checking the results of a stress transform
gThe
on principal
an asoctahedralstresses
planeareis the characteristic
represented
illustrated in Example 1.7. by values
face ABC orineigenvalues
Fig. 1.22b of QA = QB =
with
o this oblique face thus has equal direction cosines relative to the principal axes.
If now one of the principal stresses, say σ1 obtained from Eq. (1.33), is substituted into Eq. (1.
dral
= 1,plane
we have is represented by face ABC in Fig. 1.22b with QA = QB =
face thusresulting
has equal expressions,
direction cosines with l2to+ the
togetherrelative m2 principal
+ n2 = 1, provide
axes. enough information to solve for t
direction cosines, thus specifying the orientation of σ1 relative to the xyz system. The direction
1.37) andcosines(b),
The we
ofobtain
normals
σ2 andthe σ3 octahedral
of all faces make the same
are similarly normalanglestress:
obtained.
with x, y and z axes.
A convenient way of determining the roots of the s
cubic equation and solving for the direction cosines is presented in Appendix (b) B, where a relat
rly (b),computer
andone ofwe obtain
eight program
such the is
ofalso
octahedral
faces included
a regularnormal (see
stress:
octahedron Table
(Fig.B.1).
1.24). Equations (1.39) and
Octahedral normal stress:
(b) (1.44)
ed to provide an expression for the octahedral shearing stress, which may be
on
ht an octahedral
such
form faces of aplane
regular is octahedron
thus the average (Fig. of the principal
1.24). Equations stresses,
(1.39) and the mean
Example 1.6. Three-Dimensional Stress in a Hub
fanσoct and τoct are
expression forindicated
Octahedral shearing
the octahedralin Fig.shearing
stress: 1.24. That the normal
stress, which andmayshear(1.44)
be stresses
planes is aApowerful
octahedral
steel shafttool
plane is thus
is to
forbe
the
force analysis
failure
average
fitted intoofaductile
fixed-ended
of the principal stresses,
cast-iron
materials the(see
mean
hub. The shaft is subjected to a
Sec.
of Eq. bending moment M, a torque2.15. T, and a vertical force P, Fig. 1.20a. Suppose that at a point Q
and τoct(1.43) is developed
are indicated in Fig. in 1.24.
Section That the normal and shear stresses (1.43)
hub, the stress field is as shown in Fig. 1.20b, represented by the matrix
es is a powerful tool1.24.
for failure analysis
on anof ductile materials (see Sec.
in Three DimensionsFigure Stresses octahedron. (1.43)
q. (1.43) is developed in Section 2.15.
in Fig.1.24.
gure 1.25a, cut from
Stresses ontheancubic element subjected to triaxial stresses (Fig.
octahedron.
Three Dimensions
on the inclined x′ face (parallel to the z axis) are the normal stress σx′ and
g. 1.25a, cut from 1.20.
Figure the cubic
Exampleelement 1.6.subjected
(a) Hub-shaftto triaxial stresses(b)
assembly. (Fig.
Element in three-dimensional st
he inclined x′ face (parallel to the z axis) are the normal stress σx′ and

f Eqs. (1.37) and (b), we obtain the octahedral normal stress:

nd (b), we obtain the octahedral normal stress:

(1.44)
acting on an octahedral plane is thus the average of the principal
(1.44) stresses, the mean
ations of σoct and τoct are indicated in Fig. 1.24. That the normal and shear stresses
 cting on the planes of maximum shear stresses have the magnitudes given by the abscissa as
cles.
nters of the circles.
equations.
1.26. (a–c) Viewsinoftriaxial
ws of elements elements stresses on different
in triaxial stresses principal axes;principal
on different
Figure P1.26.
(d) Mohr’s
axes; (d) Mohr’s
circles for three-dimensional stress.
circles for three-dimensional stress.
Mohr’s circle for 3D

1.27. By means of Mohr’s circle, verify the results given by Eqs. (1.35).
1.28. An element in plane stress (Fig. 1.3b) is subjected to stresses σx = 50 MPa, σy = –190 MPa,
and τxy = –70 MPa. Determine the principal stresses and show them on a sketch of a properly
oriented element.
1.29. For an element in plane stress (Fig. 1.3b), the normal stresses are σx = 60 MPa and σy = –
100 MPa. What is the maximum permissible value of shearing stress τxy if the shearing stress
in the material is not to exceed 140 MPa?
1.30. The state of stress on an element oriented at θ = 60° is shown in Fig. P1.30. Calculate the
normal and shearing stresses on an element oriented at θ = 0°.
Figure P1.30.

The shaded area in the figure represents the admissible state of stress.

Problems: Figure P1.32.

1.31. A thin skewed plate is subjected to a uniform distribution of stress along its sides, as shown
in Fig. P1.31. Calculate (a) the stresses σx, σy, σxy, and (b) the principal stresses and their
orientations.
Figure P1.31.
1.33. Redo Prob. 1.31 for the stress distribution shown in Fig. P1.33.
Figure P1.33.

1.32.
1.34. The stress acting
A thin-walled uniformlytank
cylindrical overofthe sidesr is
radius of subjected
a rectangular block is shown
simultaneously in Fig. pressure
to internal P1.32. p
Calculate the stress force
and a compressive components on planes
P through parallel
rigid end plates.and perpendicular
Determine to mn. Show
the magnitude the P
of force results
to
on a properly
produce oriented
pure shear element.
in the cylindrical wall.
1.35. A thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel of radius 120 mm and a wall thickness of 5 mm is
Drawsubjected
an elementto under
an internal pressure
pure shear of p = 4 MPa.
a) Applying shear In addition,
stresses an axial compression
b) Applying biaxial stressload of P =
Draw30π
the Mohr’s circle for pure shear stress.
kN and a torque of T = 10π kN · m are applied to the vessel through the rigid end plates
(Fig. P1.35). Determine the maximum shearing stresses and associated normal stresses in the
cylindrical wall. Show the results on a properly oriented element.
Figure P1.35.

1.36. A pressurized thin-walled cylindrical tank of radius r = 60 mm and wall thickness t = 4 mm

 1.35. A thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel of radius 120 mm and a wall thickness of 5 mm is
1.34. subjected to ancylindrical
A thin-walled internal pressure
tank ofofradius
p = 4 rMPa. In addition,
is subjected an axial compression
simultaneously to internalload of P p=
pressure
30πakN
and and a torque
compressive of TP=through
force 10π kNrigid· m areendapplied
plates. to the vesselthe
Determine through the rigid
magnitude end plates
of force P to
(Fig. P1.35).
produce pure Determine
shear in thethe maximumwall.
cylindrical shearing stresses and associated normal stresses in the
cylindrical wall. Show the results
1.35. A thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel on a properly oriented
of radius 120 mm element.
and a wall thickness of 5 mm is
subjected to an internal pressure of pFigure = 4 MPa.P1.35.
In addition, an axial compression load of P =
30π kN and a torque of T = 10π kN · m are applied to the vessel through the rigid end plates
(Fig. P1.35). Determine the maximum shearing stresses and associated normal stresses in the
1.43.cylindrical wall.
A steel shaft Show rthe
of radius results
= 75 mm on a properlytooriented
is subjected an axial element.
compression P = 81 kN, a twisting
couple T = 15.6 kN · m, and a bending moment
Figure P1.35. M = 13 kN · m at both ends. Calculate the
magnitude of the principal stresses, the maximum shear stress, and the planes on which they
act in the shaft.
1.36. A pressurized thin-walled cylindrical tank of radius r = 60 mm and wall thickness t = 4 mm
1.44.isAacted
structural
on bymember is subjected
end torques T = 600toNa· set of forces
m and tensileand moments.
forces P (Fig.Each separately
P1.35 with senseproduces
of P
1.38.the
What areconditions
the normalatand shearing stresses onP1.44.
the spiral weld of the aluminum shaft of
reversed). The internal pressure is p = 5 MPa. Calculate the maximum permissible value their
stress a point shown in Fig. Determine the principal stresses and of P
diameter
orientationsd subjected to an
at the point axial
under theload
effectP and a torque Tloading.
of combined (Fig. P1.38)? Given: P = 120 kN, T =
if the allowable tensile stress in the cylinder wall is 80 MPa.
1.5 kN · m, d = 40 mm, and φ = 50°.Figure P1.44.
1.37. A
1.36. Apressurized
shaft of diameter d carries
thin-walled an axial compressive
cylindrical tank of radiusload
r=P 60andmmtwoandtorques T1, T2 (Fig.
wall thickness t = 4 mm
Figure P1.38.
is acted on
P1.37). by end torques
Determine T = 600
the maximum N · stress
shear m andattensile
a pointforces
A on P the(Fig. P1.35
surface of with senseGiven:
the shaft. of P d
reversed). The internal pressure is p = 5 MPa.
= 100 mm, P = 400 kN, T1 = 10 kN · m, and T2 = 2 kN · m. Calculate the maximum permissible value of P
if the allowable tensile stress in the cylinder wall is 80 MPa.
Figure P1.37.
1.37. A shaft of diameter d carries an axial compressive load P and two torques T1, T2 (Fig.
P1.37). Determine the maximum shear stress at a point A on the surface of the shaft. Given: d
= 100 mm, P = 400 kN, T1 = 10 kN · m, and T2 = 2 kN · m.
1.45. Redo Prob. 1.44 for the case shown in Fig. P1.45.
Figure P1.45.
Figure P1.37.

