PHONOLOGY COURSE 5DR & 6TH SEMESTERS

AUTUMN 2019-2020/SPRING 2020

PHONOLOGY

Phonemes Assimilation

Allophones Intonation

Syllables Elision
Minimal Pairs Stress

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COURSE OUTLINE

Course Content

1. Phonology: I. Introduction/ II. What is Phonology?/ Phonology VS Phonetics

2. Phonemes, Phones & Allophones/ Phonetic & Phonemic Transcription
3. Minimal Pairs & Minimal Sets
4. Phonotactis: Actual, Possible & Impossible Words
5. Syllable Structure: Nature Of Syllable/ Structure of English Syllable/ Consonant Clusters
6. Syllabification: Sonority Scale/ Sonority Sequencing Principle/ Onset First Principle
7. Strong & Weak Syllables VS Heavy & Light Syllables
8. Stress: Nature Of Stress/ Levels Of Stress/ Stress Placement Within English Simple Words
9. Co-Articulation Effects: Assimilation/ Elision/ Strong & Weak Forms Of Words

Assessment and Grading

Attendance, Participation & Discipline 10%

Home Assignments 10 %
Quizzes 10 %
Written exam (mid-term) 10 %
Final exam (written) 60%
Total marks 100
 Attendance, Class Participation, Home Assignments, Quizzes as well as Exams are highly
considered in evaluating students.
 No make-up exams (midterm or final) can be given except in case the exam time clashes with the
exam time of another subject (as it is the case with the final exam for students repeating the
course).

Course Policies: Attendance & Participation

 Attendance and Participation are essential for this course. This includes being punctual (getting
to class on time). So students are expected to come on time, and be prepared. If a student misses
class or comes late, this will affect their grade.
 Attendance will be taken at the beginning of the class. This will help the instructor to better
gauge who is and who is not making a concerted effort to learn the content of the course. More
than two absences means that the attendance mark will be cut by one full mark for each
additional absence. It thus stands to reason that missing classes can result in a failing grade over
time.
 Participation and involvement require concentration, thoughtful speaking and listening in
discussions, respect for and cooperation with other students in the group, and commitment to the
class. Surfing the internet, texting, or interacting with any electronic device is strictly
prohibited. Likewise, acting or communicating in an inappropriate manner is also prohibited.

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 Lecture 1 INTRODUCTION

What is Phonology?

Phonology is the description of the system and patterns of speech sounds in a given language. It is based
on what the speaker of a language unconsciously knows about the sound patterns of their language.
Therefore, Phonology is concerned with the abstract or mental aspect of speech sounds rather than their
physical articulation.it is about the underlying design which represents the basis for all the variations in
the articulations of the same sound different contexts. For example, the sound /t/ in words such as tar, star
and water is phonologically the same. However, in actual speech, the realizations of this sound in these
three words are different but these differences are less important than those between, for example, /t/, /f/
and /b/ in words such as tar, far, bar because these sounds affect the meaning. That is, these sounds make
the mentioned words meaningfully distinct in meaning. (Yule: 1996:54)

Phonology VS Phonetics

Phonology is the linguistic knowledge related to the speech sounds and their patterns in a language.
Therefore, phonologists study the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems in human
languages. Phonetics, on the other hand, is essentially the study of the physical (acoustic or
physiological) aspects of speech production and perception which are the result of the physical properties
of the vocal system. These physiological aspects are physically unavoidable such as the differences
between [kh] and [k] in the two words car and scar respectively. (Spencer, 1992: 2)

In fact, the study of speech sounds is divided between Phonetics and Phonology. Both words come from
the Greek word meaning “sound” [φωνή, phōnḗ], and the suffixes [-logy and -ics] (which come from
Greek (λόγος/logos and φωνητῐκός/kós respectivelly) mean (science/study of). However, the boundaries
between Phonetics and Phonology are very difficult to draw and there is a degree of overlap between
them. For some linguistics, Phonology is considered as a part of Phonetics since Phonetics provides the
means for describing speech sounds. (Fromkin & Rodman, 1993: 216)

Generally, Phonology is concerned with the linguistic knowledge related to speech sounds that occur in a
particular language and how these sounds pattern according to regular rules. Since the grammar of a
language represents the totality of a speaker’s linguistic knowledge, knowledge of the sound patterns –
the phonological component – must be part of this grammar (Fromkin & Rodman, 1993: 216).

To sum up, while Phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are produced and organized in all human
languages, Phonology uses the classifications of sounds derived from Phonetics to describe and analyze
how sounds are organized in a particular language. (Crane et al, 1981: 72)

References

 Crane, L. B., E. Yeager & B. Whitman (1981). An Introduction to Liguistics. Little & Brown
Company.
 Fromkin. V. & R. Rodman. (1993). An Introduction to Language. Harcourt Brace College
Publishers.
 Roach, P. (1995). English Phonetics & Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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 Roca, I. & W. Johnson. (1994). A Course in Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Spencer, A. (1996). Phonology. Blackwell Publishers.
 Yule, G. (1996). The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Lecture 2 Phonemes, Phones & Allophones

Phonemes are those sounds which are used contrastively. That is, sounds which distinguish or contrast
words and make them different in meaning.

Example: Think of the words tar, car, far and bar. What makes these words different? Can you give
other examples?

Therefore, Phonemes are those contrastive sounds which are used to distinguish one word from another.

However, any phoneme may be realized as a number of different sounds depending on the phonological
context in which it is found. The variations in the pronunciation of phonemes are called Phones. For
example, the realizations of /t/ in the two words tar and star are different and those of /p/ in peak and
speak are also different.

