Block 1 PDF

II UNIT 1
Structure
EXTENSION OF MEANING-I
1.0 Objectives
L1 Introduction
1:2 Language and Literature
1.3 Literal versus Metaphorical Meaning
1.4 Extension of Meaning
1.4.1 From a Concrete Object to an Abstract Idea
1.4.2 Living (Animal or Human) to Non-Living (Object) and Vice-Versa
1.4.3 Animal to Human and Vice-Versa
1.4.4 Extension of Sensory Perception
1.4.5 Extension by Magnification
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 Key Words
! 1.7 Suggested Reading
Answers
h
1.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit, we shall
a discuss relationship of language to literature.

a show how literary language in different fiom ordinary language
a the role of context in determining meanhg
a distinction between literal meaning and metaphoric (extended) meaning.
On completing this Unit, you should be able to
a understand the relationship between language and literature

a distinguish between literal meanings and extended meanings,
a use some of the important words in their extended senses in order to write
more effectively.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
As discussed in the introdudtion to the course and the Block, the thrust of this course
is to make you understand the relationship of language to literature. The important
thing, for us is to understand the dynamic nature of 'words' and how creative
writerslorators manipulate them in particular contexts to bring about special effects.
Before we undertake a detailed discussion on how words have a number of different
meanings and how their meanings get extended, it would be appropriate here to fmt
explain the dynamics of language: its spoken and written modes, which lead to the
centrality of dialogues in drama, a little bit on h e indirect discourse in the context of
shoa story/novel. In other words, the creativity in language involves the use of the
available possibilities of language in order to create new communicative possibilities
in it.
-
1.2 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
g ecentral to all human activity and all literature is also manifested in and
~ a n ~ u a is
through language. All our individual and social activities are possible through
language because language functions as a powerful symbol for the representation of
Content Vocabulary-I reality. We need to understand the difference between language and the actual objects
or events of actual life. For example, the word 'tree' consists of three sound 't', 'r' and
the long vowel as denoted by 'ee'. The tree as actual physical object is part of the
world. So we have the sign 'tree' and the actual object of the tree. When the sign,
which is born out of use in society, gets associated with the object for its users, then
the sign can be said to have meaning.
the object
association
for the users
This is hov meanings get associated to spoken words and we begin to call them
words and the larger units as sentences etc.
Language is a versatile medium of communication. It is used for all kinds of human
communication - in gossip, in commercial transactions, in political persuasion, in
scientific reports in advertisement and in 'literature' etc. If we classify the above into
two groups, i.e., 7-ln-literary and literary languages, then can we distinguish between
the two varieties .of lwguage? The answer may be is provided on the basis of the
following two reasons:
Firstly, the 'non-literary' or the 'ordinary' or 'practical' language cqn be said to be used
in carrying on the practicalities of everyday life. Literary language on the other hand
does not use language in 'real' day to day situations. The literary language may be life
or analogous to ordinary language, as in novels or dramas, but it does not carry
forward the actual happenings between 'real' people, such as meeting, praising, giving
a loan making a transaction, teaching a class etc. In this sense literary language can
said to be ahistorical.
Secondly, literary language can be seen to deviate or violate in structure fiom the
'ordinary' language in many ways. Many scholars believe that literary writers have
\TY subtle experiences to communicate and since ordinary language is unable to
meet their requirements, they resort to patterning or distortion of language forms for
aesthetic purposes. By aesthetics, we mean the pleasure that one derives from the
observation of an object by itself. This joy' is not related to any 'practical' use of
language. For example Roman, Jakobson ('Linguistics and Poetics : A closing
statement' in T.A. Sebeok (ed) Style in Language MIT Press) cites an example where
a lady says 'I like Ike". When someone asked why she didn't say "Ike for me" or "I
like Eisenhower" (President Eisenhower of USA was known as Ike), she replied that
the expression she used has a pleasure of its own. Similar is the case of all literary '
language. Literary language creates meanings by using language in both conventional
and non conventional ways. The conventional or the 'literal' use of language gives us
known meanings of words whereas the unconventional or literary language creates
new meanings through forms like the metaphor etc. (The present Block will introduce
you 'to the way meanings are 'extended' or 're-created' in literary language).
Language as a medium of communication functions mainly through two modes, i.e.,
spoken and the written. We use the spoken medium in our daily conlmunication, and
we use the written medium in all our writings and readings, official or otherwise.
These two modes have some significant differences which are as below:
Speech Writing
1. We speak and listen to speech - so vocal We write, and read what
and auditory systems are &ed is written and hence it
- >
involves our visual cdpacity
2. Speech (minus the recording system) ~ r i t i ncan
i be presented Extension of
is transient, for it dissipates in air as record. Meaning - 1
after it is spoken
3. Speech has'different degrees.of pauses Writing exploits

and it uses intonation contours for punctuations to give a
statements, questions, special focus etc. rhythm of language;
and also we can have
diagrams, graphs, charts
and equations in writing.
4. Speaker and hearer are generally close Writing generally, involves

and here there is greater integration some distance between the
between the two. writer and the reader and
hence it involves distance
between the interlocutors.
5. Since the interlocutors are present, Due to distance, writing

which is assumed, resulting in generally is more
utterances which are grammatically grammatically complete.
incomplete.
Although the two are different modes of language but they are not entirely exclusive,
e.g., we can find elements of speech in written dialogues as in novels and dramas, or
even have the written form in speech as in the news broadcast/telecast over the
radioiTV.
All dramas (plays) are constructed on the pattern of oral speech (dialogues).
Dialogues in drama function at two levels as shown in the diagram below from Short
(1989: 49) [M.short 1989: 'Discourse analysis and the analysis of drama'. In R Carter
and P. Simpson (eds) language, Discourse and Literature, London: Unwin Hyman.]
Addressor 1 --+ Message . -b Addressee 1

(Playwright) (audiencelreader)
I
Addressor 2 --+' Message -+ Addressee 2

(character A) (character B)
This diagram shows that the playwright addresses the audiencelreader through
constructed dialogues at one level, and at another level it is the characters within the
play who are shown to interact with one another. All dialogues get meaning from the
created 'physical' context and the 'personal' context. By physical context, we mean
creation of environments like home, workplace etc. and the personal context
encompasses social status and groups memberships by virtue of which characters
speak.
About dialogues you will learn more in later Blocks.
In writing, we generally, come across two varieties of speech - the 'direct' speech and
the 'indirect' speech. Look at the two structures below:
1. She said, "I'll come here tomorrow"

Or Direct Speech
2. 'I'll come here tomorrow, " she said
3. She said that she would go there the following day. (indirect speech)
Content Vocabulary-l In direct speech, we have the reporting verb which can be different fiom the tense of
the reported speech in inverted commas. The indirect speech changes the pronouns,
the adverbs of time, and the tense of the reported speech etc.
In novels and short stories, k e find a third variety called the 'fiee indirect discourse'
(FID). The FID combines elements fiom both the direct speech and the indirect
speech and it functions to present a 'stream of consciousness' etc. The above sentence
can be rendered in FID as:
4. She would be there tomorrow.
Here the adverb 'tomorrow' has the form as in the direct speech and the phrase 'she
would' as in the indirect speech, and the higher reporting verb as 'she said' is missing.
The FID expressions at times do carry the punctuation marks found in direct speech
such as questions mark or sign of interrogation etc. This technique is used more in
short stories and novels about which you will read more in later Blocks.
We shall next resufne our discussion on literal versus metaphorical meaning.
1.3 LITERAL VERSUS METAPHORICAL MEANING
In English, as in most other languages, a word is used in more than one sense or
shade of meaning. The original sense in which a word is used is its literal meaning.
For example, in the sentence, 'A dog is man's best fiiend', the word dog is used in its
literal sense to refer to a particular animal. But if we call a person 'a dog' to mean that
he is'a worthless evil person, we are extending the meaning of the word. Similarly, in
the sentence The dog always barks at the postman', the verb bark is used in its literal
sense, but when we say to a person, 'Don't bark like that, Hari' to refer to the s h q
and loud sound he is making, we have extended the meaning of bark. This kind of
extension is called a metaphor. A metaphor is the use of a phrase which describes
one thing by stating another with which it can be compared. In Units 1- 2, we shall
discuss the different ways in which words get their meanings extended.
Take this sentence:

You should comb your hair more often.
The word comb is used here in its literal sense. We are asking this person to 'tidy,
clean, straighten, or arrange his hair with a comb'.
But if we say:
The police cornbegthe forest for th,e missing boy'
we are using the word comb to mean 'search thoroughly'. This is an extension of
meaning. Just as the comb goes through the hair to clean and tidy it, so the police
search the forest to find the boy. ,By using a word in its extended sense we help to
make concrete the idea we are trying to convey. For instance, in the second sentence
above, it becomes easier for the reader or listener to visualize or see in his mind what
the police are doing - their thoroughness in searching the forest becomes vivid.
Check Your Progress 1
In the sentences below, a number of words have been used twice - once in the literal
sense and the second time in an extended sense. Write 'L' beside the sentence in
which the word in italics is used in the literal sense. Write 'E' where it is used in an
extended sense. Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
i) He was angry with me because I had broken his pen.

ii) Huge waves rose in the angry sea.
\
iii) They fired at the house. The bullets buried themselves in the wall.
/
I
iv) Three nights later old Major died peacefully in his sleep. His body was
buried at the foot of the orchard.'
Extension of
-
Meaning 1
v) Death is a truefiend.
vi) In ancient times, the Romans brought slaves from battles.
vii) Rajesh is my bestfiend.
viii) 'I was exposed as a slave of habit even in so trifling a matter as getting the
first cigarette out of a new packet.'
ix) Chakki's peace of mind was shattered.
x) A glass pane of our window was shattered by a cricket ball.
1.4 EXTENSION OF MEANING

1.4.1 From a Concrete Object to an Abstract Idea
The meaning of a word may be transferred or extended from a concrete object which
we can feel and see to an abstract idea. This helps to make the idea vivid. It becomes
easier to 'see' the idea or visualize it in concrete terms with the help of a word-picture.
Take this example:
His knowledge of history was getting rusty.
The usual association of the word rusty is with things made of iron which get covered
with rust; e.g., a rusty box, rusty nails, etc. When iron and some other metals are
exposed to water and air, a reddish brown surface forms on them. This is called rust.
So, 'rusty nails' are nails covered with rust; they have lost their brightness because
they have been lying unused for a long time. This idea of things getting rusted has
been transferred to one's 'knowledge' of a subject to mean that it is mostly forgotten
because it has not been used for a long time.
Read the following sentences. The italicized words have been used in an extended
sense. An abstract idea has been concretized. Say how the transference has taken
place. The first one has been done for you. Check your answers with those given by
us at the end of the unit.
i) Our conversation drwed from cricket to -politics.
In a literal sense we can say that 'logs dr@ in the river'. They float and are
driven along by the waves. The logs have no control over their movement.
Likewise the conversation changed gradually from cricket to politics without
the speakers k i n g conscious of it.
ii) When her husband died, all her hopes for the future crumbled to nothing.
Content Vocabulary-I
- - - -
iii) The military government has successfully crushed all opposition.
iv) The animals absorbed everything that they were told.'
v) 'Karuthamma's whole body became bathed in perspiration.'
vi) Age is my alarm clocK, the old man said. 'Why do old men wake so early? Is
it to have one longer day?' (from Ernest Hemingway: The Old Man and the
Sea).
vii) The shoprnan, in some dim cavern of his mind, may have dared to think so
too.'
Extension of
Meaning - 1
'They heard the newcomer's shrill voice raised in a torrent of abuse.'
ix) As long as she doesn't break the peace, I have nothing to do with her.
x) 'When lights were brought and Wolfgang had a better opportunity of looking
at the stranger, he was more than ever intoxicated by her beauty.'
1.4.2 Living (Animal or Human) to Non-Living (0bject)'and Vice-Versa

When we describe non-living objects or things as if they had animal or human
qualities and feelings, we personify them. We transfer qualities or things usually
associated with living beings to non-living thtngs. This helps us to picture things and
objects more clearly in our imagination. For example:
One leg of the table was broken.
The hands-of the clock have stopped.
The mouth of the cave was blocked by a big stone.
The pencil screeched.
The transfer of meaning in all these cases has taken place like h s :
Living thing non-living thing
(animalhuman) (object)
e.g., leg of animal leg of table
Content Vocabulruy-1 The transfer of extension may be the other way, tdo; that is,
Non-living thing + living thing
e.g., He is a crooked person.
Usually, the word crooked is used to describe a rod or a stick, i.e. one which is not
straight, but is twisted and bent. Similarly, a crooked person is one who is dishonest,
that is, not straight in his dealings.
In the following sentences, the italicized words are used in an extended sense. State
whether the extension is from living to non-living (personification) or vice-versa.
Also say in a few words what idea from the literal use has been transferred. e.g., The
plane had to make a belly landing.
Explanation: silly is the part of the human body between the chest and the legs,
which contains the stomach and the bowels. It can refer to an object that is curved or
round like this part of the body. (Here the extension is from living to non-living).
Now explain the following. Check your answers with those given by us at the end of
the unit.
i) He is a budding poet.
ii) Hariflared up.
iii) 'Once upon a time the Babus of Nayanjore were famous landholders.... Kailas
Babu, our neighbour, is the last relic of this extinct magnificence.... Before he
grew up, his family had =ached its lowest ebb.' (Tagore: 'Babus of
Nayanjore').
iv) The Susta (river) 'chatters over stony ways and babbles on the pebbles'.
(Tagore: 'Hungry Stones').
v) 'The South Wind whispered in his ears.' (Tagore: The Kingdom of the Cards'). Extenslorn of
Meaning - 1
,' '
F
-- -
vi) This is the brain of the computer.
1.4.3 Animal to Human and Vice-Versa
Look at this expression:

He's a real chameleon.
Now what is the extension here? A chameleon is a small lizard which can change its
colour to match the colour of the background. In this way, it can hide itself from its
enemies. When a man is called a chameleon, the quality of changing the colour to
protect oneself is transferred from the animal to man. The man may keep changing
his behaviour and statements to suit his own interests. The transfer has taken place as
follows:
Animal -b Human
Here is an exercise to revise what you have read in Sections 1.3.1 to 1.3.3.
Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with words from the list below:
lame nestled
beast experiments
wreathed hot
icy hand shadow
buried swallowed
tell
i) I close to her.
ii) The in a man may wake up, if he has too much money.
iii) His face was in smiles.
iv) 'My autobiography is really a story of my with truth.'
(M.K. Gandhi: An Autobiography)
Youth is nimble, Age is
Youth is and bold. (Shakespeare: ' A Madrigal')
vi) Death lays his on kings. (Shirley: 'Death the Leveller')
vii) Napoleon, the pig, was by the other animals in the farmyard.
viii) Life is but a walking . (Shakespeare: Macbeth)
ix) Thus let me live, unseen, unknown;
Thus unlamented let me die,
Steal from the world, and not a stone
where I lie. (A. Pope: 'Ode on Solitude')
The hungry river down everything. (Tagore: 'Living or Dead')
Content Vocabulary-J 1.4.4 Extension of Sensory Perception
The extension of meaning may take place from one sensory perception (smell, touch,
taste, sound or sight) to an object, feeling or abstract idea, generally not associated
with it. Thus,
1 'the language of the eyes'

2 'the speech of the dark eyes'
The eyes are generally used for seeing. They do not produce any sound or speech.
Here, however, the words 'language' and 'speech' refer to the expression in the eyes.
1 Here are some more examples of transfer of sensory perception. Say in a few
words from what sensory perception the meaning has been transferred and to
what object or idea. What is the sense of the word thus used? (i) has been done
for you.
i) 'a sweet stench of human flesh' (Kamla Das: Nalapat House').