1.39. A hollow generator shaft of 180-mm outer diameter and 120-mm inner diameter carries
simultaneously a torque T = 20 kN · m and axial compressive load P = 700 kN. What is the
maximum tensile stress?
he normal 1.40. A cantilever
and shearing beam ofon
stresses thickness t is subjected
the spiral weld oftothea constant
aluminumtraction τ0 (force
shaft of per unit area) at
subjected to anitsRedo
1.46.
upperload
axial surface, as shown
P and
Prob. 1.44
in Fig.
a torque
for the
P1.40.P1.38)?
T (Fig.
case shown
Determine, in terms of τ0, h, and L, the principal
in Fig. P1.46. Given: P = 120 kN, T =
d = 40 mm, andstresses and the maximum shearing stress at the corner points A and B.
φ = 50°. Figure P1.46.
Figure P1.40.
Figure P1.38.

1.41. A hollow shaft of 60-mm outer diameter and 30-mm inner diameter is acted on by an axial
1.47.tensile load of stress
The shearing 50 kN,ataatorque ofa500
point in N·m
loaded and a bending
structure is τxy = moment
40 MPa.of 200 itNis· m
Also, Use Mohr’s
known that the
circle to determine
principal stresses atthe
thisprincipal
point arestresses
σ1 = 40and
MPa their
anddirections.
σ2 = –60 MPa. Determine σx
1.42.(compression)
Given the stressandacting
σy anduniformly
indicate over the sidesand
the principal of amaximum
thin, flat shearing
plate (Fig. P1.42),
stresses ondetermine
an
(a) the stresses
appropriate on planes inclined at 20° to the horizontal and (b) the principal stresses and
sketch.
their orientations.
generator shaft of 180-mm outer diameter and 120-mm inner diameter carries
Figure P1.42.
usly a torque T = 20 kN · m and axial compressive load P = 700 kN. What is the
nsile stress?
er beam of thickness t is subjected to a constant traction τ0 (force per unit area) at
rface, as shown in Fig. P1.40. Determine, in terms of τ0, h, and L, the principal
d the maximum shearing stress at the corner points A and B.
Figure P1.40.
 Figure P1.57.

1.53. A thin-walled cylindrical tank is subjected to an internal pressure p and uniform axial tensile
load P (Fig. P1.53). The radius and thickness of the tank are r = 0.45 m and t = 5 mm. The
1.58.normal stresses cylindrical
A thin-walled at a point Apressure
on the surface
vesselofofthe tankradius
0.3-m are restricted
and 6-mm to σwall
x′ = 84 MPa and
thickness hasσy′a =
welded
56 MPa,spiral
whileseam at anstress
shearing angleτx′y′
of φis=not30°specified.
with the Determine
axial direction (Fig. P1.10).
the values of p andThe vessel
P. Use θ =is
subjected
30°. to an internal gage pressure of p Pa and an axial compressive load of P = 9π kN
applied through rigid end plates. Find the allowable
Figure P1.53. value of p if the normal and shearing
stresses acting simultaneously in the plane of welding are limited to 21 and 7 MPa,
respectively.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of maximum principal stress.
Sections 1.12theand
1.63.Calculate
For 1.13 given in Prob. 1.59, calculate the maximum shearing stress.
stresses
the magnitude and direction of maximum principal stress.
1.54.
1.59. For
The astate
givenof state
stress ofatstress at ainpoint
a point x, in
an the az frame,
y,state certain
coordinate stress
system iscomponents are known for each
1.63. For the stresses given in member,
1.64. At a specified point in a Prob. 1.59, calculateof stress with
the maximum respect to a Cartesian
shearing stress. coordinate
of the two
system orientations
is given by shown in Fig. P1.54. Using Mohr’s circle, determine the following
1.64.stress
At a specified
components: point(a)inτxy
a member,
and (b) τthe state of stress with respect to a Cartesian coordinate
x′y′ and σy′.
system is given by
Figure P1.54.
Determine the stresses and stress invariants relative to the x′, y′, z′ coordinate system defined
by rotatingthe
Calculate x, ymagnitude
through an angle
and of 30°ofcounterclockwise
direction about the
the maximum principal z axis.
stress.
1.65.Calculate
1.60. At a point
Redo Prob. in1.59
the a loaded structure,
for the
magnitude the stresses
casedirection
and in which ofthe relative
thestate toprincipal
of stress
maximum anatx,a y, zstress.
pointcoordinate
in an x, y,system are given
z coordinate
by
system is
1.65. At a point in a loaded structure, the stresses relative to an x, y, z coordinate system are given
by

1.61.Determine bystress
The state of expanding the characteristic
at a point relative to anstress
x, y, zdeterminant: (a) the is
coordinate system principal
given bystresses; (b)
the direction cosines of the maximum principal stress.
1.55.Determine
The state of
bystress at a point
expanding in a machine member
the characteristic is shown in(a)
stress determinant: Fig.
theP1.55. The stresses;
principal allowable (b)
1.66.the
The stresses
compression (in megapascals)
stress at the point with
is 14 respect
MPa. to an
Determine
direction cosines of the maximum principal stress. x, y, z
(a) coordinate
the tensile system
stress σare described
and (b) the by
x
1.66.maximum principal
The stresses and maximum
(in megapascals) withshearing
respectstresses
to an x,iny,the member. Sketch
z coordinate systemthe areresults on by
described
Calculate the maximum
properly oriented shearing stress at the point.
elements.
1.62.At
Atpoint (3,in
a point 1,a5), determine
loaded (a) the
member, the stress
Figure components
stresses relative towith
P1.55. an x,respect to x′, y′, z′system
y, z coordinate if are given
by
At point (3, 1, 5), determine (a) the stress components with respect to x′, y′, z′ if

and (b) the the

Determine stress components
normal stress σ with respect
and the to x″,stress
shearing y″, z″τifon the surface
, intersecting , and
the npoint
3 = 1.
Show that thetoquantities
and plane:given by
y –Eq. (1.34)
= 9. toare invariant under the transformations (a) and
and parallel thecomponents
(b) the stress 2x +with 3z
respect x″, y″, z″ if , , and n3 = 1.
(b).
1.73.Show
For the stresses given in Prob. 1.62, calculate the normal stress σ and the shearing
that the quantities given by Eq. (1.34) are invariant under the transformations (a) stress
and τ on
1.67.a Determine the stresses with respect to the x′, y′, z′ axes in the element of Prob.
plane whose outward normal is oriented at angles 35°, 60°, and 73.6° with the x, y, and z 1.64 if
(b).
axes, respectively.
1.67. Determine the stresses with respect to the x′, y′, z′ axes in the element of Prob. 1.64 if
1.74. At a point in a loaded body, the stresses relative to an x, y, z coordinate system are

1.68. For the case of plane stress, verify that Eq. (1.33) reduces to Eq. (1.20).
1.69. Obtain thethe
principal stressesσ and
andthe related direction τcosines for the following cases:
1.68.Determine normal
For the case of plane stress
stress, verifythe
thatshearing stress
Eq. (1.33) on atoplane
reduces whose
Eq. (1.20). outward normal is
oriented at angles of 40°, 75°, and 54° with the x, y, and z axes, respectively.
1.69. Obtain the principal stresses and the related direction cosines for the following cases:
1.75. Determine the magnitude and direction of the maximum shearing stress for the cases given in
Prob.
a. 1.69.
1.76. The stresses at a point in a loaded machine bracket with respect to the x, y, z axes are given
a.
as
b.

b.

