Living in IT Era Midterm

SOFTWARE
Software - comprises of computer programs, support modules, and data modules
- provides a computer with the instructions and data to carry out a specific type of task.

Program - a set of instructions that solves a problem or carries out a task

Support Module - provides an auxiliary set of instructions used in conjunction with the main software program
- not designed to be run by the computer user

Types of Software
1. Systems software or System programs
2. Application software or Application programs

Computer Software Categories:

Basic Principle of an Operating System

• An operating system is a collection of software that coordinates the working of the different components
of the system and gets the user’s job done.
• The operating system provides the user with all the basic things necessary to do his job.

What does an Operating System do?

• A computer’s software acts similarly with the chain of command in an army
– Using application software, you issue a command
– Application software tells the operating system what to do
• The Operating System instructs the device drivers, device drivers instruct the hardware and the hardware
actually does the work
• The Operating System interacts with the application software , device drivers, and hardware to manage a
computer’s resources.
• While interacting with application software, operating system is busy behind the scenes with other tasks

When do I directly interact with the operating system?

– Launch programs
– Customize the user interface
– Manage files
– Configure equipment
– Get help

Where is the operating system?

• The entire operating system is small enough to be stored in ROM for typically handheld computers and
video game consoles
• For nearly all personal computers, servers, workstations, mainframes, and supercomputers, the operating
system program is quite large, so most of it is stored on a hard disk
• The bootstrap program provides the instructions needed to load the core parts (kernel) into memory
when the system boots.
• Customization utilities and other parts of the operating system are loaded into memory as they are
needed.

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Basic Function of an OS
• Process Management – handles multiprograms that are simultaneously running.
• Memory Management – manage memory between processes and data according to priority.
• Storage Management – Managing the permanent Storage of data on disks or other media
• I/O Management – Manage and schedule the input and output operations
• Device / Resource Management – Managing devices and resources and allowing the users to share the
resources
• Security and Protection – Securing the system against possible unauthorized access to data or any other
entity. Protecting the parts of the system against damage.
• Booting the System and getting it ready to work.
• Data communications – Providing interface to connect to other computers or allowing others to connect.

OS as an Interface

OS Services
• Program Development – variety of services and utilities such as Editors and debuggers. They are usually
referred to as application program development tools.
• Program Execution – involves a number of steps, such as loading Instruction and data in the main
memory, initialization of I/O devices and files, and other resources to be allocated. OS handles the
scheduling.
• Access to I/O devices – Each I/O device has its own set of Instructions and control signals. O.S. hides these
details to provide a common interface to the user/programmer.
• Controlled access to files- nature of I/O device (disk drive, tape drive) and structure of the data stored in
the files in the storage medium. In the case of multiple users accessing the processor concurrently, proper
protection mechanisms have to be used.
• System access- For shared or public systems, the O.S. controls access to the system as a whole and to
specific system resources. Access system provides protection of resources, and data from unauthorized
users, and resolves resource conflicts
• Error detection and response – Variety of errors may occur in computer system. Responses may range
from program termination, retrial of the same operation, or reporting error to the application.
• Accounting – collecting usage statistics, CPU usages, monitor performance, etc.

Structure of an Operating System

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• User – The system representation of the human operator who requests for services.
• Application Software – Special software to help the user do his task (E.g.. MS Word)
• Shell – The program that interprets the commands or requests given by the user and gets the job done by
the kernel.
• Kernel – The core of the operating system. It uses the hardware to do the jobs required by the user or the
system. It coordinates among the hardware and interfaces it with the above layers.
• System Software – Software that can access the hardware directly and generally provides various system
services. (E.g.. The kernel itself, device drivers etc.).
• Hardware – The set of electronic devices that work together to ultimately do the job required by all the
upper levels

Types of Operating System

• Single-user Operating System
– Deals with one set of input devices, those that can be manipulated by one user at a time.
• Multi-user Operating System
– Deals with input, output, and processing requests from many users, all at the same time
• Network Operating System
– Provides communications and routing services that allow computers to share data, programs and
peripheral devices
• Multitasking Operating System
– Provides process and memory management services that permit two or more programs to run
simultaneously
• Desktop Operating System
– Designed for a personal computer, either a desktop or notebook computer
– Designed to accommodate a single user, but may also provide networking and multitasking
capabilities
Application software, also known as an application or an "app", is computer software designed to help the user to
perform specific tasks. Examples include office suites, enterprise software, accounting software, graphics
software, media players and database management software. Many application programs deal principally
with documents. Apps may be bundled with the computer and its system software, or may be published
separately. Some users are satisfied with the bundled apps and need never install one.

Nature of Execution of Software

 Desktop applications such as web browsers and Microsoft Office, as well
as smartphone and tablet applications (called "apps").
 JavaScript scripts are pieces of software traditionally embedded in web pages that are run directly inside
the web browser when a web page is loaded without the need for a web browser plugin.
 Server software, including:
Web applications, which usually run on the web server and output dynamically generated web pages to
web browsers, using e.g. PHP, Java, ASP.NET, or even JavaScript that runs on the server.
 Plugins and extensions are software that extends or modifies the functionality of another piece of
software, and require that software be used in order to function;
 Embedded software resides as firmware within embedded systems, devices dedicated to a single use or a
few uses such as cars and televisions (although some embedded devices such as wireless chipsets
can themselves be part of an ordinary, non-embedded computer system such as a PC or smartphone).
 Microcode is a special, relatively obscure type of embedded software which tells the processor itself how
to execute machine code, so it is actually a lower level than machine code. It is typically proprietary to the
processor manufacturer, and any necessary correctional microcode software updates are supplied by
them to users.Thus an ordinary programmer would not expect to ever have to deal with it.

