Report Heading:

Submitted by:-
SAQIB ALI
Enrollment Number:-

B.Tech (E&C), III Semester

Under the
Guidance of :-
Mr.
S.K.Singh

Amity School of Engineering

AMITY UNIVERSITY RAJASTHAN
 CERTIFICATE

Certified that the Report entitled “Smart Antenna”

submitted by Saqib Ali with Enrollment No. :-
on November/2009 is his/her own work and has been
carried out under my supervision. It is recommended that
the candidate may now be evaluated for his/her work by
the University.

(STUDENT) (GUIDE)
Signature: Saqib Ali Signature: Mr.S.K.Singh
Designation:Asst.Proffessor
Date:
Table of Content
Chapter 1:- Introduction
Chapter 2:- Antenna and Antenna Systems
2.1:-Antenna
2.1.1:- Omnidirectional Antenna
2.1.2:- Directional Antenna
2.2:- Antenna System
2.2.1:-Sectorised System
2.2.2:-Diversity System
2.2.2.1:- Switched Divesity
2.2.2.2:- Diversity Combining
Chapter 3:-Smart Antenna.
3.1:- Introduction of Smart Antenna
3.2:- History of Smart Antenna
3.3:- Types of Smart Antenna
3.3.1:- Adaptive Array
3.3.2:- Switched Beam
3.4:- Relative Benefits of Switched Beam and
Adaptive Array Systems
 3.5:- Working of Smart Antenna
3.6:- Categories of Smart Antenna.
3.7:- Function of Smart Antenna
3.7.1:- Beamforming
3.7.2:- Direction of Arrival(DOA)
3.8:- Parameters affecting Antenna performance
3.9:- Applications of Smart Antenna.
3.10:- Advantages and Disadvantages of Smart
Antenna.
3.11:- Features and Benefit of Smart Antenna
Chapter 4:- Summary
References
Chapter 1
Introduction
Wireless Communication is growing with a very rapid rate for several
years. The progress in radio technology enables new and improved
services. Current wireless services include transmission of voice, fax
and low-speed data. More bandwidth consuming interactive
multimedia services like video-on demand and internet access will be
supported in the future.

Wireless systems that enable higher data rates and higher capacities
are a pressing need. Wireless networks must provide these services in
a wide range of environments, dense urban, suburban, and rural
areas.
Because the available broadcast spectrum is limited, attempts to
increase traffic within a fixed bandwidth create more interference in
the system and degrade the signal quality.

The solution to this problem is SMART ANTENNA. Today's modern

wireless mobile communications depend on adaptive "smart"
antennas to provide maximum range and clarity. With the recent
explosive growth of wireless applications, smart antenna technology
has achieved widespread commercial and military applications.

There is an ever-increasing demand on mobile wireless operators to

provide voice and high-speed data services. At the same time,
operators want to support more users per basestation in order to
reduce overall network cost and make the services affordable to
subscribers. As a result, wireless systems that enable higher data
rates and higher capacities have become the need of the hour.

Chapter 2
Antenna and Antenna System
2.1 – Antenna
An antenna (or aerial) is a transducer designed to transmit or
receive electromagnetic waves. In other words, antennas convert
electromagnetic waves into electrical currents and vice versa.
Antennas are used in systems such as radio and television
broadcasting, point-to-point radio communication, wireless LAN, radar,
and space exploration. Antennas are most commonly employed in air
or outer space, but can also be operated under water or even through
soil and rock at certain frequencies for short distances.

Physically, an antenna is simply an arrangement of one or more

conductors, usually called elements in this context. . In transmission,
an alternating current is created in the elements by applying a voltage
at the antenna terminals, causing the elements to radiate an
electromagnetic field. In reception, the inverse occurs: an
electromagnetic field from another source induces an alternating
current in the elements and a corresponding voltage at the antenna's
terminals. Some receiving antennas (such as parabolic types)
incorporate shaped reflective surfaces to collect EM waves from free
space and direct or focus them onto the actual conductive elements.

There are two fundamental types of antenna directional patterns,

which, with reference to a specific three dimensional (usually
horizontal or vertical) plane are either:
 1. Omni-directional (radiates equally in all directions), such as a
vertical rod.
2. Directional (radiates more in one direction than in the other).

2.1.1- Omnidirectional Antenna

Omni-directional usually refers to all horizontal directions with

reception above and below the antenna being reduced in favor of
better reception (and thus range) near the horizon .

Since the early days of wireless communications, there has been the
simple dipole antenna, which radiates and receives equally well in all
directions. To find its users, this single-element design broadcasts
omnidirectionally in a pattern resembling ripples radiating outward in
a pool of water. While adequate for simple RF environments where no
specific knowledge of the users' whereabouts is available, this
unfocused approach scatters signals, reaching desired users with only
a small percentage of the overall energy sent out into the

environment.
Figure 2.1:- Omnidirectional Antenna and Coverage Patterns

Given this limitation, omnidirectional strategies attempt to overcome

environmental challenges by simply boosting the power level of the
signals broadcast. In a setting of numerous users (and interferers),
this makes a bad situation worse in that the signals that miss the
intended user become interference for those in the same or adjoining
cells.
In uplink applications (user to base station), omnidirectional antennas
offer no preferential gain for the signals of served users. In other
words, users have to shout over competing signal energy. Also, this
single-element approach cannot selectively reject signals interfering
with those of served users and has no spatial multipath mitigation or
equalization capabilities.

Omnidirectional strategies directly and adversely impact spectral

efficiency, limiting frequency reuse. These limitations force system
designers and network planners to devise increasingly sophisticated
and costly remedies. In recent years, the limitations of broadcast
antenna technology on the quality, capacity, and coverage of wireless
systems have prompted an evolution in the fundamental design and
role of the antenna in a wireless system.
2.1.2- Directional Antenna

A "directional" antenna usually refers to one focusing a narrow beam

in a single specific direction. A single antenna can also be constructed
to have certain fixed preferential transmission and reception
directions. As an alternative to the brute force method of adding new
transmitter sites, many conventional antenna towers today split, or
sectorize cells. A 360° area is often split into three 120° subdivisions,
each of which is covered by a slightly less broadcast method of
transmission.