Determine (a) the octahedral stresses; (b) the maximum shearing stresses.
 the change
∂u/∂y. Theexperienced
total angularby right angle
change DAB
of angle (Fig.the2.4b).
DAB, Wechange
angular shall assume
between the angle αx
:dctions,
εA′B′
x′, εy′to
,isγbe . First
so weas
small determine
permitthe
toshearing the unit elongation
denotedof
approximation αbyds′, :εx′α. The projections
defined
x′y′ as the strain and x≈γxytan x. Also, in view of the
xis,
, theafter
normal taking EB′iscos
strain
Determine α =theEB′(1)
small,
(a) AB ≈byA′B′.
sooctahedral virtue
As of
a(b)
stresses; thethesmall
consequence
maximumangle of approximation,
the aforementioned
shearing stresses.
on (Fig. 2.6b) 1.77. The state of stress at a point in arotation
member relative to an x,
αx ≈ ∂v/∂x, where the counterclockwise is defined asy,positive.
z coordinate system is given by
Similar
o –αy ≈ ∂u/∂y. The total angular change of angle DAB, the angular change (2.3b)between
nd y directions, is defined as the shearing strain and denoted by γxy: (b)
tive when the right angle between two positive (or negative) axes decreases.
nd
weenfrom +xEB′/ds.
and +y Thus,
or –x applying
Calculate (a) the
and Eq. (b)
–yprincipal together
stresses
decreases, we by with
expansion
have Eqs. (a),
of the
positive ;we obtain stress
γ characteristic
otherwise the determinant; (b)
xy
the octahedral stresses and the maximum shearing stress.
.
1.78. Given the principal stresses σ1, σ2, and σ3 at a point in an elastic solid, prove that the
(2.3b)
rain maximum shearing stress at the point always exceeds the octahedral shearing stress.
x/ds, sin θ The
forwhen
dy/ds,
example and Eq.
problems (2.3) intooctahedral
in the book this equation,
should we
also be added have
this list of problems.
imensional element, a rectangular prism with sides dx, dy, dz,negative)
n is positive
1.79. the
Determine right
the angle
value of between
the two positive
stresses of (or
Prob. 1.64. axes decreases.
an essentially
sngle between
to the 1.80.+x
following Byand +yEq.
using
normal orand
–xshearing
andverify
(1.38b), –y decreases, weofhave
that the planes
strains: positive
maximum γxystress
shearing ; otherwise
in three the
dimensions
negative. bisect the planes of maximum and minimum principal stresses. Also find the normal stresses
associated with the shearing plane by applying Eq. (1.37). (2.13a)
ional Strain
sformation 1.81. A pointfor
equation in athe
structural
x-directedmember is under
normal three-dimensional
strain, stress the
which, through withuse
σx =of
100 MPa, σy = 20
,three-dimensional
may be convertedMPa, τelement,
xy =
to 60form
the MPa, and σz, as shown
a rectangular prismin Fig. P1.81.
with sidesCalculate
dx, dy,(a)dz,theanabsolute maximum shear
essentially
thestress
sis leads toStrain for σz = 30 MPa; (b) the absolute maximum shear stress for σz = –30 MPa.
following
in 3D normal and shearing strains:
Figure P1.81. (2.4)
d when
ange i ≠ different
is not j and εij =if εitji.isItsaid
is apparent
to occurfrom Eqs. the
between (2.4) and y(2.5)
x and that
directions
(2.14a)or
ections; γxy = γyx. The remaining components of shearing strain are similarly
determined by replacing θ by θ + π/2 in Eq. (2.14a).
nefor
found
the when i ≠ strain
shearing j and εγij =,εwe ji. Itfirst
x′y′
is apparent
determine fromtheEqs.
angle(2.4) and(2.6)
α through (2.5)
which thatAB (2.4)
Referring
ng
agular strains
point again
may also
is described to Fig. be 2.6b,
by adeduced tan from
nine-term α =array,
B″anE/ds, where
examination
so Eq. (2.5)B″Eof = dv
Eq. cosnine
(2.4).
represents θ – du sin θ
The
o it: εchange
, ε , γ is not
. different
First we if
determineit is said
the to
unitoccur between
elongation of the
ds′, x εand. They directions
projections or
hein strain–displacement
etric α =strain
x′tany′αtensor
=x′y′α, we (ε have
= EB′
relations
ε ): sin α
of = ε ds
continuum α = 0. The
mechanics. latterTheyis a
x′ consequence
are
x′ components of shearing strain are similarly also
and
x′ε axis,x directions;
after taking γxyEB′
Strain tensor ij=inγ3Dji. The remaining
cos α = EB′(1) by virtue of the small (2.6)
matic relations, treating yx
the geometry of strain
x′ and α. Substituting Eqs. (a) and (2.3) into B″E, α = B″ E/ds may be written
rather than the angle
matterapproximation,
of cause
mation
ess at a(Fig. point2.6b) is described by a nine-term array, so Eq. (2.5) represents nine
symmetric
Eq. (2.3) isstrain madetensor possible (εij by= εtensor
ji): notation:
of it:shearing
εx′, εy′, γstrains
x′y′ . First may we also be
determine deducedthe unit from an examination
elongation of ds′, εof Eq. (2.4). The
x′. The projections
4)
axis,areafterthe Equations
strain–displacement
taking EB′ cos α = EB′(1)
of compatibility relations of continuum
by virtue of the smallmechanics.
angle (2.7) They are(b)
approximation, also
he
found
tion kinematic
from2.6b)
(Fig. relations,
EB′/ds. Thus,treating applying the Eq.
geometry of strain
(b) together with rather
Eqs. than
(a), we the matter
(c) of cause
obtain
hat the Cartesian coordinate systems of Chapters 1 and 2 are not identical.
of cement
statics ofpertain
y′ is readily
to the derived bystate,
deformed replacing
and theθ coordinate
by θ + π/2 in setEq.is (c): (2.5a)
thus
ement of
byEq. (2.3) is made possible by tensor notation:
cisely
ody; xyz using
is, in this instance, a Eulerian coordinate system. In discussing(2.7)
commas, (b)
on r dx/ds,
erve thatsin
in this θCartesian
chapter,
the for recall
dy/ds,coordinate
and the
that Eq.xyz (2.3)setinto
systems thisChapters
equation,
is established
of we
in1the have
andundeformed
2 are
und from EB′/ds. Thus, applying Eq. (b) together with Eqs. (a), wenot identical.
obtain
ckwise
erred
tions of rotations
to as to
a Lagrangian
statics be
pertain to thepositive
coordinate (see
deformed Fig.
system.2.4b),
state, and it is
Although necessary,
these systems
the coordinate in finding
set isarethusthe
α and –αofθ +xyz (2.5b)
umption
med body; π/2.is,
small By insothis doing
deformation and
instance, substituting
permits us to regard
a Eulerian γcoordinate
xy = ∂v/∂x
x, y, and+system.
∂u/∂y,
z, the In wediscussing
obtain (2.5a)
ed (2.13a)
xore = body,
rmation andin
x,conciselyas applicable
sothison.bychapter,
The
using
torecall
factor equations
commas, inthat
Eq.the of xyz
stress
(2.5) setor is strain.
facilitates theChoice
established in of
thethe
representation undeformed
of the
ad
dx/ds,to nosin errors
θindicial
toforasof aconsequence
dy/ds, and unless applications in finite elasticity or
is referred
ransformation
quations in Strain equationLagrangian
notation.
transformation for Eq.
the
inThe2D(2.3) into
coordinate
x-directed
longitudinal this
normalequation,
system. strain,
strains arewe
Although have
which,
obtainedthese systems
through
when the are of
i = use
j; (2.12)
ehe attempted. Under such circumstances, the approximation discussed is not
(2.13b)
ties,assumption
may be converted of smalltodeformation the form permits us to regard x, y, and z, the
tions
ons were are body,
more difficult
first derived to formulate [Refs. 2.1 and 2.2].
eformed
nometric identities, thisby
as applicable Saint-Venant
expressionto equations
for thein 1860. Theor
oftransformation
stress application
strain. Choice
of the of the
shear equations
ofstrain
the (2.5b) of
are
y isindicated
ould lead to noasin
illustrated dimensionless
Example
errors 2.2(a)
of consequence quantities.
and in Theapplications
various
unless normal
sectionsandthatshearing
in use the
finite (2.13a)
strains
methodor
elasticity of the theory
dy in
uory = areterms
v,
ansformation x =of x, units
xattempted. and so
equation such
Under on.forasThe inches
such
the factor per in inch
circumstances,
x-directed Eq. or(2.5)
normal micrometers
facilitates
thestrain,
approximationper
which, themeter and
representation
discussed
through of the
is not
the use of
gpectively. The strains (2.14a)
mation
her
es, equations
mayequations
insight beinto arethe
convertedmore
inmeaning tofortheengineering
difficult
indicial of
form to formulate
notation. materials
The
compatibility, [Refs.
longitudinalin2.1
imagine ordinary
and
anstrains use
2.2].
elastic are seldom
bodyobtained when iinto
subdivided = j;a
valent
mall to 2000
is determined
cubic elements
–6
×by10replacing
prioror 2000 θ byµ. We
to deformation. θ + read
π/2 this
in Eq.as(2.14a).
These “2000
cubes micros.”
may, upon (2.14b)
loading, strains
be deformed
′rains are indicated as dimensionless quantities. The normal and shearing
mscribed
of parallelepipeds. Thesuch deformed system will,
inch in general, be impossible to
andarrange in
sion for in theterms
shearing of unitsstrain γx′y′as, weinches
firstperdetermine or the
micrometers
angle α through per meterwhich AB
as nstoReferring
ns, in compose
respectively.
a Plate again a continuous
The strainsbody unless the components
for engineering materials inofordinarystrain satisfy the equations of
use seldom
ed.y.s equivalent to 2000 × 10–6 or 2000 µ. We read this as “2000 micros.” du sin θ
to Fig. 2.6b, tan α = B″ E/ds, where B″E = dv cos (2.14a)
θ –
n removed. of
magnitudes This themeansprincipal that strains
a residual are strain or permanent strain
onding
nein of theelongation
diameter angleequals between ofthetheproduct
xspecimen 1isiscalled
and x′,ofmtransverse permanent
the cosine set. The
of the strain
or lateral angle between
and diameter:
(2.18f) y and εx′,td = –
(2.26)
Eqs.
es (2.14),
strains the
beyond two-dimensional
those at the transformation
elastic limit
e 1.2). The foregoing equations are succinctly expressed, referring to (2.15) is calledequations
the of
plasticity. strain, Eqs. (1.29),
angle
nship
cobserved is between
range is that known
therefore asx and
Hooke’s
transformations x′,
followed m is
law,
1 by the cosine
after
expressions Robertof
a plastic region the
Hookeangle
for stress between
(1635–1703).