When we produce the words tar and star and peak and speak, we notice the difference in the
pronunciation of /t/ and /p/ in each pair. We notice that /t/ and /p/ are aspirated in tar and peak but not in
star and speak. Aspiration is an extra puff of air accompanying the pronunciation of /t/ in tar and /p/ in
peak and is referred to by a raised [h]. So, in addition to the phones [t] and [p], we can have [th] and [ph].
When we have a group of phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme, we refer to them as
Allophones of that phoneme. Therefore, [t] and [th] are both Allophones of the phoneme /t/ and [p] and
[ph] are both Allophones of the phoneme /p/.

Exercise

Can you tell when we use slashes / / and when we use square brackets [ ] to represent sounds?

Phonetic and Phonemic Transcription

Transcription is the written, printed, or typed copy of words that have been spoken. Technically, there are
two types of transcription: Phonemic and Phonetic. In Phonemic Transcription, we use symbols to refer
to phonemes only and are conventionally written between two slashes / /. For example, the two words tar
and peak are phonemically transcribed as /tɑ:/ and /pi:k/. However, if we want to details in pronunciation,
we need to use what is called Phonetic Transcription. For instance, the two words tar and peak are
phonetically transcribed as /thɑ:/ and /phi:k/. We use slashes / / with phonemic transcription and square
brackets [ ] with phonetic transcription.

Exercise

Which is a right transcription for the two words star and speak /stɑ:/ and /spi:k/ or [stɑ:] and [spi:k]?
Why?

Minimal Pairs and Minimal Sets

A Minimal Pair is any two words which

1. have the same number of segments,

2. differ in meaning,
3. show only one phonetic difference in the same place in the string.

The third point indicates that two separate phonemes are involved. (Crane et al, 1981: 72)

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Examples (Note: Read the words vertically, not horizontally)

pin /pɪn/ sit /sɪt/ ran /ræn/

bin /bɪn/ set /set/ rat /ræt/

According to the definition of minimal pairs, the words bad/dab and pit/tip are not minimal pairs. Can you
tell why?

Exercise

Can you think of more minimal pairs? Provide some in the spaces below with their transcription.

__________________ __________________ __________________ __________________

__________________ __________________ __________________ __________________

Minimal pairs help us to determine whether the sounds by which the two words differ are phonemes or
not. If substituting one sound by the other results in a different word, then the sounds are phonemes.

If we have three or more words which differ by one sound in the same place in the string, then we are
talking about Minimal Sets. Here are some examples:

______ beat________ ______ boot________ ______ but________

______ Bill ________ ______ Dill ________ ______Gill________
______ rib ________ ______ rid ________ ______ rig ________
______crick________ ______creek________ ______croak _______

Exercise

Transcribe the words above and underline the segments by which each set of words differ.

References

 Crane, L. B., E. Yeager & B. Whitman (1981). An Introduction to Linguistics. Little & Brown
Company.
 Fromkin. V. & R. Rodman. (1993). An Introduction to Language. Harcourt Brace College
Publishers.
 Roach, P. (1995). English Phonetics & Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Roca, I. & W. Johnson. (1994). A Course in Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Spencer, A. (1996). Phonology. Blackwell Publishers.
 Yule, G. (1996). The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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 Lecture 3 Phonotactis: Actual, Possible & Impossible Words

Phonotactics

Phonotactics are restrictions on the patterning of sounds in the words of any given language.
Phonotactics are sometimes called Phonotactic Constraints. They are the way in which sounds are
arranged or ordered. Some Phonotactic Constraints apply to words. For example, words in English never
begin with the velar nasal sound /ŋ/. Others would normally apply to syllables. In English, for instance,
we may have an initial /sp/ sequence in words such as speak, but we will never have the opposite
sequence (i.e. /ps/) occurring initially.

Actual, Possible & Impossible Words

Let’s consider the following example: a minimal set based on consonants of English could include big,
wig, dig, fig, pig, rig. In English, the words we have just listed are all Actual words, i.e. we can find them
listed in the dictionary. However, this minimal set does not include words such as lig or vig. According to
the dictionary, these are not English words, but they could be viewed as Possible English words. That is,
our phonological knowledge of the pattern of sounds in English words would allow us to treat these forms
as acceptable if, at some future time, they become into use. Until then, they represent “accidental” gaps in
the vocabulary of English. It is, however, no accident that forms such as [ fsɪg] or [rnɪg] do not exist or
are unlikely to ever exist. They have been formed without obeying some constraints on the sequence or
position of English phonemes. Therefore, they are considered as Impossible. Another impossible word is
[lsɪg], where no English word can begin with a liquid followed by a stop.

Exercise

Think of other constraints that apply to English or Arabic words syllables and give more examples.

References

 Crane, L. B., E. Yeager & B. Whitman (1981). An Introduction to Linguistics. Little & Brown
Company.
 Fromkin. V. & R. Rodman. (1993). An Introduction to Language. Harcourt Brace College
Publishers.
 Roach, P. (1995). English Phonetics & Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Roca, I. & W. Johnson. (1994). A Course in Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Spencer, A. (1996). Phonology. Blackwell Publishers.
 Yule, G. (1996). The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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 Lecture 4 Syllables

The Nature of the Syllable

Syllables can be described phonetically as consisting of a center which has little or no obstruction to
airflow and which sounds comparatively loud; before and after this center (i.e. at the beginning and end of
the syllable), there will be greater obstruction to airflow and/or less loud sounds. From your study of
Phonetics, can you tell which sounds have little or no obstruction to airflow and are louder than which
sounds?