All else being equal, sector antennas provide increased gain over a
restricted range of azimuths as compared to an omnidirectional
antenna. This is commonly referred to as antenna element gain and
should not be confused with the processing gains associated with
smart antenna systems.

While sectorized antennas multiply the use of channels, they do not

overcome the major disadvantages of standard omnidirectional
antenna broadcast such as co-channel interference.

All antennas radiate some energy in all directions in free space but
careful construction results in substantial transmission of energy in a
preferred direction and negligible energy radiated in other directions.
Figure 2.2 -Directional Antenna and Coverage Pattern

2.2- Antenna System

First, its physical design can be modified by adding more elements.

Second, the antenna can become an antenna system that can be
designed to shift signals before transmission at each of the successive
elements so that the antenna has a composite effect. This basic
hardware and software concept is known as the phased array
antenna.

2.2.1- Sectorised System

Sectorized antenna systems take a traditional cellular area and
subdivide it into sectors that are covered using directional antennas
looking out from the same base station location. Operationally, each
sector is treated as a different cell, the range of which is greater than
in the omnidirectional case. Sector antennas increase the possible
reuse of a frequency channel in such cellular systems by reducing
potential interference across the original cell, and they are widely
used for this purpose. As many as six sectors per cell have been used
in practical
service. When combining more than one of these directional antennas,
the base station can cover all directions.

Figure 2.3 - Sectorized Antenna and Coverage Patterns

2.2.2- Diversity System

In the next step toward smart antennas, the diversity system

incorporates two antenna elements at the base station, the slight
physical separation (space diversity) of which has been used
historically to improve reception by counteracting the negative effects
of multipath.
Diversity offers an improvement in the effective strength of the
received signal by using one of the following two methods:-
A).Switched Diversity
B).Diversity combining.

Diversity antennas merely switch operation from one working element

to
another. Although this approach mitigates severe multipath fading, its
use of one element at a time offers no uplink gain improvement over
any other single-element approach. In high-interference
environments, the simple strategy of locking onto the strongest signal
or extracting maximum signal power from the antennas is clearly
inappropriate and can result in crystal-clear reception of an interferer
rather than the desired signal.

The need to transmit to numerous users more efficiently without

compounding the interference problem led to the next step of the
evolution antenna systems that intelligently integrate the
simultaneous operation of diversity antenna elements.

2.2.2.1- Switched Diversity

Assuming that at least one antenna will be in a favorable location at a
given moment, this system continually switches between antennas
(connects each of the receiving channels to the best serving antenna)
so as always to use the element with the largest output. While
reducing the negative effects of signal fading, they do not increase
gain since only one antenna is used at a time.

Figure 2.4 - Switched Diversity Coverage with Fading and Switched

Diversity
2.2.2.2- Diversity Combining
This approach corrects the phase error in two multipath signals and
effectively combines the power of both signals to produce gain. Other
diversity systems, such as maximal ratio combining systems, combine
the outputs of all the antennas to maximize the ratio of combined
received signal energy to noise.

Figure 2.5. Combined Diversity Effective Coverage Pattern with

Single Element and Combined Diversity
Chapter 3

Smart Antenna

3.1- Introduction of Smart Antenna

Contrary to the name smart antennas consist of more than an

antenna. “A Smart Antenna is an antenna system which dynamically
reacts to its environment to provide better signals and frequency
usage for wireless communications”. There are a variety of smart
antennas which utilize different methods to provide improvements in
various wireless applications. This report aims to explain the main
types of smart antennas and there advantages and disadvantages.

The concept of using multiple antennas and innovative signal

processing to serve cells more intelligently has existed for many
years. In fact, varying degrees of relatively costly smart antenna
systems have already been applied in defense systems. Until recent
years, cost barriers have prevented their use in commercial systems.
The advent of powerful low-cost digital signal processors (DSPs),
general-purpose processors (and ASICs), as well as innovative
software-based signal-processing techniques (algorithms) have made
intelligent antennas
practical for cellular communications systems.

Today, when spectrally efficient solutions are increasingly a business

imperative, these systems are providing greater coverage area for
each cell site, higher rejection of interference, and substantial
capacity improvements.
Fig 3.1:- Smart Antenna System

Figure 3.2- Block Diagram of Smart Antenna

3.2- History of Smart Antenna

Early smart antennas were designed for governmental use in military

applications, which used directed beams to hide transmissions from
an enemy. Implementation required very large antenna structures and
time-intensive processing and calculation.

As personal wireless communications began to emerge, it was evident

that interference in wireless networks was limiting the total number of
simultaneous users the network could handle before unacceptable call
quality and blocking occurred. Since the narrow beams of the early
governmental smart antennas created less overall interference,
researchers began to explore the possibility of extending the use of
smart antennas to reduce overall network interference in commercial
wireless networks, thus increasing the total number of users a
wireless system could handle in a given block of spectrum. But the
hardware and processing technologies required to perform the
complex calculations in the very small spaces of time available in
personal wireless communications would prove to be a hurdle that
was extremely difficult to overcome. A few select companies have
successfully developed and introduced smart antenna technologies
into commercial wireless networks.

Antennas were used in 1888 by Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894) to prove

the existence of electromagnetic waves predicted by the theory of
James Clerk Maxwell. Hertz placed the emitter dipole in the focal point
of a parabolic reflector.

The origin of the word antenna relative to wireless apparatus is

attributed to Guglielmo Marconi. In 1895, while testing early radio
apparatus in the Swiss Alps ,Marconi experimented with early wireless
equipment.

A 2.5 meter long pole, along which was carried a wire, was used as a
radiating and receiving aerial element . Until then wireless radiating
transmitting and receiving elements were known simply as aerials or
terminals. Marconi's use of the word antenna (Italian for pole) would
become a popular term for what today is uniformly known as the
antenna.

Smart Antennas Today

Today, smart antennas have been widely deployed in many of the top
wireless networks worldwide to address wireless network capacity and
performance challenges.