Generally, 'stench' is a bad smell, perceived by the nose. Here the
word 'sweet' is used with 'stench'. 'Sweetness' is a pleasant taste
perceived by the tongue. It seems to suggest that the smell of human
flesh was not unpleasant.
ii) That question touched her heart somewhere.
iii) Karuthamma, womed that the quarrel was becoming too heated, put
her hand over her mother's mouth. (Chemmeen)
iv) In any case, the Englishman's cold reserve was infinitely preferable
to the familiarity of the French.
His clothes are generally of a loud colour. Extension of
Meaning - 1
2 Match the parts of sentences in Column A to those in column B to make

meaningful sentences. Underline the words that show sensory perception.
Check your answers with those given by us at the end. Use your dictionary if
- necessary.
E.g. The aroma of wealth filled the house.
A B
i) The aroma of wealth exists between the USSR and the
USA. .
ii) Let your anger many people were killed.
iii) In the dark days of the French bitter-sweet experiences. -
Revolution
iv) A cold war the warmth of love.
v> Children want filled the house.
vi) Life is full of cool down.
vii) The music of success his lukewarm attitude.
viii) I was hurt by with envy.
ix) He was green rang in his ears.
1.4.5 Extension by Magnification

Often, writers use words associated with grand or sublime ideas or objects for.
ordinary ideas or objects. The effect is one of humour or light-heartedness. It also
helps to highlight the importance of something.
E.g. I adore ice cream.
One may adore a person, that is, worship him as God. In the sentence given here the
word adore shows the great liking I have for ice-cream. It ~ l s oindicates a'light-
hearted treatment of the subject.
1 Notice the words that are italicized in the following sentences and say in what
meaning each word is generally used and in what shade of meaning it is used
here. Use your dictionary wherever necessary. Check your answers. '*
Example: Molly, the donkey, was devoted to ribbons.
General use: 'devoted' generally means loyal, loving, caring a great deal', as in
the sentence:
He is very devoted to his wife.
In the sentence given here the idea is that Molly attached great importance to
the use of ribbons. She loved to wear ribbons.
Effect: humour
1) You are acquitted of laziness.
- -
ii) He was an assassin of all good virtues.
iii) It would be a crime to send the child out in the cold.
iv) The food was condemned as unfit for humans.
v) She was a victim of the mother-in-law's tyranny.

Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow. Use your Extension of
dictionary if necessary. Check your answers with those given at the end of Meaning - 1
the unit. '
Filling up a bronze water-pot, a bucket, and a watering-can by turns, my
grandmother transported water from a tap at the backyard impartially to all
her plants, and finally through a brass syringe shot into the air a grand
column of water which would descend like a gift from the heavens on the
whole garden, dampening down the mud and stirring up an earthy smell
(which tempted one to taste the mud), the foliage glittering in the sun like
finely cut diamonds as water dripped off their edges. The peacock busily kept
pace with us as we moved up and down bearing the water-pots. When a
shower of water descended, the peacock fanned out its tail, parading its
colour.
(R.K. Narayan: My Days)
Questions
i) Give two examples of personification related to the peacock in the

passage. Say how the transfer has taken place.
ii) What is the meaning of 'heavens' in the passage?
iii) Which word in the passage tells us that the author's grandmother did
not see any difference b e t w e ~the different plants and they were all .-
liked by her equally?
iv) Give a simpler word for 'transported'. What sort of transfer has taken
place here?
In what sense is the word 'stirring' used in the passage?
1.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you have learnt ,
to distinguish the extended meaning from the literal meaning, and

a to understand the shades of meaning of certain words used in standard works
of literature.
1.6 KEY WORDS
(The mark ' is placed before the syllable that carries the main stress in the word. The
mark, is placed before the syllable that has a secondary stress.)
'content: substance; essential meaning

ex'tension: enlargement
'literal: taking words in their usual and obvious sense
'magnifi'cation: making something appear larger
metaphorical: using words to indicate something different from the literal meaning,
i s in 'I'll make him eat his words'
vo'cabulary: words which make up a language
per'ception: process by which we become aware of changes, through the senses of
sight, hearing, etc.
'sensory: of the senses
,vice'versa: the other way round
1.7 SUGGESTED READING
1 R.K. Narayan: The Guide

2 R.K. Narayan: My Days
3 George Orwell: Animal Farm
ANSWERS
i) L, ii) E, iii) E, iv) L, v) E, vi) L, vii) L, viii) E, ix) E, x) L.
ii) In a literal sense, we may say: 'The old house crumbled during the heavy
rains', that is, it broke into pieces and came down. Likewise, in the sentence
given in the exeriise, we mean that all her hopes were shattered.
iii) When we crush an object, we break it into very small pieces. The opposition
has likewise been destroyed to such an extent that it has become powerless.
iv) Usually, when we say something absorbs water we mean that it takes water in.
Similarly, the animals listened to and understood everything they were told.
They took in all that had been said.
v) We generally bathe in water. Similarly, here, perspiration covered the whole
body.
Vi) An alarmclock wakes one up. Here it means that as one grows older one loses
some sleep. The old man naturally gets up early.
vii) The light in a cavern or cave is dim. Similarly, the ideas in the shopman's
mind were hazy.
viii) A torrent of water is a violently rushing stream. Similarly, the newcomer used
a torrent of bad language or abuse.
ix) An object may be broken into parts. If peace is broken, it means that it has
come to an end.
x) One is usually intoxicated by alcohol, which causes a loss of one's control of
actions and feelings. Here, !her beauty' has a similar effect on Wolfgang. It
brings out strong feelings of wild excitement which he cannot control.
Check Your Progress 3 Extension o f
Meaning - 1
i) A bud is,a young tightly rolled up flower before it opens. A budding poet is
one who is just beginning to develop his talent. (Extension from non-living to .
living)
ii) When something flares up, it suddenly burns with a bright flame for a short
time. Similarly, Han showed sudden anger. (Non-living to living)
iii) The flow of the sea away fiom the shore is called the 'ebb'. The sea reaches its
lowest level during the ebb. Kailas Babu's family had reached its lowest state.
(Non-living to abstract)
ivJ When people talk rapidly and at length, we say they are chattering 'Babbling'
also refers to people talking quickly and foolishly. Similarly, the river makes
continuous sounds when it runs gently over rounded stones. (Living to non-
living)
v) Wspering is 'speaking with noisy breath but not with voice, so that only a
person close by can hear'. The south wind made a soft sound of the same type.
(Living to non-living: personification)
vi) The brain is the organ of the body which controls thought and feeling. The
brain of the computer is where its operations are controlled. (Living to non-
living)
i) nestled
ii) beast
iii) wreathed
iv) experiments
v) lame; hot
vi) icy hand
vii) buried
viii) shadow
ix) Tell
X) swallowed
1.ii) Generally, we can touch something that has substance and shape. The 'heart'
here is thought of as the centre of feeling. When we say-the question touched
her heart, it means her feelings were aroused.
iii) An object gets heated on the fire or in the sun. Here the transfer is fiom the
sensory perception of touch. If we say the quarrel has become too heated, it
means there is a state of excitement in which people are likely to lose their
self- control.
iv) 'Cold' means 'having a low temperature'; you can feel it when the weather is
cold. In an extended meaning 'cold' means 'showing a lack of Eendly
feelings'. The word 'reserve' refers to the quality typical of a person who does
not like to talk about himself or to make his feelings known. He is therefore
described as cold. Here the transfer is from the sensory perception of touch.
v) 'Loud' refers to noisy sounds. Similarly, loud colours are unpleasantly bright.
The transfer is fiom sound to colour.
2 ii) Let your anger down.
iii) In the c& days of the French Revolution many people were killed.
iv) A cold war exists between the USSR and the USA.
v) Children want the warmth of love.
vi) Life is full of bitter-sweet experiences.
vii) The music of success in his ears.
viii) I was hurt by his luke-warm attitude.
ix) He was with envy.
Content Vocabulary-1 Check Your Progress 6
1 i) Usually one is acquitted of a crime by a court of law. The effect of the use of
the word 'acquitted' here is humour.
ii) An assassin is a person who murders a ruler or a politician for political reasons
or for reward. Here 'an assassin of all good virtues' means one who destroys
all good virtues. (Effect: highlighting the seriousness of his actions)
iii) A crime'is an offence punishable by law. If the child is sent out, he will catch
a cold. (Effect: highlighting the effect of the cold outside)
iv) When we condemn something, we officially declare it unfit for use. The food
is so bad that it is unfit for human beings.
v) A victim is a person who suffers as a result of other people's actions. 'Tyranny'
is a word that refers to the use of cruel or unjust power to rule a country. Here
.the mother-in-law's treatment is as cruel and unjust as that of a tyrant. (Effect:
highlighting the cruel behaviour of the mother-in-law)
2 i) (a) 'The peacock busily kept pace with us'. It means that it went forward at the
same rate as we did, almost walking with us.
(b) 'parading its colour', which means showing it officially. The peacock fans
out its tail to show its beautiful colours.
ii) 'heavens' means 'the sky' here.
iii) impartially
iv) carried; magnification.
v) When we move a liquid around with a spoon, we stir it. Similarly, the water
falling on the mud moves it and causes the smell associated with the mud to
move across the air.
\
UNIT 2 EXTENSION OF MEANING-%
FIGURES OF SPEECH
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Metaphor, Simile, and Irony
Transferred Epithet, Oxymoron and Paradox
Extended Metaphor
Hyperbole, Understatement and Allegory
Part for the Whole
Object for Person
Euphemism
Idioms and Proverbs
Extension by Change in Word Class (Part of Speech)
Imagery
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
Suggested Reading
Answers
2.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit we shall discuss what is called the figurative use of words, that is, using
them in ways other than their ordinary meanings. After completing this unit, you will
be able to
understand the meanings conveyed by words used in an extended sense by

poets and other writers, and
notice how these extensions help the writers to make their writings more
effective.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the context of meaning in ordinary and literary language a distinction is made

between 'denotation' and 'connotation'. Denotation is a term that is used for
distinguishing basic or central or common meanings of words as distinct from those
represented by the term connotation, which refers to the associative or metaphoric
meanings in literary contexts. For example, the denotative meaning of the word
'home' can be 'a dwelling place' but in a special or connotative use it can mean
'warmth' and also 'domesticity'. In literature connotations exist in the frequent use of
figures of speech. That is, words are used in ways other than in their ordinary
meanings to make a word picture or a comparison, e.g. 'a sweet temper'. These
figures of speech help to beautify language and enable the writers to make their
descriptions more effective.
2.2 METAPHOR, SIMILE AND IRONY
In metaphor one thing is described as another (X is Y) and in the process there is a

carrying over of meanings. For example., in the expression 'Maharaja Ranjit Singh
was the lion of Punjab', the meanings of 'fearlessness' and 'bravery' associated with
Content Vocabulary-1 'lion' are transferred on to Maharaja Ranjit Singh. So in metaphors we find
h f e r e n c e of meanings due to hidden or 'implicit' comparisons that take place.
i
A simile; unlike a metaphor, is an expression which makes an 'explicitq or direct

comparison between two things by the use of words 'like' or 'as'. For example, in the
expression 'Her cheeks are like roses' the meaning of 'redness' and 'freshness' is
transferred from 'roses' to 'cheeks' through a direct comparison.
Irony, as distinct from the above two is a figure of speech where the words actually
used mean quite the opposite in the context. E.g., 'How smart! ' and What a lovely
weather! ' could mean 'How foolish' (when a person may have done something silly)
or 'What a bad weather' (if it is extremely cold etc) respectively.

L
Say which of the italicized words and phrases in the following sentences are similes,
metaphors and irony? Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
i) Gandhiji wanted his disciples to face life like soldiers.
ii) 'Dear God! the very houses seem asleep,

And all that mighty heart is lying still!' (Wordsworth: 'On Westminster
Bridge')
iii) 'I wandered lonely as a cloud

That floats on high o'er vales and hills."(~ordsworth: 'Daffodils')
iv) 'Here I live in a garbage can. ' (Shiv K . Kurnar: 'Days in New York')
v) 'Like as the waves make towards the pebbled shore,

So do our minutes hasten to their end.' (Shakespeare: 'Revolutions') '
vi) 'Eternal Spirit of the Chainless Mind. '
vii) 'You have entertained us enough".

(Mr. Bennet says to his daughter Lydia, who, though not being a good singer,
has been singing for a long time to the embarrassment of the guests in Jane
Austen's Pride and Prejudice)
Extension of
2.3 TRANSFERRED EPITHET, OXYMORON AND Meaning - 2:
PARADOX Figures of Speech
An epithet is an adjective or descriptive phrase, especially of praise or blame, used of

a person. In poetry, we find many instances of what we call transferred epithets. In
these the sense is transferred from a person to an abstract idea. Look at these lines
from John Keats's 'Ode to a Nightingale'.
In some melodious plot

Of beechen green and shadows numberless,
Singest of summer in full-throated ease.
Look at'the phrase melodious plot. The plot of land where the nightingale sings
cannot be melodious or sweet-sounding. It is the ni&tingalets song which is
melodious. Here the epithet melodious has been transferred from the nightingale's
song to the plot. To explain the transfer we can say, 'The plot of land where the
nightingale sings is filled with the sound of the nightingale's sweet song.' So we see
that the phrase 'melodious plot' compresses a long sentence into a short phrase, which
is so expressive.
An oxymoron is an expression which juxtaposes or combines together apparently

contradictory words for a striking effect or for wittiness, or to create a synthetic
effect. E.g.:
Parting is such sweet sorrow

(Romeo and Juliet 11. ii)
Paradox is a statement which appears to be selfcontradictory. E.g.:
War is peace. Freedom is slavery. Ignorance is strength.

(G.Orwell1984 1.i) '
Meanings, both in oxymoron and paradox, are obtained by resolving the

oppositions/contradictions.
Here are some examples of transferred kpithet, oxymoron and paradox. Explain in a
few words the literary meanings.
i) Singest of summer infill-throated ease.
ii) To live a life half-dead, a living death

(J. Milton Samson Agonistes)
iii) Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard.

Are sweeter;
(J. Keats. 'Ode to a Grecian Urn', 11-12)
2.4 EXTENDED METAPHOR
Sometimes the extension of meaning may run through a series of words in a poem.
There may be a string of metaphors all extending the meaning of the single theme in
a poem through different stages. .
Look at these lines from Shakespeare's play Macbeth:
Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player

That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,
And then is heard no more; it is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and hy,
Signifjlingnothing.
The theme discussed here is 'Life'. First, it is described as 'a walking shadow'. The
idea here is extended from a man to 'Life'. Life 'walks' because it moves on
continuously. It is a 'shadow' because it has nothing that is permanent, nothing that
can be captured or held back. Other metaphors highlight the other aspects of Life:
'a poor player': an actor who is not respected because of lack of ability
'struts': walks in a proud strong way trylng to look important
'frets': is continually worried.
2.5 HYPERBOLE, UNDERSTATEMENT AND

ALLEGORY
Hyperbole is a figure of speech o h n known as 'exaggeration' or 'over statement'. It is

generally used in drama for emphasis or as a sign of eeat emotion or passion. E.g.,
the statement - 'it made my blood boil' - could mean extreme anger.
Underctatement is a species of irony where the true magnitude of an idea, event or

fact is minimized or not stated. E.g., rather than state the bad directly as in a
testimonial, the fact can be understated in the statement 'The applicant's academic
record is not over impressive.
Sometimes,, a story or a poem is written in such a way as to have two coherent

meanings. h i s is called an allegory. For example in John Bunyan's Pilgrim's
Progress the hero Christian's journey from the city of destruction illustrates Christian
salvation. In George Orwell's Animal Farm, the story has animals as its characters, Extension of
but they represent a deeper theme of social organization. Meanlng - 2:
Flgwes of Speech
1. Explain the meaning of the hyperbole in the below given lines:
I loved Ophelia: forty thousand brothers

Could not, with all their quantity of love,
Make up my sum
(W. Shakespeare Hamlet V. ii)
2. Explain the understatement in the below given line:
a. '..They did not care for war'

(said of cowards fleeing fiom the battlefield in The Battle of Maldon,
192).
b. It is sometimes a bit cold at the North Pole.
3. Here is a paem-'Uphill' by Christina Rossetti. The poem is an allegoly. It

describes a traveller's journey up a hill, but in fact it represents the pilgrim's
path towards God. Read the poem and answer the questions that follow. 3
Check your answers.
Up-Hill
C.G. Rossetti
Does the road wind up-hill all the way?

Yes, to the very end.
Will the day's journey take the whole long day'?
From mom to night, my friend.
But is there for the night a resting-place?

A roof for when the slow dark hours begin.
May not the darkness hide it fiom my face?
You cannot miss that inn.
Shall I meet other way-farers at night?

Those who have gone before.
Then must I knock, or call when just in sight?
They will not keep you standing at the door.
Shall I find comfort, travel-sore and weak?