Here are some examples of the syllable:

i. A minimum syllable would be a single vowel in isolation such as are /ɑ:/, or /ɔ:/, err /ɜ:ʳ/
ii. Some syllables may have a consonant (or more) before the vowel. That consonant which precedes
the vowel is known as the onset such as car /kɑ:/; key /ki:/; core /kɔ:/
iii. Syllables may have no onset but have a coda which is the consonant(s) that come after the vowel
such as am /æm/; ought /ɔ:t/; ease /i:z/
iv. Some syllables have no onset and a coda such as run /rʌn/; sat /sæt/; fill /fɪl/

Accordingly, the structure of the syllable can be represented with a tree diagram for the monosyllabic
word “splints” as follows:

rime

s p l ɪ n t s

From a phonological point of view, we can look at the possible combinations of English phonemes
differently. In this respect, a word may begin with a vowel, one, two or three consonants. Also, the word
can end with a vowel, one, two, three or (in a smaller number of cases) four consonants. Can you give
examples for each case?

Begins with C… ________________________ CC… ________________________

CCC… _________________________

Ends with …C _________________________ …CC ________________________

…CCC _________________________ …CCCC ________________________

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The Structure of The English Syllable

1. The Onset
a. If the syllable begins with a vowel, this is said to have a zero onset.

Example: aisle /aɪl/; each /i:tʃ/; us /ʌs/; inn /ɪn/; own /əʊn/; old /əʊld/; off /ɒf/; oil /ɔɪl/

b. If the syllable begins with one consonant, that initial consonant may be any consonant phoneme
except /ŋ/. The consonant /ʒ/ is rare in initial position.

Example: bush /bʌʃ/; dark /dɑ:k/; cut /kʌt/; moon /mu:n/; one /wʌn/; take /teɪk/; poor /pʊəʳ/

c. When we have two or more consonants together, we call them a consonant cluster. Initial two-
consonant clusters are of two types:
i. The sound /s/ followed by a small set of consonants including /p, t, k, f, m, n, l, w, j, r/. See
Table 1 below. Here are some examples: spin /spɪn/; stick /stɪk/; skin /skɪn/; sphere /sfɪəʳ/;
smell /smel/; snow /snəʊ/; slip /slɪp /; swing /swɪŋ/; sue /sju:/; syringe /srɪndʒ/

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 ii. A consonant of a set of about fifteen consonants followed by a liquid /l, r/ or a glide /w, j/
as in play /pleɪ/; try /traɪ/; quick /kwɪk/; few /fju:/. See Table 2 below.

Notes on doubtful cases:

1. Many Welsh names, such as girls’ names like Gwen and place names like the county of Gwent, have initial
/gw/ and they seem perfectly easy to pronounce.
2. Two cases of the very infrequent consonant cluster /ʃw/ are familiar: the word “schwa” /ʃwɑː/ and the soft
drink brand name “Schweppes” /ʃweps/.
3. The only possible example of /gj/ would be in the archaic word “gules” /ɡjuːlz/.
4. /θj/ occurs in the archaic word “thew” /θjuː/ only.

iii. A three-consonant cluster at the onset position should consist of /s/ followed by /p/, /t/ or /k/ and a
liquid /l, r/ or a glide /w, j/. The following are some examples (See Table 3 below):

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 2. The Coda

In the Coda we may have up to four consonants. If we have no consonants we say that there is a zero
coda. The following are some examples:

 One-consonant coda: shut /ʃʌt/ hope /həʊp/ like /laɪk/

 Two-consonant coda: pump /pʌmp/ send /send/ else /els/
 Three-consonant coda: helped /helpt/ banks /bæŋks/ next /nekst/
 Four-consonant coda: twelfths /twelfθ/ prompts /prɒmpts/ texts /teksts/

Structure of the English syllable can be summarized using the following schema:

0 0

C V C

3 4

This schema shows that the peak/nucleus is obligatory while the onset and coda are optional in English
as we can have a zero onset and a zero coda.

Structure Of English Syllable: Problems Related To Consonant Clusters/Sequences

The first problem related to consonant clusters encountered by Arab learners of English is that while
English allows for up to three consonants sequencing word initially and up to four consonants sequencing
word finally, Libyan Arabic only allows for two consonants sequencing word initially or finally. The
schemata in the following figure show sequencing possibilities in the two languages:

Arabic English

1 0 0 0

C V C C V C

2 2 3 4

Consequently, a two-consonant initial or final sequencing in English words would not cause much trouble
for Libyan Arab learners of English. The main source of trouble will, however, be the third consonant of
the sequence in both word-initial and word-final positions. In producing these types of consonant clusters,
Arab learners tend to insert an extra vowel in order to break up the sequence.

I. Initial Sequences
strong */ɪstrɒŋ/ spread */ɪspred/ scream */ɪskri:m/

II. Final Sequences

helped */helpɪt/ facts */fæktɪs/ fifths */fɪfθɪs/

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While initial consonant sequences cannot be simplified and should be pronounced as they are, final ones
are often simplified by native speakers of English as they can be seen from the following examples:

/skt/ /st/ asked /ɑːskt/ /ɑːst/

/sts/ /ss/ lists /lɪsts/ /lɪss/

/pts/ /ps/ scripts /skrɪpts/ /skrɪps/

/fθs/ /fs/ fifths /fɪfθs/ /fɪfs/

/ksθs/ /ks/ sixths /sɪksθs/ /sɪks/

It is, however, very important for students to notice that the way consonant clusters are simplified in
Libyan Arabic is different from that of English final clusters. They should also notice that grammatical
endings such as the plural and 3rd person singular morpheme /s, z/ and the past tense and past participle
morphemes /t, d/ cannot be omitted in order to simplify sequences because that will change meaning.