Several different versions of smart antennas are either in

development or available on the market today. Appliqué smart
antenna systems can be added to existing cell sites, enabling
software-controlled pattern changes or software-optimized antenna
patterns that have produced capacity increases of up to 35-94% in
some deployments. Appliqué smart antenna systems provide greater
flexibility in controlling and customizing sector antenna pattern
beamwidth and azimuthal orientation over that of standard sector
antennas.

A second approach, embedded smart antennas, uses adaptive array

processing within the channel elements of a base station. The smart
antenna processing takes place in the base station signal path, using
a custom, narrow beam to track each mobile in the network.
Embedded smart antenna system trials have been proven to deliver
2.5-3 times the capacity of current 2-2.5G base stations.

3.3- Types of Smart Antenna

The following are distinctions between the two major categories of

smart antennas regarding the choices in transmit strategy:

1).Adaptive array - an infinite number of patterns (scenario-based)

that are adjusted in real time .

2).Switched beam - a finite number of fixed, predefined patterns or

combining strategies (sectors).
3.3.1- Adaptive Array

Adaptive antenna technology represents the most advanced smart

antenna approach to date. Using a variety of new signal-processing
algorithms, the adaptive system takes advantage of its ability to
effectively locate and track various types of signals to dynamically
minimize interference and maximize intended signal reception.

Both systems attempt to increase gain according to the location of the

user; however, only the adaptive system provides optimal gain while
simultaneously identifying, tracking, and minimizing interfering
signals.

Figure 3.3:- Adaptive Array System:- Representative Depiction of a Main Lobe

Extending Toward a User.

3.3.2- Switched Beam

Switched beam antenna systems form multiple fixed beams with

heightened sensitivity in particular directions. These antenna systems
detect signal strength, choose from
one of several predetermined, fixed
beams, and switch from one beam
to another as the mobile moves
throughout the sector. Instead of shaping the directional antenna
pattern with the metallic properties and physical design of a single
element (like a sectorized antenna), switched beam systems combine
the outputs of multiple antennas in such a way as to form finely
sectorized (directional) beams with more spatial selectivity than can
be achieved with conventional, single-element approaches.

Figure 3.4:-Switched Beam System

3.4- Relative Benefits of Switched Beam and Adaptive Array

Systems

Integration
Switched beam systems are traditionally designed to retrofit widely
deployed cellular systems. It has been commonly implemented as an
add-on or appliqué technology that intelligently addresses the needs
of mature networks

Range/coverage
Switched beam systems can increase base station range from 20 to
200 percent over conventional sectored cells, depending on
environmental circumstances and the hardware/software used. The
added coverage can save an operator substantial infrastructure costs
and means lower prices for consumers. Also, the dynamic switching
from beam to beam conserves capacity because the system does not
send all signals in all directions. In comparison, adaptive array
systems can cover a broader, more uniform area with the same power
levels as a switched beam system.

Interference suppression
Switched beam antennas suppress interference arriving from
directions away from the active beam's center. Because beam
patterns are fixed, however, actual interference rejection is often the
gain of the selected communication beam pattern in the interferer's
direction. Also, they are normally used only for reception because of
the system's ambiguous perception of the location of the received
signal (the consequences of transmitting in the wrong beam being
obvious). Also, because their beams are predetermined, sensitivity
can occasionally vary as the user moves through the sector.

Adaptive array technology currently offers more comprehensive

interference rejection. Also, because it transmits an infinite, rather
than finite, number of combinations, its narrower focus creates less
interference to neighboring users than a switched-beam approach.
3.5-Working of Smart Antenna
Traditional switched beam and adaptive array systems enable a base
station to customize the beams they generate for each remote user
effectively by means of internal feedback control. Generally speaking,
each approach forms a main lobe toward individual users and
attempts to reject interference or noise from outside of the main lobe.

Listening to the Cell (Uplink Processing)

It is assumed here that a smart antenna is only employed at the base

station and not at the handset or subscriber unit. Such remote radio
terminals transmit using omnidirectional antennas, leaving it to the
base station to separate the desired signals from interference
selectively.
Typically, the received signal from the spatially distributed antenna
elements is multiplied by a weight, a complex adjustment of an
amplitude and a phase. These signals are combined to yield the array
output. An adaptive algorithm controls the weights according to
predefined objectives. For a switched beam system, this may be
primarily maximum gain; for an adaptive array system, other factors
may receive equal consideration. These dynamic calculations enable
the system to change its radiation pattern for optimized signal
reception.

Speaking to the Users (Downlink Processing)

The task of transmitting in a spatially selective manner is the major
basis for differentiating between switched beam and adaptive array
systems. As described below, switched beam systems communicate
with users by changing between preset directional patterns, largely on
the basis of signal strength. In comparison, adaptive arrays attempt to
understand the RF environment more comprehensively and transmit
more selectively.
The type of downlink processing used depends on whether the
communication system uses time division duplex (TDD), which
transmits and receives on the same frequency (e.g., PHS and DECT) or
frequency division duplex (FDD), which uses separate frequencies for
transmit and receiving (e.g., GSM). In most FDD systems, the uplink
and downlink fading and other propagation characteristics
may be considered independent, whereas in TDD systems the uplink
and downlink channels can be considered reciprocal. Hence, in TDD
systems uplink channel information may be used to achieve spatially
selective transmission. In FDD systems, the uplink channel information
cannot be used directly and other types of downlink processing must
be considered.

3.6- Categories of Smart Antenna

A smart antenna is a digital wireless communications antenna system
that takes advantage of diversity effect at the source (transmitter),
the destination (receiver), or both. Diversity effect involves the
transmission and/or reception of multiple radio frequency (RF) waves
to increase data speed and reduce the error rate.

