14.

1  Solubility:
Solubility: The maximum mass of a solute
which will dissolve in each amount of
solvent (usually 100g) at a specific
temperature.
 For example, here sucrose is much
more soluble than salt and oxygen is
much less soluble than salt.

Why Oxygen gas is not soluble in water whereas ethanol is very

soluble: O2 is nonpolar whereas C2H5OH is a polar molecule. There are
weak dispersion forces existing between oxygen gas and water, which are
not strong enough to disrupt the hydrogen bonding between the water
molecules. The hydrogen bonding between ethanol and water molecules
is stronger and more stable than the hydrogen bonding between water
molecules.
The Three Types of Solutions:
 Unsaturated: Contains less than the maximum mass of solute that
can be dissolved (in a volume of solvent at a temperature).
 Saturated: Contains precisely the maximum mass of solute that can
be dissolved (in a volume of solvent at a temperature).
 Supersaturated: An unstable solution that contains more than the
maximum mass of solute that can be dissolved (in a volume of
solvent at a temperature).
Solubility Curves: Shows the relationship between the solubility of a
solute and temperature.
 Temperature is always on the horizontal axis whereas Solubility is on
the vertical axis.
14.2 Crystallisation:
Nucleation: When a surface is provided e.g. a seed crystal and particles in
a supersaturated solution are attracted to this.
Factors affecting crystal growth:

Solubility curves of solids with increasing temperature: Increasing

temperature increases the average kinetic energy of the solute particles
and increases the number of collisions between particles. This increases
the solubility of the solutes in a 100g of water.
Solubility curves of gasses with increasing temperature: Increasing
temperature increases the average kinetic energy of the gas particles,
creating more collisions and pressure. The gas particles escape from the
solution and therefore there are less particles remaining in the solvent.
14.3 Concentrations:
Concentrations: Refers to the amount of solute in each amount of solution.
Grams per litre: Gives the mass of solute in grams in every 1 litre of
-1
solution. For example, If the c(sugar) in a soft drink = 65 g L
every 1 L of soft drink has 65 g of sugar.
Concentration in parts per million, ppm: The same as mg/kg, µg/g or mg/L

Micrograms per gram = ppm: Used when very small quantities of solute
-1
are dissolved in solution. E.g. heavy metals in water. Units are µg g
µg/g = µg/mL = mg/L = ppm

Concentration in parts per billion, ppb:

Percentage by mass (m/m): Percentage by mass describes the mass of

solute measured in grams, present in 100g of the solution.
Percentage by volume (v/v): Percentage by mass describes the volume of
solute, measured in mL, present in 100mL of the solution.
14.4 Molar Concentrations
Molar Concentrations: Defined as the moles of solute dissolved in each
volume of solution. Volume of solution is in litres (L)

Where c is the concentration (mol L-1), n is the amount in mole of solute, and
V is the volume of solution in Litres.
18.4 Colorimetry:
Colorimetry :
 The absorption of light of a specific wavelength is proportional to
the concentration of solute in a solution e.g. a 2M ”Chlorine”
solution would adsorb more light than a 0.5M solution of “chlorine”
where “chlorine refers to the hypochlorite (OCl-)/hypochlorous acid
(HOCl).
 Light of specific wavelength is the wavelength of light which is
complementary to the color of you observe or wavelength of
maximum absorption without interference from other solute
particles in the solution.