The Hominids

Ember (2002) explains that one of the most controversial aspects of Darwin’s theory was the suggestion
that one species could, over time, evolve into another.

The Hominid is one of the earliest members of the primate family Hominidae, containing humans, their
immediate ancestors, and close extinct relatives.

Physical Features of Hominids

1. Body Size
Surviving primates vary enormously in body size, ranging from 2 or so ounces of the average gray mouse
lemur to the 350 pounds of the average male gorilla. Species that eat mostly leaves tend to be larger than
species that eat mostly fruits and seeds.

2. Relative brain size

Larger primates usually have larger brains, but larger animals of all types generally have larger brains.
Thus, primatologists are interested in relative brain size, that is, the ration of brain size to body size.
For the reason that, human primates have the larger brains relatively of any primate, we tend to think
that a larger brain is “better”.

3. Tool making
There is no evidence that any non-human primates except great apes use tools, although several species
of monkeys use “weapons”. Chimpanzee both fashion and use tools in the wild.
They strip leaves from sticks and then use the stick to fish termites from their mound-shaped nests. They
use leaves to mop up termites, to sponge up water, or to wipe themselves clean.

4. Language
Only humans have spoken symbolic language. In the wild, Vervet monkeys make different alarm calls to
ward off different predators.

The Homo Habilis

Known from Tanzania, Kenya and South Africa. It is dated to exist around two million years ago. It had a
lightly built brain-case, projecting face and jaws relatively large front teeth, but small narrow cheek teeth.
Body size was 25-40 kg. with long powerful-muscled arms and hands suggesting climbing ability and short
hind limbs.

This specie is one (1) of the earliest members of the genus Homo. It inhabited parts of Sub-Saharan
Africa from perhaps 2 to 1.5 million years ago (Mya) when traditional forest foods like fruit were becoming
scarce forcing animals to seek out new nutritional sources. Homo Habilis were known to be omnivorous.
So at that time, they ate meat by scavenging from animal carcasses. Snatching meat from under the noses
of fearsome predators like lions was a risky business for survival.

In 1959 and 1960, the first fossils were discovered at Olduvai Gorge in Northern Tanzania by Louis
and Mary Leakey. It has a slightly larger braincase and smaller face and teeth than in Australopithecus or
older Hominid species. But it still retains some ape-like features including long arms and a moderately-
prognathic face. Its name, which means ‘handy or skilled man’ “able man”, was given by Raymond Dart in
1964 because this species was thought to represent the first maker of stone tools classified as Mode 1
Technology or known as the Oldowan Tool. These tools, like most others from the same period, were
made by chipping pieces from chunks of volcanic rock to reveal sharp, jagged edge used to smash open
animal bones and extract the nutritious bone marrow. Currently, the oldest stone tools are dated slightly
older than the oldest evidence of the genus Homo.

It has a larger brain than earlier human ancestors representing 1.7% of their body weight. This is
reflected in significant changes to the shape of the skull, which is fuller and more rounded due to
expansion of the brain. Aslight forehead was appearing; face had a small, arched brow ridge, and was
smaller and shorter than those of earlier ancestors. A hole for the spinal cord was located in the center of
the skull base, and facial projection was reduced compared with earlier species. Its body proportions were
similar to those of australopithecines with females growing to about 110 cm and males to about 130 cm
in height. Its jaw was smaller than those found in the earlier australopithecines and teeth were arranged
in a more rounded arc like those of modern humans and had become smaller and more humanlike,
although the incisors were still relatively large. The features of the leg and foot bones indicate that this
species walked on two (2) legs, which were relatively short, providing this species with arm and leg
proportions that were relatively ape-like and similar to those of the australopithecines. The finger bones
are slightly curved and intermediate in shape between the curved finger bones of quadrupedal apes and
the straight finger bones of modern humans which suggest the human-like ability to form a precision grip.
When it comes to their surroundings, they lived in a predominantly grassland environment. The climate
was becoming cooler and drier; this may have been the impetus for new feeding strategies that included
scavenging and tool use. Chemical analysis suggests that this specie was mainly vegetarian, but did include
some meat in their diet.