In conventional wireless communications, a single antenna is used at

the source, and another single antenna is used at the destination. This
is called SISO (single input, single output). Such systems are
vulnerable to problems caused by multipath effects. When an
electromagnetic field (EM field) is met with obstructions such as hills,
canyons, buildings, and utility wires, the wavefronts are scattered,
and thus they take many paths to reach the destination. The late
arrival of scattered portions of the signal causes problems such as
fading, cut-out (cliff effect), and intermittent reception (picket
fencing). In a digital communications system like the Internet, it can
cause a reduction in data speed and an increase in the number of
errors. The use of smart antennas can reduce or eliminate the trouble
caused by multipath wave propagation.

Smart antennas fall into three major categories:--

1). SIMO (single input, multiple output)

2). MISO (multiple input, single output)

3). MIMO (multiple input, multiple output).

SIMO
SIMO (single input, multiple output) is an antenna technology for
wireless communications in which multiple antennas are used at the
destination (receiver). The antennas are combined to minimize errors
and optimize data speed. The source (transmitter) has only one
antenna. SIMO is one of several forms of smart antenna technology,
the others being MIMO (multiple input, multiple output) and MISO
(multiple input, single output).

In digital communications systems such as wireless Internet, it can

cause a reduction in data speed and an increase in the number of
errors. The use of two or more antennas at the destination can reduce
the trouble caused by multipath wave propagation.
SIMO technology has widespread applications in digital television
(DTV), wireless local area networks (WLANs), metropolitan area
networks (MANs), and mobile communications. An early form of SIMO,
known as diversity reception, has been used by military, commercial,
amateur, and shortwave radio operators at frequencies below 30 MHz
since the First World War.

MISO

MISO (multiple input, single output) is an antenna technology for

wireless communications in which multiple antennas are used at the
source (transmitter). The antennas are combined to minimize errors
and optimize data speed. The destination (receiver) has only one
antenna. MISO is one of several forms of smart antenna technology,
the others being MIMO (multiple input, multiple output) and SIMO
(single input, multiple output).

In digital communications systems such as wireless Internet, it can

cause a reduction in data speed and an increase in the number of
errors. The use of two or more antennas, along with the transmission
of multiple signals (one for each antenna) at the source, can reduce
the trouble caused by multipath wave propagation.

MISO technology has widespread applications in digital television

(DTV), wireless local area networks (WLANs), metropolitan area
networks (MANs), and mobile communications.

MIMO
MIMO (multiple input, multiple output) is an antenna technology for
wireless communications in which multiple antennas are used at both
the source (transmitter) and the destination (receiver). The antennas
at each end of the communications circuit are combined to minimize
errors and optimize data speed. MIMO is one of several forms of smart
antenna technology, the others being MISO (multiple input, single
output) and SIMO (single input, multiple output).

In digital communications systems such as wireless Internet, it can

cause a reduction in data speed and an increase in the number of
errors. The use of two or more antennas, along with the transmission
of multiple signals (one for each antenna) at the source and the
destination, eliminates the trouble caused by multipath wave
propagation, and can even take advantage of this effect.

MIMO technology has aroused interest because of its possible

applications in digital television (DTV), wireless local area networks
(WLANs), metropolitan area networks (MANs), and mobile
communications.

3.7- Function of Smart Antenna

Smart antennas (also known as adaptive array antennas, multiple

antennas and recently MIMO) are antenna arrays with smart signal
processing algorithms used to identify spatial signal signature such as
the direction of arrival (DOA) of the signal, and use it to calculate
beamforming vectors, to track and locate the antenna beam on the
mobile/target.

Smart antennas have two main functions: DOA estimation and

Beamforming.

3.7.1- Beamforming

Beamforming is a signal processing technique used with arrays of

transmitting or receiving transducers that control the directionality of,
or sensitivity to, a radiation pattern. When receiving a signal,
beamforming can increase the receiver sensitivity in the direction of
wanted signals and decrease the sensitivity in the direction of
interference and noise. When transmitting a signal, beamforming can
increase the power in the direction the signal is to be sent. The
change compared with an omnidirectional receiving pattern is known
as the receive gain (or loss). The change compared with an
omnidirectional transmission is known as the transmission gain. These
changes are done by creating beams and nulls in the radiation
pattern. In electronics, gain is usually taken as the mean ratio of the
signal output of a system to the signal input of the system.

Beamforming can be done with either radio or sound waves, and can
also be thought of as spatial filtering. As an everyday analogy, the
human brain uses a form of signal processing on its two sound
transducers (ears) and determines where the sound came from (sound
localization). In the comparable beamforming analogy, digital
computers use signal processing on an array of two (or generally
more) electromagnetic sound transducers (microphones) to determine
the direction of maximum signal strength, and thus the likely origin of
the sound. A microphone with a cord A microphone, sometimes called
a mic (pronounced mike), is a device that converts sound into an
electrical signal. In telecommunications, and particularly in radio,
signal strength is the measure of how strongly a transmitted signal is
being received, measured, or predicted, at a reference point that is a
significant distance from the transmitting antenna.

Beamforming takes advantage of interference to change the

directionality of the array. When transmitting, a beamformer controls
the phase and relative amplitude of the signal at each transmitter, in
order to create a pattern of constructive and destructive interference
in the wavefront. When receiving, information from different sensors is
combined in such a way that the expected pattern of radiation is
preferentially observed. Interference of two circular waves -
Wavelength (decreasing bottom to top) and Wave centers distance
(increasing to the right).

In the receive beamfomer the signal from each antenna may be

amplified by a different "weight." Different weighting patterns (eg
Dolph-Chebyshev) can be used to achieve the desired sensitivity
patterns. . A main lobe is produced together with nulls and sidelobes.
As well as controlling the main lobe width (the beam) and the sidelobe
levels, the position of a null can be controlled. This is useful to ignore
noise or jammers in one particular direction, while listening for events
in other directions. A similar result can be obtained on transmission.
Jammer can refer to: A device used in electronic warfare to inhibit or
halt the transmission of signals.
Figure3.5:- BeamForming Lobe.