Of labour you shall find the sum.
Will there be beds for me and all who seek?
Yea, beds for all who come.
Questions
'Mark the correct answers:
i) This is a religious poem. It is about a pilgrim going towards God. The road
winding uphill describes
Content Vocabulmy-1 a) the difficult path to God.
.c
b) the difficult passages of holy books.
c) the difficult exercises in meditation one has to do in one's journey
towards God.
ii) The other wayfarers who have gone before are

a) relatives who died long ago.
b) other seekers or pilgrims.
c) obstacles in the path.
iii) 'The inn' is

a) where the pilgrims drink and eat.
b) a place on the way where one rests.
c) heaven where one finally rests.
iv) 'Beds for all who come' means

a) a place in God's kingdom.
b) beds in a hotel.
c) special privileges for sombaintly persons.
2.6 PART FOR THE WHOLE
Sometimes a word representing part of an idea is used to mean the whole.
E.g. Twenty summers' for 'twenty years',

'ten hands' for 'ten men',
'blind mouths' for 'corrupt priests'.
2.7 OBJECT FOR PERSON
- Sometimes a word representing an object used by a person is used to refer to the

person himself.
E.g. The White House' for the President of the V .S.A. The Crown' for the King.
2.8 EUPHEMISM
Euphemism is the use of a pleasanter, less direct word for something thought to be
unpleasant. E.g. 'He passed away' for 'He died'.
Pick out the examples of extension from (i) a part to the whole, (ii) an object to a
person, and i) unpleasant to pleasant, in the following sentences.
. Use your dictionary, when necessary. Chock your answers with those given at the
end.
i) And since to look at things in bloom

Fifty springs are little room,
26 About the woodlands I will go
To see the cherry hung with snow', Extension of
(A.E. Housman: The Cherry Tree') Meaning - 2:
Figures of Speech
ii) The Vatican issued an order. (Vatican: the large palace in which the Pope lives
in Rome, Italy)
iii) There are seven mouths to feed.
iv) Three pairs of eyes watched us.
v) There were a hundred sails on the river.
vi) The old man has at last fallen asleep. He is now h e fiom all the cares and
worries of this world.
vii) His enemies thought they should now do away with him.
2.9 IDIOMS AND PROVERBS
An idiom is a phrase which means something different from the meanings of the
separate words. It is a kind of dead metaphor. By repeated use the extended meaning
of the phrase has become fixed. E.g. The President will be on the air (= broadcasting)
fiom 6 to 7 p.m.
A proverb is a short well-known saying in popular language. Proverbs also depend

for their force on extension of meaning.
E.g. 'A bird in hand is worth two in the bush.' It means that something one has
p actually got is better than a much greater gain that one may or may not achieve.

Point out the idioms and proverbs in the following. Say how the extension has taken
place. Check your answers.
Example:
I An account to settle is an idiom based on a figurative expression. 'haccount' is

t usually a statement of money that you owe; you pay the money to settle the account.
In the same way, a person may take revenge for some injury done to him and thus
settle the account.
Content Vocabulary-1 i) He was so angry he couldn't help blowing off steam.
ii) Don't, count your chickens before they are hatched.
iii) He passed the examination with flying colours.
2.10 EXTENSION BY CHANGE. IN WORD CLASS (PART .

OF SPEECH)
.
Sometimes a word is used in a literal sense as one part of speech and in an extended
sense in another part of speech.
E.g. He stayed closeted for hours.
The noun closet means a cupboard built into the wall of a room. It also means a small
private room for thought, prayer, etc. As a verb it means 'to enclose oneself in a
private room'.
Check Your progress 6 . ,
Explain the extension in meaning ffom one part of speech to another in the italicized
words in the sentences given below:
i) ......need not go about with the beggar's bowl, if the people have learnt to
husband their resources well. O)yarelal: 'One Perfect Act')
Extension of
Meaning - 2:
Figures of Speech
ii) The man was spirited away.
2.11 IMAGERY
When pictures are made with words to concretize and make an idea clear, it is called
imagery. These pictures may contain a number of extensions of meaning. Look at this c
poem:
Where the mind is without fear
And the head is held high,
Where knowledge is fiee,
And the world has not been broken up into
h p e n t s by narrow domestic walls,
Where the clear stream of reason has not been lost
in the dreary desert sand of dead habit,
Into that haven of fieedom,
0 father, let my country awake.
(Rabindra Nath Tagore )
In the poem above we find these word pictures or i,mages.
1) 'world broken up into fiagrnents by narrow domestic walls'.

2) 'clear stream of reason'.
3) 'lost in the dreary desert sand of dead habit' .
Now let us explain the extensions:
In (1) the picture is carried over fiorn a houke divided by walls into rooms. The
brothers live separately in different rooms and their relations are strained. In the
context of our country, the poet wants to pull down the walls that divide people.
In (2) above, 'reason' is the power to thmk, understand, and form opinions without
being influenced by emotions or prejudices. Our thinking should flow like a clear
stream of water. There should be no obstacle in the course it flows through.
In (3) above 'dead habit' makes a person incapable of clear thinking. Only prejudices
and sentiments influence his judgements. It slows down thinking, like sand that slows
down the movement of water.
m a d the following poem and point out the images or word pictures. Then explain the
extension of meaning in them Use your dictionary if necessary. Check your answers
with those given at the end.
I
1 . Content Vocabulary-1 The glories of our blood and state

Are shadows, not substantial things;
There is no armour against fate,
Death lays his icy hand on kings:
Sceptre and Crown
Must tumble down.
And in the dust be equal made
With the poor crooked scythe and spade.
The garlands wither on your brow;

Then boast no more your mighty deeds;
Upon Death's purple altar now
See where the victor-victim bleeds: 12
Your heads must come
To the cold tomb;
Only the actions of the just
Smell sweet, and blossom in their dust. 16
(J. Shirley: 'Death the Levellei)
2.12 LET US S U M U P
In this unit, you have learnt about different figures of speech and how the meanings
of words get extended. You have also seen how poets and other writers use figures of
speech to produce word pictures effectively.
2.13 KEY W O R D S
'allegory: a story, description, etc. in which ideas are symbolized as persons who are
characters in the story
'epithet: an adjective or descriptive phase used to indicate the character of somebody Extension of
or something Meaning - 2:
Figures of Speech
'euphemism: the use of other mild and indirect words or phrases in place of what is
'
required by truth, e.g. 'pass away' for 'die'
'figure of 'speech: an expression, e.g. a simile or a metaphor, that gives variety or

force by using words out of their literal meaning
'idiom: a phrase whose meaning is not obvious through a knowledge of the individual
meanings of the constituent words, but must be learnt as a whole, e.g. give way
'imagery: the use of images or figures of speech that bring pictures to the mind ,
'metaphor: the use of words to indicate something different fiom the literal meaning,
as in 'He has a heart of stone.'
'oxymoron: an expression consisting of two words each of them having an opposing

sense as in 'visible darkness'.
'paradox: a sentence which appears to be a contradiction as Death thou shall die.'

'part of 'speech: one of the classes of words, e.g. noun, verb, adjective
'proverb: a popular, short saying with words of advice or warning, e.g. 'It takes two'
to make a quarrel.'
'simile: a comparison of one thing to another; e.g. 'He is as brave as a lion.'
A.E. Housman The Cherry Tree'

John Keats 'Ode to a Nightingale'
George Orwell Animal Farm
- William Wordsworth : 'Daffodils', 'Ssnnet composed upon Westminster
Bridge'
ANSWERS
i) like soldiers: simile
ii) asleep: metaphor
iii) as a cloud: simile
iv) garbage can: metaphor
v) like as the waves: simile
vi) chainless mind: metaphor
vii) entertained us enough : irony
i) The nightingale has a fill-throated, that is, a loud voice. There is also 'ease',
that is, the ability to sing without any difficulty or anxiety. The epithet, 'fill-
throated', which normally goes with 'voice', has been attached to 'ease'.
ii) To live a life halfdead *plies living a life of sufferings: 'living' and 'death'
are two opposite words with opposite meanings. Such words are generally not
used together. When used, such a device is called oxymoron.
Content Vocabulruy-1 iii) Heard melodies are hice to hear but there is always a desire to hear the
unheard melodies and therefore they are sweeter. There seems to be an
apparent illogic in the sentence and therefore, it is a paradox.

1. Hamlet's love for Ophelia is expressed in an exaggerated manner when
Hamlet says that .even if Ophelia had forty thousand brothers who loved her
dearly, they could not have equalled Hamlet's love for her.
2. Instead of saying that the cowards ran away fiom the battlefield, what is said
here is athat they did not care for war: a nicer way of overlooking the
cowardice.
3. i) (a)
ii) (b)
iii) (c)
iv) (a)

i) Fifty springs: Fifty years
(part for whole )
ii) The Vatican: The Pope
(object for person)
iii) seven mouths: seven persons
(part for whole )
iv) Three pairs of eyes: three persons
(part for whole )
v) A hundred sails: a hundred boats
(part for whole )
vi) has fallen asleep: has died
(pleasant way of saying an unpleasant thing)
vii) do away with him: kill him
(pleasant way of saying an unpleasant thing)
i) blowing off steam - Idiom

T o blow' is to send out a strong current of air, especially fiom the lungs.
Steam is used under pressure in what is called a steam engine to produce
power or heat: When a man gives expression to anger or excitement, we say
he is blowing off steam.
ii) Aproverb
We cannot be certain how many eggs will hatch and produce chicks. Some
may not hatch at all. Similarly, we should not make our plans depending on
something which has not yet happened.
iii) With flying colours - Idiom \
The word 'colours' refers to the official flag of a country, ship, part of the
army, etc. Flying colours are flags shown as a sign of victory. Here it means
that he passed the examination with great success.
i) husband: As a noun, 'husband' refers to the man to whom a woman is married.

As a verb it means '.to save carefully and make the best use of (one's
resources)'.
ii) 'Spirit' as a noun refers to one's mind or soul, or a being witliout a body, such Extension of
as a ghost. To be 'spirited away' means 'to be carried away in a secret and Meaning - 2:
mysterious way'. Figures of Speech
i) Lines 1-2
The fame we get in this world because of birth in a noble or rich family or
because of our high position - 'the glories of our blood and state'--are
'shadows'. Like shadows, they have no substance and pass away soon.
ii) Lines 3-8 ,

No one can protect oneself against his final fate, which is death. 'Armour' is
used as a protective covering. But it cannot save people, not even kings, when
Death (personified here) touches them with its icy hand. A sceptre is a short
rod carried by a ruler as a sign of power, and a crown is the ornamental
headdress worn by a king or queen. Sceptre and Crown thus refer to kings. A
'scythe' is a tool to cut grain or long grass, and a spade is used for digging
earth. So 'scythe and spade' refer to workers on the farms and in the gardens.
The king and the labourer become equal in death. They both have to die.
iii) Lines 9-12

The freshness of the flowers in a conqueror's garland is soon lost. His
greatness is short-lived. An altar is a raised level surface on which things are
offered to a God. The victor becomes a victim and is offered to Death.
iv) Lines13-16
Just as plants grow from the earth and produce flowers which spread their
sweet smell, similarly the deeds of men who are good and fair are remembered
even after their death.
Content Vocabulruy-1
UNIT 3 MULTIPLE MEANINGS-I
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Multiple Meanings and Extended Meanings Compared
3.3 Related Multiple Meanings
3.3.1 Multiple Meanings of a Word Used as the Same Part of Speech
3.3.2 Abstract and Concrete Meanings
3.3.3 Phrasal Verbs
3.4 A Word Used as Different Parts of Speech
3.4.1 Noun and Verb
3.4.2 Noun and Adjective
3.5 Letus s u m u p
3.6 Key Words
Answers
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to
recognize that a word may have a number of different meanings related to
each other,
recognize the different related meanings of a word used as the same part of
speech or as different parts of speech,
recognize the different meanings of a word in different contexts in standard
English writings, and
use words correctly in your own writing.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
One reason why your vocabulary may be poor is that you know only one of the many
meanings of a word. This has two disadvantages. First, your overall comprehension
of a passage of prose or a poem may be poor, because you are not able to grasp the
meanings of words from the context. Second, with only a few of the meanings of a
word known to you, your writing may also be poor.
In this unit we shall deal with words that have a number of meanings usually related
in some way. In the next unit, we shall deal with words which may be spelt and
pronounced in the same way, but which are entirely different words with different I
meanings.
In these two units, we shall not deal with all the possible meanings of a word. For
example, we may leave out some of the colloquial expressions, that is, those used in
familiar conversation but not informal writing. We shall also leave out slang, that is,
expressions that are not usually acceptable in serious speech or writing, for example
'bread' for 'money'.
3.2 MULTIPLE MEANINGS AND EXTENDED

MEANINGS COMPARED
In Units 1 and 2, you saw how a word could be used in a number of extended
meanings. .Such extensions of the meanings of words can be unlimited, as they will
depend on the writer's imagination and the number of different situations dealt with.
For example, the word light can be used as a noun with different meanings: Multiple Meaning-1
i) We don't get any sunlight here.

ii) Please throw some light on this matter (explain it).
iii) Buddha was the light of Asia. (the one who brought spiritual knowledge to
Asians)
iv) "As soon as these questions are allowed to come into the light of day and be
examined in a rational spirit, it becomes very difficult to resist the claims of
justice, ....." (be made known to the public)
pertrand Russell, 'A Scientists Plea for Democracy'.)
In (i) above, light is used in its literal sense, but in the other sentences it is used in its
extended senses. There can be many more ways of extending the figurative use of this
word. But, thou& the extended senses are unlimited, the l i k d meanings of a word
are limited. We shall use the term 'multiple meanings' to refer to the various literal
meanings of a word. For example, light used as an adjective:
i) Our baggage is light. (not heavy)

ii) He has been assigned very light duties. (not diflicult)
Even though the meanings of light above are in some way related to each other, they
are, in fact, used in different contexts. There may be some more meanings of this
word. Your dictionary will give them
Look at the following sentences. Say whether the italicized word is used in its
.
extended sense or in its literal meaning. Check your answers with those given by us
at the end of the unit.
i) Some people believe that the spirit of a man leaves his body after death.
.I
:1
ii) 'We are going to put him (the snake) in spirit
(Khushwant Sin&: The Mark of Vishnu')
c i
lL
iii)
3.3
Ranjitsinghji understood the spirit of the game of cricket.
RELATED MULTIPLE MEANINGS
We said in the last section that a word could have a number of literal meanings,
which were usually related in some way.
For example,
bearer: i) a person who bears or carries, e.g. the bearer of this letter.
ii) a person who holds a cheque for the payment of money to hirhself.
e.g. the instruction on the cheque: 'Pay or
I'
bearer the sum of
iii) In Indian English the word is also used for a male servant,
particularly one who serves food.
All these meanings have a common element in the sense that the person carries
something, but the different meanings are associated with different contexts.
I
Content Vocabuluy-1 Here are some more examples:
cap: i) a type of covering for the head

ii) a cover for the end or top of an object, e.g. Put the cap back
on the bottle.
In both cases, the cap is used to cover something.
fly (verb): i) move through the air by means of wings. e.g. Most buds and
some insects fly.
ii) control an aircraft in flight. e.g. He was the first man to fly
that type of aircraft.
The common element is movement through the air.

