12

5 Mark Questions and Answers

PHYSICS
Part IV - Selected Questions with Answers

Name :

Exam No :

School :

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.SC., M.Phil., B.Ed

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
GBHSS , PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1, 2, 5 , 7 and Some Important Questions and Answers
UNIT - 1 ELECTROSTATICS`  Consider a dipole AB of diplole moment 𝒑 = 𝟐𝒒𝒂  Electric potential at P due to +𝒒
1. Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its and its direction be along − 𝒒 to + 𝒒 . 1 q
V1 =
axial line.  Let ‘C’ be the point at a distance ‘r’ from the mid 4 πε0 r1
Electric field due to dipole on its axial line : point ‘O’ on its equatorial plane.  Electric potential at P due to −𝒒
 Electric field at C due to +𝒒 (along BC) 1 q
𝟏 𝒒 V2 = −
| 𝑬⃗ +| = 4 πε 0 r2
𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 (𝒓𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 )  Then total potential at ‘P’ due to dipole is
 Electric field at C due to −𝒒 (along CA) 1 1 1
𝟏 𝒒 V = V1 + 𝑉2 = q [ − ] − − − (1)
 Consider a dipole AB og diplole moment 𝒑 = 𝟐𝒒𝒂 | ⃗𝑬− | = 4 πε 0 r1 r2
and its direction be along − 𝒒 to + 𝒒 . 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 (𝒓 + 𝒂 )
𝟐 𝟐
 Apply cosine law in  BOP and  AOP, we get
 Let ‘C’ be the point at a distance ‘r’ from the mid ⃗
 Here | 𝑬+ | = | 𝑬− | ⃗ 1 1 a
= [1 + cos θ] – − − − (2)
point ‘O’ on its axial line.  Resolve 𝑬 ⃗ + and 𝑬 ⃗ − in to two components. r1 r r
 Electric field at C due to +𝒒 1 1 a
(1) | ⃗𝑬+ | 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 , | ⃗𝑬− | 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 : perpendicular components = [1 + cos θ] – − − − (3)
𝟏 𝒒 ⃗ + | 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽, | 𝑬 ⃗ − | 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 : horizontal components r2 r r
⃗𝑬+ = ̂
𝒑 (2) | 𝑬
𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 (𝒓 − 𝒂)𝟐  Put equation (2) and (3) in (1)
 Here perpendicular components cancel each other 𝟏 𝒑
 Electric field at C due to −𝒒  But the horizontal components in same direction 𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 [𝑝 = 2𝑞𝑎]
𝟏 𝒒 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟐
⃗𝑬− = − ̂
𝒑 (−𝒑 ̂) will added up to give total electric field.
𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 (𝒓 + 𝒂)𝟐 𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒑 . 𝒓̂
Hence (𝒐𝒓) 𝑽 = [𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑝 . 𝑟̂ ]
 Here , ⃗𝑬+ > ⃗𝑬− 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = | 𝐸⃗+ | 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (−𝑝̂ ) + | 𝐸⃗− | 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (−𝑝̂ ) 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟐
 By superposition principle, he total electric field at  Here 𝑟̂ is the unit vector along OP
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − 2 | 𝐸⃗+ | 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑝̂ 𝟏 𝒑
‘C’ due to dipole is, case -1 : If  = 0° , then, 𝑽 =
1 𝑝 𝑝̂ 𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝒓 𝟐
𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐸⃗+ + 𝐸⃗− 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − 3
𝟎
𝟏 𝒑
1 1 1 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 Case -2 : If  = 180° , then, 𝑽 = −
+ 𝑎 2 )2
𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑞 [ − ] 𝑝̂ 𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝟎 𝒓 𝟐
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 − 𝑎) 2 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2  If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎 then neglecting 𝑎2 Case -3 : If  = 90°, then, 𝑽 = 𝟎
1 4𝑟𝑎 𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗𝒑
𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑞 [ 2 ] 𝑝̂ ⃗ 𝒕𝒐𝒕 = −
𝑬 [ 𝑞 2𝑎 𝑝̂ = 𝑝 𝑝̂ = ⃗⃗⃗𝑝 ] 4. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 〈𝑟 − 𝑎2 〉2 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 𝒓 𝟑 infinitely long charged wire.
 Here the direction of total electric field is the 3. Derive an expression for electro static potential Electric field due to infinitely long charged wire :
dipole moment ⃗⃗⃗𝒑. due to electric dipole.
 If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎 , then neglecting 𝑎2 . We get Electrostatic potential due to dipole :
𝟏 𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗𝒑
⃗𝑬𝒕𝒐𝒕 = [ 𝑞 2𝑎 𝑝̂ = ⃗⃗⃗𝑝 ]
𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 𝒓 𝟑
2. Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its
equatorial line.
Electric field due to dipole on its equatorial line :