Figure3.6:- Figure show pattern of Beamforming

Beamforming techniques can be broadly divided into two categories:

• A).Conventional (fixed) beamformers or switched beam smart
antennas.
 • B).Adaptive beamformers or adaptive array smart antennas

Conventional beamformers use a fixed set of weightings and time-

delays (or phasings) to combine the signals from the sensors in the
array, primarily using only information about the location of the
sensors in space and the wave directions of interest. In contrast,
adaptive beamforming techniques, generally combine this information
with properties of the signals actually received by the array, typically
to improve rejection of unwanted signals from other directions. This
process may be carried out in the time or frequency domains. Smart
Antenna refers to a system of antenna arrays with smart signal
processing algorithms that are used to identify the direction of arrival
(DOA) of the signal, and use it to calculate beamforming vectors, to
track and locate the antenna beam on the mobile/target. ... Smart
Antenna refers to a system of antenna arrays with smart signal
processing algorithms that are used to identify the direction of arrival
(DOA) of the signal, and use it to calculate beamforming vectors, to
track and locate the antenna beam on the mobile/target. ...

As the name indicates, an adaptive beamformer is able to adapt

automatically its response to different situations. Some criterion has
to be set up to allow the adaption to proceed such as minimising the
total noise output. Because of the variation of noise with frequency, in
wide band systems it may be desirable to carry out the process in the
frequency domain. An adaptive beamformer is signal processing
system often used with an array of radar antennae (or phased array)
in order to transmit or receive signals in different directions without
having to mechanically steer the array. ... Frequency domain is a term
used to describe the analysis of mathematical functions with respect
to frequency.

3.7.2- Direction of Arrival(DOA)

Direction of arrival(DOA) denotes the direction from which usually

a propagating wave arrives at a point, where usually a set of sensors
are located. This set of sensors forms what is called a sensor array.
Often there is the associated technique of beamforming which is
estimating the signal from a given direction. Various engineering
problems addressed in the associated literature are as follows: A wave
crashing against the shore A wave is a disturbance that propagates.
Beamforming is the process of delaying the outputs of the sensors in
an arrays aperture and adding these together, to reinforce the signal
with respect to noise or waves propagating in different directions.
• Find the direction relative to the array where the underwater
sound source is located.
• Direction of different sound sources around you are also located
by you using a process similar to those used by the algorithms in
the literature.
• Radio telescopes use these techniques to look at a certain
location in the sky.
• Recently beamforming has also been used in RF applications
such as wireless communication. Compared with the spatial
diversity techniques, beamforming is preferred in terms of
complexity. On the other hand beamforming in general has much
lower data rates.In multiple access channel(CDMA,FDMA,TDMA)
beamforming is necessary & sufficient.
The smart antenna system estimates the direction of arrival of the
signal, using any of the techniques like MUSIC (Multiple Signal
Classification) or ESPRIT (Estimation of Signal Parameters via
Rotational Invariant Techniques) algorithms,Matrix Pencil method or
their derivatives. They involve finding a spatial spectrum of the
antenna/sensor array, and calculating the DOA from the peaks of this
spectrum. MUSIC involves calculation of eigenvalues and eigenvectors
of an autocorrelation matrix of the input vectors from the receiving
antenna array. These calculations are computationally intensive.
Matrix Pencil is very efficient in case of real time systems, and under
the correlated sources. In mathematics, a number is called an
eigenvalue of a matrix if there exists a nonzero vector such that the
matrix times the vector is equal to the same vector multiplied by the
eigenvalue.In linear algebra, the eigenvectors (from the German eigen
meaning own) of a linear operator are non-zero vectors which, when
operated on by the operator, result in a scalar multiple of themselves.

3.8- Parameters affecting Antenna performance

There are several critical parameters affecting an antenna's

performance that can be adjusted during the design process. These
are resonant frequency, impedance, gain, aperture or radiation
pattern, polarization, efficiency and bandwidth. Transmit antennas
may also have a maximum power rating, and receive antennas differ
in their noise rejection properties. All of these parameters can be
measured through various means.

3.8.1- Resonant frequency

The "resonant frequency" and "electrical resonance" is related to the
electrical length of an antenna. The electrical length is usually the
physical length of the wire divided by its velocity factor (the ratio of
the speed of wave propagation in the wire to c0, the speed of light in a
vacuum). Typically an antenna is tuned for a specific frequency, and is
effective for a range of frequencies that are usually centered on that
resonant frequency. However, other properties of an antenna change
with frequency, in particular the radiation pattern and impedance, so
the antenna's resonant frequency may merely be close to the center
frequency of these other more important properties.

Antennas can be made resonant on harmonic frequencies with lengths

that are fractions of the target wavelength. Some antenna designs
have multiple resonant frequencies, and some are relatively effective
over a very broad range of frequencies. The most commonly known
type of wide band aerial is the logarithmic or log periodic, but its gain
is usually much lower than that of a specific or narrower band aerial.

3.8.2- Gain

Gain as a parameter measures the efficiency of a given antenna with

respect to a given norm, usually achieved by modification of its
directionality. An antenna with a low gain emits radiation with about
the same power in all directions, whereas a high-gain antenna will
preferentially radiate in particular directions. Specifically, the Gain,
Directive gain or Power gain of an antenna is defined as the ratio
of the intensity (power per unit surface) radiated by the antenna in a
given direction at an arbitrary distance divided by the intensity
radiated at the same distance by a hypothetical isotropic antenna.
The gain of an antenna is a passive phenomenon - power is not added
by the antenna, but simply redistributed to provide more radiated
power in a certain direction than would be transmitted by an isotropic
antenna. If an antenna has a gain greater than one in some directions,
it must have a gain less than one in other directions, since energy is
conserved by the antenna. An antenna designer must take into
account the application for the antenna when determining the gain.
High-gain antennas have the advantage of longer range and better
signal quality, but must be aimed carefully in a particular direction.
Low-gain antennas have shorter range, but the orientation of the
antenna is relatively inconsequential. For example, a dish antenna on
a spacecraft is a high-gain device that must be pointed at the planet
to be effective, whereas a typical Wi-Fi antenna in a laptop computer
is low-gain, and as long as the base station is within range, the
antenna can be in any orientation in space. It makes sense to improve
horizontal range at the expense of reception above or below the
antenna. Thus most antennas labelled "omnidirectional" really have
some gain.