C
nursery: i) a place where small children are taken care of while theu
parents are at work, shopping, etc.
ii) an area where plants and trees are grown to be sold 'or
planted in other places.
In both cases, young things are taken care of.
1 Give two meanings of each of the following words and say in a few words
what is common to both. Check your answers with those gven by us at the
end of this unit.
wue (noun)
bank (noun)
principal (noun)
bench (noun)
Multiple Meaning-1
command (verb)
2 Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with suitable words from the list
given below. Each word is to be used in two sentences. Check your answers.
bank (noun), book (verb), cold (noun), principal (noun), subject (noun).
1) Well have to you on a charge of speeding.

ii) You'll get back the with interest.
I iii) It's nice to put on a warm coat and go for a walk in the
iv) He is a of the United Kingdom.
v) We sat on the of a river.
vi) You'll catch if ycu don't put a coat on.
vii) The of the college gave a speech on this
occasion.
viii) The flower beds should be separated by a
ix) Please a seat for me on this evening's flight to
Hyderabad.
His strange clothes were the of great amusement.
3.3.1 Multiple Meanings of a Word Used as the Same Part of Speech
When a word has multiple meanings even when used as the same part of speech, we
can make out the meaning from the context in the sentence or in the passage. The
meaning usually relates to a particular situation in life.
Example:
key (noun) i) 'Around his neck he bore the key of his box.'
(Tho- Hardy, 'Midnight on the Great Western')
(an instrument for locking or unlocking a door, box, etc.)
ii) At the end of the unit, there is a key to the exercises.
(something that explains or answers )
iii) The keys of the typewriter are jammed.
(the parts of the typewriter that are pressed down to produce
the impression of the letters or signs on paper)
L iv) He sang it in a wrong key.
(set of musical notes)
The word key may have multiple meanings even when used as a verb.
Examples;
i) The sitar has to be keyed properly to produce the correct
sounds.
(the strings have to be tigktened or loosened so that the right
notes are produced)
ii) This factory is keyed to produce goods for the army. (made
ready or suitable)
Content Vocabduy-1 In all these multiple meanings of the word key, four as nouns and two as verbs, there
is a common element. That is, the meanings are slightly related. In all these cases the
word refers to an instrument or device to gain the desired result.
As a noun, in i) the key unlocks a box,
in ii) it gives the answers to the exercises,
in iii) the keys operate a typewriter,
in iv) the word refers to a set of notes that make a tune.
As a verb, in i) it refers to the adjustment of the tension of the strings of an
instrument,
in ii) it refers to the adjustments in a factory for a particular
purpose. a
Look at the words below. Use each of them in sentences in different meanings but as
the same part of speech. Check your answers with those given by us at the end of the
unit. Use your dictionary, if you like.
column as a noun (4 meanings)
comb as a noun (2 meanings)
dry as an adjective (4 meanings)
square as a noun (2 meanings)

dress as a verb (3 meanings) Multiple Meaning-]
3.3.2 Abstract and Concrete Meanings
Sometimes a word refers to both abstract and concrete things.
Example:
'We are going to put him in spirit.'

(Khushwant Singh: 'The Mark of Vishnu.')
(concrete: 'methylated spirits used for preserving insects. etc.')
The spirit leaves the body after death.
(abstract: 'soul')
Use each of these words as nouns in two sentences, once with an abstract meaning
and then with a concrete meaning. Check your answers.'
force
green
guts
Content ~~~~~~I
3.3.3 Phrasal Verbs
In this section we shall deal, with verbs which acquire new meanings by the addition
of an adverb and/or a preposition. Such combinations are called phrasal verbs.
E.g. The verb take can form the following phrasal verbs by an addition of different
adverbs and/or prepositions
i) Let's take up this matter with the Principal.

(verb + adverb) ( = discuss, raise considkration of)
ii) Don't be taken in by the false promises he makes.

(verb + adverb) ( = cheated; deceived)
iii) The child took to music like a duck to wafer.

(verb + preposition; sometimes called a prepositional verb)
( = conceived a liking for it; began doing it without difficulty)
iv) The government has taken over the coal mines.

(verb + adverb) ( = breught under its control and administration)
v) The plane took of on time.

(verb + adverb) ( = left the ground )
vi) Don't take himfor a fool.

(verb + preposition) ( = consider)
1 Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with suitable adverbs or
prepositions to form phrasal verbs:
- i) Please take your coat.
ii) We have taken a new project.
iii) I was taken a doctor because I had been able to cure
some people in the neighbourhood.
iv) Seeta takes her mother.
v) The old lady offered to take the homeless stranger.
2 Give the meanings of the phrasal verbs in the following sentences in a few
words. Check your answers.
i) Don't give in to the threats of the terroiists.
ii) The engine gives ofsteam.
iii) They tried to cover up the evil dead.

iv) Hefell for the beautiful girl. Multiple Meaning-1
v) We'll see you off at the station.
vi) I . . ..he had once got ready precisely at the scheduled time to set out
on foot . . . . . I
vii) 'In the Far Eastern gardens rocks standfor mountains.'

(Henry W. Wells: 'Shakuntala's Watering Pot')
viii) 'But I decided that I should put him at ease, that I should assure him
that I would be clumsy no more, but try to become polished and
make up for my vegetarianism by cultivating other accomplishmenl
which fitted one for polite society.' (M.K. Gandhi: An
Autobiography)
3 Make two phrasal verbs from each of these verbs by adding adverb orland a
preposition, and use them in meanin01 sentences:
bring
show*
round
Content Vocabulaty-1
3.4 A WORD USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH
You saw in the previous sections that a word could have a number of meanings with
some common element in them. Sometimes a word can be used as different parts of
speech, that is, with different grammatical functions, for example, both as a noun and
a verb.
3.4.1 Noun and Verb

In Section 3.3.1 we saw that a word like key could have two or more meanings
related in some way even when it was used as the same part of speech. We shall now
deal with words which have different meanings as nouns and verbs, but still related in
some way.
Examples:
i) part (noun): Parts of this town are beautiful.
(verb) : 'Here I wasted ten minutes everyday before a huge mirror
watching myself arranging my tie and parting my hair in the
correct fashion.' (M.K. Gandhi: An Autobiography)
(separating along a line with a comb)
ii) charm (noun) : ' and settled in like a charm' (Anita Desai: 'A Devoted
Son')
(a magic spell)
(verb) : She can charm you with her smile.
(please; win over)
iii) couple (noun) : "A couple of years before the historic Salt March to Dandi,
he had once got ready precisely at the scheduled
time to set out on foot " (Pyarelal: 'One Perfect
Act?
(two; a few) .
(verb) : The train will be ready to leave when all the carriages have
been coupled.
(joined together)
Check Your Progress 6 P
Fill in the blanks in the following sentences by using the correct forms of the words
given below. Indicate in each case whether the word is used as a noun or a verb.
(Each word has to be used twice, once as a noun and once as a verb.) pitch, race,
litter, file, spell.
He usually the ball at the right place.

(Answer: pitches, verb.)
ii) The cricket is wet today.
iii) Many thoughts through his mind when his son was in the operating
theatre.
iv) I wish to see his personal
v) You have to feed the cat and its
vi) He has the word wrongly.
vii) She came first in the 100-metre
viii) The magician cast a on her.
ix) Please this letter.
x) The muddy ground was with crawling worms'.
(Khushwant Singh: The Mark of Vishnu')
3.4.2 Noun and Adjective Multiple Meaning-1
\
You have seen that a word can be used both as a noun and a verb and thus have
different meanings. Now we shall consider words which can be used as nouns and
adjectives.
Take these examples:
i) kind (noun) '. ..anoffering of cash and kind '

(in kind = using goods or natural products
rather than money)
(adjective) : 'It is well to be kind to the poor.' (Rudyard
Kipling: Kim).
ii) negative (noun) The answer is in the negative. (no)

(adjective) : The test gave a negative result.
(marked by absence of qualities )
iii) sovereign (noun) The Prime Minister in Britain is appointed

. by the sovereign. (king or queen)
(adjective) : Ours is a sovereign state.
(independent and self-governing)
iv) general (noun) He has the rank of a General.

(the highest rank in the army)
(adjective) : We are going to have a general election next
month. (throughout the country)
1 Complete this descriptive paragraph, filling in the blanks with the seven
adjectives given below:
stem, catholic, novel, perfect, invalid, faint, concrete.
Veeru has a look and people fear him. But in fact, he means no
harm to anyone. He is a gentleman with
tastes. He loves to study the cultures of different countries. But he has
similarities with his father. He is short-tempered and is likely to
get angry at the slightest offence. At office he makes proposals
for a number of things, like a method of keeping records. He
was in the army once and claims to have been injured during a battle.
However, this has been found to be an claim.
2 Use each of the following words in sentences as two different parts of speech
having related meanings:
a) as nouns and verbs
address
cable
-
-
coil
sound
b) as adjective and verb
close
3 Here are 4 short extracts fiom R.K. Narayan's The Guide. Read them
carefblly and answer the multiple-choice questions given below. Write a, b,
or c for your answer.
i) There was so much warmth in their approach that he began to feel it

was but right they should touch his feet; as a matter of fact, it seemed
possible that he himself might bow low, take the dust of his own feet,
and press it to his eyes.
ii) He I& his seat abruptly, as if he had been stung by a wasp, and
approached Velan.
iii) In that dark chamber, as the bats whirred about and the far-off
sounds of the village ceased, a great silence descended.
iv) It occurred to him that the best course for him would be to run away
fiom the whole thing.
Questions
i) The word right in the first extract means

a) not on the left
b) proper
C) morally just
ii) In the second extract left means

a) past tense of leave
b) not the right side
c) favoured the communist party
iii) In extract 3 dark means

a) evil
b) tending towards black
c) without light
iv) In extract 3 bats mean

a) flying mouse-like animals
b) batsmen
c) wooden sticks used for hitting the ball in cricket.
v) In extract 4 course means

a) movement in space or time
b) the path over which something moves
c) plan of action
4 Give an account of an interesting incident that you saw in about 200 words,
using at least 10 of the following words as any part of speech. Compare your
answer with that given by us at the end of the unit.
light, spirit, fly, nursery, bank, principal, subject, book, key, comb, dry,
square, take (+ adverb or preposition), mass, digest, part, sound, conduct,
express.
3.5 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, you have learnt
@ to recognize the different meanings of words in different contexts,

' to use words as different parts of speech, with different but related meanings, and
@ to use words more effectively in your writing.
3.6 KEY WORDS
'abstract: separated fiom what'is real or concrete

'adjective: a word that names a quality, or that defines or limits a noun
'concrete: existing in material form; that can be touched, felt, etc.
ex'tended: enlarged
'multiple: having many parts or elements
noun: a word (not a pronoun) which can hnction as the subject or object of a verb,
or the object of a preposition
'part of 'speech: one of the classes of words, e.g. noun, verb, adjective
'phrasal 'verb: e.g., go infor, put 08take after
stress: extra force, used in speaking, on a particular word or syllable
verb: a word or phrase indicating what somebody or something does, what state
somebody or something is in, what is becoming of something or somebody.
ANSWERS
i) literal ii) literal iii) extended
1. wire (noun)
1) length of metal drawn out into a thread.
ii) a telegram.
A telegram is a message sent through a wire.
bank (noun)
i) a place where money is deposited and withdrawn on d'mand.
ii) a place where reserve supplies are stored.
In both cases something is stored for use later.
principal (noun)
i) the person who administers and controls a school or college.
ii) the money put into a business or lent, on which interest is payable.
The common element is the idea of being the chief (personlamount). Multiple Meaning-1
bench (noun)
i) a long seat for two or more people.
ii) the bench: the seat where a judge sits in court.
The common element is 'the seat'.
command (verb)
i) to order.
e.g. The officer commanded his soldiers to attack the city.
ii) to deserve and get.
Great men command respect.
In both meanings, one has the right to get something (obedience or respect).
2. i) book ii) principal iii), cold iv) subject v) bank vi) cold vii) Principal
viii) bank ix) book x) subject.
column (noun)
i) This building has a number of beautifully carved columns.'(pillars)
ii) A column of smoke rose from the house. (anythmg looking like a pillar)
iii) In today's paper there' is a four-column article on new books. (division of a
page)
iv) A column of soldiers marched past that building. (a number of rows)
comb (noun)
i) You must use a comb to tidy your hair.
ii) The comb on the cock's head shook gently. (the red growth of flesh on top of
the head of a cock)
dry (adjective)
i) In dry weather, boys play cricket on this field. (without rain)
ii) You can't get any wine in the hotels here. It's a dry area. (where sale of
alcohol is not allowed)
iii) I find history a dry subject. (dull)
iv) The clothes are dry. (not wet)
square (noun)
i) Can you draw a square with each side 10 cm. long?
ii) I'll meet you in the town square. (a broad open place at the meeting of
streets)
dress (verb )
i) I'll be ready in a moment; I'm dressing. (putting on clothes)
ii) Youll have to dress the chickens before you cook them. (clean and prepare
for cooking)
iii) You'll have to get the wound dressed. (cleaned and covered)
force
i) abstract
He pushed the door with greatforce. (bodily power)
ii) concrete
Both l a d and airforces were employed to meet the attack. (groups of people trained
for military action)
green
i) abstract
Green is a nice colour for the backgpund 9f this painting.
Content Vocabulaw-I ii) concrete
In summer, people gather on the village green. (smooth stretch of grass)
guts
i) abstract
You need guts to face this angry mob. (bravery, determination)
ii) concrete
He was wounded in the stomach and the surgeon had to put his guts back in. (the
bowels or intestines)
1 i) off, ii) up, iii) for, iv) after, v) in.
i) give in: yield

ii) gives off: sends out
iii) cover up: prevent it from being noticed
iv) fell for: fell in love with
v) see (you) off: go to the station with you when you are going on a
joumey
vi) set out: begin a course of action
vii) stand for: represent
viii) make up for: compensate for.
3 get
we got offto a good start in our business.
The thieves got away with all our money.
bring
It's difficult to bring down the prices once they go up.
You must bring up your children carefully.
show
Very few people showed up at the party.
Don't show off: People don't like it.
Put
They had to put off going to the movies.
Please put me through to Mr. Kaul.
round
Let's round o$the discussion.
The police were trying to round up the smugglers.

ii) pitch (n.), iii) raced (v.), iv) file (n.), v) litter (n.), vi) spelt (v.), vii) race (n.),
viii) spell (n.), ix) file (v.), x)' littered (v.).

1 stem, perfect, catholic, faint, concrete, novel, invalid.
2 a) address
What is your new address? (noun)
The Prime Minister addressed the large gathering. (verb)
cable
A new telephone cable is being laid along the road here. (noun)
He cabled his wife to come soon. (verb)
coil Multiple Meaning-1
The electric coil of the motor had got burnt up. (noun)
The snake coiled itself around the tree. (verb)
sound
Did you hear the sound of someone coming? (noun)
They sounded the alan-n as soon as they knew about the prisoner's escape.
(verb)
b) close
Our office is close to the shops. (adjective)
Let's close all the windows. (verb)
3 i) (-1
ii) (a)
iii) (c)
iv) (a)
v) (c)
4 Specimen Answer
An Interesting Incident
Yesterday, I was coming out of our local bank when I felt that my bag had
suddenly become light. So I went back to look for what I might have left
behind. There it was, l p g on the floor near the lockers. The book I had been
reading - a Reader's Digest volume. As I picked it up, my eyes fell on a man
trying to open one locker after another. I became suspicious. In my hurry to
inform the bank officers, I dropped the book again. The thief flav off
dropping the key fiom his hand. The bank officers sounded the alann. I
followed the thief to the market square and then to the nursery school. But he
had disappeared like a spirit.
The bank guards combed the area till they found him hidden under some dry
hay behind the nursery. They immediately caught him. They expressed their
thanks to me and left. For a week, the incident was the principal subject of
discussion at our house.
UNIT 4 MULTIPLE MEANINGS-2
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Homonyms: Words having the Same Sounds and Spellings
4.2.1 Homonyms as the Same Part of Speech
4.2.2 Homonyms as Different Parts of Speech
4.2.3 Homonyms Used for Puns
Homophones: Words having the Same Sounds but Different Spellings
4.3.1 Homophones as the Same Part of Speech
4.3.2 Homophones as Different Parts of Speech
Words having the Same Spellings but Different Sounds
Words with Some Similarity in Sounds and Spellings
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
Suggested Reading
Answers
4.0 OBJECTIVES
recognize words which have the same sounds and spellings but entirely different
meanings,
recognize words which have the same sounds but different spellings and
meanings,
recognize words which have the same spellings but are pronounced differently,
distinguish between words which have some similarity in sounds and spellings,
and
increase your vocabulary for spoken and written English and make your use of
the language more effective.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 3, you learnt to recognize and use words which had a number of related but
different meanings. In this unit, we are going to deal with words which are either
pronounced similarly or spelt in the same way, or have a partial similarity, but which
have entirely different meanings. While in Unit 3 we discussed words each of which
had a number of related but different meanings, in this unit we shall take up words
which are entirely different even though they look andlor sound alike. The
recognition and use of these words will help you to distinguish between them and to
make your speech and writing clear and effective. These are called homonyms and
homophones. In order to appreciate these we must understand two terms synonymy
and antonymy.
Synonymy refers to the sameness of meaning by means of different words within a

language. E.g., the word 'laryngitis' and 'sore throat' have the same denotative
meaning, although they differ in their context of use, the former used in a more
technical sense than the latter. Similarly, the words 'steed' and 'charger' in a more
poetic way represent the meaning of the word 'horse'. As a literary devict. the use of
synonyms function as emphasis as well as to expand the range of meaning. E.g.
But wherefore let we then our faithfulfiiends, Multiple Meaning3
Associates and copartners of our loss
Lye thus astonisht on the oblivion pool.
(J. Milton Paradise Lost 11,264-66)
The synonyms used are 'friends', 'associates' and 'copartners' and these show the close
bonds of friendship and co-operations amongst the followers of Satan in Hell.
t
Antonyms refer to contrasts in word meaning, particularly in adjectives though also in

nouns and verbs, E.gs. hot-cold, young-old, male-female, alive-dead, buy-sell. These
are mainly used to attract attention to a sense of contrast as in the lines below:
Therefore pardon me,

And not impute this ylelding to light love,
which in the dark night hath so discovered.
(W. Shakespeare Romeo and Juliet LI, ii)
Here the word light' means 'frivolous', and we are also niade aware of it as an
antonym to dark.
4.2 HOMONYMS: WORDS HAVING THE SAME

SOUNDS AND SPELLINGS
Look at the word mint in the following sentences:
1 We grow mint in our kitchen garden. (a plant whose leaves are used for
chutney and for flavouring)
2 These coins have just come fiom the mint. (place where coins are made under
government authority)
Would you say that mint in sentence 1 and mint in sentence 2 were two different
words pronounced and spelt alike? Or would you say the same word had two
different meanings?
In this section we shall deal with words of this type.
4.2.1 Homonyms as the Same Part of Speech
The words we are going to discuss in this section have three things in common.
i) They have the same pronunciation.

ii) They have the same spellings.
iii) They are used as the same part of speech.
But the meanings of the words are different.
Example:
mole': The mole on her left cheek makes her look more beautiful. (permanent small
dark spot on a person's skin)
\
mole2: The fiu of a mole is sometimes used for making garments. (a small, fiu-
covered animal with tiny eyes. It makes tunnels in the ground to live in.)
Both the words are used as nouns in the sentences above.