References

 Crane, L. B., E. Yeager & B. Whitman (1981). An Introduction to Linguistics. Little & Brown
Company.
 Fromkin. V. & R. Rodman. (1993). An Introduction to Language. Harcourt Brace College
Publishers.
 Roach, P. (1995). English Phonetics & Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Roca, I. & W. Johnson. (1994). A Course in Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Spencer, A. (1996). Phonology. Blackwell Publishers.
 Yule, G. (1996). The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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 Lecture 5 Syllable Weight: Heavy and Light Syllables / Open and Closed Syllables

Syllable Weight

In terms of weight, a distinction is often drawn between two types of syllable: Light and Heavy. A light
syllable is one which does not have a branching rime (rhyme), whereas a heavy syllable is that which has
a branching rime. The rime may branch at the rime level, at the nucleus level or at both levels. These
three branching levels are shown by the example words my, has and safe.

m a ɪ // h æ z s
e ɪ f

The onset, however, plays no role in syllable weight; we can have light or heavy syllables with/without
onsets. Light and heavy syllables, therefore, take the forms shown in the following table with some
illustrative examples:

Heavy Syllables Examples Light Syllables Examples

CCV my /maɪ/ CV the /ðə/

CV: key /ki:/ V a /ə/
VV I /aɪ/
V: are /ɑ:/
CVC put /pʊt/
VC on /ɒn/
CVVC right /raɪt/
CV:C soon /su:n/
VVC eight /eɪt/
V:C eat /i:t/

Open and Closed Syllables

Open Syllables are those which end with a vowel. That is, those syllables which do not have codas such
as the /ðə/; see /si:/; why /waɪ/. Closed Syllables, on the other hand, are those which end with a
consonant in the coda slot. For example, aim /eɪm/, clean /kli:n/ and give /gɪv/ are closed syllables.

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 Lecture 6 Syllabification

Sonority scale

Technically, syllables require a peak that is preceded or followed by a sequence of segments with
progressively decreasing sonority values. According to the possible onsets found in English language,
English sounds may be leveled in what is termed a Sonority Scale based on their sonority values (Roca,
1999). This is shown by Figures 1a, 1b and 1c below.

A Sequence
With Progressively
Decreasing
Sonority Values

5
4
3
2
1

Note: Obstruents are a major class of speech sounds produced with either full or partial obstruction of air
passage. Obstruents include stops, fricatives and affricates. Sonorants, on the other hand, are a major
class of speech sounds produced with relatively free airflow either through the mouth or nose. Sonorants
include vowels, glides, liquids and nasals.

Sonority plays a major role in identifying syllables in that most sonorous sounds occupy the peak
position and the least sonorous sounds occupy the margins of the syllables. This distribution of sounds
according to their sonority values is formulated in a general principle called Sonority Sequencing
Principle (abbreviated as SSP) which is stated as follows:

Sonority Sequencing Principle (Selkirk, 1984)

In any syllable, there is a segment constituting a sonority peak that is preceded and/or followed by a
sequence of segments with progressively decreasing values. Examine the following examples and see
whether they obey the SSP.

five /faɪv/ queen /kwi:n/ dream /dri:m/

milk /mɪlk/ sink /sɪŋk/ self /self/

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 Figure 2: Sonority Profile Peak of sonority

1.Vowels *
Margins/ 2.Glides
Valleys 3.Liquids
of the
syllable 4.Nasals
5.Obstruents * *
f aɪ v

Sonority Theory: Important Points

1. The order of consonants in the onset and the coda is important because some consonant
sequences produce impossible words. For example, the following are “non-words” because the
onset and coda slots are occupied by impermissible consonant sequences:

onset coda
play */lpeɪ/ help */hepl/
pray */rpeɪ/ lamp */læpm/
quick */wkɪk/ hard */hɑ:dr/

2. The systematic reason why all the *forms make bad syllables is related to the fact that we have a
sequence of sonorant /l, r, w/ + obstruent /p, k/ in the onset and a sequence of obstruent /p, d/ +
sonorant /l, r, w/ in the coda. The reverse order in each position is well formed. That is, we
should have the following sequence:
Obstruent + Sonorant Onset
Sonorant + Obstruent Coda

Thus, in a word such as “quilt”, the sonority gradually rises at the onset to a peak at the nucleus
and then falls at the coda forming one syllable, as shown by Figure 3 below:

Figure 3: Sonority Profile of “quilt” Peak of sonority

1.Vowels *
Margins/ 2.Glides *
Valleys 3.Liquids *
of the
syllable 4.Nasals
5.Obstruents * *
k w ɪ l t

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3. If we look at the sonority profile of the non-word /wkɪlt/, we get the shape shown below:

Figure 4: Sonority Profile of non-word Peak of sonority

/wkɪlt/

1.Vowels *Peak II
Margins/ 2.Glides *Peak I
Valleys 3.Liquids *Peak III
of the
syllable 4.Nasals
5.Obstruents * *
w k ɪ t l

There are three syllables in this sequence because we have three peaks of sonority. This is, of
course, wrong for a monosyllabic word such as “quilt”.

4. The Sonority Scale Principle (SSP) helps explain why certain consonant clusters are impossible
in onsets or codas. According to this principle, the sonority profile of a legitimate syllable must
rise continuously to a peak and fall continuously after that peak. Given the Sonority Scale
Principle, br-, bl-, pl-, pr-, kw- are possible onsets, while *lp-, *kn-, *gm, *bn-, *nb- are
impossible onsets. On the other hand, -mp, -lp, -nk, -lt, as in lamp, help, ink, felt, are perfectly
good as codas but not as onsets.
5. The phoneme /s/ behaves in an unusual way. It can combine happily with almost any onset to
form a cluster of up to three consonants. Thus, we have spl-, str-, skw- and so on. However,
three consonant *sdw-, *sbr- and *sgl- are impossible onset sequences, because there is a
mismatch between the voicelessness of /s/ and the voicedness of the second segment in these
clusters. Therefore, we can have only a voiceless stop immediately after /s/. in two-consonant
onsets, however, we can have a /s/ followed by a nasal, a liquid or a glide, e.g. sn-, sm-, sl-, sj,
sw-.