3.8.3- Radiation pattern

The radiation pattern of an antenna is the geometric pattern of the

relative field strengths of the field emitted by the antenna. For the
ideal isotropic antenna, this would be a sphere. For a typical dipole,
this would be a toroid. The radiation pattern of an antenna is typically
represented by a three dimensional graph, or polar plots of the
horizontal and vertical cross sections. The graph should show
sidelobes and backlobes, where the antenna's gain is at a minima or
maxima.
3.8.4- Impedance

As an electro-magnetic wave travels through the different parts of the

antenna system (radio, feed line, antenna, free space) it may
encounter differences in impedance (E/H, V/I, etc). At each interface,
depending on the impedance match, some fraction of the wave's
energy will reflect back to the source[5], forming a standing wave in
the feed line. The ratio of maximum power to minimum power in the
wave can be measured and is called the standing wave ratio (SWR). A
SWR of 1:1 is ideal. A SWR of 1.5:1 is considered to be marginally
acceptable in low power applications where power loss is more critical,
although an SWR as high as 6:1 may still be usable with the right
equipment. Minimizing impedance differences at each interface
(impedance matching) will reduce SWR and maximize power transfer
through each part of the antenna system.

Complex impedance of an antenna is related to the electrical length of

the antenna at the wavelength in use. The impedance of an antenna
can be matched to the feed line and radio by adjusting the impedance
of the feed line, using the feed line as an impedance transformer.
More commonly, the impedance is adjusted at the load (see below)
with an antenna tuner, a balun, a matching transformer, matching
networks composed of inductors and capacitors, or matching sections
such as the gamma match.

3.8.5- Efficiency

Efficiency is the ratio of power actually radiated to the power put into
the antenna terminals. A dummy load may have an SWR of 1:1 but an
efficiency of 0, as it absorbs all power and radiates heat but not RF
energy, showing that SWR alone is not an effective measure of an
antenna's efficiency. Radiation in an antenna is caused by radiation
resistance which can only be measured as part of total resistance
including loss resistance. Loss resistance usually results in heat
generation rather than radiation, and reduces efficiency.
Mathematically, efficiency is calculated as radiation resistance divided
by total resistance.

3.8.6- Bandwidth

The bandwidth of an antenna is the range of frequencies over which it

is effective, usually centered on the resonant frequency. The
bandwidth of an antenna may be increased by several techniques,
including using thicker wires, replacing wires with cages to simulate a
thicker wire, tapering antenna components (like in a feed horn), and
combining multiple antennas into a single assembly and allowing the
natural impedance to select the correct antenna. Small antennas are
usually preferred for convenience, but there is a fundamental limit
relating bandwidth, size and efficiency.

3.8.7- Polarization

The polarization of an antenna is the orientation of the electric field

(E-plane) of the radio wave with respect to the Earth's surface and is
determined by the physical structure of the antenna and by its
orientation. It has nothing in common with antenna directionality
terms: "horizontal", "vertical" and "circular". Thus, a simple straight
wire antenna will have one polarization when mounted vertically, and
a different polarization when mounted horizontally. "Electromagnetic
wave polarization filters" are structures which can be employed to act
directly on the electromagnetic wave to filter out wave energy of an
undesired polarization and to pass wave energy of a desired
polarization.

Reflections generally affect polarization. For radio waves the most

important reflector is the ionosphere - signals which reflect from it will
have their polarization changed unpredictably. For signals which are
reflected by the ionosphere, polarization cannot be relied upon. For
line-of-sight communications for which polarization can be relied upon,
it can make a large difference in signal quality to have the transmitter
and receiver using the same polarization; many tens of dB difference
are commonly seen and this is more than enough to make the
difference between reasonable communication and a broken link.

Polarization is largely predictable from antenna construction but,

especially in directional antennas, the polarization of side lobes can be
quite different from that of the main propagation lobe. For radio
antennas, polarization corresponds to the orientation of the radiating
element in an antenna. A vertical omnidirectional WiFi antenna will
have vertical polarization (the most common type). An exception is a
class of elongated waveguide antennas in which vertically placed
antennas are horizontally polarized. Many commercial antennas are
marked as to the polarization of their emitted signals.

Polarization is the sum of the E-plane orientations over time projected

onto an imaginary plane perpendicular to the direction of motion of
the radio wave. In the most general case, polarization is elliptical (the
projection is oblong), meaning that the antenna varies over time in
the polarization of the radio waves it is emitting. Two special cases are
linear polarization (the ellipse collapses into a line) and circular
polarization (in which the ellipse varies maximally). In linear
polarization the antenna compels the electric field of the emitted radio
wave to a particular orientation. Depending on the orientation of the
antenna mounting, the usual linear cases are horizontal and vertical
polarization. In circular polarization, the antenna continuously varies
the electric field of the radio wave through all possible values of its
orientation with regard to the Earth's surface. Circular polarizations,
like elliptical ones, are classified as right-hand polarized or left-hand
polarized using a "thumb in the direction of the propagation" rule.
Optical researchers use the same rule of thumb, but pointing it in the
direction of the emitter, not in the direction of propagation, and so are
opposite to radio engineers' use.

In practice, regardless of confusing terminology, it is important that

linearly polarized antennas be matched, lest the received signal
strength be greatly reduced. So horizontal should be used with
horizontal and vertical with vertical. Intermediate matchings will lose
some signal strength, but not as much as a complete mismatch.
Transmitters mounted on vehicles with large motional freedom
commonly use circularly polarized antennas so that there will never be
a complete mismatch with signals from other sources. In the case of
radar, this is often reflections from rain drops.

3.8.8- Transmission and reception

All of the antenna parameters are expressed in terms of a

transmission antenna, but are identically applicable to a receiving
antenna, due to reciprocity. Impedance, however, is not applied in an
obvious way; for impedance, the impedance at the load (where the
power is consumed) is most critical. For a transmitting antenna, this is
the antenna itself. For a receiving antenna, this is at the (radio)
receiver rather than at the antenna. Tuning is done by adjusting the
length of an electrically long linear antenna to alter the electrical
resonance of the antenna.