 Consider an infinitely long straight wire of

 Consider a dipole AB of diplole moment 𝒑 = 𝟐𝒒𝒂
and its direction be along − 𝒒 to + 𝒒 uniform linear charge density ‘’
 Let ‘P’ be the point at a distance ‘r’ from the mid  Let ‘P’ be a point at a distance ‘r’ from the wire. Let
point ‘O’ ‘E’ be the electric field at ‘P’
 Let ∠𝑃𝑂𝐴 = 𝜃, 𝐵𝑃 = 𝑟1 and 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑟2  Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface of length
‘L’ and radius ‘r’
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1, 2, 5 , 7 and Some Important Questions and Answers
 The electric flux through the top and bottom  The electric flux through plane surface ‘P’  Let P be the point outside the shell at a distance ‘r’
surface is zero. (𝑖. 𝑒) Φ𝑡𝑜𝑝 = Φ𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 0 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝐴 from its centre.
Φ𝑃 = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴
 The electric flux through the curved surface,  Here electric field points radially outwards if Q >0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐸 2 𝜋 𝑟 𝐿  The electric flux through plane surface ‘P’ and radially inward if Q < 0.
Φ𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴
𝚽𝑷 = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝐴  Consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius ‘r’
 Then the total electric flux through the Gaussian which encloses the total charge ‘Q’
surface,  The electric flux through the curved surface,  Since 𝐸⃗ and 𝑑𝐴⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are along radially outwards,
Φ𝐸 = Φ𝑡𝑜𝑝 + Φ𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 + Φ𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 Φ𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 90 = 0 we have 𝜃 = 0
𝚽𝑬 = 𝑬 (𝟐 𝝅 𝒓 𝑳)  The electric flux through the Gaussian surface,
 By Gauss law,  The total electric flux through through the
𝑄𝑖𝑛 Gaussian surface, Φ𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑬 ∮ 𝒅𝑨 = 𝑬 (𝟒 𝝅 𝒓𝟐 )
Φ𝐸 = Φ𝐸 = Φ𝑃 + 𝚽𝑷 + Φ𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
𝜀𝑜  By Gauss law,
𝜆𝐿 𝚽𝑬 = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸 𝐴 + 0 = 𝟐 𝑬 𝑨 𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝐸 (2 𝜋 𝑟 𝐿) =  By Gauss law, Φ𝐸 =
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑄
𝝀 Φ𝐸 =
𝑬 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 (4 𝜋 𝑟 2 ) =
𝟐 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 𝒓 𝜀𝑜
𝜎𝐴 𝟏 𝑸
 In Vector notation, 2EA= 𝑬 =
𝝀 𝜀𝑜 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 𝒓 𝟐
⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑬 𝒓̂ 𝝈
𝟐 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 𝒓 𝐄 =  In vector notation,
𝟐 𝜺𝒐 𝟏 𝑸
 Here ̂𝒓 → unit vector perpendicular to the curved  In vector notation, ⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑬 𝒓̂
surface outwards. 𝝈 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 𝒓 𝟐
⃗⃗⃗
𝑬 = 𝒏
̂ 2) At a point on the surface of the shell (𝒓 = 𝑹):
 If 𝜆 > 0 , then ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 points perpendicular outward 𝟐 𝜺𝒐
(𝑟̂ ) from the wire and if 𝜆 < 0 , then ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 points  Here ̂𝒏 → unit vector perpendicular to the plane  If the point lies on the surface of the charged shell,
perpendicular inward (− 𝑟̂ ) then = 𝑹 . Then the electric field,
sheet outwards.
𝟏 𝑸
5. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an  If 𝜎 > 0 , then ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 points perpendicular outward ⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑬 𝒓̂
charged infinite plane sheet. 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺 𝒐 𝑹𝟐
(𝑛̂) from the plane sheet and if 𝜎 < 0 , then ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 3) At a point inside the shell (𝒓 < 𝑹) ∶
Electric field due to charged infinite plane sheet : points perpendicular inward (− 𝑛̂)
6. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an
uniformly charged spherical shell.
Electric field due to charged spherical shell :
 Consider an uniformly charged spherical shell of
radius ‘R’ and charge ‘Q’
1) At a point outside the shell (𝒓 > 𝑹) :
 Let ‘P’ be the point inside the charged shell at a
distance ‘r’ from its centre.
 Consider the spherical Gaussian surface of radius ‘r’
 Consider an infinite plane sheet of uniform surface  Since there is no charge inside the Gaussian
charge density ‘𝜎’ surface, Q = 0
 Let ‘P’ be a point at a distance ‘r’ from the sheet.  Then from Gauss law,
Let ‘E’ be the electric field at ‘P’ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑄𝑖𝑛
Φ𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴
𝜀𝑜
 Here the direction of electric field is 𝐸 (4 𝜋 𝑟 2 ) = 0
perpendicularly outward from the sheet. 𝑬 = 𝟎
 Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface of length  Thus the electric field due to the uniform charged
‘2r’ and area of cross section ‘A’ spherical shell is zero at all points inside the shell.
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1, 2, 5 , 7 and Some Important Questions and Answers
7. Derive the expression for resultant capacitance, 8. Explain in detail the construction and working of  These positive charges are distributed uniformly
when capacitors are connected in series and in Van de Graff generator. on the outer surface of the hollow sphere.
parallel. Van de Gralff generator :  Again due to action of point at comb E, negative
Capacitors in series : charges pushed towards the belt and neutralize
the positive charges in the belt .
 When the belt descends, it has almost no net
charge.
 This process continues until the outer surface
produces the potential difference of the order of
𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝑽 which is the limiting value.
 Beyond this, the charges starts leaking to the
 In series connection, surroundings due to ionization of air.
1) Each capacitor has same amount of charge (Q)  It is prevented by enclosing the machine in a gas
2) But potential difference across each capacitor filled steel chamber at very high pressure.
will be different. Applications :
 Let 𝐶𝑆 be the equivalent capacitance of capacitor  The high voltage produced in this Van de Graff
in series connection, then generator is used to accelerate positive ions
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 (protons and deuterons) for nuclear
 It is designed by Robert Van de Graff.
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 disintegrations and other applications.
= + + [∵ 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑉]  It produce large electro static potential difference
𝐶𝑆 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 of about 107 𝑉
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 Principle : UNIT - 2 CURRENT ELECTRICITY`
= + +
𝑪𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑  Electro static induction 1. Describe the microscopic model of current and
 Thus the inverse of the equivalent capacitance of  Action of points obtain general form of Ohm’s law.
capacitors connected in series is equal to the sum Construction : Microscopic model of current and Ohm’ law :
of the inverses of each capacitance.  A be the large hollow spherical conductor
Capacitors in parallel :  B and C be the two pulleys
 A belt made up of insulating material like silk or
rubber runs over the pulleys.  Area of cross section of the conductor =𝐴
 The pulley ‘C’ is driven by the electric motor. Number of electrons per unit volume =𝑛
 D and E are two comb shaped metallic conductor Applied electric field along leftwads = ⃗⃗⃗𝐸
fixed near the pulleys. Drift velocity of the electrons = 𝒗𝒅
 The comb ‘D’ is maintained at a positive potential Charge of the electron = 𝒆
of 104 𝑉 by a power supply. ′
 If ‘𝑑𝑥 be the distance travelled by the electron in
 In parallel connection,  The comb ‘E’ is connected to the inner side of the time ‘𝑑𝑡’, then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡
1) Each capacitor has same potential difference (V) hollow metal sphere.  The number of electrons available in the volume
2) But charges on each capacitor will be different Working : of length ‘𝑑𝑥’ is = 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝑋 𝑛 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑋 𝑛
 Let 𝐶𝑃 be the equivalent capacitance of capacitor  Due to action of point, the air between the belt and  Then the total charge in this volume element is,
in parallel connection, then comb ‘D’ gets ionized. 𝑑𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3  The positive charges are pushed towards the belt  By definition, the current is given by
𝐶𝑃 𝑉 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉 [∵ 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑉] and stick to the belt and move up. 𝑑𝑄 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒
𝑪𝑷 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟐  When they reach the comb ‘E’ a large amount of 𝐼= = = 𝒏 𝒆 𝑨 𝒗𝒅
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Thus the equivalent capacitance of capacitors negative and positive charges are induced on Current density (𝑱) :
connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the either side of comb ‘E’ due to electrostatic  Current density (J) is defined as the current per
individual capacitances. induction. unit area of cross section of the conductor.
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1, 2, 5 , 7 and Some Important Questions and Answers
𝐼  When two or more resistors are connected across
𝐽 = = 𝒏 𝒆 𝒗𝒅
𝐴 the same potential difference, they are said to be
 In vector notation, in parallel.
⃗𝑱 = 𝒏 𝒆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒗𝒅  In parallel connection,
𝒆𝝉 𝒏 𝒆𝟐 𝝉 (i) Potential difference across each resistance
⃗𝑱 = 𝒏 𝒆 [− ⃗⃗⃗𝑬] = − ⃗⃗⃗𝑬
𝒎 𝒎 will be the same (V)
𝒏 𝒆𝟐 𝝉 
Materials for which the current against voltage (ii) But current flows through different resistors
 where,
𝒎
= 𝝈 → conductivity graph is a straight line through the origin are said will be different.
∴ ⃗𝑱 = − 𝝈 ⃗⃗⃗𝑬 to obey Ohm’s law and their behavior is said to be  Let 𝑹𝑷 be the equivalent resistance in parallel
 But conventionally, we take the dirction of current Ohmic. connection, then the total current will be
density as the direction of electric field. So the  Materials that do not obey Ohm’s law are said to I = I1 + I2 + I3
above equation becomes, be non - ohmic. These materials have more 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
complex (non- linear) relationships between = + +
⃗𝑱 = 𝝈 ⃗⃗⃗𝑬 𝑅𝑃 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
 This is called microscopic form of Ohm’s law. voltage and current. 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
3. Explain the equivalent resistance of a series and ∴ = + +
2. Obtain the macroscopic form of Ohm’s law from its 𝑹𝑷 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
parallel resistor network.
microscopic form and discuss its limitation.  When resistances are connected in parallel, the
Macroscopic form of Ohm’s law : Resistor in series : reciprocal of equivalent resistance is equal to the
sum of the reciprocal of the values of resistance of
the individual resistor.
4. Explain the determination of the internal
resistance of a cell using voltmeter.
Internal resistance of a cell :
 Consider a segment of wire of length ‘𝑙’ and area of  When two or more resistors are connected end to
cross section ‘𝐴’. end, they are said to be in series.
 When a potential difference ‘V’ is applied across  In Series connection,
the wire, a net electric field is created in the wire (i) Current through each resistor will be same (I)
which constitutes the current. (ii) But potential difference across different
 If we assume the electric field is uniform in the resistor will be different.
entire length, the potential difference is given by,  Let 𝑹𝑺 be the equivalent resistance in series  There is resistance to the flow of charges within
𝑉 connection, then total potential difference, the battery and this resistance is called internal
𝑉=𝐸𝑙 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐸= resistance (r)
𝑙 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
 From the microscopic form of Ohm’s law, 𝐼 𝑅𝑺 = 𝐼 𝑅1 + 𝐼 𝑅2 + 𝐼 𝑅3  Without ‘R’, the emf (𝜉) of the cell is measured.
𝑱= 𝝈𝑬 ∴ 𝑹𝑺 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑  Then external resistance ‘R’ is included and
I 𝑉  When resistances are connected in series, the current ‘I’ is established in the circuit.
(𝑜𝑟) = 𝜎  With ‘R’, the potential difference (𝑉) across it is
𝐴 𝑙 equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual
𝑙 resistances. measured.
∴ 𝑉=I [ ] 𝑉
𝜎𝐴 Resistors in parallel :  By Ohm’s law, 𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 (or) 𝐼 =
𝑅
𝑽 = 𝐈𝑹
𝒍  Due to internal resistance of the cell, V < 𝜉
Where,
𝝈𝑨
= 𝑅 → Resistance of the conductor  It is because, certain amount of voltage (Ir) has
 This is called macroscopic form of Ohm’s law. dropped across the internal resistance ‘r’. Hence
Limittations: 𝑉 = 𝜉−𝐼𝑟 − − − − (2)
 From Ohm’s law, the graph between current (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼𝑟= 𝜉−𝑉
versus voltage is straight line with a slope equal to 𝝃−𝑽 𝝃−𝑽
∴ 𝒓= = [ ]𝑹
the inverse of resistance (R) of the conductor. 𝑰 𝑽