(Fig.are converted
2.14a), y
in andThe x′, (2.15) E is
constant
Thedes
odulus of the
cingforegoing principal
ofaPrincipal
elasticity,
equations strains
or are are
Young’s modulus, in honorreferring
of Thomas Young (2.16) As ε
(1773–1829).
shape
nitudes ofof material
the principal does
strains notsuccinctly
strains occur.
are expressed, to Eqs. (1.29),
onless quantity, E has the units of σ. Thus, E is expressed in pascals (or gigapascals) in SI
shearing
path strains are
is retracted andfoundfurther onloading
planes 45° relative
results to the principal
in a continuation of planes and are given
pounds (or kilo-pounds) per square inch in the U.S. Customary System.(2.19a) (2.31a)
Graphically, E is
seen
in all that
the the material
analogous behaves
relations. inFora linearly
instance, elastic
theregion,manner
principal (2.26)
in this Fig. 2.10a. It differs
strain
the stress–strain
in volume, diagram
substituting in
Vo = AL the linearly
andbefore elastic
ε = P/AE as
into Eq.ductility, shown
(2.29), is
rtional
ound
ooke’s
al from limit
law,
to material. Eq. (A)
Principal
after For that
(1.19):strain
Robert
mostis directions:
higher
Hooke
materials, than
(1635–1703). but reduced
E inx compression The constantis the sameE is(2.19a) as that (2.16)
in tension (Table
rom E to F is less than from A to F. This process can be repeated (2.16)
gorstrains
Young’s aremodulus,
found onin honor45°
planes of Thomas
relative Young (1773–1829).
to the principal planesAsand ε are given
ds the
aring fractures.
units
strains ofA σ.significant
are Thus,
foundEon isimplication
expressed
planes 45° in ofpascals
the preceding
relative to (or is that the
gigapascals)
theshear
principal in SIand
an similarly be measured in two-dimensional pure (Fig.planes1.3c). isare
It (2.19b) given
found
(2.17)
nds) of metals
per change
square inch considerably
in the U.S. during
Customary fabrication
System. process
Graphically, E is (2.31b)
lly that, in the linearly elastic range, stress and strain are related
Maximum shearing strains:
(2.15) by Hooke’s law in
present
gram in the
the law
n of Three-Dimensionallinearlyof transformation
elastic region,
Strain foras ashown
strain Fig.
tensor of rank
2.10a. It 2.
differs
4)(25
ost
2) = 490.9(10–6) m2, the axial stress σ in the bar is obtained
materials, E in compression is the same as that in tension (2.19b)
(Table from
principal
ar,qs. we
(1.33) strains
discussed
and are
the
(1.34), behavior
the principal of
also proceed from the corresponding stress relations by replacing a test specimen
strains in three subjected
dimensions to only
areσthe byroots
ε andofτ bytheγ/2.
he
hangelaw of transformation for a strain tensor of rank 2. (2.17)
uation:
ng Eqs.in temperatures
(1.28),
Strainwe havedid not
transformation in 3D
enter into our considerations. (2.26) (2.17)
ured
3)es, some
and in materials
two-dimensional
(1.34), the may
principal continue
pure shear
strains to deform
in(Fig.
three permanently.
1.3c). It
dimensions is found
are On thethe roots of the (2.27)
hree-Dimensional Strain
dell n shear
as Hooke’s law, after Robert Hooke (1635–1703). The constant Eadata
isconstant
he fywith
oceed
elastic
below time
from
the though
range,
modulus
Three-Dimensional the
yield strain
stress
of and
strength level
elasticity
corresponding Strain strain
of 260 remains
or are
stress
MPa.
modulus constant
related
Thus,
relations of by in a load-carrying
Hooke’s
introducing
rigidity.
by Like
replacing
law the
σ
ingiven
E,by G εisand τ by
into the
for a given
gure sticity,
vior 2.15.
under
quations, orwe Young’s
Principal
Lateral
various
have loading modulus,
strains in
contraction 3D
and in environmental
honor of Thomas
of an element in Young
tension.
conditions (2.16)
(1773–1829).
is taken εγ/2.
As(2.20)(2.18a)
ore (1.28),
ty,proceed
E haswe the have
from units theof corresponding
σ. relative
Thus, E to is thestress
expressed relations by replacing
in pascals (or are σ by ε andinτSI
gigapascals) by γ/2.
nts found
are
dlo-pounds)
in Section on planes
2.7have 45°
that axial tensile principal planes and given
qs. (1.28),Strain we
per invariants:
square inch in theloading induces aSystem.
U.S. Customary reduction or lateral contraction
Graphically,(2.20) E is of a
cross-sectional area. Similarly, a contraction owing to an axial
n’s ain Ratio
diagram in the linearly elastic region, as shown Fig. 2.10a. (2.27) Itcompressive
differs
(2.18a)
load is
d by a lateral extension. In the linearly elastic region, it is found experimentally that
.initial
For most
elasticity or materials,
modulus Eof in compression
rigidity. Like is
E, Gtheis same
a as
constant that in
for atension
given (Table (2.18b)
ns, say region in the yofand thezstress–strain
directions, are diagram
relatedinby which the material
a constant of proportionality, v, to the axial
(2.18a)
y.d This linear elasticity is extremely
by uniaxial stress only εx = σx/E, in the x direction: important in engineering
e measured
es
axial aretensile
designed in two-dimensional
loading to experience
induces a reduction pure shear
relatively small
or (Fig.
lateral 1.3c).
deformations. It is(2.17)
contraction found
For
of a
eam linearly
(Fig.Strain
Similarly,
nsional elastic
2.10a), range,
stress is
a contraction stress
directly
owing and strain
to proportional
an axial arecompressive
related by Hooke’s
to strain. If theis law in
load (2.18b)
on. In the linearly elastic region, it is found experimentally that
(2.18c)
m the corresponding stress relations by replacing σ by ε and τ by γ/2.
Hooke’s law (2.18b) (a)
directions, are related by a constant of proportionality, v, to the axial (2.21)
enonly
y,
indicates
have
and
the εneglecting
= σ
definition
an increase
/E, inhigher-order
of thev x
may
in length
direction:
be terms
stated
andinvolving
as
volume; the and negative , wesign have means that the
strain, the three
ecreased. Poisson’s effect 1 2
x x roots ε , ε , and ε 3 of Eqs. (2.20) and the corresponding direction
(2.18d)
V = [1 + (ε – 2νε )]dx dy dz = V + ∆V (2.27)
(2.18c)
niently be computed using Table B.1 with some notation modification.
f x x o (2.21)
ulusolume dx dy dz and ∆V is the change in volume. The unit volumefor
of elasticity or modulus of rigidity. Like E, G is a constant
(2.18a) a given
change (2.18c)
e,
he
ized three roots
Hooke’s ε ,
1 Lawε 2 , and ε 3 of Eqs. (2.20) and the corresponding direction
(a) (2.18d)(2.18e) (2.28)
ilatation,
ree-Dimensional mayvolume
Unit now be
Strain expressed
change in a Block
(dilatations)in the form
e computed
.7 that axial using
tensile Table
loading B.1induces
with some notation or
a reduction modification.
lateraliscontraction of
ensional
may
own be
as state
stated
Poisson’s ofas stress,
ratio, eachafter of S.theD. six stress
Poisson components
(1781–1840), expressed
who calculated asaa linear
v to be for
y 1-m
al area.parallelepiped
Similarly, is deformed
a within
contraction owingby movement axialofcompressive
to anrange, corner pointload A to A′ (2.18d)
(1.9985,
is thus
omponents
aterials of
employing strain molecular the linear
theory. elastic
NoteCalculate
that morethe and vice
recent versa.
calculations We express
based
as shown
extension. byInthe the dashed
linearly lines
elastic in Fig.
region,2.7. it is found (2.18b)
following
experimentally quantities
that
(2.18e) at on a model
Hooke’s law
mensional Strainfor any
in a homogeneous
Block elastic material as follows:
yrainandcomponents;
ructure directions,(b)
z yield
Generalized .are the
Hooke’s
Both normal
law for
values
related strain in theare
homogenous
bygiven here
a constant ofdirection
elastic
close toofthe
material:
proportionality, line AB;
actual v, to and(2.29)
measured
the (c) thevalues, 0.25
axial
mostrstress
perpendicular
arallelepiped
metals.
only is lines
εExtreme deformed ABincreases
cases andby xAC.
rangemovement
from of corner
and aacompressive
low of 0.1point(for Asome
todecreases
A′concretes)
(2.28) (1.9985, the(2.18e)
to a high of 0.5
tion that a tensile x = σforce x/E, in the direction: force
.n Figure
by the dashed 2.7. Example lines in 2.2. Fig. Deformation
2.7. Calculateofthea following parallelpiped. quantities at
tio, after S.
mponents; (b)D.the Poisson
normal(1781–1840),
strain in the direction who calculatedof line AB; v to andbe (c)
(2.18c) forthe
ange
olecularlines theory.
ndicular ABNote and AC. that more recent calculations based on a model
contraction
mation
Both values of
of a given a cubic
Tension hereBar element
are closefrom to the a bar
actualin tension
measured is values,
illustrated 0.25in Fig. (a) 2.15, where it is
et 2.7. Example
the faces 2.2. Deformation of a parallelpiped.
ar cases rangeoffrom
ofofcircular
the elementa low ofat0.1
cross-sectional
the(fororigin areconcretes)
area Asome
fixed in position.
and length L is subjected to a high From
(2.18d)of
to an 0.5the figure, subsequent to
axial
on v may
e final volume is
be stated as
2.16). The modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio of the material are E and
(2.32)
he bar, determine (a) the axial deformation; (b) the change in diameter d; and
(2.18e)
me ∆V. (d) Evaluate the numerical values of the quantities obtained in (a) (b)
c element from a bar in tension is illustrated in Fig. 2.15, where it (2.28) is
se in which P = 60 kN, d = 25 mm, L = 3 m, E = 70 GPa, ν = 0.3, and the
ment at the origin are fixed in position. From the figure, subsequent to
60 on’s MPa.ratio, after S. D. Poisson (1781–1840), who calculated v to be for
Figuremolecular
oying 2.16. Example theory.2.4. NoteAthat barmore underrecent tensile forces. based on a model
calculations
 hips:
that
σy′ =dW is. the
–τxy work
Then, done on
applying dx dy dz,
Hooke’s andwedU
law, is the
find thatcorresponding increase in
ng the strain energy per unit volume (strain energy density) as Uo, for a
l we have
Stress-Strain relations
(b)
(2.36)