Antenna tuning is done by adjusting an inductance or capacitance

combined with the active antenna (but distinct and separate from the
active antenna). The inductance or capacitance provides the
reactance which combines with the inherent reactance of the active
antenna to establish a resonance in a circuit including the active
antenna. The established resonance being at a frequency other than
the natural electrical resonant frequency of the active antenna.
Adjustment of the inductance or capacitance changes this resonance.

Antennas used for transmission have a maximum power rating,

beyond which heating, arcing or sparking may occur in the
components, which may cause them to be damaged or destroyed.
Raising this maximum power rating usually requires larger and
heavier components, which may require larger and heavier supporting
structures. This is a concern only for transmitting antennas, as the
power received by an antenna rarely exceeds the microwatt range.

Antennas designed specifically for reception might be optimized for

noise rejection capabilities. An antenna shield is a conductive or low
reluctance structure (such as a wire, plate or grid) which is adapted to
be placed in the vicinity of an antenna to reduce, as by dissipation
through a resistance or by conduction to ground, undesired
electromagnetic radiation, or electric or magnetic fields, which are
directed toward the active antenna from an external source or which
emanate from the active antenna. Other methods to optimize for
noise rejection can be done by selecting a narrow bandwidth so that
noise from other frequencies is rejected, or selecting a specific
radiation pattern to reject noise from a specific direction, or by
selecting a polarization different from the noise polarization, or by
selecting an antenna that favors either the electric or magnetic field.

For instance, an antenna to be used for reception of low frequencies

(below about ten megahertz) will be subject to both man-made noise
from motors and other machinery, and from natural sources such as
lightning. Successfully rejecting these forms of noise is an important
antenna feature. A small coil of wire with many turns is more able to
reject such noise than a vertical antenna. However, the vertical will
radiate much more effectively on transmit, where extraneous signals
are not a concern.

3.9- Application of Smart Antenna

Smart Antenna is used in number of fields. It has number of

Applications. Here are some of the fields where Smart Antenna used:-

1). MOBILE COMMUNICAION.

2).WIRELESS COMMUNICATION.

3). RADAR.

4).SONAR

APPLICATION OF SMART ANTENNAS TO MOBILE

COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

Smart or adaptive antenna arrays can improve the performance of

wireless communication systems. An overview of strategies for
achieving coverage, capacity, and other improvements is presented,
and relevant literature is discussed. Multipath mitigation and direction
finding applications of arrays are briefly discussed, and potential paths
of evolution for future wireless systems are presented. Requirements
and implementation issues for smart antennas are also considered.
Smart antennas are most often realized with either switched-beam or
fully adaptive array antennas. An array consists of two or more
antennas (the elements of the array) spatially arranged and
electrically interconnected to produce a directional radiation pattern.
In a phased array the phases of the exciting currents in each element
antenna of the array are adjusted to change the pattern of the array,
typically to scan a pattern maximum or null to a desired direction.

A smart antenna system consists of an antenna array, associated RF

hardware, and a computer controller that changes the array pattern in
response to the radio frequency environment, in order to improve the
performance of a communication or radar system.
Switched-beam antenna systems are the simplest form of smart
antenna. By selecting among several different fixed phase shifts in the
array feed, several fixed antenna patterns can be formed using the
same array. The appropriate pattern is selected for any given set of
conditions. An adaptive array controls its own pattern dynamically,
using feedback to vary the phase and/or amplitude of the exciting
current at each element to optimize the received signal.
Smart or adaptive antennas are being considered for use in wireless
communication systems. Smart antennas can increase the coverage
and capacity of a system. In multipath channels they can increase the
maximum data rate and mitigate fading due to cancellation of
multipath components. Adaptive antennas can also be used for
direction finding, with applications including emergency services and
vehicular traffic
monitoring. All these enhancements have been proposed in the
literature and are discussed in this paper. In addition, possible paths
of evolution, incorporating adaptive antennas into North American
cellular systems, are presented and discussed. Finally, requirements
for future adaptive antenna systems and implementation issues that
will
influence their design are outlined.

Range extension
In sparsely populated areas, extending coverage is often more
important than increasing capacity. In such areas, the gain provided
by adaptive antennas can extend the range of a cell to cover a larger
area and more users than would be possible with omnidirectional or
sector antennas.

Interference reduction and rejection

In populated areas, increasing capacity is of prime importance. Two
related strategies for increasing capacity are interference reduction on
the downlink and interference rejection on the uplink. To reduce
interference, directional beams are steered toward the mobiles.
Interference to co-channel mobiles occurs only if they are within the
narrow beamwidth of the directional beam. This reduces the
probability of co-channel interference compared with a system using
omnidirectional base station antennas.
Interference can be rejected using directional beams and/or by
forming nulls in the base station receive antenna pattern in the
direction of interfering co-channel users.
Interference reduction and rejection can allow N c (which is dictated
by co-channel interference) to be reduced, increasing the capacity of
the system.
Interference reduction can be implemented using an array with
steered or switched beams. By using directional beams to
communicate with mobiles on the downlink, a base station is less
likely to interfere with nearby co-channel base stations than if it used
an omnidirectional antenna.
There will be a small percentage of time during which co-channel
interference is strong, e.g., when a mobile is within the main beam of
a nearby co-channel base station.
This can be overcome by handing off the mobile within its current cell
to another channel that is not experiencing strong co-channel
interference.

3.10- Advantages and Disadvantages of Smart

Antenna.
Advantages

Increased number of users

Due to the targeted nature of smart antennas frequencies can be

reused allowing an increased number of users. More users on the
same frequency space means that the network provider has lower
operating costs in terms of purchasing frequency space.

Increased Range

As the smart antenna focuses gain on the communicating device, the

range of operation increases. This allows the area serviced by a smart
antenna to increase. This can provide a cost saving to network
providers as they will not require as many antennas/base stations to
provide coverage.