1. Say what parts of speech the italicized words belong to in these sentences.
Also give their meanings in a few words.
i) a) The interior rooms of Bhupati's house faced a plot of land that it would be
exaggeration to call a garden.'
(Rabindranath Tagore: 'Broken Nest')
b) 'Here lies the chief clue to the Shakuntala image, even above the pathos and
erotic sentiment implied in the plot or story.'
(Henry W. Wells: 'Shakuntala's Watering Pot')
ii) a) '0how 1long to travel back,

And tread again that ancient track!
That I once more-might reach that plain,
Where first I left my glorious train;
From whence th'enlighten'd spirit sees
That shady City of Palm-trees!'
(From H. Vaughan: 'The Retreat')
b) Your fate is not written on the palm, but in your work.
iii) a) 'On such occasions Margayya charged a fee for the blank form itself, and
then another for tilling in the relevant details.'
(R.K. Narayan: The Financial Expert')
b) The atmosphere at the party was charged with excitement.
iv) a) A lock of hair hangs on her beautiful forehead.
b) The key to the lock was missing.
v) a) Don't lie on the sand.
b) Don't lie to me.
2. The words in the following pairs of sentences are used in two different
contexts and have entirely different meanings. Can you say what the context
may be in each case? (Choose from the list given below.) Give the meaning
of each word. Check your answers.
months, classroom, hotel, soft drink, parade, Diwali cleaning, on a farm, Multiple Meaning-2
lending library.
i) a) Write with a blue pen.
b) The tiger got into the pen and carried off an animal.
ii) a) Lime is used for white-washing walls and ceilings.
b) Would you like to have some lime juice?
iii) a) March is generally pleasant in the hiils.

I
I
I b) He fainted during the march.
! iv) a) There are several pages missing in this magazine.
b) The page will carry your luggage to the taxi.

I
3 Look at the diagram for the word flight below.
fright
the act of flying

between
through the air
L I
1 artificial wings
aeroplane gliders
I
The diagram above explains how the different meanings of the word 'flight' are
related to each other and where they branch off or differ from each other. It also gives
details of the different uses.
Activity I
Make simple diagrams for the following words to bring out the different meanings'
with examples. Use your dictionary.
game, table, trunk.

4.2.2 Homonyms as Different Parts of Speech
In this section, we shall deal with hornon& which belong to different parts of
speech. For example, the two words in the following pair are pronounced and spelt
alike, but have different meanings and are used as different parts of speech.
Multipie Meaning-2
Example:
loaj a) Some young people prefer to loaf about rather than work hard for the
examinations.
(verb: to spend time idly)
b) Please give me a loaf of bread.
(noun: a mass of bread cooked as a separate quantity)
1 Say which parts of speech' the italicized words in 'each pair of sentences
belong to. Give the meanings in a few words.
i) a) He put the money away in a safe.
b) It's not quite safe to go out in the dark here.
ii) a) When you train children to use their imagination they start creating beautifil
things.
b) 'The lama, not so well used to trains as he had pretended, started as the 3.25
a.m. south-bound'roared in!
(Rudyard Kipling: Kim)
iii) a) Robinson Crusoe was marooned on an island.
b) He usually wears a maroon pullover.
iv) a) The poor woman sat on a straw mat.
b) The book had a cover with a mat finish.
v) a) He covered himself with a quilt padded with down.
b) I am going down to get some wood.

Content Yocabday-I vi) a) That book is mine.
b) There is a gold mine at Kolar.
2 Each of the following is in fact two words with different meanings, that is,
homonyms:
ball, customs, last, seal, start, state.
Activity 2
Using the clues given, fill in the crossword puzzle below.

(Use your dictionary if necessary.)
Clues Across
1 When you enter a country, you have to pass through and

get your belongings checked.
4 Please throw the to me.
6 The President made a speech on the of the nation.
Clues Down
2 A large fisheating animal.

3 Well have to early to get there on time.
5 Let's complete it on the day of the week.
4.2.3 Homonyms Used for Puns
Writers use words with two or more meanings to say witty things which are clever
and amusing.
E.g. 'How is lifer

'Depends on the liver.'
The word 'liver' above can be either of two words, both of which would fit the
context above. The sentence could mean: 'Life depends on how good your liver (the
organ in the body which produces bile and cleans the blood) ,is.' Or it could mean:
'Life depends on the person who lives it.' This play on the word liver' is called a pun.
Check Your Progress 3 Multiple Meaning-2
I
Explain the 'puns'in the following puzzles. Use\your dictionary if necessary:
i) Why can't your nose be twelve inches long?

Because then it would be afoot.
ii) Why didn't the skeleton cross the road?

It didn't have the guts.
iii) What did the traffic light say to the car?

Don't look now. I'm changing.
4.3 HOMOPHONES: WORDS HAVING THE SAME

SOUNDS BUT DIFFERENT SPELLINGS
In the previous sections of this unit we have already discussed homonyms, which
have the same sounds and spelling but have different meanings. Now we shall discuss
words which are spelt differently but pronounced alike. These are called
homophones.
4.3.1 Homophones as the Same Part of Speech
~ a k these
e words
doe (noun) A doe played about on the grass.

(a female deer)
dough (noun) The woman made dough for the bread.

(paste of wheat flour)
The sounds of the two words abo"e are the same. They are both nouns. But they are
spelt differently and their meanings are entirely different, too. We must avoid mixing
up such words in our writing.
Say to what parts of speech the pairs of italicized words used in the following
sentences belong and give their meanings in a few words.
i) a) I met Yamuna at the schoolfete yesterday.
b) People blamefate for all their failures.

kontent Vocabuluy-I ii) a) He lost a lot of money gambling at cards.
b) The children can gambol on the lawn here.
- - - - -
iii) a) The teacher gave the students an oral exercise.
b) The student must try to develop his aural comprehension by listening to

spoken English.
4.3.2 Homophones as Different Parts of Speech

The pairs of words used above belonged to the same part of speech. But there are
pairs of words pronounced alike but spelt differently, and used as different parts of
speech. They have different meanings too.
E.g. braid (noun) The girl wore her hair in braids.

(strands of hair woven together)
The donkey brayed aloud.

(made a sound like that of a trumpet )
1 Match the words in columns A and B having the same sounds.
A B
beer carrot
ceiling scent
cellar serial
corps boll (-und seed-vessel of cotton)
cent seller
carat bier
bowl core
cereal sealing
dam coarse
course damn
Multiple Meanhg-2
2 Make sentences bringing out the difference in meaning in these pairs of

words. Use your dictionary,
i) fare
fair
ii) hew
iii) illicit ,
iv) grease
Greece
v) hare
hair
vi) gait
vii) tyre
tire
3 Say whether the words italicized in the sentences below are used properly or
not.
Say what the correct word is.
i) He r h g the belle to indicate the alarm.
ii) Would you like to have red beet for salad?
iii) Did they berry the dead man?
iv) The w e n t up Mount Everest was difficult.
v) Some poor people have to live on alms.
vi) Thank you for the complement.

Content Vocabulary-I vii) There is no electric currant in the wire.
4 Where is the play on words or 'pun' in the following?
i) 'How is bread made?'

'Ih o w that!' Alice cried eagerly. You take some flour ........................
Where do you pick the flower?' the White Queen asked, 'In a garden or in the
hedges?'
Well, it isn't picked at all', Alice explained: it's ground ........................
How many acres of ground?' said the White Queen.
(Lewis Carroll: Alice Through the Looking Glass)
ii) 'Mine is a long and sad tale!' said the Mouse, turning to Alice, and sighing.
'It is a long tail certainly,' said Alice, looking down with wonder at the
Mouse's tail, 'but why do you call it sad?'
(Lewis C m l l : Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)
iv) 'Not on thy sole but on thy soul, harsh Jew

Thou mak'st thy knife keen.' \
(William Shakespeare: Merchant of Venice)
4.4 WORDS HAVING THE SAME SPELLINGS BUT

DIFFZRENT SOUNDS
Look at these sentences:
1 A row of books stood on the shelf

2 There was a big row outside my house.
In 1 row means 'a number of things in a line'; pronounced/rau/.

In 2 row means 'a ~ o i s ydisturbance'; pronounced / rau /.
We should be careful liot to confuse such words.
Check Your Progress 6 Multiple Meaning-2
Consult your dictionary and write down two pqnunciations of these words and give
their different meanings.
bow
entrance
live
4.5 WORDS WITH SOME SIMILARITY IN SOUNDS

AND SPELLINGS
Till now we have discussed words pronounced or spelt alike. Here are some words
which have only slight differences in pronunciation and spelling; this causes
confusion.
Examples:
1) access (noun) right of approaching; way to a place.

excess (noun) . the fact of being more than what is proper.
There is no access to the house through this part of the forest.

An excess of rich fried food is bad for anyone.
2) career (noun) progress through life; profession.

carrier ( noun) a person or company that carries goods or
people for payment.
Content Vocabulary-1 A career in journalism is quite exciting.
India has a number of aircraft carriers.
1 Fill in the blanks in the sentences below with suitable words from the list
given here:
alternate symmetry carrots artist dairy

alternative cemetery carat artiste diary
ii)
eyesight. _
You should eat
We bought butter and milk from the

if you want to improve your
iii) You must come for a check-up every day.

iv) The soldier was buried in this
v) Yamini Krishnamurti is a renowned
vi) This building lacks in design.
vii) Our plan has failed. We must look for an
solution.
viii) Shyarn bought a 24 gold watch.
ix) It is convenient to make a note of all one's appointments in a -
- X) The painted the portrait in a hurry.
2 Read the following passage and answer the questions given below. Check
your answers.
Before actually entering the university for my B.A., I had a whole year's
reprieve by failing in the university entrance examination held in the high
school. I had expected to fare ill in physics and chemistry, both of which had
defied my understanding. I never understood what I was expected to do with
the "data" provided with the so-called problems> the relevance of
''atmospheric pressure" or "atomic weight," or what to do with logarithm
tables, or the why or how of a "normal" solution. These points never became
clear to me either through my own efforts or through our teacher's
explanations. I had been certain of failure in these two subjects, but, as if by a
miracle, I had somehow passed in them, though not with flying colours. On
the contrary, I had failed where I was most confident - English. I failed so
miserably and completely that everyone wondered if I was literate at all. My
father, in spite of his strict attitudes in school matters, had one very pleasant
quality - he never bothered about the examination results. He always
displayed sympathy for a fallen candidate; he had no faith in the examination
system at all. But even he was forced to exclaim in surprise, "Stupid fellow,
you havk failed in English! Why?" Proficiency in English being a social
hallmark, I remained silent without offering any explanation, though I knew
why. One of our English texts was a grey-bound book of chilling dullness
called Explorations and Discoveries, pages full of Mungo Park's expeditions
and so forth. In my whole career I have not come across any book to match
its unreadability. I had found it impossible, and totally abolished it from my
universe, deciding to depend upon other questions in the examination from
Oliver Twist or Poetical Selections. But I found in the examination hall that
four out of six questions were based on Explorations - that horrible man the
ques!ion-setter seemed to have been an abnormal, explorationist. I gave up,
left the examination hall in half an hour, and sat in contemplation on one of
the brick monuments beside the lily pond.
(From R.K. Narayan:My Days, Orient Paperbacks)
Glossary Multiple Meaning-2
re'prieve postponement; delay
de'fied offered difficulties that could not be overcome
'data facts
'atmospheric 'pressure : pressure due to the weight of the column of air above
a point; about 6.6 kg. per square inch at sea level
a'tomic weight weight of an atom of an element expressed on a scale
in which an atom of oxygen is 16
'logarithm one of a series of numbers which make'it possible to
work out problems in multiplication and division by
adding and subtracting.
Example: 100=10x10=10~
So log,, 100 = 2
'miracle a remarkable and surprising event
with 'flying'colours with great success
on the 'contrary a phrase used to make a contradiction more emphatic
'literate able to read and write
pro'ficiency skill; being an expert
'hallmark distinguishing characteristic (of excellence)
'chilling' making cold
expe'dition a journey for a definite purpose
unreada'bility the quality of not being easy or pleasant to read
k bolished did away with
'universe everything that exists
ab' normal different from what is normal
explo'rationist one who makes a special study of explorations
,contem'plation deep thought
'monument a building, column, or statue serving to keep alive
the memory of a person or event
Questions
1) In what subjects did the author pass even though he didn't expect to?
ii) What subject did he fail in?
iii) Choose the best answer:

The author's father was not disturbed by his son's examination results because
a) he was a man of wide sympathies.

b) he did not think the examination system was fair and reliable.
c) he knew that his son was stupid.
,:I iv) Why was it necessary to learn English well in those days?
v) 'abolished it from my universe' means that he paid no attention to that book.

Therefore, abolished and universe here are examples of
a) multiple meanings.
b) extended meanings.
Which?
vi) Give homophones for 'whole' and 'fare'

Content Vocabulwy-1 vii) Say yes or no.
a) entrance in this passage refers to the examination which had to be
passed in order to enter the university for higher studies. -
b) tables here mean pieces of fbmiture with flat tops and legs.
C) subjects here mean members of a State ruled over by a king.
d) faith here means religion.
e) bound here means fastened and covered with cardboard.
f) career is a support for luggage, etc. fixed to a bicycle, motorcar, etc.
4.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have learnt
to distinguish words having the same pronunciation and spelling, but
different meanings,
to distinguish words pronounced alike but spelt differently,
to distinguish words which are spelt alike but pronounced differently, and
to use such words correctly in your own writing to make it more effective.
4.7 KEY WORDS
'homonym: a word that is the same in form and sound as another but different in
meaning,
e.g. about = a little more or less than
(about three ki!ometres)
about - here and there
(they were running about)
'homophone: a word pronounced like another but different in meaning, s@ellingor
origin.
e.g. son, sun.
pun: humorous use of differeqt words which sound the same or of two meanings of
the same word.
I Lewis Carroll: Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.