Status of /s/

Let us consider the following words:

speak /spi:k/ skip /skɪp/ still /stɪl/

Are they consistent with the SSP?

Apparently, the /s/ here violate the SSP by clustering with the obstruents /p, k, t/. The sound /s/ and
these three sounds have the same number in the sonority scale, that is, number 1. For this reason, /s/
should not be considered as part of the syllable but should be linked directly to the word as shown by
the following tree diagram for ‘speak’:

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 sp I: k

Status of the Coronals at the End of Words

Coronals are speech sounds articulated by raising the tip or blade of the tongue towards the hard palate.
Coronals include dentals, alveolars, palate-alveolars and palatals. It is clear that the coronals which appear
at the end of some words are better interpreted as appendices (additional segments) to the word and,
therefore, should be linked to the word rather than the syllable as shown in the following tree diagram for
“next”

n e kst

References

 Crane, L. B., E. Yeager & B. Whitman (1981). An Introduction to Linguistics. Little & Brown
Company.
 Fromkin. V. & R. Rodman. (1993). An Introduction to Language. Harcourt Brace College
Publishers.
 Roach, P. (1995). English Phonetics & Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Roca, I. & W. Johnson. (1994). A Course in Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Spencer, A. (1996). Phonology. Blackwell Publishers.
 Yule, G. (1996). The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

17
 Lecture 7 Syllabification: Onset First Principle

Syllabification of Polysyllabic Words

Let us consider the following examples and which syllabification is right:

1. portrait /pɔ: . treɪt/ /pɔ:t . reɪt/

2. surprise /sə . praɪz/ /səp . raɪz/
3. redress /rɪ . dres/ /rɪd . res/

By examining both syllabification candidates of each word we find that each one of them is compatible
with the SSP. So which syllabification is right? Languages tend to assign an intervocalic consonant to the
onset of the following syllable rather than to the coda of the preceding one. In Arabic, for example, the
sequence CVCVC as in /katab/ is syllabified CV.CVC. This tendency in languages is formulated in a
general principle called the Onset First Principle (OFP) as follows:

Onset First Principle (Clements & keyser, 1983)

Syllable initial consonants are maximized to the extent consist with the syllable structure of the language
in question. Subsequently, syllable final consonants are maximized to the extent consistent with the
syllable structure of the language in question. So, what syllabification of the words above is favored over
the other?

References

 Roca, I. & W. Johnson. (1994). A Course in Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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 Lecture 8 Strong and Weak Syllables

One of the most important features of English is that many syllables are weak. Several factors are
involved in the distinction between strong and weak syllables including stress, intonation and elision. For
instance, strong syllables attract stress while weak ones do not. A strong syllable may have any vowel as
its peak except for /ə/. A weak syllable, on the other hand, can have three types of peak:

i. The vowel /ə/

ii. One of the close (high) front or close back vowels /i:, ɪ, ʊ, u:/
iii. A syllabic consonant /m̩, l̩ , n̩, ŋ̩ , r̩/

Compared to strong syllables, weak syllables tend to be shorter, of lower intensity and different in quality.
Compare the strong syllable with the weak one in the following words: father /fɑ:ðə/ bottle /bɒtl̩ /

1. The vowel /ə/

It is the most frequently occurring vowel in English and it is always associated with weak syllable.
Generally, this vowel is mid-central. It is often described as lax (i.e., not pronounced with much energy).
The following are examples of weak syllables with the vowel /ə/:

 spelt with ‘a’ such as attend /əˈtend/, character /ˈkær.ək.tər/, barracks /ˈbær.əks/
 spelt with ‘ar’ such as particular /pəˈtɪk.jə.lər/, monarchy /ˈmɒn.ə.ki/, molar /məʊ.lər/
 adjectival endings spelt with ‘ate’ such as intimate /ˈɪn.tɪ.mət/, accurate /ˈæk.jə.rət/, desolate
/des.əl.ət/ (exception is private /'praɪvɪt/)
 spelt with ‘o’ such as tomato /təˈmeɪ . t̬ oʊ/, potato /pəˈteɪ.təʊ/, carrot /ˈkær.ət/

 spelt with ‘or’ such as forget /fəˈɡet/, ambassador /æmˈbæs.ə.dər/, opportunity /ˌɒp.əˈtʃuː.nə.ti/
 spelt with ‘e’ such as settlement /set.əl.mənt/, violet /vaɪə.lət/
 spelt with ‘er’ such as perhaps /pəˈhæps/, superman /ˈsuː.pə.mæn/, persuade /pəˈsweɪd/
 spelt with ‘u’ such as autumn /ˈɔː.təm/, support /səˈpɔːt/
 spelt with ‘ough’ such as thorough /θʌr.ə/
 spelt with ‘ous’ such as gracious /ˈɡreɪ.ʃəs/, jealous /dʒel.əs/, previous /ˈpriː.vi.əs/

2. Close (High) Front and Close Back Vowels /i:, ɪ, ʊ, u:/

The other two vowels that are commonly found in weak syllables are the close front vowels /i:, ɪ/ and the
close back vowels /ʊ, u:/. In strong syllables, it is easy to distinguish /i:/ from /ɪ/ and /u:/ from /ʊ/.
However, in weak syllables, the difference is not so clear. For example, compare the vowels in the two
words ‘beat’ and ‘easy’. Is the difference clear? Now compare the first and second vowels in the word
‘easy’. Is the final vowel sound like /i:/ or /ɪ/?