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1, 2, 5 , 7 and Some Important Questions and Answers
5. Explain Kirchoff’s law. 6. Obtain the condition for bridge balance in 7. Explain the determination of unknown resistance
Kirchoff first law (current law) : Wheatstone’s bridge. using meterbridge.
 It states that the algebraic sum of currents at any Wheatstone’s bridge : Meterbridge:
junction in a circuit is zero (∑ 𝐼 = 0).  An important
Explanation : application of Kirchoff’s
 It is a statement of laws is the Wheatstone’s
conservation of bridge.
electric charge.  The bridge consists of
 Thus all charges four resistances P, Q, R, S
that enter a given connected as shown.  Metrebridge is another form of Wheatstone’s
junction in a circuit  A galvanometer ‘G’ is bridge
must leave that connected between B  It consists of uniform manganin wire AB of 1m
junction. and D length.
 Current entering the junction is taken as positive  A battery ‘𝜉 ′ is connected between A and C  This wire is stretched along a metre scale between
and current leaving the junction is taken as  Let 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 , 𝐼4 currents through various branches two copper strips C and D
negative. and 𝐼𝐺 be the current through the galvanometer.  The position of jockey is adjusted so that the
 Applying this law at junction ‘A’  Applying Kirchoff’s current law at B and D, galvanometer shows zero deflection. Let the point
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 − 𝐼4 − 𝐼5 = 0 𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐺 − 𝐼3 = 0 − − − − (1) be ‘J’
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 + 𝐼5 𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐺 − 𝐼4 = 0 − − − − (2)  The lengths AJ and JB now replace the resistance
Kirchoff second law (voltage law) :  Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law ABDA and ABCDA, R and S of the Wheatstone’s bridge. Then
 It states that in a closed circuit the algebraic sum 𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼𝐺 𝐺 − 𝐼2 𝑅 = 0 − − − − (3) 𝑃 𝑅 𝑅 𝐴𝐽
of the products of the current and reistance of 𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼3 𝑄 − 𝐼2 𝑅 − 𝐼4 𝑆 = 0 − − − − (4) = = 
𝑄 𝑆 𝑅 𝐽𝐵
each part of the circuit is equal to the total emf  At balanced condition, galvanometer shows zero Where 𝑅 → resistance per unit length
included in the circuit ( ∑ 𝑰 𝑹 = ∑ 𝝃) deflection. So 𝑰𝑮 = 𝟎 𝑷 𝑨𝑱 𝒍𝟏
Explanation :  Put this in equation (1), (2) and (3) = = − − − −(𝟏)
𝑸 𝑱𝑩 𝒍𝟐
𝐼1 − 𝐼3 = 0 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼1 = 𝐼3 − − − − (5) 𝒍𝟏
𝐼2 − 𝐼4 = 0 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼2 = 𝐼4 − − − − (6) (𝒐𝒓) 𝑷= 𝑸 − − − −(𝟐)
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐼1 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 − − − − (7) 𝒍𝟐
𝐼1 𝑃 − 𝐼2 𝑅 = 0
 By interchange P and Q, the error due to end
 Put equation (5) and (6) in (4)
resistance can be eliminated, and the average
𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼1 𝑄 − 𝐼2 𝑅 − 𝐼2 𝑆 = 0
value of P is found.
𝐼1 (𝑃 + 𝑄) − 𝐼2 (𝑅 + 𝑆) = 0
∴ 𝐼1 (𝑃 + 𝑄) = 𝐼2 (𝑅 + 𝑆) − − − − (8)  Let 𝑙 be the length and r be the radius of wire, its
specific resistance (resistivity) is given be.
 Divide equation (8) by (7), we get
𝐼1 (𝑃 + 𝑄) 𝐼2 (𝑅 + 𝑆) 𝑷𝑨 𝑷 𝝅 𝒓𝟐
 It is a statement of conservation of energy for an = 𝝆 = = − − − −(𝟑)
𝐼1 𝑃 𝐼2 𝑅 𝒍 𝒍
isolated system. 8. How the emf of two cells are compared using
𝑃+𝑄 𝑅+𝑆
 The product ‘IR’ is taken as positive when we = potentiometer?
proceed along the direction of current and taken 𝑃 𝑅 Comparision of emf of two cells :
𝑄 𝑆
as negative when we proceed opposite to the 1+ =1+
direction of current. 𝑃 𝑅
𝑄 𝑆
 Simillarly, the emf is considered as positive, when =
𝑃 𝑅
we proceed from negative to positive terminal of 𝑷 𝑹
the cell and as negative, when we proceed from (𝑜𝑟) =
positive to negative terminal of the cell. 𝑸 𝑺