Software Copyright
 a form of legal protection that grants the author of an original ”work”
 an exclusive right to copy, distribute, sell, and edit that work, except under special circumstances
described by copyright laws

Exceptions
Purchaser
 can make a backup or extra copy of the software for erased or damaged original copy
 allowed to copy and distribute parts of a software program for reviews and teaching
 has the right to copy software from a distribution disk or Web site for installation

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License Agreement
a legal contract that defines the way in which a computer program may be used

Techniques Validating Software License

 shrink-wrap licenses
 installation agreements
- Guide Questions for Software License Agreement
o When does the license go into effect?
o Can I sell the software?
o Can I rent the software?
o Am I buying the software or licensing it?
o Can I loan the software to a friend?
o Does the software publisher provide a warranty?
o Under what circumstances can I make copies?

Types of Software License

Public Domain Software
o may be freely copied, distributed, and resold
o not protected by copyright
Commercial Software
o sold in computer stores or at Web sites
o adheres closely to the limitations provided by copyright law
Freeware
o a copyrighted software that is available for free
o allows you to use, copy, and distribute the software
Shareware
o a copyrighted software marketed under a “try before you buy” policy
o allows you to copy and distribute the software
o provide a low-cost marketing and distribution channel
Open Source Software
o may be sold or distributed free of charge
o uncompiled program instructions are available to programmers who want to alter and
improve the software
o Examples: Linux, FreeBSD

PRINCIPLES OF NETWORKING

Networking is the process of delivering a message from a source to a destination.

Communication is the process of giving meaning to these messages received.

Computer Network
 It is a bunch of computers linked together.
 It is cost efficient and reliable.
 It serves as a good communication medium.

Uses of Network for People

 Access to remote information
 Person-to-person communication
 Interactive entertainment

Communication Channels
 a pathway over which information can be transferred

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 information sent over a channel has a source (transmitter), from which the
information originates, and destination (receiver), to which the information is
delivered

Type of Communication Transmission

1. Simplex Channel
 a channel whose direction of transmission is unchanging
2. Half–Duplex Channel
 a channel in which the direction may be reversed, but the transmission does not
occur at the same time
3. Full–Duplex Channel
 a channel that allows simultaneous exchange in both directions

Types of Transmission Technologies

 Point-to-point Networks
 composed of many connections in individual pairs of machines
 Broadcast Networks
 all the machines on the network share a single channel

Types of Network Topologies

1. Bus topology is used, each machine is connected to a single cable. Each computer or server is connected
to the single bus cable through some kind of connector. A terminator is required at each end of the bus
cable to prevent the signal from bouncing back and forth on the bus cable.
2. Star topology - each network host (PC) is connected to a central hub with a point-to-point connection.
All traffic on the network passes through the central hub.
3. Ring topology - A network topology that is set up in a circular fashion in which data travels around the
ring in one direction and each device incorporates a receiver for the incoming signal and a transmitter to
send the data on to the next device in the ring.
4. Tree topology - (a.k.a. hierarchical topology) can be viewed as a collection of star networks arranged in
a hierarchy. This tree has individual peripheral nodes (e.g. leaves) which are required to transmit to and
receive from one other node only and are not required to act as repeaters or regenerators. Unlike the star
network, the functionality of the central node may be distributed.
5. Mesh topology - The fully connected mesh topology is generally too costly and complex for practical
networks. It has been used on networks with only a small number of nodes. n most practical networks that
are based upon the partially connected mesh topology, all of the data that is transmitted between nodes in
the network takes the shortest path between nodes.
6. Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way that the resulting
network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.). For example, a tree
network connected to a tree network is still a tree network, but two star networks connected together
exhibit a hybrid network topology. A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network
topologies are connected.
Daisy chain- Except for star-based networks, the easiest way to add more computers into a network is
by daisy-chaining, or connecting each computer in series to the next. If a message is intended for a
computer partway down the line, each system bounces it along in sequence until it reaches the
destination. A daisy-chained network can take two basic forms: linear and ring.

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Distributed System
 Centralized Data Processing (CDP)
-The conventional way of doing all the processing and control on centralized computers.

 Distributed Data Processing (DDP)

-refers to the manipulation of data using distributed systems

 Client/Server
-an extension of distributed data processing wherein it provides the best of both centralized
and distributed data processing

Types of Network
1, Local Area Network (LAN)
 connects network devices over relatively short distances
 usually owned by an individual or corporation, 10-100Mbps
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 connects computers that are in specific geographical area like cable television
 5-10 Mbps, slower than LAN and smaller than WAN.
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
 spans a large physical distance (geographically-dispersed collections of LANs)
 not owned by any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed
ownership and management; 256Kbps-2Mbps
4. Personal Area Network (PAN)
 a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
 Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

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