In this utterance, is the vowel in ‘to’ long or short? Does it sound like /u: / or /ʊ/?

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[food to eat] /fu:d tu i:t/ [good to eat] /gʊd tu i:t/

Accordingly, shall we transcribe the word ‘easy’ as /i:zi:/ or /i:zɪ/? And shall we transcribe the word
‘busy’ as /bɪzi:/ or /bɪzi/? Few speakers of RP seem to be satisfied with any of these transcriptions.

Alternatively, these words can be transcribed as /i:zɪ/ and /bɪzi/. The same can be with ‘to’ in the two
utterances above which can be transcribed using the symbol /u/ without the length mark /:/. However, it is
no longer a phonemic transcription. It is phonetic transcription since it uses allophones /u, i/ of the
phonemes /u:, i:/ respectively.

 The vowel /i/ occurs in the following environments:

a. In word-final positions in words spelt with ‘-y’ or ‘-ey’ like ‘happy’ /ˈhæp.i/, ‘valley’ /ˈvæl.i/
b. In prefixes such as those spelt with ‘re-’, ‘pre-’, ‘de-’ if they precede a vowel and are unstressed as
in ‘react’ /riˈækt/, ‘deactivate’ /ˌdiˈæk.tɪ.veɪt/
c. In the suffix spelt with ‘-iate’ as in ‘appreciate’ /əˈpriː.ʃi.eɪt/
d. In these words when they are unstressed: [he, she, we, me, be]
e. In the word ‘the’ when it precedes a vowel, e.g. [ði’oʊld]

 Weak syllables with close back vowels are not so commonly found. We can find the vowel /u/ in
words like ‘you’, ‘to’, ‘do’ ‘who’ when they are unstressed and are not immediately preceding a
consonant. This vowel also occurs before another vowel within a word as in ‘evacuation’
/ɪvækjuˈeɪʃn/; ‘influenza’ /ˌɪn.fluˈen.zə/.
3. Syllabic Consonants /m̩, l̩ , n̩, ŋ̩ , r̩/

There are syllables in which no vowel is found. In this case a consonant occupies the peak of the syllable.
Therefore, this consonant is called a Syllabic Consonant. It could be /l̩ , r̩, m̩, n̩, ŋ̩/. To indicate that a
consonant is syllabic we put a vertical mark /ˌ/ underneath that consonant, e.g. bottle [ˈbɒtl̩];
Hungary [ˈhʌŋgr̩̩ɪ]; rhythm [ˈrɪðm̩]; button [ˈbʌtn̩]; thicken [θɪkŋ̩].

Can you tell why the final consonant in these words is syllabic?

Hint: think of the Sonority Scale, Sonority Sequencing Principle and Phonotactics.

Syllabic [l̩] is the most common example of the syllabic consonants. It is often found at the end of the
word preceded by a stop such as /t, d, g, k, b, p/. Here are some examples: ‘rattle’; ‘saddle’; ‘struggle’;
‘uncle’; ‘trouble’; ‘apple’

Does this consonant remain syllabic when a suffix is added, e.g. bottling; struggling; muddling?

References

 Roach, P. (1995). English Phonetics & Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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 Lecture 9 Stress

The Nature of Stress

The production of Stress is generally believed to depend on the speaker using more Muscular Energy
than is used for unstressed syllables. That is, the muscles that we use to expel air from the lungs are more
active, producing higher subglottal pressure. Say these words and tell which syllable is stressed in each
word:

a. father /ˈfɑ:ðə/ open /ˈəʊpən/ camera /kæmrə/

b. potato /pəˈteɪ.təʊ/ apartment /əˈpɑːt.mənt/ relation /rɪˈleɪ.ʃən /
c. about /əˈbaʊt/ receive /rɪˈsiːv/ perhaps /pəˈhæps/

From the pronunciation of these words it is clear that the first syllables of the words in (a) are stressed,
that the middle syllable of the words in (b) is stressed, and that the final syllable of the words in (c) is
stressed.

Stress as Prominence

Stressed syllables are recognized as stressed because they are more prominent than unstressed syllables.
However, what makes a syllable prominent? The following factors make stressed syllables more
prominent than unstressed ones:

1. Loudness: stressed syllables are louder than unstressed ones.

2. Length: stressed syllables are also longer than unstressed ones.
3. Pitch: Pitch is closely related to the frequency of vibration of the vocal cords. It refers to the
highness and lowness of the voice. Stressed syllables tend to be said with higher pitch compared
with unstressed ones.
4. Quality: a syllable tends to be prominent if it contains a vowel that is different in quality from
neighbouring vowels. Weak syllables are often occupied by high vowels and schwa. We can look
on stressed syllables as occurring against a “background” of those weak syllables, so their
prominence is increased by contrast with these background qualities.

Generally, these four factors work together in combination, though syllables may sometimes be made
prominent by only one or two of these factors.

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 Levels of Stress

So far we have talked as if there is simple distinction between stressed and unstressed syllables with no
intermediate levels. However, we have to recognize three levels of stress: in a single word we can have a
Primary Stress, Secondary Stress and an Unstressed Syllable (characterized by the absence of any
recognizable amount of prominence). The following words consist of syllables which carry a primary
stress, syllables which carry a secondary stress and syllables which are.

photographic /ˌfəʊ.təˈɡræf.ɪk/ anthropology /ˌæn.θrəˈpɒl.ə.dʒi/

insensibility /ɪnˌsen.səˈbɪl.ə.ti/ demonstration /ˌdem.ənˈstreɪ.ʃən/

Placement of Stress Within Simple Words

It is said that English word stress is so difficult to predict that it is best to treat stress placement as a
property of the individual word, to be learned when the word itself is learned. However, we can have
some rules that may help in placing the stress in nouns, verbs and adjectives. It should be emphasized,
however, that these rules have exceptions.