2 R.K.Narayan: My Days.
ANSWERS
1 i) a) noun: a piece of ground, usually small.
b) noun: plan of the events in a story.
ii) a) noun: a tree growing in warm climates with no branches and a mass of
large leaves at the top.
b) noun: inner surface of the hand between the wrist and the fingers.
iii) a) verb: asked as a price.
b) verb: filled.
iv) a) noun: portion of hair that naturally hangs together. Multiple Meaning-2
b) noun: appliance or mechanism by which a door, lid, etc. may be fastened
with a bolt.
v) a) verb: put oneself flat on a horizontal surface.
b) verb: make a statement that one knows to be untrue.
2 i) . a) classroom; an instrument used for writing.

b) on a farm; an enclosure for cattle.
ii) a) Diwali cleaning; white substance got by burning limestone.
b) soft drink;a round, juicy h i t like a lemon but more acid.
iii) a) months; the third month of the year.
b) parade; the act of walking with a regular step.
iv) a) lending library; one side of a sheet of paper in a book, etc.
b) hotel; a boy servant in a hotel, club, etc.
form of play, especially wild animals and birds

with rules hunted for sport or food
table
a piece of furniture list of facts, information

consisting of a fiat top etc. arranged in columns
with legs
dining table kitchen billiard table of multiplication railway

table table contents tables time
table
trunk
main stem of a tree body without trunk line for carrying boot of
(contrasted with the head, arms or = main line clothes, etc. a car
branches) legs of a railway while (American)
travelling
1 i) a) noun: a fireproof and burglarproof box in which money and other

valuable are kept.
b) adjective: h e fiom danger.
ii) a) verb: teach and give practice to someone.
b) noun: train = a number of railway coaches, wagons, etc. joined
together.
iii) a) verb: put on a desert island, uninhabited coast, etc. and abandoned
there.
b) adjective: of brownish-red colour.
iv) a) noun: a piece of material, woven or plaited, of straw, fibre, etc. used
as a floor covering or for sleeping on.
b) adjective: dull, not shiny.
v) a) noun: soft under-feathers of birds.
b) adverb: fiom a higher to a lower place.
vi) a) (possessive) pronoun: belonging to me.
b) noun: excavation in the earth fiom which minerals are extracted.
2 Across: 1 customs 4 ball 6 state

Down: 2 seal 3 start 5 last
i) 'a foot' can mean both 'twelve inches' and 'the lower .end of the leg, beginning
at the ankle'.
ii) 'guts' can mean both 'intestihes' and 'courage'.
iii) 'changing' here can mean both 'changmg the colour', e.g., green to red, or
'changing clothes'.
i) a) noun: a festival or entertainment, usually outdoor.

b) noun: destiny, the power looked upon a s controlling all events.
ii) a) verb: playing games of chance for money.
b) verb: make playful, jumping or skipping movements.
iii) a) adjective: using the spoken word.
b) adjective: related to hearing.
A B
beer bier
ceiling sealing
cellar seller
corps core '
cent scent
carat
bowl
-
'
carrot
boll
cereal serial
dam damn
course come
2 i) What is the bus fare to the station?

I met an old fiiend at the tradefair.
ii) Let's hew down this branch, as it keeps striking the electric wires.
Look at the beautiful hues of the rainbow.
iii) Some people have been arrested for illicit sale of opium. Multiple Meaning-2
I tried my best to elicit the truth fiom him.
iv) He applied grease to the rusty parts of the machine.
Athens is the capital of Greece.
v) A hare was eating grass on our lawn.
His hair is falling fast.
vi) I can recognize a person by his gait.
We have to buy the tickets at the gate before entering the exhibition grounds.
vii) The front tyre of our scooter was punctured.
A long walk will tire the child.
3 i) No. It should be bell.

ii) Yes.
iii) No. It should be bury.
iv) No. It should be ascent.
v) Yes.
vi) No. It should be compliment.
vii) No. It should be current.
4 i) The words jlour and jlower are homophones, that is, they have the same
sounds, but different spellings and meanings. They are mixed up here by the
White Queen. Again 'ground' is two words which are homonyms. In the first
use, it means the past participle form of 'grind' that is, reduced to powder by
crushing between millstones. In the second use, it means 'the surface of the
earth'.
ii) Tale' and 'tail' are homophones. The Mouse and Alice mix up the two words.
iii) The Jew is shown as sharpening his knife on the under surface or the sole of
his shoe. The speaker means that the Jew's 'soul' will suffer. 'Sole' and '5oui'
are homophones.
bow (n. ) a piece of wood curved by a tight string used for shooting arrows. bow!
Bow (v.) to bend the head or body.
entrance (n.) opening by which one enters.
entrance (v.) to fill with emotion and delight.
live (v. ) to be alive.
live (adj .) having life e.g. live fish.
1 i) carrots, ii) dairy, iii) alternate, iv) cemetery, v) artiste, vi) symmetry,
vii) alternative, viii) carat, ix) diary, x) artist.
2 i) In physics and chemistry

ii) In English
iii) b)
iv) It was a hallmark of social status.
v) b) extended meanings
vi) whole -hole
fare -fair
vii) a) Yes, b) No, c) No, d) No, e) Yes, f) No.
Content Vocabuluy-1
UNIT 5 OVERLAP OF MEANING1
Structure
5.0 Objectives
5: 1 Introduction
5.2. Overlap in Concrete Nouns
5.2.1 Objects
5.2.2 Persons
5.2.3 Places and Organizations
5.3 Overlap in Abstract Nouns
5.4 Overlap in Verbs
5.5 Difference in Style
5.6 Let Us Sum Up
5.7 Key Words
Answers
5.0 OBJECTIVES
distinguish between words which have something common in their meanings

but which a& not used in the same contexts,
recognize the meanings of words from the situations or contexts in which
they are used, and
use words in the correct contexts in your own writing and thus make it more
precise and effective.
5.1 INTRODUCTION -
In Units 1 - 4, we discussed a large number of words with related or unrelated

meanings. In Units 1 - 2, we had words with a number of extended meanings. In
Units 3 - 4, we had words with a number of literal meanings. And now in Units 5 - 6,
we are going to deal with words which have a slight overlap in meaning, but are
different because they are used in different contexts or situations, Even w ~ r d that
s are
called synonyms and are said to have the same meaning often have dflerent
implications and associations and cannot therefore be used in the same contexts. It is
necessary to learn to use words precisely, in the right contexts. This helps to make
our writing clear and effective.
5.2 OVERLAP IN CONCRETE NOUNS
There are groups of concrete nouns - standing as names for objects, places and
persons - which overlap in their meanings. But they also differ according to their
special function or use, the place they are generally found in, and the nature of their
work.
9.2.1 Objects
i> Take this group of nouns which stand for concrete objects:
stool, chair, table, sofa, bench
Can you spot the word in this list which,does not belong to this group? It is Overlap of Meaning-1
table. All the other words refer to objects used for sitting on. But we
generally do not use a table for that purpose. The overlap of meaning in the
other words is that they are all usedfor sitting on.
ii) Take another example. Look at these words:

book, dictionary, encyclopaedia, copybook
Which is the odd word in the group? It is copybook. All the other words refer
to books that are meant to be read.
iii) Now here is another group of nouns which are also names of objects:
cupboard, wardrobe, safe, vault
They are all used for keeping things in. But we can distinguish them by
saying what is generally kept in each.
cupboard . clothes, cups, plates, food, etc.

wardrobe clothes
safe * . money and'other valuables
vault valuables
There is still some overlap in the case of cupboard and wardrobe. They may
both be used for keeping clothes. Similarly, a safe and a vault can both be
used for keeping valuables.
Now let's see where we would generally expect these things to be found:
cupboard in the house, or in an office.
wardrobe in the house or in the room of a hotel.
safe in the house, or at the cashier's desk in a bank, shop,
etc.
vault at the bank.
There is still some overlap in these words. The first three can all be found in
the house. We can make the difference clear through definitions:
A cupboard is a set of shelves with doors, used for keeping clothes, cups,
plates, food, etc.
A wardrobe is a cupboard with pegs, shelves, etc. for a person's clothes.
A safe is a fireproof and burglarproof box in' which money and other
valuables are kept.
A vault is an underground room or cellar used as a place of storage for
valuables.
Notice the difference between wine and liquor. Both words refer to alcoholic
drinks. But wine is made from grapes. Sherry and champagne are wines. The
word liquor refers to any alcoholic drink.
5.2.2 Persons
We have seen how there is an overlap in the meaning of certain nouns used for
things, but in fact they are used in different contexts. Now let's see certain groups of
words denoting persons.
i> Look at these words:

pilot, driver, chauffarr
They all refer to persons who drive vehicles. But each word is used in a
particular context.
Content Voc~uCpvy-1 Apilot operates the controls .of an aircraft.
A driver drives a taxi or a bus.
A chaufmr is paid to drive a privately owned car.
ii) Take another set of words:
fiend, colleague, ally, acquaintance, classmate.
All these words refer to people in some kind of relationship with you. They
are known to you or work with you in some way. But beyond this common
meaning, each word has a special context. Let's see what these contexts are:
Afrend is a person who is not a relation but whom you know and like well.
A colleague is one who works with you and usually has similar rank and
duties.
An ally is a person or state united to another by treaty, etc.
An acquaintance is a persoi you have met personally, but wHom you know
less intimately or closely than a friend.
There are many more words like the ones we have discussed till now, which
are generallyconfhed or misused. We cannot possibly deal with all of them.
But let's take some of the more important ones in which the overlap is much
greater and the difference is subtler or more difficufi to point out.
iii) comedian, clown,jokzr) jester
A comedian is an actor who plays comic parts in plays, broadcasts, or TV.
A clown is a person (especially in a circus) who makes a living by
performing amusing or foolish antics or tricks.
A jester is a person who jests, especially (in olden times) a man whose duty
it was to amuse the court in which he was employed.
A joker is a person who is fond of making jokes .
So a comedian, a clown, a jester and a joker are alike in the sense that they all
amuse people by their words and actions, but the words, in fact, refer to
different types of people.
iv) client, customer
A client is a person who gets help or advice from a lawyer or any
professional man.
A customer is a person who buys things at a shop.
v) shfl crew, team
The word stafrefers to a group of assistants working together under a head.
The word crew refers to all persons working on a ship, aircraft, train, etc.
The word team refers to a number of persons playing together and forming
one side in some games like football, cricket, and hockey.
5.2.3 Places and Organizations
We have seen how the words for objects and persons may overlap in respect of their
meaning. Now let's consider words used for places and organizations.
i) Look at these words:

school, college, university.
You are not likely to confuse; the words school and college. We know that a school is
an institution for educating children; there are primary schools and secondary
schools. The highest class is Class XII. But a college is an institution for higher
education.
A university is an institution for the promotion and spread of advanced learning. It

confers degrees and is engaged in academic research. It may of course have a number
of colleges in it. Sometimes a division of a university for the study of a p d c u l a r
subject is also called a school, like the School of Humanities at Indira Gandhi Overlap of Meaning-1
National Open University.
ii) clinic, nursing home, hospital.
All of these are ,places where patients' diseases are diagnosed .and treated. But their
size and scope and the facilities offered may differ.
A clinic is part of a hospital or institution where medical advice and treatment are
given. For instance, a dental clinic for the treatment of diseases of the teeth.
A nursing home is usually a privately owned establishment, smaller than a hospital,

where persons who are ill may be cared for or operated on.
A hospital is a place where people are treated for their illness or injuries.
I Check Your Progress 1

1 Spot the odd word in each group, that is, the one which does not belong to
the group. Say in a few words what is common to the rest of the words in
each group:
i) potatoes, oranges, cauliflower, cabbage
ii) kitten, calf,-cub,baby, dog.
iii) perfiune, hgrance, stench, aroma, scent
i iv) bus, motor car, airliner, motorcycle, truck.
v) ambulance, truck, goods train, cargo ship.
I 2 The words in the following sets are similar in some way but are also
different. Say in a few words how they differ in meaning. Use your
I dictionary if necessary.
i) snow, ice.
(Answer: snow is frozen vapour falling from the sky in soft, white
flakes; ice is frozen water.)
ii) clock, watch

Content Vocabdruy-1 iii) vegetable, curry
iv) ceiling, roof
v) duty, toll
vi) produce, products
vii) colour, complexion
viii) fracture, crack
ix) nails, claws
x) eir, wind, breeze
3 Say in a few words what the overlap of meaning is in the words in the
following groups of concrete nouns. Then describe briefly how they differ in
meaning:
i) hut, flat, apartment, residence

ii) boots, shoes, sandals, slippers Overlap of Meaning-l
iii) coach, teacher, instructor
iv) applicant, candidate
vi) pirate, burglar, dacoit, thief
Look at the following sentences. If you think the italicized word has been
used in b e right context, write 'yes'; otherwise write 'no' beside the sentence:
i) The perfime of food spread through the house.

ii) The sfench of rotting vegetables filled the air.
iii) The dog played with its cubs.
iv) Consult your dictionav for the meaning of this word.
v) I'm looking for a house, but at present I am living in an
apartment.
vi) You should polish your slippers before you wear them for the party.
- -
vii) The residence of the Commissioner is on this road.

viii) He lay down on the stool.
Content Vocabulary-1 ix) This is a fortnightly magazine.
x) The thieves broke open the vault and escaped with a lot of money.
5 Match the words in Columns A and B.
A B
Poet a film
novelist steam engine
creator Africa, the Dark Continent
manufacturer 'David Copperfield'
director Chandigarh's Rock Garden
discoverer 'Geetanjali'
inventor edible oil
stadium seminars
theatre plays (drama)
conference hall games
6 Choose the correct word out of the two given in brackets and fill in the
blanks in the sentences below:
. ,
, i) Le Corbusier, a Frenchman, was the of Chandigarh,
(builderlarchitect)
ii) The vulture is flying over the fields, looking for its
@rey/victims)
iii) were employed to find out the secret places where
the enemies kept their ammunition. (spiesldetectives)
iv) President Reagan of the U.S.A. and President Gorbachov of the
U.S.S.R. discuss important matters with the help of
(translatorslinterpreters)
The made an attractive signboard showing the
way to our college. (artistlpainter)
vi) Assam has a large wild-life (sanctuary/colony)
vii) His relatives got him admitted to an/a because he had
been behaving abnormally. (asylum/reformatory)
viii) You can get him admitted to a technical . if he wants to
learn electronics engineering. (academylinstitute)
ix) What is the city doing about the repair of roads?
(corporation/municipality)
We have a number of scheduled in India who have been
given a special status in the Constitution. (specieslt~ibes)
5.3 OVERLAP IN ABSTRACT NOUNS
So far we have discussed concrete nouns which are names of objects or things that we
can see, feel and touch. We have seen that words forming a set may overlap in
meaning but usually refer to different contexts. Now, we shall deal with abstract
nouns, which refer to ideas and feelings.
i) Let's take the, e two words:

accident, mishap
Let's begin by taking some examples of accidents and mishaps.
accident: i) He died in a car accident.
ii) A bus fell into the river while going up a mountain
road. All the passengers and the driver were killed in
the accident.
mishap: i) We had a mishap while driving to Delhi. The petrol Overlap of Meaning-1
ran out. But we soon managed to get some from
another car passing by.
ii) There was an electricity failure during the concert.
*
But we got the generators going and the programme
went on after the mishap.
6J
From the examples above, what common features do you notice in the use of accident .
and mishap?
An accident is something, especially something unpleasant, that happens
unexpectedly. In the car accident and the bus accident a number of people died.
*
A mishap is also an unlucky accident. In the first case, petrol runs out suddenly. In
the second case, there is an unexpected electricity failure.
In an accident something unfortunate happens and people may die or get injured. But
a mishap is usually less serious; one soon recovers or puts' things right after some
inconvenience.
ii) Here is another pair of words:

pride, vanity.
Examples:
pride He takes great pride in his garden.
People hate him for his pride. He has too high an opinion of his
knowledge of English.
He takes pride in his national culture.
vanity She's a fiiendly woman, but I can't stand her vanity. She has too high
an opinion of her looks.
She always wants people to praise her. I call it vanity.
What is the area of overlap or the common feature in the meanings of the words pride
and vanity? They can both mean 'having too high an opinion of oneself, one's
knowledge, beauty, wealth, etc. ' But then how do the words differ? Vanity is
harmless. It is just a desire to draw attention to one's possessions, beauty, etc. A
person who is vain does not look down on others. A proud person, however, may
have a very high opinion of himself and look down on others. But pride can have a
positive aspect, too. Pride in one's culture, language, or country is not an undesirable
quality. Vanity has no desirable aspect.
I iii) Next, take this set of words:

energy, stamina, strength
Energy is the capacity to do things, the power for working. You need energy
to do all the work you want to do.
Stamina is the energy you need to work hard for a long time. You may have a
lot of energy in the beginning of the day. But as the day moves on, you get
tired. You haven't enough stamina to continue.
Strength is the power to resist, the kind of power that a wrestler or weight-
lifter has. But he may not have stamina for long-distance running,
The common element in these words is power.