Geographic Information

As smart antennas use ‘targeted’ signals the direction in which the

antenna is transmitting and the gain required to communicate with a
device can be used to determine the location of a device relatively
accurately. This allows network providers to offer new services to
devices. Some services include, guiding emergency services to your
location, location based games and locality information.

Security

Smart antennas naturally provide increased security, as the signals

are not radiated in all directions as in a traditional omni-directional
antenna. This means that if someone wished to intercept
transmissions they would need to be at the same location or between
the two communicating devices.

Reduced Interference

Interference which is usually caused by transmissions which radiate in

all directions are less likely to occur due to the directionality
introduced by the smart antenna. This aids both the ability to reuse
frequencies and achieve greater range.
Increased bandwidth

The bandwidth available increases form the reuse of frequencies and

also in adaptive arrays as they can utilize the many paths which a
signal may follow to reach a device.

Easily integrated

Smart antennas are not a new protocol or standard so the antennas

can be easily implemented with existing non smart antennas and
devices.

Disadvantages

Complex

A disadvantage of smart antennas is that they are far more

complicated than traditional antennas. This means that faults or
problems may be harder to diagnose and more likely to occur.

More Expensive

As smart antennas are extremely complex, utilizing the latest in

processing technology they are far more expensive than traditional
antennas. However this cost must be weighed against the cost of
frequency space.

Larger Size

Due to the antenna arrays which are utilized by smart antenna

systems, they are much larger in size than traditional systems. This
can be a problem in a social context as antennas can be seen as ugly
or unsightly.

Location

The location of smart antennas needs to be considered for optimal

operation. Due to the directional beam that ‘swings’ from a smart
antenna locations which are optimal for a traditional antenna are not
for a smart antenna. For example in a road context, smart antennas
are better situated away from the road, unlike normal antennas which
are best situated along the road.

3.11- Features and Benefit of Smart Antenna

Feature of Smart Antenna

1).Signal gain - Inputs from multiple antennas are combined to

optimize available power required to establish given level of
coverage.

2).Interference Rejection - Antenna pattern can be generated

toward cochannel interference sources, improving the signal-to-
interference ratio of the received signals.

3).Spatial diversity-Composite information from the array is used to

minimize fading and other undesirable effects of multipath
propagation.

4).Power efficiency- Combines the inputs to multiple elements to

optimize available processing gain in the downlink (toward the user)
Benefit of Smart Antenna

1).Better range/coverage- Focusing the energy sent out into the

cell increases base station range and coverage. Lower power
requirements also enable a greater battery life and smaller/lighter
handset size.

2).Increased capacity- Precise control of signal nulls quality and

mitigation of interference combine to frequency reuse reduce distance
(or cluster size),
improving capacity. Certain adaptive technologies (such as space
division multiple access) support the reuse of frequencies within the
same cell.

3).Multipath rejection- Can reduce the effective delay spread of the

channel, allowing higher bit rates to be supported without the use of
an equalizer.

4).Reduced expense- Lower amplifier costs, power consumption,

and higher reliability will result.
Chapter 4
Summary
This report aims to explain the basic concept of Smart Antenna and
some of its Application.

First Question arises What is Smart Antenna?

A smart antenna combines an antenna array with a digital signal-

processing capability to transmit and receive in an adaptive, spatially
sensitive manner. Or In other words Smart Antenna is an Array of
antenna which is used to optimize its reception and transmit pattern.

There are two types of Smart Antenna:-

1). Switched Beam- Switched beam antenna systems form multiple fixed
beams with heightened sensitivity in particular directions. These antenna
systems detect signal strength, choose from one of several predetermined,
fixed beams, and switch from one beam to another as the mobile moves
throughout the sector.

2). Adaptive Array- Adaptive antenna technology represents the most

advanced smart antenna approach to date. the adaptive system
takes advantage of its ability to effectively locate and track various
types of signals to dynamically minimize interference and maximize
intended signal reception.
Both systems attempt to increase gain according to the location of the
user; however, only the adaptive system provides optimal gain while
simultaneously identifying, tracking, and minimizing interfering
signals.

Smart antenna works in two processes . First one is Uplinking and

second one is Downlinking

There are 2 categories of Smart Antenna:-

1). SIMO(Single Input Multiple Output)

2). MISO(Multiple Input Single Output)

3).MIMO(Multiple Input Multiple Output)

Basically Smart antenna has two functions :-

1).Beamforming-

2).Dirrection of Arrival

Smart antenna is used in various fields the most important is named

below:-

1). Mobile Communication

2). Wireless Communication

3). RADAR

4).SONAR

There are some of the factors which affects the performance of Smart
Antenna . These factors reduces the Quality of Smart Antenna.Factors
are:-

1).Resonant Frequency

2).Gain

3).Impedance

4).Bandwidth
5).Polarization

6).Transmission and Reception

Merits of Smart Antenna

1). Increased number of users.

2). Increased Range

3). Security

4). Reduced Interference.

Demerits of Smart Antenna:-

1). Complex

2). Expensive

3). Large Size

4). Location
References
1).www.wikipedia.com

2).www.statemaster.com

3).www.iec.org

4).http://www.iec.org/online/tutorials/smart_ant/

5).W. L. Stutzman and G. A. Thiele, Antenna theory and

Design, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1981.
6). D. Johnson and D. Dudgeon, Array Signal Processing,
Prentice-
Hall, Englewood Cli_s, NJ, 1993
7). http://www.smartanteenas.googlepages.com

8). Michael Chryssomallis “Smart antennas” IEEE antenna

and propagation magazine” Vol 42 No 3 pp 129-138, June
2000.
9). D. Johnson and D. Dudgeon, Array Signal Processing,
Prentice-
Hall, Englewood Cli_s, NJ, 1993
10). Special issue on blind identi_cation and estimation,"
IEEE
Proceedings, mid-1998 .
11). R Kronberger,H Lindermerier,J Hopf “Smart antenna
applications on vehicles with low profile array antenna”
Proc IEEE Vol 53 pp1-3 September 2003.