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1, 2, 5 , 7 and Some Important Questions and Answers
 Primary circuit consists a battery (Bt), key (K),  A suitable resistance is included in R and key K2 is  Mathematically, this law can be expressed as,
rheostat (Rh) and potentio meter wire (CD) closed. Let ‘I’ be current flows through R , and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟎
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝑨
∮𝑩 − − − − (2)
 Secondary circuit consists DPDT switch, hence potential difference across R
galvanometer (G), high resistance (HR) and jockey 𝜉 Here, 𝑩⃗⃗ → magnetic field
𝑉 =𝐼𝑅= 𝑅
 The cell whose emf 𝜉1 and 𝜉2 to be compared are 𝑅+𝑟 Equation - 3 :
connected to 𝑀1 𝑁1 and 𝑀2 𝑁2 of DPDT switch.  For this potential difference, again the balancing  This is Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic
 Initially the cell of emf 𝜉1 is included in the point J is found out and the balancing length induction.
secondary circuit and the balancing length 𝑙1 is CJ = 𝑙2 is measured.  Mathematically it is expressed as,
found by adjusting jockey for zero deflection.  By the principle, 𝒅𝚽𝑩
𝜉 ∮ ⃗𝑬 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒍 = − − − − − (3)
 Simillarly the cell of emf 𝜉2 is included in the 𝑅 ∝ 𝑙2 − − − −(2) 𝒅𝒕
secondary circuit and the balancing length 𝑙2 is 𝑅+𝑟 Here, 𝑬 ⃗ → electric field
found.  Divide equation (1) by (2) Equation - 4 :
 Let ‘r’ be the resistance per unit length and ‘I’ be 𝜉 𝑙1
=  It is modified Ampere’s circuital law and also
the primary current, then by the principle 𝜉 𝑙 2 called as Ampere - Maxwell’s law.
( 𝑅)
𝜉1 = 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙1 − − − − (1) 𝑅+𝑟
 This law relates the magnetic field around any
𝜉2 = 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙2 − − − − (2) 𝑅+𝑟 𝑙1
= closed path to the conduction current and
 Divide equantion (1) by (2), 𝑅 𝑙2 displacement current through that path.
𝜉1 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙1 𝑟 𝑙1
= 1+ =  Mathematically,
𝜉2 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙2 𝑅 𝑙2
𝑟 𝑙1 𝑙1 − 𝑙2 ∮ ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐷 )
𝝃𝟏 𝒍𝟏 = −1=
= − − − −(𝟑) 𝑅 𝑙2 𝑙2 𝑑
𝝃𝟐 𝒍𝟐 (𝑜𝑟) ∮ ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝐶 + 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴
9. Explain the method of measurement of internal 𝒍𝟏 − 𝒍𝟐 𝑑𝑡
𝒓=𝑹 [ ] − − − (𝟑)
resistance of a cell using potentio meter. 𝒍𝟐 Here, 𝑩⃗⃗ → magnetic field
Internal resistance by potentiometer :  By substituting 𝑅, 𝑙1 , 𝑙2 in equation (3) the 2. Explain the modification of Ampere’s circuital law.
 Potentiometer wire CD is connected to battery internal resistance of the cell can be measured. Maxwell’s corrections to Ampere’s circuital law :
(Bt) and a key (K1) in series. This is the primary  According to Maxwell. the change in electric field
circuit. UNIT - 5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES` produces magnetic field
 The cell 𝜉 whose internal resistance ‘r’ to be 1. Write down Maxwell equations in integral form.  To understand, this let us consider the situation of
measured is connected to the secondary circuit. Maxwel equations - Integral form : charging a parallel plate capacitor.
 A resistance box R and a key K2 is connected  Electrodynamics can be summarized into four
across the cell 𝜉 basic equations, known as Maxwell’s equations.
 This equation ensures the existence of
electromagnetic waves.
Eqution - 1 :
 It is nothing but Gauss’s law  The current passing through the wire is the
 Mathematically, Gauss law is expressed as, conduction current ‘𝐼𝐶 ’
𝑸𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅  This current generates magnetic field around the
∮ ⃗𝑬 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑨 = − − − − (1)
𝜺𝒐 wire connected across the capacitor.
 Here, ⃗𝑬 → electric field  To calculate the magnetic field at a point ‘P’ near
𝑸𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 → charge enclosed the wire, let us consider an amperian loop which
 With key K2 open, the balancing point J is found out encloses the surface𝑆1 .
Equation - 2 :
and balancing length CJ = 𝑙1 is measured.  Thus from Ampere circuital law
 Since this law is similar to Gauss law in
 By the principle,
electrostatics. Hence this law can be called as ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝐶
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
𝜉 ∝ 𝑙1 − − − −(1) ∮𝐵 − − − − (1)
Gauss’s law in magnetism.
𝑆1

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1, 2, 5 , 7 and Some Important Questions and Answers
 Suppose the same loop is enclosed by balloon  In a medium with permittivity ‘ 𝜀 ’ and  It consists of several number of very
shaped surface 𝑆2 . permeability ‘𝜇’, the speed of electromagnetic closely spaced spectral lines which
 Since there is no current in between the plates of wave is less than speed in free space or vacuum. overlapped together forming specific
the capacitor, the magnetic field at ‘P’ is zero. (i.e.) 𝒗 < 𝒄 coloured bands.
Hence from Ampere circuital law Hence, refractive index of the medium is,  This spectrum has a sharp edge at one
𝒄 end and fades out at the other end.
∮𝐵 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 0 − − − − (2) 𝝁 = = √ 𝜺𝒓 𝝁𝒓
𝒗  Band spectrum is the characteristic of the
𝑆2  They are not deflected by electric or magnetic molecule.
 Here there is an inconsistency between equation field. (e.g.) spectra of hydrogen gas, ammonia
(1) and (2). Maxwell resolved this inconsistency  They show interference, diffraction and gas in the discharge tube, etc
as follows. polarization. 5. Explain in detail the absorption spectra.
 Due to external source, the capacitor gets charged  The average energy density for electromagnetic Absorption spectra :
up because of current flowing through the wave is  When light is allowed to pass through an
capacitor. This produces an increasing electric 𝟏 𝟏 absorbing substance, then the spectrum obtained
〈𝒖〉 = 𝜺𝒐 𝑬𝟐 = 𝑩𝟐
field between the capacitor plates. 𝟐 𝟐 𝝁𝒐 is known as absorption spectrum.
 This time varying electric field (or flux) existing  The rate of flow of energy crossing a unit area is  It is classified into three types;
between the plates of the capacitor also produces known as pointing vector for electromagnetic (i) Continuous absorption spectrum :
a current known as displacement current. waves.  When the light is passed through a
 From Gauss ‘s law, 𝟏 medium, it is dispersed by the prism, we
𝑞 ⃗⃗⃗𝑺 = ⃗ 𝑿 ⃗𝑩
(𝑬 ⃗ ) = 𝒄𝟐 𝜺𝒐 (𝑬
⃗ 𝑿 ⃗𝑩
⃗)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Φ𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝐴 = 𝝁 𝒐 get continuous absorption spectrum.
𝜀𝑜 4. Explain in detail the emission spectra.  For example, when we pass white light
 The change in electric flux is, Emission spectra : through a blue glass plate, it absorbs
𝑑Φ𝐵 1 𝑑𝑞 1  The light from self luminous source gives every thing except blue.
= = 𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝜀𝑜 𝑑𝑡 𝜀𝑜 𝑑 emission spectrum. (ii) Line absorption spectrum :
 Therefore, the displacement current is given by  It can be divided in to three types ;  When light from incandescent lamp is
𝒅𝚽𝑩 (i) Continuous emission spectra : passed through cold gas, the spectrum
∴ 𝑰𝒅 = 𝜺𝒐
𝒅𝒕  Incandescent solids, liquids gives obtained through the dispersion due to
 So Maxwell modified Ampere’s law as continuous spectra. the prism is line absorption spectrum.
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗  It consists of wavelengths containing all  For example, when light from carbon arc
∮ ⃗𝑩 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝒐 𝑰 = 𝝁𝒐 (𝑰𝑪 + 𝑰𝒅 ) − − − (3)
the visible colours ranging from violet to is made to pass through sodium vapour, a
red. continuous spectrum of carbon arc with
 Where, 𝐼 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝑑 → total current two dark lines in the yellow rigion of
(e.g.) Spectrum obtained from carbon arc,
3. Explain the properties of electromagnetic waves. sodium vapour is obtained.
incandescent filament lamp, etc
Properties of electromagnetic waves : (iii) Band absorption spectrum :
(ii) Line emission spectra :
 Electromagnetic waves are produced by any  When the white light is passed through
 Light from excited atoms gives line
accelerated charge. the iodine vapour, dark bands on
spectrum (discontinuous spectra)
 They do not require any medium for propagation. continuous bright background is
 The line spectra are sharp lines of
So electromagnetic waves are non-mechanical obtained. This is known as band
definite wavelengths or frequencies.
wave. absorption spectra.
 It is different for different elements
 They are transverse in nature.  It is also obtained when white light is
(e.g.) spectra of atomic hydrogen, helium,
 They travel with speed of light in vacuum or free etc passed through diluted solution of blood
space and it is given by, (iii) Band emission spectra : or chlorophyll or through certain
𝟏 solutions of organic and inorganic
𝒄= = 𝟑 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏  The light from excited molecules gives
√ 𝜺𝒐 𝝁𝟎 band spectrum. compounds.