The Homo Erectus

In 1891, Eugen Dubois, a Dutch anatomist digging in Java found what he called Pithe canthropus
erectus, meaning erect ape man. They believed to evolve very shortly after Homo Habilis, probably about
1.8 million years ago. Homo erectus was the first hominid species to be widely distributed in the Old
World.

About two million years ago, a new set of fossils began to appear in the human fossil record.
Designated as Homo erectus which means “upright man”, they show evidence of increases in both body
size and brain size. They are the oldest known early humans to have possessed modern humanlike body
proportions with relatively elongated legs and shorter arms compared to the size of the torso. These
features are considered adaptations to a life lived on the ground, indicating the loss of earlier tree-
climbing adaptations, with the ability to walk and possibly run long distances. Compared with earlier fossil
humans, note the expanded braincase relative to the size of the face. Those bigger brains and bodies
required more food and energy to survive. The teeth of Homo erectus fossils suggest the ancient man ate
a fairly diverse diet, and most scientists believe the species ate more animal protein compared to older
human species. The most complete fossil individual of this species is known as the ‘Turkana Boy’ which
measures 5 feet 3 inches (1.6 meters) tall – a well-preserved skeleton lacking almost the hand and foot
bones dated around 1.6 million years old. Microscopic study of the teeth indicates that he grew up at a
growth rate similar to that of a great ape. There is fossil evidence that this specie cared for old and weak
individuals. The appearance of Homo erectus in the fossil record is often associated with the earliest hand
axes, the first major innovation in stone tool technology.

Accordingly, Erectus is one (1) of the better-known members of genus Homo, especially in terms
of its well-established place in paleoanthropology. Some claim that Erectus is an invalid taxon, though few
accept this interpretation at this point in time. The specie was named by Eugène Dubois, which was
originally designated as Pithecanthropus Erectus in 1894, after his 1891 find from Trinil, Java, in Indonesia.
Homo erectus were very successful in creating cultural technologies that allowed them to adapt to new
environmental opportunities. They were true pioneers in developing human culture and in expanding
their geographic range beyond Africa to populate tropical and subtropical zones elsewhere in the Old
World. This territorial expansion most likely began around 1.8-1.7 million years ago, coinciding with
progressively cooler global temperatures. Surprisingly, however, Homo erectus remained little changed
anatomically until about 800,000 years ago. After that time, there apparently were evolutionary
developments in features of the head that would become characteristic of modern humans. By half a
million years ago, some Homo erectus were able to move into the seasonally cold temperate zones of Asia
and Europe. This migration was made possible by greater intelligence and new cultural technologies,
probably including better hunting skills and the ability to create fire and cook food. Generally, they are
considered to have been the first specie to have expanded beyond Africa and possibly the longest-lived
early human species - about nine (1) times as long as Homo sapiens. They are known to be bigger, smarter,
and faster Hominin Lineage.

HOMO NEANDERTHAL

Neanderthals are our closest extinct human relative. The term 'Neanderthal' comes from the
modern spelling of the Neander Valley in Germany where the specie was first discovered, in the Feldhofer
Cave. Thus, it means “Man from Neander Valley.” Homo Neanderthalensis existed from 600,000 to 25,000
years ago. Some defining features of their skulls include the large middle part of the face, angled cheek
bones, and a huge nose for humidifying and warming cold, dry air. Their bodies were shorter and stockier
than ours, another adaptation to living in cold environments. But their brains were just as large as ours
and often larger - proportional to their brawnier bodies. Their short, stocky bodies are similar in
proportion to those of modern cold-adapted peoples; men averaged about 5 ft. 6 in. tall. Neanderthal
bones are thick and heavy and show signs of powerful muscle attachments. Neanderthals most likely
would have been extraordinarily strong by modern standards, and their skeletons show that they endured
brutally hard lives. They are found throughout Europe and the Middle East. Western European
Neanderthals usually have a more robust form and are considered "classic Neanderthals." Also, they have
protruding jaw, receding forehead, and weak chin.