II iv) Now look at these two words:
murder assassination
+ killing + killing
+ human agent + human agent
Content Vocabulary-1 + human victim + human victim
+ unlawhl + unlawhl
+ purpose + political reasons
+ violence
The lists of features given above show that the nouns murder and assassination have
partial similarity in meaning and share some of the features. Assassination, however,
has some features which murder hasn't. Both words mean the unlawhl killing of a
human being by another with some purpose. But assassination fiuther means that the
person killed is important (e.g., a politician or a ruler), and the killing is violent and
has a political reason behind it.
1. Fill in the blanks with the most suitable words from this list: accident,
mishap, pride, vanity, stamina, energy, strength.
is his. greatest fault. He thinks nobody can beat

him at chess.
ii) Our flight was delayed today because the door of the aircraft couldn't
be locked and had to be repaired. But we took off after some time
and soon forgot the
iii) The train collided against a bus at the level crossing, killing ten bus
passengers. The relief party arrived very late at the scene of the -.
iv) If you flatter her for her singing, she'll do anything for you. You can
make good use of her
v) Parents take in the success of the& children.
vi) You need a lot of for a 26-mile marathon race.
vii) After his illness he didn't even have the to get up and
walk.
viii) He has so much that he can do the work of three men.
2. Given below is a pair of words with overlapping meanings. Examples of the

use of each word are given. Say in a few words what the area of overlap is.
Then say how they differ from each other. Use your dictionary, if necessary.
career, profession.
1) career: You will ruin your career if you don't study hard.
Our son, Arnit, wants to take up a career in
engineering.
He had a successhl career in the army and retired as
a major.
ii) profession: Teaching is a noble profession to take up.
Do you find the profession of a doctor satisfactory?
Is painting your profession or your hobby?
Overlap of Meaning-1
Look at the two pairs of words below and show the common and the
distinguishing features of meaning associated with them by using + signs.
storm - typhoon
shop-supermarket
5.4 OVERLAP IN VERBS
You have seen how groups of nouns - both concrete and abstract - overlap in their
meanings, but have to be used with care because the overlap is only partial. Now, you
will learn about some common verbs which are likely to be confused.
i> Take these very common verbs:
say tell speak
Say means 'to utter, make a remark, use one's voice to produce words and
sentences'.
E.g. He is saying his prayers.

He said that he was not the boss.
Tell means 'to make known; to give information concerning something:
E.g. I told him the news.

I told him the truth.
Tell me your name.
Content Vocabulruy-I Speak means 'to make use of language'.
E.g. 'He spoke to the manager yesterday.'

But if we also want to indicate the information he gave the manager, we shall
say.
'He spoke to the manager yesterday, and told him about our problems
in the office.'
And further, if we want to draw attention to what he actually said. ,
'He spoke to the manager yesterday, and told him about our problems
in the office. He said that we needed more stationery and a
telephone.'
ii) Now take the words: burn, scald.

You 've burnt a hole in the carpet by dropping a cigarette end.
The hot coffee scalded his tongue.
Burn means 'to hurt or damage by fire, heat, or the action of acid. '
Scald means 'to burn with hot liquid or steam.'
iii) Now take these verbs: hear, listen.

Hear refers to the perception of sounds with the ears.
E.g. Deaf people cannot hear.
We can hear sounds without wanting to do so.
E.g. We heard some people quarrelling as we passed the house.
We heard the sound of music coming fiom a window & we were
walking along.
Listen means 'to pay attention to some sound or speech; to try to hear'.
We listened with great attention to the sitar recital given by Ravi
Shankar.'
iv) Now take the verbs: bring,fetch.

These two verbs are often confused. Look at the pictures below:
Can you see why Shanti uses bring in picture A and fqtch in picture B? In A,
Rabi is near the water-pot. He just has to walk one way upto Shanti. In B,
Rabi is with Shanti. He has to go and bring the water.
v) Now see how select, choose, prefer have been used in the following
conversation:
Papa: Choose anyone out of these toys, Piyush. It's your birthday, Overlap of Meaning-1
Piyush (after some hesitation): It's very difficult to select a toy that
will last long. But I like this air-gun.
Papa: Don't you like that building set, son?
Piyush: Oh yes, I do like it. But Iprefer the air-gun.
First, can you see the common features in the three verbs mentioned above?
They all show a liking. What is the difference?
Choose means 'to pick out from a greater number'.
E.g. She took a long time to choose her new saree.
Select means 'to choose as being most suitable'.
Prefer shows that you like one thlng better than another.
Ki) Now look at this list of verbs, all meaning 'to walk in a particular manner'.
strut, roam, stride, toddle, trudge.
To strut is 'to walk in a stiff, self-satisfied way'.

To roam is 'to walk or travel without any definite aim'.
To stride is 'to walk with long steps'.
To toddle is 'to walk with short uncertain steps as a baby does'.
To trudge is 'to walk in a tired way or heavily as through deep snow or sand'.
1. Fill in the blanks below using the most suitable word from this list in the
correct form: stay, catch, speak, burn, say, live, hold, stride, scald, roam,
trudge, toddle.
i) Let's to Mr. Gupta about the failure of the programme.

Let's him that it was owing to bad organization. We can
also that we rang up the electricity department
for help, but they didn't do anything.
ii) The dacoits down his house.
iii) See what you've done! You've your hands with hot oil.
iv) I in Nagpur, but at present I am
with a fiiend in Delhl.
v) Mike Gatting the ball that Gavaskar had hit.
vi) Gavaskar the bat tightly.
vii) He along the street to reach the hospital quickly.
viii) You will see young boys and girls about in the park
here.
ix) Our child can now.
x) The soldiers through the dense bushes.
2. Using your dictionary to help you. fill in the blanks below with suitable
words from this list in the correct form:
hide, foretell, forecast, conceal, drown, sink.
i) Scientists can generally the weather quite correctly.

ii) He himself under a bed.
iii) Can you what the results of the elections will
be?
iv) Don't try to the facts from me.
v) She was in the river.
vi) Wood does not in water.
3. Use these pairs of words that overlap in meaning in such a way as to bring
out the differerice in meanings.
i> drive, ride
ii) find, search
- - -
iii) see, look
iv) get, obtain
v) put, keep
vi) shoot, kill
vii) slide, slip
viii) smell, stink
5.5 DIFFERENCE IN STYLE

We have discussed a number of nouns and verbs which have an overlap in meaning
but are used in different situations. Now we shall deal with nouns and verbs that have
more or less the same meanings, but are used in different styles.
i) begin, start, commence

It's time to begin work.
The Olympic Games commenced with the lighting of a torch.
Begin and start are the usual words in common use;
commence is used in a formal style.
ii) Now, look at the words:
murder (noun), homicide
The murder of Mr. Jackson was in the headlines in today's paper.
Kala was charged with homicide.
The two words refer to killing in different circumstances.
Homicide is a word used in legal contexts to refer to 'a killing without an
intention'.
iii) Similarly, buy andpurchase mean 'to get something in return for money'.
a) You can buy all the things in this market. (informal)
b) The company has purchased a new building. (formal)
domicile: You must mention your domicile in your application for a passport. Overiap of Meaning-1
( = place where a person lives permanently; used in a formal style in legal or
official language )
abode: I took up my abode in a forest.
( = house, dwelling place; old or literary use)
Your Progress 4
The italicized words in the sentences given below have to be replaced by

other words if the context is informal. Choose correct words from the
following list: removed, pass on, spread, beginning, belief.
i) The government has started a programme for the dissemination of

ideas about health and,farnily welfare.
ii) Some people accept the doctrine that one's fate 'is determined by
one's actions.
iii) Lincoln abolished slavery from the U.S.A.
iv) The office was asked to communicate the infomution to the person
concerned.
v) R.K. Guruswamy has been the Principal of this Institute since its
inception.
Read the following passage and answer the questions given below:
'AWAKE, brother, awake!'
La1 Singh heard a faint voice and felt a timid pressure on the big toe of his
left foot as he lay on the luggage rack in a third-class compartment of the
Bombay-Peshawar Mail, which was speeding through the Punjab.
'Acha, what time is it?' he said, rather startled as he came to and rubbed his
eyes.
'Dawntime, - must be about five o'clock,' the man said. 'Your destination,
Lahore cantonment, is the next stop. ,
Lalu turned on his side and lay there, impassive, smacking his tongue to
swallow the stale taste of the night in his mouth, and contemplated the
hundreds of mosquitoes and moths buzzing round the glass globe on the gas
jet which mocked at the filtering light of the warm spring morning. Then he
sniffed at the close, congested atmosphere, wiped the sweat off his neck,
raised himself to a sitting position, careful not to bump against the iron rifle
racks provided in all carriages by the Sarkar for emergency purposes, put on
his light canvas shoes and descended from his perch to get ready to alight at .
Lahore cantonment, where the disembarkation ofice at Bombay had booked
him.
'So even the trains are running much faster in India since I left home to go to
the war, he said by way of starting a conversation, as he scratched his head.
Content Vocabulary-I The other passengers, wha were whispering prayers to themselves or t a k n g
in low tones to each other, stared at him.
(From Mulk Raj Anand: The Sword and the Sickle, Arnold Heinemann
Publishers India Private J,td. )
Glossary:
'timid: shy
'pressure: force exerted against something
'startled: surprised by something happening suddenly
'came to: recovered consciousness
cantonment: a permanent military station
impassive: showing no sign of feelings
smacking: making a sound (like that of an open hand striking a flat surface)
contemplated: looked at (with the eyes, or in the mind)
mocked: made fun of
disembarkation: going on shore from a ship
Questions
i) What woke up La1 Singh or Lalu?
ii) Where was he going?
What is the word used in the passage which means 'place one is going to'?
- -- - -
iii) What was the weather like on that mornirig?
-
What words indicate the weather?
iv) There are two words in the passage whlch mean 'come down' or 'get down'.
Which words?
*
v) What was Lalu's profession?
What words suggest this?

vi) What words suggest that the other passengers were not speaking loudly? Ovsrlap of Meaning-1
5.6 LET US SUM UP

to recognize the difference in the use of words that have a certain overlap of
meaning, and
to use them correctly in your own writing.
5.7 KEYWORDS
'abstract 'noun (in grammar): one that is the name of a quality or state, e.g. length,
goodness
'concrete: existing in material form
'object: something that can be seen or touched; material thing,
,organi'zation: an organized body of persons
'overlap ( noun): the fact of coinciding partly and not being completely separate
'person: a man or woman
'style: manner of writing or speaking.
ANSWERS
1. i) oranges is the odd word. The rest are names of vegetables.

ii) dog is the odd word. The other words refer to the young ones of
animals.
iii) stench is the odd word. The other words refer to pleasant smells.
iv) airliner is the odd word here. The rest are vehicles that run on roads.
v) ambulance is the odd word here. The other words refer to different
kinds of transport for canylng goods.
ii) Both are instruments for measuring and showing time. But a clock is ,
not carried or worn like a watch.
iii) Vegetable refers to a plant, especially one used for food, e.g.
potatoes, cabbages, beans, onions, carrots, etc.
Curry is meat, fish, eggs, vegetables, etc. cooked with hot-tasting
spices, e.g. a chicken curry.
iv) The ceiling is the top inner surface of a room.
The roof is the top covering of a building, tent, bus, car, etc.
v) Duty is payment demanded by the government on certain goods
exported and imported (customs duties), or manufactured in the
country (excise duties), or when property etc. is transferred to a new
owner by sale (stamp duties).
Toll is payment required for the use of a road, bridge, harbour, etc.
vi)' Produce refers to that which is produced, especially by farming, e.g.
agricultural produce.
Products are things produced by nature or by man, e.g., farm
products; the products of this State.
vii) Colour: Red, blue and yellow are colours. ..
Complexion is the natural colour of the skin, especially of the face,
e.g. a dark complexion.
Content Vocabulary-I viii) Afracture is the breaking of a bone, pipe-line, etc.
A crack is the line of &vision where something is broken, but not
into separate parts, e.g., a cup with cracks in it.
ix) A nail is a layer of hard substance over the outer tip of a finger.
A claw is a pointed nail on the toe of an animal or bird.
x) Air refers to the mixture of gases that surrounds the earth and which
we breathe.
Wind is air in motion as the result of natural forces.
Breeze usually refers to a soft gentle wind.
3. i) All these words refer to different kinds of houses. A hut is a small

roughly made house or shelter. A flat is a suite of rooms (living-
room, bedroom, kitchen, etc.) on one floor of a building as a
residence. In U.S.A. it is called an apartment. Otherwise apartment
refers to a single room in a house. A residence is a place where one
resides; also, a house, especially a large or dignified one.
ii) All these refer to kinds of footwear. Boots are outer coverings for the
feet and ankles, made of leather or rubber. The word shoes refers
particularly to footwear which does not reach above the ankle.
Sandals are open shoes made of a sole and heel with straps to hold it
on the foot. Slippers are loose-fitting light shoes worn in the house.
iii) A coach is a teacher, especially one who gives private lessons to
prepare students for a public examination. Teacher is a general word
for one who teaches and gives instruction. An instructor trains
people. All these people are teachers.
iv) An applicant is a person who applies, especially for a position. A
candidate is a person who wishes to take an office or position, e.g. a
candidate for election to Parliament.
v) A tourist is a person who makes a tour for pleasure. A passenger is
anyone who travels by bus, taxi, train, ship, aircraft, etc.
vi) All these people either steal things belonging to others or rob them
by force. A pirate is a sea-robber. A burglar breaks into a house in
order to steal. A dacoit is a member of a band 'of armed robbers. A
thief is one who steals things, especially secretly and without
violence.
4. i) No, ii) Yes, iii) No, iv) Yes, v) Yes, vi) No, vii) Yes, viii) No, ix) Yes,
x) Yes.
poet-'Geetanjali'
novelist--'David Copperfield-'
creator-chandigarh's Rock Garden
manufacturer--edible oil
director-a film
discoverer-Africa, the Dark Continent
inventor-steam engine
stadium-games
theatre-plays (dramas)
conference hall-seminars
6. i) architect, ii) prey, iii) spies, iv) interpreters, v) painter, vi) sanctuary,
vii) asylum, viii) institute, ix) corporation, x) tribes.
1. i) pride, ii) mishap, iii) accident, iv) vanity, v) pride, vi) stamina, vii) strength,
viii) energy.
2. - career, profession Overlap of Meaning-1
Both words refer to ways of rnalung a living. But career may refer to any
occupation for which one is trained and which one intends to follow for the
whole of one's life. It also refers to a person's progress through life.
Profession refers especially to an occupation that requires advanced education

and special training, e.g. the law, architecture, medicine, accountancy.
3. storm typhoon
+ violence + violence
+ destruction + destruction
+ land + Western Pacific
+ sea + China sea.
shop supermarket
+ goods + goods
+ display + display
+ sale + sale
+ small + large
+ self-service
+ food, household goods, etc.
1. i) speak, tell, say.

ii) burnt
iii) scalded
iv) live, staying
v) caught
vi) heldlholds
. vii) strodelstrides
viii) roaming
ix) toddle
x) trudged
2. i) forecast
ii) hid
iii) foretell
iv) conceal .
v) drowned
vi) sink
3. These are possible sentences:
i) He drives the car very fast.