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS
UNIT - 7 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND 2. Briefly discuss the observations of Hertz,
MATTER` Hallwachs and Lenard.
1. What do you mean by electron emission? Explain
briefly various methods of electron emission.
Electron emission :
 The liberation of electrons from any surface of a
substance is called electron emission.
 The minimum energy needed to emit the electorns
from the metal surface is called work function.
(1) Thermionic emission :
 When a metal is heated to a high temperature,
the free electrons on the surface get sufficient
energy to emitted from the metallic surface.
This type of emission is known as thermionic
emission.
 The intensity of the thermionic emission
depends on the metal used and its
temperature.
(e.g.) electron microscopes, X-ray tubes
(2) Field emission :
 When a very strong electric field is applied
across the metal, this strong field pulls the
free electrons and helps to overcome the
surface barrier of the metal. This type of
emission of electron is called field emission.
(e.g.) Field emission display
(3) Photo electric emission :
 When an electromagnetic radiation of
suitable frequency is incident on the surface
of the metal, the energy is transferred from
the radiation to free electrons.
 So the free electrons gets sufficient energy to
cross the surface barrier and this type is
called photo electric emission.
(e.g.) photo electric cells, phot diodes
(4) Secondary emission :
 When a beam of fast moving electrons strikes
the surface of the metal, the kinetic energy is
transferred to the free electrons on the metal
surface.
 Thus free eletrons get sufficient kinetic energy
and emitted from the surface. This type is
called seconday emission.
(e.g.) photo multiplier tube
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed
UNIT - 1, 2, 5 , 7 and Some Important Questions and Answers
Hertz experiment :
 Heinrich Hertz successfully generating and
detecting the existence of electromagnetic waves.
 He used high voltage induction coil to cause a
spark discharge between two metallic spheres.
 When spark is formed, the charges will oscillate
back and forth rapidly and the electromagnetic
waves are produced.
 To detect this electromagnetic waves, a copper
wire bent in the shape of a circle is used.
Hallwachs’s experiment :
 Wilhelm Hallwachs confirmed that the strange
behaviour of the spark in Hertz experiment is due
to the photo electric emission under the action of
ultra violet light.
 In Hallwachs experiment, a clean circular plate of
zinc is mounted in insulating stand and is attached
to a gold leaf electroscope by a wire. 3.
 When uncharged zinc plate is irradiated by
ultraviolet light, it becomes positively charged and
the leaves are open as shown in figure (a)
 If negatively charged zinc plate is exposed to
ultraviolet light, the leaves will close as the charges
leaked away quickly as shown in figure (b)
 If positively charged plate is exposed to uv-light, it
becomes more positive and the leaves are open
further as shown in figure (c)
 From these observations, it was concluded that
negatively charged electrons were emitted from
the zinc plate under the action of uv - light.
Lenard experiment :
 A and C are two metallic plates placed in an
evacuated quartz bulb.
 Galvanometer G and battery B are connected in
the circuit.
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 When uv - light is incident on plate C, and electric
current flows in a circuit which is indicated by the
deflection in the galvanometer.
 But if the plate A is irradiated by uv - light, no
current is observed in the circuit.
 From these observations, it is concluded that
when uv- light falls on the negative plate C,
electrons are ejected from it, which are attracted
by the positive plate A.
Explain the experimental set up for study of photo
electric effect
Experiment for study of photo electric effect :
 S is the source of electromagnetic wave of
frequency ‘𝜈’ and intensity ‘I’
 C is the cathode and A is the anode
 A and C are placed in an evacuated glass envelope
with a quartz window that permits uv -light and
visible light.
 PQ is a potential divider arrangement which is
connected through a key K and battery B
 The voltmeter ‘V’ and micro ammeter ‘A’ also
included in this circuit.
 If there is no light incident on the cathode C, no
photoelectrons are emitted and the micro
ammeter reads zero.
12 PHYSICS
 When uv - light or visible light is allowed to fall on
C, the photo electrons are emitted and are
attracted towards anode.
 As a result, the photo electric current is set up in
the circuit which is measured using micro
ammeter.
 The photo electric current depends on,
(1) the intensity of incident light
(2) the potential difference between the 5. Explain how frequency of incident light varies with
electrodes
(3) the nature of the material
(4) frequency of incident light
4. Explain the effect of potential difference on photo
electric current.
Effect of potential difference on photoelectric
current :
 Let the frequency and intensity of the incident
light are kept constant.
 The potential of A is increased and the
corresponding photocurrent is noted.
 Also a negative (retarding) potential is applied to
A and again the photocurrent is noted.
 Plot a graph by taking anode potential along
x -axis and photo current along y - axis
 From the graph,
(1) When the potential of A increases, the photo
current also increases and reaches a
saturation value called saturation current.
(2) When a negative potential is applied to A, the
photo current does not immediately drop to
zero, which indicates that the photo electrons
emitted with definite kinetic energies.
(3) If the negative or retarding potential of A
gradually increased, the photo current starts
decreasing and becomes zero at one
particular negative potential 𝑉𝑂 called
stopping potential or cut - off potential
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed
UNIT - 1, 2, 5 , 7 and Some Important Questions and Answers
(4) Here the initial kinetic energy of the fastest
electron is equal to the work done by the
stopping potential to stop it. (i.e.)
1 2
𝑒 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2 6.
𝟐 𝒆 𝑽𝑶
(𝑜𝑟) 𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 = √ = 𝟓. 𝟗𝟑 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟓 √𝑽𝑶
𝒎  According to Eienstein, the energy in light is not
stopping potential.
Effect of frequency on photoelectric current :
 Let the intensity of incident light is kept constant.
 The variation of photo current with the Anode
potential is studied for different incident
frequencies.
 A graph is plotted by taking anode potential along
x - axis and photo current along y - axis
 From the graph,
(1) Stopping potential vary over different
frequencies of incident light. (i.e) Greater the 7. Obtain Einstein’s photoelectric equation with
frequency, larger the stopping potential
(2) Thus as the frequency is increased, the
photoelectrons are emitted with greater kinetic
energies so that the retarding potential needed
to stop thephotoelectrons is also greater.
Variation of stopping potential with frequency :
 From the graph,
(1) The stopping potential varies linealy with
frequency.
PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
(2) Below a particular frequency called threshold
frequency (𝝂𝑶 ), no electrons are emitted.
(3) Hence at threshold frequency stopping
potential is zero for that reason.
Explain the particle nature of light. List the
characteristics of photons.
Particle nature of light :
spread out over wavefronts, but is concentrated in
small packets or energy quanta.
 The energy of each light quantum is ; 𝑬 = 𝒉 𝝂
 The individual light quantum of definite energy
and momentum can be associated with a particle
and this is called photon.
Characteristics of photons :
 Each photon will have energy given by
𝑬=𝒉𝝂=
𝒉𝒄
𝝀
 The energy of a photon is determined by the
frequency of the radiation and not by its intensity.
 The photons travel with the velocity of light and
its momentum is given by,
𝒉 𝒉𝝂
𝒑= =
𝝀 𝒄
 Photons are electrically neutral, and hency they
are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
 When photon interacts with matter, the total
energy, total linear momentum and angular
momentum are conserved.
necessary explanation.
Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric equation :
 When a photon of energy ‘hν’ is incident on a
metal surface, the energy of incident photon is
utilized in two ways.
(1) Part of the photon energy is used for the
ejection of the electrons from the metal
surface and it is called work function (𝝓𝟎 )
(2) Remaining energy as the kinetic energy (K) of
the ejected electron.
 From the law of conservation of energy,
ℎ 𝜈 = 𝜙0 + 𝐾
1
(𝑜𝑟) ℎ 𝜈 = 𝜙0 + 𝑚 𝑣 2 − − − − (1)
2
where m  mass of the electron and
𝑣  velocity
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1, 2, 5 , 7 and Some Important Questions and Answers
 when. 𝜈 = 𝜈0 then 𝐾 = 0 Thus eqn (1) becomes  According to quantum concept, the transfer of  The anode A is a thin rod or wire kept along the
ℎ 𝜈0 = 𝜙0 − − − − (2) photon energy to the electrons is instantaneous axis of the semi-cylindrical cathode.
 Put eqn (2) in (1) so that there is no time lag between incidence of  A potential difference is applied between the
1 photons and ejection of electrons. anode and the cathode through a galvanometer G.
ℎ 𝜈 = ℎ 𝜈0 + 𝑚 𝑣 2 − − − − (3) 9. Explain photo electric cells and its types.
2 Working :
 The equation (3) is known as Einstein’s Phot electric cell :  When cathode is illuminated, electrons are
photoelectric equation.  Photo electric cell or photo cell is a device which emitted from it.
 If the electron does not lose energy by internal converts light energy into electrical energy.  These electrons are attracted by anode and hence
collisions, then it is emitted with maximum kinetic  It works on the principle of photo electric effect. a current is produced which is measured by the
energy Kmax. Then  When light is incident on the photosensitive galvanometer.
1 2 materials, their electric properties will get  For a given cathode, the magnitude of the current
ℎ 𝜈 = ℎ 𝜈0 + [ 𝑚 𝑣 ]
2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 affected, based on which photo cells are classified depends on
1 2 into three types. They are (1) the intensity to incident radiation and
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑚 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ 𝜈 − ℎ 𝜈0
2 (1) Phote emissive cell (2) the potential difference between anode and
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒉 𝝂 − 𝝓𝟎 − − − − (𝟒) (2) Phot voltaic cell cathode.
 A graph between maximum kinetic energy Kmax (3) Photo conductive cell 11. Describe briefly Davisson – Germer experiment
of the photoelectron and frequency ν of the (1) Photo emissive cell : which demonstrated the wave nature of electrons.
incident light is a straight line  Its working depends on the electron emission Davisson - Gerner experiment :
from a metal cathode due to irradiation of  De Broglie hypothesis of matter waves was
light or other radiations. experimentally confirmed by Clinton Davisson and
(2) Photo voltaic cell : Lester Germer in 1927.
 Here sensitive element made of  They demonstrated that electron beams are
semiconductor is used which generates diffracted when they fall on crystalline solids.
voltage proportional tothe intensity of light or  Here crystal act as a three-dimensional diffraction
other radiations. grating for matter waves.
(3) Photo conductive cell :  The filament F is heated by a low tension (L.T.)
8. Explain experimentally observed facts of  In this, the resistance of the semiconductor battery so that electrons are emitted by
photoelectric effect with the help of Einstein’s changes in accordance with the radiant thermionic emission.
explanation. energy incident on it.
Explanation for photo electric effect : 10. Give the construction and working of photo
 As each photon liberates one electron, then the emissive cell.
increase of intensity of the light increases the Photo emissive cell :
number of electrons emitted there by increasing  It consists of an
the photo current. evacuated glass or
 From, 𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒉 𝝂 − 𝝓𝟎 , it is evident that Kmax quartz bulb in which
is proportional to the frequency of the light and is two metallic
independent of intensity of the light. electrodes a cathode
𝟏
 From, 𝒉 𝝂 = 𝒉 𝝂𝟎 + 𝒎 𝒗𝟐 , there must be and an anode are
𝟐
minimum energy (equal to the work function of fixed.
the metal) for incident photons to liberate  The cathode C is semi-