They were highly carnivorous, but they also ate other food; although only limited evidence of
plant food survives in the archaeological record. In Mediterranean regions, the Neanderthals exploited
marine resources such as shellfish and seals, but their use of aquatic foods was certainly more limited
than that of modern humans.

Neanderthals behaved strikingly like our own specie in some ways; as well as making and wearing
clothes and probably also simple jewelry.

Archaeologists have identified as many as 20 different tools that Neanderthals made using this
technique. The tools served a range of purposes, from slicing meat and scraping hides to cutting wood.
Neanderthals made and used a diverse set of sophisticated tools, controlled fire, lived in shelters, made
and wore clothing, were skilled hunters of large animals and also ate plant foods, and occasionally made
symbolic or ornamental objects. Archaeologists have discovered numerous Neanderthal skeletons
apparently buried deliberately in caves. These pieces of evidence indicate that Neanderthals deliberately
buried their dead and occasionally even marked their graves with offerings, such as flowers. No other
primate and no earlier human species had ever practiced this sophisticated and symbolic behavior.
DNA has been recovered from more than a dozen Neanderthal fossils all from Europe dating to the
Pleistocene period.

HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS

It also belongs to the surviving hominid Homo sapiens to which modern man belongs, having
language and ability to make and use complex tools and a brain volume of at least 1400 cc. It is also known
as Cro-Magnon. Discovered in 1868, Cro-Magnon was among the first fossils to be recognized as belonging
to our own specie—Homo sapiens. This famous fossil skull is from one (1) of several modern human
skeletons found at the famous rock shelter site at Cro-Magnon, near the village of Les Eyzies, France. Road
construction in 1868 revealed the rock shelter tucked into a limestone cliff. Researchers recognized an
occupation floor toward the back of the cave during excavations. The occupation area revealed the
remains of four (4) adult skeletons, one (1) infant, and some fragmentary bones. The condition and
placement of ornaments, including pieces of shell and animal teeth fashioned into what appear to be
pendants or necklaces, led researchers to believe the skeletons had been intentionally buried within the
shelter in a single grave. The cave was investigated by the French geologist Édouard Lartet, who uncovered
five (5) archaeological layers. The site was one of the first to establish the ancient roots of modern humans
and fossils from this shelter represent some of the oldest Homo sapiens populations of Europe. Associated
tools and fragments of fossil animal bones date the site to the uppermost Pleistocene, probably between
32,000 and 30,000 years old dating from the Upper Paleolithic Period (c. 40,000 to c. 10,000 years ago) in
Europe.

The middle-aged, male skeleton of the four (4) adults found in the cave at Cro-Magnon was
labeled as “Cro-Magnon 1”. Scientists estimate his age at death at less than 50 years old. Except for the
teeth, his skull is complete, though the bones in his face are noticeably pitted from a fungal infection. In
general, the Cro-Magnon remains are representative of the earliest anatomically modern human beings
to appear in Western Europe, this population was not the earliest anatomically modern humans to evolve
- our specie evolved about 200,000 years ago in Africa. Cro-Magnons were robustly built and powerful
and are presumed to have been about 166 to 171 cm (about 5 feet 5 inches to 5 feet 7 inches) tall. The
body was generally heavy and solid, apparently with strong musculature. The forehead was straight, with
slight brow ridges, and the face short and wide. Cro-Magnons were the first humans (genus Homo) to
have a prominent chin. The brain capacity was about 1,600 cc (100 cubic inches), somewhat larger than
the average for modern humans.

Analysis of the skeletons found at the rock shelter indicates that the humans of this time period
led a physically tough life. In addition to Cro-Magnon 1’s fungal infection, several of the individuals found
at the shelter had fused vertebrae in their necks indicating traumatic injury. The adult female found at the
shelter had survived for some time with a skull fracture. The survival of the individuals with such ailments
is indicative of group support and care, which allowed their injuries to heal. They were considered as
skilled hunters, toolmakers and artists famous for the cave art at places such as Lascaux, Chauvet, and
Altamira.