Can you ride a horse?
ii) Where did youfind this pen? (get back after a search)
You must search through the drawers f ~ther missing papers.
'
(look carellly to find something)
iii) If you shut your eyes, you can't see. (use the power of sight)
Look before you leap. (try to see)
iv) . Did you get your passport? (receive)

Where can I obtain the book? (get, buy)
Content Vocabulary-I V) Put the book on the shelf. (move something so that it is at a certain
place)
Keep these papers safe. (cause something to remain in a particular
state or place)
vi) Who shot him? (aimed and fired at him with a gun )
He was not shot. In fact, he was killed with a dagger.
vii) He slid down the hillside. (moved smoot!ly over the surface)
He slipped on a banana skin. (lost his balance and fell)
viii) The flowers smell sweet. (give out smell)

That fish stinks. @as a homd and offensive smell)
1. i) spread, ii) belief, iii) removed, iv) pass on, v) beginning.
2. i) A Faint voice and a timid pressure on the big toe of his left foot.
ii) He was going to Lahare.
'destination.'
iii) It was a warm morning.
The v~ordsthat suggest this are 'warm spring morning',
'the close, congested atmosphere,' 'wiped the sweat off his neck'.
iv) 'descended' and 'alight'.
v) He was a soldier.
He was going to Lahore cantonment. There were 'iron rifle racks' in
his compartment. He said 'the trains are running much faster in India
since I left home to go to the war'.
vi) The words 'whispering' and 'talking in low tones'.
I
UNIT 6 OVERLAP OF MEANING-2

Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Overlap in Adjectives
6.2.1 Adjectives Used in Different Contexts
6.2.2 Adjectives Used in Different Senses
6.2.3 Adjectives of Degree
6.2.4 Some Other Important Adjectives
6.3 Overlap in Adverbs
6.4 Let Us Sum Up
6.5 Key Words
Answers
6.0 OBJECTIVES
see the difference between words (adjectives and adverbs) that have some
, similariry of meaning but are used in different conte$, and
use these words correctly in your writing to make it more effective.
In Unit 5, we discussed some pairs or sets of words (nouns and verbs) which had an
overlap in meaning, but were used in specific contexts, situations or styles of
language. In this unit, we shall discuss some adjectives and adverbs in the same way.
There are sets of adjectives that have. some overlap in meaning and are sometimes
called synonj?ns. The only difference between them is the style of writing in which
they are used - legal, official, etc. There are also sets of adjectives and adverbs that
appear to be similar, but in fact have different senses, good or bad, and one must
learn to use them in the correct sense. We cannot deal with all such cases but shall
take up some of the most commonly used words.
6.2 OVERLAP IN ADJECTIVES
We shall first take up overlap in adjectives.
6.2.1 Adjectives Used in Different Contexts
There axe a number of sets of adjectives which seem to be identical in meaning but
are in fact used in different contexts or situations.
Take the words big, large, vast, gigantic. Let's look at them in phrases in which they
are used with nouns.
big of large size, extent, capacity, importance, etc.

a big house
a big man
big ideas
big business
Content Vocabulaty-1 large of considerable size, taking up much space, able to contain
much
a large house
a large desert
a large family
a large fortune
[large is seldom used of persons; it is less colloquial (that is, less suitable for
infonnal conversation) than big, and not so emotive (that is, not causing so strong a
feeling) as great.]
vast immense, extensive

a vast expanse of desert
vast sums of money
gigantic of immense size
a gigantic appetite
gigantic meals
great large and also important or famous
a great city
a great man
Now, take these adjectives:
sparkling, bright
Let's look at them in phrases in which they qualify nouns:
sparklihg sending out flashes of light; giving out tiny bubbles of

carbonic acid gas when the bottle is opened. E.g., sparkling
wine.
bright giving out or reflecting much light; shining. E.g. bright steel,
bright sunshine, a bright boy (quick-witted), bright green in
colour.
Choose the most suitable adjectives from this list and fill in the blanks in the
sentences below:
big, sparkling, vast, bright, great.
i) Siberia is a stretch of land covered with snow.

ii) He's a man now. He won't recognize you.
iii) She was wearing a necklace of diamonds.
iv) The box is made of metal.
v) Einstein was a scientist.
6.2.2 Adjectives Used in Different Senses

A set of adjectives that seem to be similar and overlap to some extent may differ in
the particular meaning they convey.
Take these adjectives: jealous, envious.
jealous wanting to keep what one has, or to get what someone else
has;
e.g., ajealous husband. I
Raghubir isjealous of his friend Narendra's success. !I

envious wishing that one had another's qualities or possessions; e.g. Overlap of Meaning-2
She was envious of her sister's beauty.
The difference in the two words lies in the fact that if one is jealous, one hates the
lucky person who has received something that should.havebeen given to oneself.
Now take the adjectives suspicious and doubtjkl.
suspicious not trusting; having an idea concerning the possibility of

something.
The suspicious wife kept a constant check on her husband's
activities.
doubtjkl having a feeling of uncertainty.

I am doub&l about what I ought to do.
Now take some sets of words which we can use in sentences that sound like
paradoxes. Paradoxes are statements that seem to say something opposite to the truth,
but which may contain a truth.
Examples:
i) He was not alone at the party, for there were many other people present. But
he still felt lonely because there was no one he knew.
As the sentence above shows, alone means 'with no one else around; the only
one present'. Lonely means 'without companions' 'sad because one has no
companions'.
ii) Although one may say she is chqpzing because she wins people's hearts with
her manners, one cannot call her beautifil.
Charming refers to attractiveness resulting from one's way of behaving,
talking, etc. Beautifil refers to qualities that give pleasure to the eyes.
iii) Although I'm employed in a government departmerit, I'm not very busy these
days.
Employed refers to one's doing a paid job. Busy refers t~ one's being occupied
and having much work to do.
iv) Although he is a regular visitor to our club, his visits are not sofiequent.
Regular means happening again and again at equal intervals of time. Frequent
means happening often.
v) He is a verypractical man, but his suggestions are not practicable.

Practical means 'clever at doing and making things', preferring action to
theory. Pykticable means 'that can be put into practice'.
Check-YourProgress 2
Explain the difference in the meaning of the italicized pairs of words in these
sentences, which sound paradoxical. Use your dictionary, if necessary.
i) It is possible for him to finish all this work in an hour but it does not seem
probable that he will do it.
Content Vocabulaty-I ii) It was not an expensive present, but it was veryprecious to me.
iii) Human beings must learn to be more humane.
iv) The water of this lake is so clear that you can see your face in it. But it isn't
clean, so you can't drink it. ,
v) Although the manager considered his progress satisfactory, he himself wasn't

satisfed with his work.
6.2.3 Adjectives of Degree

Take these words:
i) lukewarm, warm, hot, boiling.
These words show different degrees of heat. Lukewarm means 'neither very
warm nor cold'. Warm refers to a fairly high degree of heat between 'cool' and
tot'. When we say something is hot, we mean it has high temperature. Boiling
refers to the state when water or other liquid reaches the temperature at which
it starts to change to gas.
ii) Now consider: cool, cold,frozen.

Cool is 'between warm and cold'. It is not so cold as to cause discomfort to the
body. Frozen is so cold that water turns into ice.
We may grade all the six adjectives discussed in sections (i) and (ii) on the
following scale:frozen, cold, cool, lukewa~.n,warm, hot, boiling.
iii) sad, miserable.
If we say a person is sad, we mean he is unhappy. A miserable person is one
who is very unhappy.
iv) poor, wretched.
If one is poor, it means one has little money and cannot get the necessities of
life. But a person in a wretched state is in a condition that makes him very
unhappy.
v) thin, slim. Overlap of Meaning-1
When we say a person is thin, we mean he does not have much flesh. A person
who is slim is slender and attractively thin.
1. Fill in the blanks in the following conversation with suitable adjectives fi-om
this list: lukewarm, miserable, cold, warm, ice-cold.
'Doctor, it was quite when I went out last night and the result is
that I have a sore throat.'
'Oh, don't be anxious. Just take some water and put some salt in
it, and gargle. You'll be all right soon.'
'I usually get a sore throat, doctor. How can I avoid it?!
'Just avoid drinks. Take a lot of food.'
'I felt so - when I came to you, but now I'm better.'
2. If our knowledge of adjectives is poor, our language will not be precise

enough. Here is a chld's talk. His vocabulary is poor. He uses 'nice', 'good'
and 'bad' often because he does not know the exact adjectives to use. Choose
i fiom the adjectives listed here to replace others in the conversation below to
make it more effective:
1 evil, God-fearing, kind, wicked, interesting, usell.
'Mama, you're very nice.'

'Why, dear?'
'You gave me that good book to read.'
'What do you like in it?'
'O! There's a bad man and he does bad things. Then there's a good man and he
teaches the bad man a lesson in the end.'
'I'm glad you liked the book, dear.'
'Yes, Mama, it's a nice book.'
6.2.4 Some Other Important Adjectives

So far we have discussed a number of adjectives in some detail and shown the
overlap in their meanings. We have also shown that they are used in different
contexts or situations. We shall now take up some more of the common adjectives.
i) white, fair
When we talk of the colour of one's skin or hair, we use the word fair: e.g., a
fair-haired girl, a fair complexion. But white is used for the colour of other
things - a white shirt, a white car, etc.
ii) warm, hot
When describing food as 'warm', we mean tkat it has enough heat. But if we
say 'hot coffee' it means 'having a high temperature'. 'Hot' also means
'producing a burning sensation to the taste', as in 'hot cuny'.
I
. Content Vocabulary-1 iii) alike, similar

Two children are 'alike' when they are almost the same in some way -
appearance, quality, character, etc. 'Similar' is used for things of the same
kind; e.g. ,similar opinions.
iv) ashamed, shy
A girl may be 'ashamed' of her conduct; for instance, when she has abused and
fought with her mother. But if she is unwilling to come out in i?ont of boys
and talk to them; she is shy.
v) empty, blank, bare

All of them indicate the absence of something, but they are used in different
contexts. A box>may be empty; a sheet of paper may be blank (with nothing
written on it); ok's head may be bare (not wearing a cap).
vi) exact, p e ~ e c t
You can give an exact description of something; that is, correct in every detail.
You can, for example, give the exact number of people present at a party or
you can give the exact address of a person. You cannot say a 'perfect' number
or address. You may describe a person as being perfect in the performance of
his duties.
vii) ancient, old
We may. have ancient buildings and an ancient culture, meaning belonging to
times long past. But a man is old and not ancient. We may say,'an old
building', but it may not be ancient.
viii) calm, quiet

'calm' refers to a condition of being undisturbed by any movement,
restlessness or excitement. Examples: calm weather, a calm sea, a calm
atmosphere, keep calm. 'Quiet' refers to lack of activity or sound. A quiet
person is gentle in disposition. Examples: A quiet sea, a quiet evening.
I
ix) circular, round
'circular' means 'round in shape like a circle', e.g. a circular road. Round'
refers to something which is shaped either like a circle or like a ball.
x) tall, high
We may say 'a tall person', 'a tall tree', but we must not say 'a high person'
when refemng to his height. We can say 'a high official' when referring to
rank.
Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with suitable words i?om those given in
brackets at the end of each sentence Check your answers.
i) The thieves had taken away everything. The locker was
(empty~blank).
ii) He is a actor. He can pretend to be sick any time. (perfectlexact)
iii) There was a mark on her face. (whitelfair)
iv) We must preserve our traditions. (oldlancient)
v) He has a rank in the army. (higldtall)
6.3 OVERLAP IN ADVERBS
Just like nouns, verbs and adjectives, sets of adverbs can also overlap in meaning but
have different senses, that is, they are used in different contexts. We are also going to
distinguish some prepositions that get confused with adverbs.
i) often, always, usually Overlap of Meaning-2
- often refers to 'the number of times,' and means 'many times'; e.g. 'He is often
ill'. 'He is always ill after an exam means 'every time after an exam', without
exception. Usually refers to what is usual or common. 'He is usually up in' the
morning at 7' means this is usual. (but there may be some days when it doesn't
happen)
ii) never, seldom

Seldom means 'not often, very few times'. 'He seldom comes to see us. That's
why we don't know how he's doing on that job.'
'Never' means 'at no time.' 'He never comes to see us. We don't even know
whether he is in this town any more.' .
iii) perhaps, jrobably

Perhaps it's going to rain. (it may be)
It's probably going to rain. (almost certainly)
iv) sometimes, sometime

Sometimes, he gets annoyed with us. (at sQme times)
He came to see us sometime in May. ( at some time; the exact day is not
known )
6.4 , LET US SUM UP
to distinguish among sets of adjectives and adverbs which seem to have

similar meanings, and
to use them correctly in your speech and writing.
6.5 KEY WORDS
'adjective: a word which describes the thing for which a noun stands (e.g., brown in
the seitence He was wearing a brown shirt.) ,
'adverb: a word which describes or adds to the meaning of a verb, an adjective,

another adverb, or a sentence (as in 'He ran slowly.')
col'loquial: suitable for informal conversation
'context: the setting of a word, phrase, etc. among the'surrounding words, phrases,
etc. It often helps to explain the meaning of the word, phrase, etc.
e'motive: which causes strong feeling
'overlap ( n .): the amount by which two or more things cover each other partly
ANSWERS
i) vast, ii) big, iii) sparkling, iv) bright, v) great,

Content Vocabu1ary;l Check Your Progress 2
i) Possible means 'that can happen or can be done', but probable means 'that may
be expected to happen or has a good chance of being true or correct'.
ii) Expensive refers to the price of a thing, but precious means 'having great value
for some personal reason'. In the sentence given, the present was precious
because it might have been from a dear fiiend.
iii) Human refers to a man, woman or child, not an animal. Humane means
'showing the qualities (like kindness) of a civilized person'.
iv) Clear means 'not muddy or filled with weeds, etc.' Clean refers to purity. If
the water is not clean, it is not fit for drinking.
v) Satisfactory means 'giving pleasure or satisfaction'; 'good enough for a
purpose'. Satisfied means 'contented', 'having what one wants or needs'.
1 cold, lukewarm, icecold, warm, miserable
2 Specimen Answer
You're very kind
that interesting book to read
a wicked man
evil things
there's a God-fearing man
teaches thewicked man
a useficl book
Chkk Your Progress 4
i) empty, ii) perfect, iii) white, iv) ancient, .v) high.

SUGGESTED READING
Dictionaries
Adrian Room: A Dictionary of Confisibles, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.
Adrian Room: A Dictionary of Distinguishables, Boston Routledge and Kegan Paul,

1981.
Adrian Room: A Dictionary of Changes in Meaning, London, Routledge and Kegan

Paul, 1981.
Eric Partridge: A Dictionary of Cliches with an Introductory essay, Routledge, 1979.
Homby, A.S. (2003) Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English, Sixth
Edition, E.L.B.S. and Oxford University Press.
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (New Edition), Longman, 1987.
Other
\
Lawrence Urdang: ConBsable Words, Ballantine Books, 1989.

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II UNIT 1

a discuss relationship of language to literature.

On completing this Unit, you should be able to

a understand the relationship between language and literature

3. Speech has'different degrees.of pauses Writing exploits

4. Speaker and hearer are generally close Writing generally, involves

5. Since the interlocutors are present, Due to distance, writing

Addressor 1 --+ Message . -b Addressee 1

Addressor 2 --+' Message -+ Addressee 2

About dialogues you will learn more in later Blocks.

1. She said, "I'll come here tomorrow"

4. She would be there tomorrow.

We shall next resufne our discussion on literal versus metaphorical meaning.

1.3 LITERAL VERSUS METAPHORICAL MEANING

Take this sentence:

Check Your Progress 1

i) He was angry with me because I had broken his pen.

1.4 EXTENSION OF MEANING

His knowledge of history was getting rusty.

Check Your Progress 2

i) Our conversation drwed from cricket to -politics.

iii) The military government has successfully crushed all opposition.

iv) The animals absorbed everything that they were told.'

v) 'Karuthamma's whole body became bathed in perspiration.'

'They heard the newcomer's shrill voice raised in a torrent of abuse.'

1.4.2 Living (Animal or Human) to Non-Living (0bject)'and Vice-Versa

Check Your Progress 3

ii) Hariflared up.

vi) This is the brain of the computer.

1.4.3 Animal to Human and Vice-Versa

Look at this expression:

Check Your Progress 4

1 'the language of the eyes'

Check Your Progress 5

i) 'a sweet stench of human flesh' (Kamla Das: Nalapat House').

ii) That question touched her heart somewhere.

2 Match the parts of sentences in Column A to those in column B to make

E.g. The aroma of wealth filled the house.

1.4.5 Extension by Magnification

E.g. I adore ice cream.

Check Your Progress 6

1) You are acquitted of laziness.

ii) He was an assassin of all good virtues.

iii) It would be a crime to send the child out in the cold.

iv) The food was condemned as unfit for humans.

v) She was a victim of the mother-in-law's tyranny.

i) Give two examples of personification related to the peacock in the

ii) What is the meaning of 'heavens' in the passage?

In what sense is the word 'stirring' used in the passage?

1.5 LET US SUM UP

to distinguish the extended meaning from the literal meaning, and

'content: substance; essential meaning

1.7 SUGGESTED READING

1 R.K. Narayan: The Guide

i) L, ii) E, iii) E, iv) L, v) E, vi) L, vii) L, viii) E, ix) E, x) L.

Check Your Progress 2

Check Your Progress 4

understand the meanings conveyed by words used in an extended sense by

In the context of meaning in ordinary and literary language a distinction is made

2.2 METAPHOR, SIMILE AND IRONY

In metaphor one thing is described as another (X is Y) and in the process there is a

A simile; unlike a metaphor, is an expression which makes an 'explicitq or direct