The ratio of the unit change
= 0 for pure shear, Eq. (2.13a) yields, for θ = 45°, εx′ = γxy/2, or in the resistance of the gage to the unit change in length (strain) of th
is called the gage factor. The metal of which the filament element (a)is made is the principal facto
(2.38)
a) yields determining the magnitude of this factor. Constantan, an alloy composed of 60% copper and 40
quantitynickel, λ are referred
producestowire as the or Lamé
foil gages constants.
with aFollowing
gage factora procedure of approximately 2.
tress inThe Section operation 2.9, itofcan thebebonded
shownstrain that(2.38)
Eq.gage (2.37)
is based represents
on the the unitin electrical
(c)change (2.37) resistance of the fil
of an element in
that accompanies triaxial stress.
dortoεas x′ in
theEqs. Lamé and (c),awe
(b)constants. changefind in
Following thatthe strain. Deformation of the surface
a procedure (2.48)
(2.34)
on which the gage is bonded
yrain is another results
energy important
associated constant.
in a deformation with shear The
of the physical
backingsignificance
deformation and is the
nowgrid ofasthis
analyzed well.quantity
byThus, with straining,
considering an a variation in
ts canthe be
shaded shown area thatin Eq.
Fig. (2.37)
2.21b. represents
The the unit
or tal example,
that
ckness the dzelastic
resistance
stress.
the
subject case of
onlyof ato
constants
the cubic
grid v, element
E, will
shearing and Garea
manifest are
stresses
above
subjected
related,
itself the
τxy (Fig. asto astress–strain
hydrostatic
serving
change
2.22). toFrom
reduce
in the curve,
pressure
the
thevoltage
termed
number
figure, across
we notethethat
grid. An electric
gy
described density, may
by σcircuit, be determined from
nts in Eq.
econstant.
bridge
τxy dxdzThe
(2.34)
causes x =to σ two.
=attached
σzFor
a ydisplacement
= –p thisand
topurpose,
theτ gage
of xy
= τyzrefer
γxythis
by= means
τ again
dy. quantity
= 0,ofEq.tolead (2.37)
the element
wires,
Thexzstrain energy due to shear is
reduces
issubjected
then usedtoto translate electrical c
In accordance
into be physical
strains. withThe significance
Section 1.9, a pure of shearing stress τxy(2.35)
can be expressed in
going
f ,awhere
cubic
may element
written
Bulk modulus
inWheatstone
subjected
the toform hydrostatic
bridge, one of
pressure
the most accurate and convenient systems of this ty
thewith
employed, factor is arises
capable because
of measuring thenow
y′stress
strains variesas smalllinearly asan 1with
µ. strain from zero to its
=sstresses acting onshear
planes (in the x′ and directions) making angle of 45°
associated
σbefore.
= –p and τ = τ =
deformation
τ = 0, Eq.
is
(2.37)
analyzed
reduces
by considering an
constants The ν, E, and G are determined experimentally, the third may
σx′z = τxy
ubject only and toσstrain
xy
= –τyzenergy
shearing xz density is therefore
. stresses
Then, τ (Fig.Hooke’s
applying 2.22). From law, we the figure,
find thatwe note that
q.in(2.34) the form together with Eq. (2.35),xywe obtain the following stress– (2.49)
Strain y′
Rosette xy
auses a displacement Here,Figure 2.22.
of
p is hydrostatic Deformation
γxy dy. The strain due
pressure. energy to pure
due toshear. shear is
Special combination gages are available for the measurement (2.39) of the state of strain at a point on
eaterial,
representation
factorsurface arises of buta
because
Strainsimultaneously
rosette
for athe
strain nonlinearly
rosette.
stress elastic material,
in three or more directions. It is usualzero
varies linearly with Ustrain
o and from will differ,to itsastogether three gages to
to cluster
unit
he umetric
strain expansion
of strain
energy energydensityor bulk
density modulus
inmay
is therefore SI units ofiselasticity.
theanalyzed
joules Itper
is seencubic that the unit
meter (J/m 3), or
(b)Generally, these consist of
associated
ional tostrain
the with rosette,
pressure shear andwhich
deformation
inversely beis cemented
now
proportional on the by surface
(2.39) to K. Equation (2.39) considering of a member.
an
mary Units, it 3
ubject
ause
ressible
Figuregages
εonly to=is
ε2.22.
=materials,whoseexpressed
0 Deformation
shearing
forfor axes
pure
in inch-pounds
are
stresses
which shear, e
due
either
τ=Eq. to
45°
xy0,(Fig. pure
(2.13a)or per
2.22).
Poisson’s
cubic
shear.
60° apart.
From
yields,
ratio
inch
the
for
is
(in. · lb/in.
Consider
θfigure,
1/2. = For
45°,allthree
we ),strain
εx′ =note
orthatgages located at angles θa,
γxy/2, or
x y
bulk modulus of elasticity. It is seen that the unit
(psi). a θdisplacement
νuses
and < 1/2, c withproportional
since
inversely
respect
they oftoγxyreference
demonstrate dy. The
to K. some axis
strain
Equation
x energy
change (Fig.
(2.39)in 2.20b).
due to The
volume, shear≠ a-, b-, and
0.isTable
e (2.36) D.1 c-directed normal strains are, f
essed for
erties to
Eq. the proportional
a(2.13a),
number of common limit, materials.
the strain energy density is referred
The relationships to as the
rIt factor
which e arises
= 0, because
Poisson’s the
ratiostress
is 1/2. varies
For linearly
all with strainconnecting from zero to its
is
in equal
dstrain thisenergy to the are
section areagiven underby theEqs. straight-line
(P2.51) inportion
Prob. of the stress–strain
2.51.
emonstrate some density
change isintherefore
volume, e ≠ 0. Table D.1
nd represents a measure of the material’s ability to store or absorb energy(c)
fat common
dW
Figure
rmation. is the materials.
2.22. work
Similarly, done Thearea
Deformation
the onrelationships
dxunder
dy
duedz, anand
to connecting
pure
entiredUshear.
is the corresponding
stress–strain diagramincrease providesina
ve iven relations
by Eqs. for ε
(P2.51) in
x′ perinEqs. (b)
Prob. and (c), we find that
2.51.(strain energy density) as U , for a
nge the
abilitystrain
of atoMetal energy
absorb Blockenergy unit upvolume
to the point of fracture; it is called othe modulus of
thehave total area under a density
stress–strain diagram, thevolume)
tougher (2.37)
we for the material.
(2.4
ange of the metal block shown in Fig. 2.18 subjected to uniformcase:
Strain energy (strain energy for unit uniaxial
(2.50)
fσthe gage to the unit change in length (strain) of the gage
g on y, and σz act simultaneously,
allWhen
faces. Use E = 210 GPa theand totalνε =work done by these normal stresses is
0.3.measured
the
work filament
done by the
element
τxy valuesis
accompanying of
made ε a ,isε b ,
the andprincipal
perpendicularc are factor
strains γfor given
and γxzgage orientations
(2.35)
is x-directed
zero, θa, θb, and θc the va
the total strain
k
essions shown
18. Example in
similar Fig. to
2.5. 2.18
Eq. subjected
(2.48)
Aγparallelpiped for to
each uniform
direction.
under pressure. This is because
yz an
tantan,
=y
the 210 y of
GPa
or an
attributablez εdirections.
, εyto
xalloy
and , νand
composed
shear
= 0.3. can
xyalone
The be
of
total is60%obtained
found
strain copper
by
energyby simultaneous
and
superposition40% ofissolution three
thus terms of Eqs. (2.44).
identical The arrangement of g
in form
ny two of the
Total constants
strain energy ν, E,
forand
triaxialG are
stress state:per volume
determined experimentally, the third
(a) may
e0):factoremployed
of approximately for this kind 2. of measurement is called a strain rosette. (2.50)
35).
parallelpiped From Eq. under (2.34)pressure.
together with Eq. (2.35), we obtain the following stress–
yields
ed on the change
Once strain components in electrical resistance
are strains
known,γwe of the filament
can apply Eq. (3.11b) of Section 3.4 to determine the o
y τxy accompanying perpendicular yz and γxz is zero, the total strain
mation plane of the Strain surface
energy
principal on which
density
strain for the
pure gage
shear:
εz. The in-plane is bonded principal (b)
le to shear alone is found by superposition of three termsstrainsidentical andintheir form orientations may be obtained
grid
2.7. as Some well.
readily Thus,
specialusingcases with
Eqs. straining,
of Eq. (2.57)
(2.15) anda (2.16),
variation
follow. as in the
illustrated next, or Mohr’s circle for (c)strain.
change in the voltage across the grid. An electrical (2.48)
lyy Density
Loaded for
Bars Three-Dimensional Stresses (2.50)
f lead wires, is then used to translate electrical changes
he eral shaded
state area
Example
of inand
stress, Fig.
2.6.
the 2.21b.
Principal
strain The
energy area
aStrains above
densityofγon the
isSurface
foundstress–strain
byofzero,
a Steel
adding curve,
Frame termed
ygivenτmost
xy
accurate
transverse
accompanying
Strain energy convenient
section through
perpendicular
density for 3Dsystemsnonprismatic
strains
stress state: this
yz and type
bar
γxz subjected
is thetoEqs. (b)
an axial
total and (c):
(2.36)
strain
(c)
density, as 1may µ. bethe determined from area (Fig. 2.23). Substituting this and Eq.
eemallA shear
to represents alone cross-sectional
is found by superposition of three terms identical in form
or Three-Dimensional
d setting dVStrain = Aenergydx, weforhave Stresses
an axially loaded bar: (2.51)
stress,
ity of thethematerial,
strain energy using density
Eq. (2.39), is foundis by adding Eqs. (b) and (c):
he measurement
Hooke’s law intoisof Eq. the(2.51)
state of leadsstrain at afollowing
to the point on aform involving only stresses and
ng
ions. Eq. (2.39), (2.49) (2.37)
nts: It is usual to cluster together three gages to form a (c)
surface of a member. Generally, these consist of three (2.51)
erial,
or Three-Dimensional but for a nonlinearly
Stresses elastic material, Uo and will(2.58) differ, as
Consider three strain gages located at angles θa, θb, and
uretinto
ofThe
stress,
).
Eq. (2.51)
strain
2.23. energy
theNonprismatic
a-, strain
b-,
leads
andenergydensity to bar
c-directed
the
in SI
density
following
with units
normal isvaryingis
found
form
the
strains
involving
byjoules
axial perEqs.
are, loading.
adding from
only meter
cubic stresses
(b) and (c): (J/m and 3), or