1. One-Syllable Words
Single-Syllable words present no problems – if they are pronounced in isolation, they are said
with primary stress.
2. Two-Syllable Words
a. Verbs
i. If the second syllable of the verb contains a long vowel/diphthong or if it ends with more than
one consonant, the second syllable is stressed. e.g.
apply /əˈplaɪ/ attract /əˈtrækt/ assist /əˈsɪst/ arrive /əˈraɪv/

ii. If the final syllable contains a short vowel and one or no final consonant, the first syllable is
stressed. e.g.
enter /ˈen.tər/ envy /ˈen.vi/ open /ˈəʊpən/ equal /ˈiː.kwəl/
iii. A final syllable is also unstressed if it contains /əʊ/. e.g.
follow /ˈfɒl.əʊ/ borrow /ˈbɒr.əʊ/

b. Adjectives
i. Two-syllable simple adjectives are stressed according to the same rule as two-syllable verbs,
e.g.
lovely /ˈlʌv.li/ divine /dɪˈvaɪn/ even /ˈiː.vən/
correct /kəˈrekt/ hollow /ˈhɒl.əʊ/ alive /əˈlaɪv/

22
 Other two-syllable words such as adverbs and prepositions seem to behave like verbs and adjectives.
e.g. almost / ˈɔːl.məʊst/ always /ˈɔːl.weɪz/ over /ˈəʊ.vər/ sometimes /ˈsʌm.taɪmz/

c. Nouns

If the second syllable contains a short vowel, the stress will be on the first syllable. Otherwise, it will
be on the second syllable, e.g.

money /ˈmʌn.i/ estate /ɪˈsteɪt/ product /ˈprɒd.ʌkt/

balloon /bəˈluːn/ larynx /ˈlær.ɪŋks/ design /dɪˈzaɪn/

3. Three-Syllable Words
a. Verbs
i. If the last syllable contains a short vowel and ends with no more than one consonant, that
syllable will be unstressed, and stress will be placed on the preceding (Penultimate) syllable,
.e.g.
encounter /ɪnˈkaʊn.tər/ determine /dɪˈtɜː.mɪn/
ii. If the final syllable contains a long vowel/diphthong, or if it ends with more than one
consonant, that middle syllable will be stressed, e.g.
entertain /en.təˈteɪn/ resurrect /ˌrez.ərˈekt/

b. Nouns
i. If the final syllable contains a short vowel or /əʊ/, it is unstressed. If the penultimate syllable
contains a long vowel/diphthong, or if it ends with more than one consonant, that penultimate
syllable will be stressed, e.g.

mimosa /mɪˈməʊ.sə/ disaster /dɪˈzɑː.stər/ potato /pəˈteɪ.təʊ/ synopsis /sɪˈnɒp.sɪs/

ii. If the final syllable contains a short vowel and the penultimate syllable contains a short vowel
and ends with more than one consonant, both final and penultimate syllables are unstressed,
whereas the first syllable is stressed, e.g.

quantity /ˈkwɒn.tə.ti/ emperor /ˈem.pər.ər/ cinema /ˈsɪn.ə.mə/ custody /ˈkʌs.tə.di/

iii. If the final syllable contains a long vowel/diphthong and/or ending with more than one
consonant, the stress will usually be placed on the first syllable, e.g.

intellect /ˈɪn.təl.ekt/ marigold /ˈmæ.rɪ.ˌɡəʊld/ alkali /ˈæl.kəl.aɪ/ stalactite /ˈstæl.ək.taɪt/

c. Adjectives

Adjectives seem to follow the same rules as nouns, e.g.

opportune /ˈɒp.ə.tʃuːn/ insolent /ˈɪn.səl.ənt/

derelict /ˈder.ə.lɪkt/ anthropoid /ˈæn.θrə.pɔɪd/

23
Exercises

a. Verbs
protect /……………………………/ clamber /……………………………/
festoon /……………………………/ detest /……………………………/
bellow /……………………………/ menace /……………………………/
connect /……………………………/ panther /……………………………/

b. nouns
language /……………………………/ captain /……………………………/
career /……………………………/ paper /……………………………/
event /……………………………/ jonquil /……………………………/
injury /……………………………/ union /……………………………/

References

 Roach, P. (1995). English Phonetics & Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

24
Lecture 10 Co-articulation Effects: Assimilation, Elision, Strong & Weak Forms of Words

What is co-articulation?

In many of the preceding lectures we have been describing the speech sounds as if they are all always
pronounced carefully and deliberately, almost in slow motion. But speech isn’t like that very often.
Mostly our talk is fast and spontaneous, and it requires our articulators to move from one sound to the
next without stopping. The process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called Co-
articulation. There are two well-known co-articulation effects, called Assimilation and Elision.

Assimilation

When two phonemes occur in sequence and some feature of one phoneme is taken or “copied” by the
other, this process is known as Assimilation. Assimilation is something which varies in extent according
to speaking rate and style; it is more likely to be found in rapid, casual speech and less likely in slow
careful speech. Generally speaking, the cases that have most often been described are assimilations of
consonants.