electrons from the metal surface. Below which, cylindrical in shape
emission of electrons is not possible. and is coated with a
Correspondingly, there exists minimum frequency photo sensitive
called threshold frequency below which there is material.
no photoelectric emission.
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS
 They are then accelerated by a high tension (H.T.) 12. Briefly explain the principle and working of
battery.
 Electron beam is collimated and is allowed to
strike a single crystal of Nickel.
 The electrons scattered by Ni atoms in different
directions are received by the electron detector
which measures the intensity of scattered electron
beam.
 The detector is rotatable in the plane of the paper
so that the angle 𝜃 between the incident beam and
the scattered beam can be changed at our will.
 The intensity of the scattered electron beam is
measured as a function of the angle θ.
 The graph shows the variation of intensity of the
scattered electrons with the angle θ for the
accelerating voltage of 54V.
 For a given accelerating voltage V, the scattered
wave shows a peak or maximum at an angle of 50°
to the incident electron beam.
 This peak in intensity is due to the constructive
interference of electrons diffracted from various
atomic layers of the target material.
 From the known value of interplanar spacing of
Nickel, the wavelength of the electron wave has
been experimentally calculated as 1.65Å.
 The wavelength can also be calculated from de
Broglie relation for V = 54 V as
12.27 𝑜 12.27 𝑜
𝝀= 𝐴 = 𝐴 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 𝐀
√𝑉 √54
 This value agrees well with the experimentally
observed wavelength of 1.65Å.
 Thus this experiment directly verifies de Broglie’s
hypothesis of the wave nature of moving particles.
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed
UNIT - 1, 2, 5 , 7 and Some Important Questions and Answers
electron microscope.
Electron microscope :
1. Explain the applications of eddy currents (or)
Principle :
 The wave nature of the electron is used in electron
microscope.
 The resolving power of a microscope is inversely
proportional to the wavelength.
 Thus higher resolving power can be obtained by
employing the waves of shorter wavelengths.
 De Broglie wavelength of electron is very much
less than (a few thousands less) that of the visible
light.
 As a result, the microscopes employing de Broglie
waves of electrons have very much higher
resolving power than optical microscope.
Working :
 The construction and working of an electron
microscope is similar to that of an optical
microscope except that in electron microscope
focussing of electron beam is done by the
electrostatic or magnetic lenses.
 The electron beam passing across a suitably
arranged either electric or magnetic fields
undergoes divergence or convergence thereby
focussing of the beam is done
PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
 The electrons emitted from the source are
accelerated by high potentials.
 The beam is made parallel by magnetic condenser
lens.
 When the beam passes through the sample whose
magnified image is needed, the beam carries the
image of the sample.
 With the help of magnetic objective lens and
magnetic projector lens system, the magnified
image is obtained on the screen.
 These electron microscopes are being used in
almost all branches of science
ADDITIONAL IMPORTANT`
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS`
Focault currents.
Induction stove :
 It is used to cook food quickly and safely with less
consumption. Below the cooking zone, there is a
tightly woind coil of insulated wire.
 When the stove is switched on, an AC flowing in
the coil produces high frequency alternating
magnetic field which induces very strong eddy
currents in the cooking pan.
 The eddy currents in the pan produce so much of
heat due to Joule heating which is used to cook the
food.
Eddy current brake :
 This types of brakes are generally used in high
speed trains and roller coasters.
 To stop the train, electromagnets fixed above the
rails are swiched on. The magnetic field of these
magnets induces eddy currents in the rails which
oppose the movement of the train.
Eddy current testing :
 It is one of the non - destructive testing methods
to find defects like surface craks, air bubbles
present in a specimen.
Electro magnetic damping :
 The damping force due to the flow of eddy current
brings the armature to rest immediately and the
galvanometer shows a steady deflection.
 This is called electromagnetic damping.
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1, 2, 5 , 7 and Some Important Questions and Answers
2. Show mathematically that the rotation of a coil in a 3. Explain the working of a single - phase AC B is perpendicular to plane PQRS
magnetic field over one rotation induces an generator with necessary diagram. Initially let B is
Induced emf ; ∈ = 𝟎
alternating emf of one cycle. Single phase AC generator : horizontal
In graph ‘O’ represent this emf
Induction of emf by changing relative orientation  In a single phase AC generator, the armature B becomes parallel to plane PQRS
of the coil with the magnetic field : generates a single-phase alternating emf and When B rotate Induced emf ; ∈ = ∈𝒎 = 𝒎𝒂𝒙
hence it is called single-phase alternator. through 90 In graph A represent this maximum
Principle : The current flows along PQRS
 Electro magnetic induction B becomes perpendicular to plane PQRS
Construction : When B rotate
Induced emf ; ∈ = 𝟎
through 180
In graph ‘B’ represent this emf
B becomes parallel to plane PQRS
When B rotate Induced emf ; ∈ = − ∈𝒎 = − 𝒎𝒂𝒙
through 270 In graph ‘C’ represent this maximum
The current flows along SRQP
When B rotate B becomes perpendicular to plane PQRS
through 360 Induced emf ; ∈ = 𝟎
(1 rotation) In graph ‘D’ represent this emf
 From the graph, it is clear that, when field magnet
 A stator core consisting of 2 armature conductor completes one rotation, the emf induced in PQRS
 Consider a rectangular coil of ‘N’ turns kept in a PQ and RS mounted to form a single - turn is alternating in nature.
uniform magnetic field ‘B’ rectangular loop PQRS 4. Explain the principle , construction and working of
 The coil rotates in anti-clockwise direction with an  A rotor has 2 salient poles N and S with field transformer.
angular velocity ‘𝜔’ about an axis. windings which can be magnetized by means of Transformer :
 Initially let the plane of the coil be perpendicular DC source.  It converts low alternating voltage to high
to the field (𝜃 = 0) Working : alternating voltage and vice versa.
 So the flux linked with the coil has its maximum  It transform electrical power from one circuit to
value. (i.e.) Φ𝑚 = 𝐵 𝐴 another without changing its frequency.
 In time ‘t’, let the coil be rotated through an angle  It is two types,
𝜃 (= 𝜔𝑡), then the total flux linked is (1) Step-up transformer
Φ𝐵 = 𝐵 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 = Φ𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 (2) Step-down transformer.
 According to Faraday’s law, the emf induced at Principle :
that instant is,  Mutual induction between two coils.
𝑑Φ𝐵 𝑑 Construction :
∈ = −𝑁 = −𝑁 (Φ𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∈ = 𝑵 𝚽𝒎 𝝎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕
 When 𝝎𝒕 = 90°, then
∈𝒎 = 𝑵 𝚽𝒎 𝝎 = 𝑵 𝑩 𝑨 𝝎 = 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎
 Therefore the induced emf at that instant is,
∈ = ∈𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕
 This is called sinusoidal emf or alternating emf.  The loop PQRS is stationary and is perpendicular
 Then alternating current is given by, to the plane of the paper.
𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕  Let the magnetic field (B) rotate in clock-wise
 where, 𝑰𝒎 → peak value of induced current direction.
 The direction of induced current is given by
Flemming’s right hand rule.
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1, 2, 5 , 7 and Some Important Questions and Answers
 It consists of two coils wound over the same core  The applied alternating voltage is given by, 6. Explain the spectral series of hydrogen atom.
made up of silicone steel. 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 Spectral series of hydrogen atom :
 To avoid eddy current loss, the core is generally  Let ‘𝑖’ be the current in the circuit at that instant.  When an electron jumps from mth orbit to nth orbit,
laminated  Hence the voltage developed across R, L and C a spectral line was obtained whose wave number
 The alternating voltage is applied across primary 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑖 𝑅 ( 𝑉𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖) (i.e.) reciprocal of wave length is,
coil (P), and the output is taken across secondary 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑖 𝑋𝐿 (𝑉𝐿 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝑖 𝑏𝑦 )
𝜋 1 1 1
2 𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
coil (S) 𝜋 𝜆 𝑛 𝑚
𝑉𝐶 = 𝑖 𝑋𝐶 (𝑉𝐶 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑠 𝑖 𝑏𝑦 )  here, R  Ryderg constant(𝑅 = 1.097 𝑋 107 𝑚 −1 )
Working : 2
 Due to applied AC, the emf induced both coils are  The phasor diagram is drawn by representing  For m > n, various spectral series are obtained.
𝑑Φ𝐵 current along 𝑂𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝑉𝑅 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝑉𝐿 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (1) Lyman series :
𝑉𝑃 = − 𝑁𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗  n = 1 and m = 2, 3, 4, …..
𝑑𝑡 and 𝑉𝐶 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑂𝐶
𝑑Φ𝐵  Hence the wave number,
𝑉𝑆 = − 𝑁𝑆 1 1 1
𝑑𝑡 𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝑽𝑺 𝑵𝑺 𝜆 1 𝑚
∴ = − − − −(1)  They lie in ultra violet region
𝑽𝑷 𝑵𝑷
 For an ideal transformer, (2) Balmer series :
input power = output power  𝑛 = 2 and 𝑚 = 3, 4, 5, . ….
𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑃 = 𝑉𝑆 𝑖𝑆  Hence the wave number,
𝑽𝑺 𝒊𝑷 1 1 1
= − − − −(2) 𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝑽𝑷 𝒊𝑺 𝜆 2 𝑚
 They lie in visible region
 From equation (1) and (2), we have
𝑽𝑺 𝑵𝑺 𝒊𝑷 (3) Paschen series :
= = =𝑲  If 𝑉𝐿 > 𝑉𝐶 , then the net voltage drop across LC  𝑛 = 3 and 𝑚 = 4, 5, 6, ….
𝑽𝑷 𝑵𝑷 𝒊𝑺 combination is (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 ) which is represented by
 Hence the wave number
where, K  transformer ratio ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷 1 1 1
(i) For step up transformer,  By parallogram law, the diagonal ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐸 gives the 𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
K > 1 ; 𝑵𝑺 > 𝑵𝑷 ; 𝑽𝑺 > 𝑽𝑷 ; 𝒊𝑺 < 𝒊𝑷 𝜆 3 𝑚
resultant voltage ‘𝑣’  They lie in infra red region
(ii) For step down transformer,
𝑣 = 𝑖 √ 𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ) 2 (4) Brackett series :
K < 1 ; 𝑵𝑺 < 𝑵𝑷 ; 𝑽𝑺 < 𝑽𝑷 ; 𝒊𝑺 > 𝒊𝑷
𝒗 𝒗  𝑛 = 4 and 𝑚 = 5, 6, 7, ….
Efficiency of a transformer : (𝑜𝑟) 𝒊= =
 The efficiency (𝜂) of a transformer is defined as √ 𝑹 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )
𝟐 𝟐 𝒁  Hence the wave number,
1 1 1
the ratio of the useful output power to the input  Where, 𝑍 = √ 𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ) 2 is called 𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
power. 𝜆 4 𝑚
impedance of the circuit,  They lie in middle infra red region,
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟  The phase angle between ‘𝑣’ and ‘𝑖’ is found out by
𝜂= 𝑋 100 % (5) Pfund series :
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪
5. Derive an expression for phase angle between the 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝓 =  𝑛 = 5 and 𝑚 = 6, 7,8, ….
𝑹  Hence the wave number
applied voltage and current in a series RLC circuit. Special cases : 1 1 1
Series RLC circuit : (i) When 𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶 , the phase angle 𝝓 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆. 𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
(i.e.) 𝒗 leads 𝒊 by 𝜙. This circuit is inductive. 𝜆 5 𝑚
 They lie in far infra red region.
(ii) When 𝑋𝐿 < 𝑋𝐶 , the phase angle 𝝓 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆.
7. Obtain the law of radioactivity (radioactive decay)
(i.e.) 𝒗 lags behind 𝒊 by 𝜙.This circuit is capacitive
Law of radioactivity :
(iii) When 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 , the phase angle 𝝓 𝒊𝒔 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐 .
(i.e.) 𝒗 inphase with . This circuit is resistive  At any instant t, therate of decay (dN/ dt) is
proportional to the number of nuclei (N) at the
same instant. This is called law of radioactive
decay.