y Units, it is expressed in inch-pounds per cubic inch (in. · lb/in.3), or

 (2.48), theshown
erposition strain energy density
in Fig.then
2.25. is Uo 2= M2ofy stress
/2EI . Upon
ity, Eq. (2.50), becomes U The
= T2state
ρ /2J G. Whenin
o
Fig.
this 2.25b, represented by
is introduced
2/2EI2 is a function of x alone, we have
nd noting that Mwhere integration along beam length L gives the required quantity.
at its ends to equal andintegration
where opposite forces
along of magnitude
beam length LP,gives
the (b)
the required quantity.
2.15 Components of Strain Energy
if bar is prismatic,
e cross-sectional2.15
Aarea of an element.
newComponents
perspective onBy definition,
ofaxial
Strain
strain the
mayterm
energyEnergy in
be gained by viewing the general state of stres
ending, the flexure formula
nertia J of the cross-sectionalgives us
area. the
The normal
strain energy stress
is σ =
x (c)
therefore
in terms of the superposition shown in Fig. 2.25.(b)The state of stress in Fig. 2.25b, repr
(2.48), A new perspective on strain2energy
the strain energy density 2 2may be gained by viewing the (a)
is Uo = M y /2EI . Upon general state of stres
dA represents an element
instate
terms of the
ofstress cross-sectional
theansuperposition area. Recalling
shown in Fig. 2.25. that state of stress in Fig. 2.25b, repre
The
sndthenoting
solutioncross-sectional
of (a)
that of 2
Menergy area
2
/2EIdueof
is of element.
a torsioninto
function (b) By definition,
dilatational the term
(2.59)
stresses inand (c) distortional
s the momentStrain inertia I of
to for of x alone,
the cross-sectional
a circular we
areahave
shaft: about the neutral
of inertia J of the cross-sectional area.
stresses. The strain energy is therefore
ed as
(2.61)
ected at its ends to equal and opposite torques T, Eq. (2.61)
Bar under Combined Loading (c)
if the shaftFigure 2.25. Resolution of (a) state of stress
is prismatic, (2.61)into (b) dilatational stresses and (c
done
dAend carries, an
represents in element
additionof to the
its own weight, an axial
cross-sectional area. load (2.63)
Po stresses.
Recalling that
subjected
es
energy
ngth at
theL moment its
U stored
gives ends to
theofrequired
ininertia
Figure equal
the bar. and
I quantity. opposite
of theResolution
2.25. torques
cross-sectional T,
of (a)area Eq.
about
state (2.61)
the neutral
of stress into (b) dilatational stresses and (c)
ed as
2.7. A prismatic bar loaded
Strain energy weight and load Po. (2.62)stresses.
byinitsbending
for beams
n Energy
gy may be gained by viewing the general state of stress (Fig. (2.64)2.25a)
wn
ng
hange in Fig. 2.25.distortion
without Thestress
statetensor
of
and stress in Fig.the
is termed 2.25b, represented
dilatational by
(2.62)
stress
Dilatational
(2.63) tensor. Here
the mean stress
epresented by defined by Eq. (1.44). Associated with σm is the mean strain,
ngth L gives the required quantity.
The
ending
sum of the normal strains accompanying the application of the dilatational
ndilatation
Energye = εresults x + εy + in εvolume
z, representing
change without a change in volume
distortion
(2.64) and only. Thus,
is termed thethe
dilatational stress tensor
energy
rgy mayabsorbed gainedper
beHere, unit volume
by viewing is
thegiven
theisgeneral mean by
stress
state defined
of stress by 2.25a)
(Fig. Eq.
(a) (1.44). Associated with σm is the me
wn in Fig.Dilatational
2.25.results
Thestrain
state of stress
in energy
volume in sum
. change Fig. 2.25b,
without represented
distortion and byaccompanying
(b)is termed
(2.64)the dilatational stressoftensor.
density:
The of theand
normal strains the application the di
)nted
statebyof stressstress into (b) dilatational stresses (c) distortional
q. (2.39). stresses.tensor is the is dilatation
the mean stress e = εxdefined
+ εy + εby z, representing a change inwith
Eq. (1.44). Associated volume σm isonly. Th
the me
nal stress tensor.dilatational
This produces strain deviator
energy strains or perdistortion
Here, . The sumabsorbed
of the normalunit volume
strains is given bythe application of the dil
accompanying
the sum of
g. 2.25c, representedthe normal by strains is (ε x – ε m) + (ε – ε ) + (ε – ε ) = 0.
stressstress
Distortional tensortensoris the dilatation
(deviator): e y= εx m+ εy + zεz, representing
m a change in volume only. Thu
olume, Uod, associated with the deviator stress tensor is attributable
dilatational strain energy absorbed per unit volume is given by
volume, while the volume remains constant. Since Uov and Uod(a) are
(b)
) state we
energy, of stress
have Uinto o=U (b)
ov dilatational
+ Uod. By subtractingstresses and Eq. (c) distortional
(2.64) from Eq.
ess tensor.
eadily found This produces
tostresses.
be strain energy:deviator strains or distortion
um of the normal Distortional
strains is (εx – εm) + (εy – εm) + (εz – εm) = 0. (b)
U od , associated
distortional with
stress the deviator
tensor. stress tensor
This produces is attributable
deviator strains or distortion
e, distortion
while the
me becauseStrain and
volume
the sum is termed
remains the dilatational
constant.
of the normal strains is (εx ov
energy Since stress
U tensor.
– εm) +U(ε
and odHere
areεm) + (εz – εm) = 0.
y –(2.65)
sswe
,per defined
have
unit Uby
volume, Eq.ov(1.44).
o = UU + UodAssociated withwith
. By subtracting σm is
Eq. thestress
(2.64) mean strain,
fromtensor
Eq. is attributable
od , associated the deviator
sorbed tobybethe unit volume as athe result of its change
of theindilatational
shape
fnormal
found
the unit strains
volume, accompanying
while the volume application
remains constant. Since Uov and Uod are
octahedral shearing
εx + εy + εSaint-Venant’s
z , stress
representing aτ is
change
Principle
oct given
in by
volume only. Thus, the
he strain energy,
If actual we have U
distribution = Uovis +replaced
ofoforces Uod. By by asubtracting Eq. (2.64)
statically equivalent from
system, theEq.
distribution of stress
ed per unitand volume is given by
nergy is readily found to be
strain throughout the body is altered only near the regions of load application.