Regressive VS Progressive Assimilation

a. If the consonant that comes first (i.e. C1) is changed or affected in some way by the one that comes
after it (i.e. C2), then the assimilation is called Regressive. For example, the alveolar nasal /n/
becomes a velar nasal /ŋ/ when followed by the velar stop /g/ as in “I can go” [aɪkəŋgəʊ]; we can
construct a diagram like this: Word boundary

……C1 …... C2
Regressive assimilation

b. If C2 changes to become like C1 in some way (i.e. the following phoneme is affected by the one that
comes before it), then assimilation is termed Progressive. For example, the plural suffix –s becomes
/s/ after a voiceless consonant like /p/ and /z/ after a voiced /b/, thus: clips [klɪps]; clubs [klʌbz]. We
can show this by the following diagram: Word boundary

……C1 …... C2
Progressive assimilation

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Types of Assimilation

In what ways can a consonant change? The main differences between consonants are of three types:

 Differences in place of articulation;

 Differences in manner of articulation;
 Differences in voicing.

In parallel with this, we can identify assimilation of place, of manner and of voicing in consonants.

1. Assimilation of place is most clearly observable in cases where an alveolar (C1) is followed by a
(C2) that is not alveolar. For example:
a. /t/ becomes /tʃ/ before /j/, as in “last year” [lɑ:stʃɪə]; “What you need” [wɒtʃuni:d]
b. /d/ becomes /dʒ/ before /j/ as in: Can you help?” [kʊdʒu help mi:]; “Would you come?”
[wʊdʒukʌm]
2. Assimilation of manner is most likely to be towards an easier consonant – one which akes less
obstruction to the airflow. For example:
a. The stop /t/ becomes a fricative before /s, n/, as in “that side” [ðæs saɪd]; “good night”
[gʊnnaɪt].
b. The fricative /ð/ becomes a dental after /n, t, d/, as in “in the” [ɪn̪n̪ə]; “get them” [get̪ t̪ əm];
“read these” [ri:d̪d̪i:z].
3. Assimilation of voicing is found in limited way. It can radically change the sounds of several
common constructions. For example:
a. “have to” /hævtu:/ [hæftə]
b. “has to” /hæztu:/ [hæstə]

e.g. “I have to go.” [aɪ ‘hftə ‘gəʊ]

c. “used to” /ju:zdtu:/ [ju:stə]
e.g. “I used to live near you.” [aɪ ‘ju:stə ‘lɪvnɪə ‘ju:]

Elision

The nature of Elision may be stated simply: under certain circumstances sounds disappear; this might
be expressed in more technical language by saying that in certain circumstances a phoneme may be
realized as zero, or be deleted. As with assimilation, elision is typical of rapid, casual speech. We will
look at some examples of elision.

26
i. Loss of weak vowel after /p, t, k/: in words like potato”, “tomato”, “canary”, “perhaps”, “today”,
the vowel in the first syllable may disappear; the aspiration of the initial plosive takes up the whole of
the middle part of the syllable, resulting in these pronunciations (where h indicates aspiration):
[phˈteɪ.təʊ] [thˈmeɪ.təʊ] [khˈneə.ri] [phˈhæps] [th’deɪ]
ii. Weak vowel + /n, l, r/ becomes syllabic, e.g. :tonight” [t’n̩aɪt]; police [pl̩i:s]; “correct” [kr̩ekt]
iii. Avoidance of complex consonant clusters: in clusters of three plosives, the middle plosive may
disappear, so that the following pronunciations result: “acts” [æks]; looked back [lʊkbæk]; scripts
[skrɪps].
iv. Loss of final /v/ in “of” before consonants: e.g. “lots of them” [lɒtsə ðəm]; “waste of money” [weɪst
ə mʌni]

Strong and weak forms of words

After having looked at syllables, we now move to looking at words. We will now consider certain well-
known English words that can be pronounced in two different ways; these are called Strong Forms and
Weak Forms. For example, the word “that” can be pronounced [ðæt] (strong) or [ðət] (weak form). There
are roughly forty such words. Foreign learners need to learn these strong & weak forms to understand
what they hear.

Weak Forms VS Contracted Forms

A distinction must be made between weak forms and contracted forms. Certain English words are
shortened so severely (usually to a single sound) and so consistently that they are presented differently in
informal writing, e.g. “it is” it’s; “we have” we’ve; “do not” don’t

Function Words VS Content Words

All strong and weak forms belong to a category called Function Words – words which are necessary to
construct a phrase, yet, at the same time, do not communicate a large quantity of information. Content
words (i.e. nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) normally have strong forms, because they central to the
massage. Function words such as auxiliaries, prepositions, conjunctions, etc. are more frequently
pronounced in their weak forms. There are, however, certain contexts where only strong forms are
acceptable. We can say that the strong form is used in the following cases:

i. Many weak-form words are used in their strong forms when they occur at the end of the sentence, as in
the following example with “of”:
“Chips are what I’m fond of.” [tʃɪps ə ′wɒt aɪm ′fɒnd ɒv]
In other cases, the weak form [əv] is normally used, e.g.
“I’m fond of chips.” [aɪm ′fɒndəv ′tʃɪps]

27
ii. When a weak-form word is being contrasted with another word, e.g.:
“The letters from him, not to him” [ðə ′letəz ′frɒm ɪm nɒt ′tu: ɪm]
iii. Strong forms are used with the coordinated use of prepositions, e.g.:
“I travel to and from London a lot.” [aɪ ′trævl̩ ′tu: ən ′frɒm ′lʌndənə ′lɒt]
“a work of and about literature” [ə ′wɜ:k ′ɒv ənə ′baʊt ′lɪtrɪtʃə]
iv. Strong forms are used for the purpose of emphasis, e.g.:
“You must give me more money!” [ju ′mʌst ′gɪv mi mɔ:ˈmʌn.i]

Strong and weak forms of the most common function words with some examples are summarized in the
table below.

References

 Roach, P. (1995). English Phonetics & Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

28