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1, 2, 5 , 7 and Some Important Questions and Answers
Expression : 8. Describe the working of nuclear reactor with a
 Let 𝑁𝑂 be the numer of nuclei at initial time (t = 0) block diagram.
 Let ‘N’ be the number of undecayed nuclei at any Nucleaar reactor :
time ‘t’  Nuclear reactor is a system in which the nuclear
 If ‘dN’ be the number of nuclei decayed in time ‘dt’ fission takes place in a self-sustained controlled
then, rate of decay =
𝑑𝑁 manner
𝑑𝑡 Main parts of Nuclear reactor :
 From law of radioactivity, (1) Fuel :
𝑑𝑁
∝𝑁  The commonly used fuels are 235 239
92𝑈 and 94 𝑃𝑢  Here, a P-N junction diode acts as a rectifying
𝑑𝑡 (2) Neutron source :
𝑑𝑁 diode.
(𝑜𝑟) = −𝜆𝑁  It is required to initiate the chain reaction for During positive half During negative half
𝑑𝑡
Here, 𝜆 → decay constant the first time. cycle of input AC cycle of input AC
𝑑𝑁  A mixture of beryllium with plutonium or Terminal A becomes Terminal B becomes
(𝑜𝑟) = − 𝜆 𝑑𝑡 polonium is used as the neutron source
𝑁 positive with respect to B. positive with respect to A.
Integrating on both sides, (3) Moderators :
Diode is forward biased Diode is reverse biased and
𝑁
[ln 𝑁] 𝑁𝑂 = − 𝜆 𝑡  The moderator is a material used to convert and hence it conducts hence it does not conducts
[ln 𝑁 − ln 𝑁𝑂 ] = − 𝜆 𝑡 fast neutrons into slow neutrons.
No current passes
𝑁  Most of the reactors use water, heavy water Current flows through RL
through RL and there is no
ln [ ] = − 𝜆 𝑡 (D 2O) and graphite as moderators. and we get output voltage
𝑁𝑂 voltage
Taking exponential on both sides, (4) Control rods :
 The output waveform is shown below.
𝑁  The control rods are used to adjust the fission
= 𝑒− 𝜆 𝑡 reaction rate.
𝑁𝑂
 Cadmium or boron acts as control rod
𝑵 = 𝑵𝑶 𝒆− 𝝀 𝒕
(5) Coolants :
 Here the number of atoms is decreasing
 The cooling system removes the heat
exponentially over the time.
generated in the reactor core.
 This implies that the time taken for all the
 Ordinary water, heavy water and liquid
radioactive nuclei to decay will be infinite.
sodium are used as coolant.
 This coolant passes through the fuel block and
carries away the heat to the steam generator
through heat exchanger
 The steam runs the turbines which produces  Efficiency (𝜼) for half wave rectifier is 40.6 %
electricity in power reactors. 10. Explain the construction and working of a full
(6) Shielding : wave rectifier.
 For a protection against harmful radiations, Full wave rectifier :
the nuclear reactor is surrounded by a
concrete wall of thickness of about 2 to 2.5 m.
 Half life period is given by 9. Draw the circuit diagram of a half wave rectifier
𝐥𝐧 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟏 and explain its working.
𝑻𝟏 = =
𝟐 𝝀 𝝀 Half wave rectifier :
 Mean life period is given by,  Only one half of the input wave reaches the
𝟏 output. Therefore, it is called half wave rectifier.
𝝉=
𝝀  This circuit consists of a transformer, a
 From the above two equations,
P-N junction diode and a resistor (𝑅𝐿 )
𝑻𝟏 = 𝝉 𝒍𝒏 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟏 𝝉
𝟐