t distortion and is termed the dilatational stress tensor. (2.65) Here

(2.66)
ssbydefined
dshown theinunitbyvolume
Eq. (1.44). Associated
asSection
a result of itsThe with σminisshape
change the mean strain,
Fig. 1.24 of 1.14. strain energy of distortion
normal
dral
ry strains
ofshearing
failure aaccompanying
ofstress giventhe
τoct ismetal
ductile byapplication
under any condition of theofdilatational
stress. This is(2.65)
εxstresses
+ εy + εand
eenergy z, representing
strains a change
associated in volume
with only. Thus,ofthe
absorbed by the unit volume asboth components
a result of its change theinstrain
shape
ed per
cribing unit
the volume
plastic is given
deformation by (Chap.
ding, the octahedral shearing stress τoct is given by 12).
(2.66)
n in Fig. 1.24 of Section 1.14. The strain energy of distortion
omponents in a Tensile Bar
 a. ,

b.
Here c is a small constant, and it is assumed that εz = γxz = γyz = 0.
Problems
2.2. Rectangle ABCD is scribed on the surface of a member prior to loading (Fig. P2.2).
Following the application of the load, the displacement field is expressed by

Figure P2.2.
shearing strain between edges AC and BC.
Figure P2.8.

where c = 10–4. Subsequent to the loading, determine (a) the length of the sides AB and AD;
(b) the change in the angle between sides AB and AD; and (c) the coordinates of point A.
2.3. A
2.9. A100-mm
displacement field inrectangular
by 150-mm a body is given by
plate QABC is deformed into the shape shown by the
dashed lines in Fig. P2.9. All dimensions shown in the figure are in millimeters. Determine at
point Q (a) the strain components εx, εy, γxy, and (b) the principal strains and the direction of
the principal axes.
Figure P2.9.

2.13. Redo Prob. 2.12 using the following information: a = 30 mm, b = 15 mm, εx = 400 µ, εy =
200 µ, and γxy = –300 µ.
2.14. A thin plate is subjected to uniform shear stress τo = 70 MPa (Fig. P1.42 of Chap. 1). Let E =
200 GPa, ν = 0.3, AB = 40 mm, and BC = 60 mm. Determine (a) the change in length AB, (b)
the changes in length of diagonals AC and BD, and (c) the principal strains and their directions
at point A. the principal strains and their orientations at point A of the deformed rectangular
2.10. Calculate
plate
2.15. Theshown in Fig.
principal 2.5 at
strains ofaExample
point are2.1.
ε1 = 400 µ and ε2 = 200 µ. Determine (a) the maximum
shear
2.11. As strainof
a result and the direction
loading, along which
the rectangle shownitinoccurs and (b)
Fig. P2.11 the strains
deforms intoin the directions atinθ =
a parallelogram
30° from
which theQA
sides principal
and BCaxes. Solve
shorten the mm
0.003 problem by using
and rotate 500the formulas
µ radian developed and check
counterclockwise whilethe
results
sides ABbyand
employing Mohr’s
QC elongate 0.004circle.
mm and rotate 1000 µ radian clockwise. Determine the
principal
2.16. A 3-m by strains and the direction
2-m rectangular of the
thin plate principal by
is deformed axes
theatmovement
point Q. Take a =B20tomm
of point and
B′ as b=
shown
12mm.
by the dashed lines in Fig. P2.16. Assuming a displacement field of the form u = c1xy and v =
c2xy, wherein c1 and c2 are constants, Figure P2.11.
determine (a) expressions for displacements u and v;
(b) strain components εx, εy, and γxy at point B; and (c) the normal strain εx′ in the direction of
line QB. Verify that the strain field is possible.
Figure P2.16.

2.12. A thin rectangular plate a = 20 mm × b = 12 mm (Fig. P2.11) is acted upon by a stress

distribution resulting in the uniform strains εx = 300 µ, εy = 500 µ, and γxy = 200 µ. Determine
theIfchanges
2.17. in length
the strains of diagonals
at a point QB and
are ε = –900 µ, ε AC.
= –300 µ, and γ = 900 µ, what are the principal
x y xy
strains, and in what direction do they occur? Use Mohr’s circle of strain.
2.18. Solve Prob. 2.17 for εx = 300 µ, εy = 900 µ, and γxy = –900 µ.
2.19. A 3-m by 1-m by 2-m parallelepiped is deformed by movement of corner A to A′ (2.9995,
1.0003, 1.9994), as shown in Fig. P2.19. Assuming that the displacement field is given by
 Sections 2.9 through 2.12
2.26. Find the smallest diameter and shortest length that may be selected for a steel control rod of a
machine under an axial load of 5 kN if the rod must stretch 2 mm. Use E = 210 GPa and σall =
160 MPa.
2.27. A 40-mm diameter bar ABC is composed of an aluminum part AB and a steel part BC (Fig.
P2.27). After axial force P is applied, a strain gage attached to the steel measures normal
strain at the longitudinal direction as εs = 600 µ. Determine (a) the magnitude of the applied
force P; (b) the total elongation of the bar if each material behaves elastically. Take Ea = 70
GPa and Es = 210 GPa.
Figure P2.27.

2.37. A uniform pressure p acts over the entire straight edge of a large plate (Fig. P2.37). What are
2.28.normal
A 5-m-long
stresstruss member is
components σxmade
and σof two 40-mm-diameter steel bars. For a tensile load of
z acting on a volumetric element at some distance from the
600
loading in terms of Poisson’s ratio ν andofp,theasmember;
kN, find (a) the change in the length required? (b)Assume
the change thatin εxthe
= εdiameter of the
z = 0 and σy = –p
member. Use E = 200 GPa, σyp = 250 MPa, and ν = 0.3.
everywhere.
2.29. The cast-iron
2.28. A 5-m-long truss member pipe of lengthis made L, outer
of twodiameter
Figure D, and thicknesssteel
40-mm-diameter
P2.37. t is subjected
bars. For to an axial load of
a tensile
2.33.compressive
An element atP.aCalculate
point on a(a) loaded frame has strains as follows: ε = 480 µ, ε = 800 µ and γxy
600 kN, find (a) the change in thethelength changeof in the
length ∆L; (b) the
member; (b)change
thex in outerin
change ydiameter D; (c)
the diameter of the
=
the–1120
change µ. in
Determine
thickness(a) ∆t.the principal
Given: D = strains;
100 mm,(b) t =the10maximum
mm, L = 0.4 shear m,strain;
P = 150 (c)kN,
the Etrue
= 70
member. Use E ==200
maximum
GPa, and νshearing
GPa, σ = 250 MPa, and ν = 0.3.
0.3. strain. yp
2.29. The cast-iron
2.34.
2.30. typicalpipe
A metallic ofoflength
plate
vibration width w
isolationL,andouter diameter
thickness
device t is of
consists D,
subjected
rubberandcylinder
thickness
to a uniform taxial
is subjected
of diameter force to an axial
P as shown
d compressed
in Fig.
inside P2.34.
of a steelTwo strain
cylinder gages
by a placed
force Q at point
applied
compressive P. Calculate (a) the change in length ∆L; (b) the change A
to measure
a steel the
rod, strains
as ε and
schematically
x′ at 30° and
depicted
in outer diameter60°,
in Fig. D; (c)
P2.30. Find, in
respectively, to terms
the axis of of
d, the
Q, and
plate. Poisson’s
Calculate ratio
(a) νthefornormal
the rubber,
strainsasεneeded:
x and εy; (a)
(b) an
the normal
the change in thickness ∆t. Given: D = 100 mm, t = 10 mm, L = 0.4 m, P = 150 kN, E = 70
2.38.strains
A 45°εrosette
expression and is; (c)
forεthe used thetoshearing
lateral measurestrain
pressure pstrain
betweenat .aGiven:
γx′y′ critical
the rubber wpoint
60 on
= and thethe
mm, t =surface
steel mm, of
6 cylinder;E =a 200loaded
(b) the
GPa, beam.
lateral
ν=
GPa, and The ν readings
= 0.3.
pressure
x′
p
y′
between
are ε the
= rubber
–100 µ, and
ε = the
50 steel
µ, ε cylinder
= 100 µ for
for dθ = =500°,mm,θ ν
= = 0.3,
45°, and
and θQ =
= 5
90°kN.
(Fig.
0.3, and P = 25 kN.a b c a b c
Assumptions:
2.30. A typical vibration
2.20b). Calculate 1.isolation
Friction between
the principaldevice the
strains rubber
consists
andP2.34.and
of steel
stressesrubber
andcantheir
be neglected;
cylinder 2.Use
Steel
of diameter
directions. E= cylinder andand
d compressed
200 GPa
rod are rigid. Figure
inside ofν =a 0.3.
steel cylinder by a force Q applied to a steel rod, as schematically depicted in Fig.
P2.30.
2.39.Find, in termsstate
The following of d,ofQ, andhas
strain Figure
Poisson’s
been P2.30.
ratio at
measured ν for the on
a point rubber,
the surface as needed:
of a crane (a)hook:
an εa
expression
= 1000forµ,the εb =lateral
–250 µ,pressure
and εc = 200 p between
µ for θa = the–15°,
rubber
θb = and30°, the
and steel
θc = 75° cylinder; (b) the lateral
(Fig. 2.20b).
pressureDetermine
p between thecomponents
strain rubber and εx, the steel
εy, and γxycylinder
. for d = 50 mm, ν = 0.3, and Q = 5 kN.
Assumptions: 1. Friction
2.40. The strains measuredbetween
at a pointthe rubber
on the andofsteel
surface can be
a machine neglected;
element are εa =2. Steel
400 µ, εbcylinder
= 300 and
rod are µ,rigid.
and εc = –50 µ for θa= 30°, θb = –30°, and θc = 90° (Fig. 2.20b). Calculate (a) the in-plane
2.35. During the static test of a panel, a 45° rosette reads the following normal strains on the free
maximum
surface shearing
(Fig. P2.35):strain,
ε = –800 µ, εFigure
and (b)
a
the= true
–1000P2.30.
maximum
µ, and ε shearing
b = 400 µ.strain. Use
Find the
c
. strains and
principal
2.41.show
For athe
given steel,
results on aEproperly
= 200 GPa and Gdeformed
oriented = 80 GPa. If the state of strain at a point within this
element.
material is given by
Figure P2.35.

2.31. A solid sphere of diameter d experiences a uniform pressure of p. Determine (a) the decrease
in circumference of the sphere; (b) the decrease in volume of the sphere ∆V. Given: d = 250
ascertain
mm, the MPa,
p = 160 corresponding
E = 70 GPa,components of Note:
and ν = 0.3. the stress tensor.
Volume of a sphere is , where r =
2.42.d/2.
For a material with G = 80 GPa and E = 200 GPa, determine the strain tensor for a state of
2.32.stress given
The state of by
strain at a point in a thin steel plate is εx = 500 µ, εy = –100 µ, and γxy = 150 µ.
Determine (a) the in-plane principal strains and the maximum in-plane shear strain; (b) true
Figure P2.36.
maximum shearing strain ν = 0.3. Sketch the results found in part (a) on properly oriented
deformed elements.
2.31. A solid sphere
2.43. The of diameter
distribution d in
of stress experiences
an aluminumamachine
uniform pressureisofgiven
component p. Determine (a) the
(in megapascals) bydecrease
in circumference of the sphere; (b) the decrease in volume of the sphere ∆V. Given: d = 250
mm, p = 160 MPa, E = 70 GPa, and ν = 0.3. Note: Volume of a sphere is , where r =
 ascertain the corresponding components of the stress tensor.
conditions.
2.42. For a material with G = 80 GPa andFigure
E = 200 GPa, determine the strain tensor for a state of
P2.53.
stress given by

2.50. The distribution

2.43. stress field in
ofan elastic
stress body
in an is givenmachine
aluminum by component is given (in megapascals) by

where c is a constant. Derive expressions for the displacement components u(x, y) and v(x, y)
Sectionsin2.13 through 2.16
the body.
Calculate the state of strain of a point positioned at (1, 2, 4). Use E = 70 GPa and ν = 0.3.
2.54.
2.51. A bar ofthe
Derive uniform cross-sectional
following relations area A, the
involving modulus ofconstants:
elastic elasticity E, and length L is fixed at its
2.44. The distribution of stress in a structural member is given (in megapascals) by Eqs. (d) of
right end and subjected to axial forces P1 and P2 at its free end. Verify that the total strain
Example 1.2 of Chapter 1. Calculate the strains at the specified point for E = 200 GPa
energy stored in the bar is given by
and ν = 0.25.

(P2.54)
Note that U is not the sum of the strain energies due to P1 and P2 acting separately. Find the
components of the energy for P1 = P2 = P and ν = 0.25.
2.55. Three bars of successively larger volume are to support the same load P (Fig. P2.55). Note
(P2.51)
that the first bar has a uniform cross-sectional area A over its length L. Neglecting stress
2.52.concentrations,
As shown in Fig. P2.52, the
compare a thin prismatical
strain bar ofinspecific
energy stored weight
the three bars.γ and constant cross section
hangs in the vertical plane. Under the effect of its own weight, the displacement field is
Figure P2.55.
described by

Figure P2.52.

2.56. A solid bronze sphere (E = 110 GPa, , r = 150 mm) is subjected to hydrostatic pressure
p so that its volume is reduced by 0.5%. Determine (a) the pressure p, and (b) the strain
energy U stored in the sphere. (Note: volume of a sphere .)
2.57.The
Calculate the total and
z displacement strain energymay
stresses U stored in the block
be neglected. Finddescribed in Prob.
the strain and stress2.46.
components in
2.58.the
A round bar istocomposed
bar. Check see whetherof three segmentsconditions
the boundary of the same material
[Eq. (1.48)](Fig. P2.58). The
are satisfied diameter
by the
is d for the
stresses lengths BC and DE and nd for length CD, where n is the ratio of the two diameters.
found.
2.53. A uniform the
Neglecting bar stress concentrations,
of rectangular verify 2h
cross section that×the strain
b and energy
specific of theγbar
weight when
hangs subjected
in the verticalto
axial
plane load
(Fig.PP2.53).
is Its weight results in displacements

Demonstrate whether this solution satisfies the 15 equations of elasticity and the boundary
2.60.inA which
steppedUshaft
is the
is strain energy
subjected of the
to pure beamasand
torsion, V itsinvolume.
shown Fig. P2.60. Neglecting the stress
(P2.62)
2.63. Consider a beam with simple supports at B and C andstored
concentrations, develop the following equation for energy in the shaft:
an overhang AB (Fig. P2.63). What is
in
thewhich U is 2the strain
strain in theenergy of thetobeam and VP?
its volume.
where A = energy
πd /4. Compare beam due
the result forthen load
= 1 with those for and n = 2.
2.63. Consider a beam with simple supports Figure at B andP2.63.
C and an overhang AB (Fig. P2.63). What is
2.59.the
(a)strain
Taking into account
energy onlydue
in the beam the to
effect of normal
the load P? stress, determine the strain energy of
prismatic beam AB due to the axial force P and moment Mo acting simultaneously (P2.60) (Fig.
Figure P2.63.
P2.59). (b) Evaluate the strain energy for theP2.60.
Figure case in which the beam is rectangular, 100-mm
deep by 75-mm wide, P = 8 kN, Mo = 2 kN · m, L = 1.2 m, a = 0.3 m, b = 0.9 m, and E = 70
GPa.
2.64. A simply supported beam carriesFigure
a concentrated
P2.59. force P and a moment Mo as shown in Fig.
2.64.P2.64. How
A simply much strain
supported energy aisconcentrated
beam carries stored in theforce
beam owing
P and to the M
a moment loads acting
o as shown in Fig.
simultaneously?
P2.64. How much strain energy is stored in the beam owing to the loads acting
simultaneously? Figure P2.64.
Figure P2.64.
Here φ is the angle of twist and G represents the modulus of rigidity.
2.60.
2.61. A
(a)stepped shaftthe
Determine is strain
subjected to pure
energy torsion,
of a solid as shown
brass circularinshaft
Fig. ABC
P2.60. Neglecting
loaded as shownthe stress
in Fig.
concentrations,
P2.61, assumingdevelop
that the the following
stress equationmay
concentrations forbe
energy stored
omitted. (b)in the shaft:the strain energy
Calculate
for T = 1.4 kN · m, a = 500 mm, d = 20 mm, and G = 42 GPa.
2.65. Consider the state of stress givenFigure in Fig.P2.61.
1.20b. Determine how many times more energy is
2.65.absorbed
Consider the state of stress given in Fig. 1.20b.
in changing the shape than in changing Determine how many
the volume timeselement.
of a unit more energy
Let Eis= 200
absorbed (P2.60)
GPa and inν =changing
0.3. the shape than in changing the volume of a unit element. Let E = 200
GPa and ν = 0.3. Figure P2.60.
2.66. The state of stress at a point is
2.66. The state of stress at a point is

Decomposethis
Decompose thisarray
array into
into a set
a set of dilatational
of dilatational stresses
stresses and aand a set
set of of deviator
deviator stresses.
stresses.
Determinethe
Determine thevalues
valuesof of principal
principal deviator
deviator stress.
stress.
2.67.
2.67. Calculate
Calculatethe thestrain
strain energy
energyperper
unitunit
volume in changing
volume the volume
in changing and inand
the volume changing the shape
in changing the shape
Here
of the φmaterial
is the angle
at anyofpoint
twistonand Gsurface
the represents
of a the modulus
steel shaft of rigidity.
120 mm in diameter subjected to
of the material at any point on the surface of a steel shaft 120 mm in diameter subjected to
2.61.torques
(a) Determine
torques ofof2020kNthe
kN·m ·strain
and
m andenergy
moments ofof
moments a solid
15 15brass
of kN ·kN
m at·circularitsshaft
itsatends.
m UseABC
ends. EUse loaded
= 200E =GPaasand
200 shown in Fig.
ν =and
GPa 0.25.
ν = 0.25.
2.68.P2.61,
The assuming
state of thatatthe
stress a stressinconcentrations
point a loaded membermayisbe omitted. (b)
represented in Calculate
Fig. theExpress
P2.68. strain energy
the
2.68.forThe
T =state
1.4 kN of stress at500
· m, density
a= a point in
mm,the =a 20
loaded
d distortional
mm, andmember
G = 42 is GPa.
represented in Fig. P2.68. Express the
dilatational
dilatationalenergy
energy density and
and the energy
distortional
Figure
density
energy in terms of the given stresses (σ,
density in terms of the given stresses (σ,
τ) at the point and the material properties (E,P2.61.
ν).
τ) at theproblems
The example point andinthe
the material properties
book should (E, ν).this list of problems.
also be added