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1, 2, 5 , 7 and Some Important Questions and Answers
 The positive and negative half cycles of the AC A B A+B ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩 ̅
𝑨 ̅
𝑩 ̅ .𝑩
𝑨 ̅  Stronger and faster than humans.
input signal pass through this circuit and hence it is  Robots can work in extreme environmental
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
called the full wave rectifier. conditions: extreme hot or cold, space or
 It consists of two P-N junction diodes, a center 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 underwater. In dangerous situations like bomb
tapped transformer, and a load resistor (RL). 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 detection and bomb deactivation.
 The centre (C) is usually taken as the groundor  In warfare, robots can save human lives.
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
zero voltage reference point.  Robots are significantly used in handling materials
 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅
We can conclude that, 𝑨 + 𝑩 = 𝑨 . 𝑩 ̅
 Due to the centre tap transformer, the output in chemical industries especially in nuclear plants
voltage rectified by each diode is only one half of  It also says that a NOR gate is equal to a bubbled which can lead to health hazards in humans.
the total secondary voltage. AND gate. Disadvantages of robotics :
During positive half During negative half  The corresponding logic circuit diagram  Robots have no sense of emotions or conscience.
cycle of input AC cycle of input AC  They lack empathy and hence create an
Terminal M is positive, Terminal M is negative, emotionless workplace.
G is at zero potential and G is at zero potential and  If ultimately robots would do all the work, and the
N is at negative potential N is at positive potential humans will just sit and monitor them, health
De Morgan’s First Theorem :
Diode D1 is forward biased Diode D1 is reverse biased hazards will increase rapidly.
 The complement of the products is equal to the
Diode D2 is reverse biased DiodeD2 is forward biased  Unemployment problem will increase.
sum of its complements ; ̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅+𝑩
𝑨.𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅
D1 conducts and current D2 conducts and current  Robots can perform defined tasks and cannot
Proof :
flows along MD1AGC flows along ND2 BGC handle unexpected situations
 The Boolean equation for NAwD gate is
 Hence in a full wave rectifier for both postive and  The robots are well programmed to do a job and if
𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 .𝑩
negative half cycles of the input, the output current a small thing goes wrong it ends up in a big loss to
 The Boolean equation for a bubbled OR gate is
flows in same direction. ̅ +𝑩 ̅ the company.
𝒀= 𝑨
 The output waveform is shown below.  If a robot malfunctions, it takes time to identify
A B A .B ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨. 𝑩 ̅
𝑨 𝑩̅ ̅+𝑩
𝑨 ̅ the problem, rectify it, and even reprogram if
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 necessary. This process requires significant time.
 Humans cannot be replaced by robots in decision
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
making.
1 0 0 1 0 1 1  Till the robot reaches the level of human
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 intelligence, the humans in work place will exit.
 We can conclude that, ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 .𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅+𝑩 ̅
 It also says that a NAND gate is equal to a bubbled
OR gate.
 The efficiency (η) of full wave rectifier is twice that  The corresponding logic circuit diagram
of a half wave rectifier and is found to be 81.2 %.
11. State and prove De Morgan’s First and Second
theorems.
De Morgan’s First Theorem : 12. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of
 The complement of the sum is equal to the Robotics.
product of its complements ; ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅ .𝑩
̅ Advantages of robotics :
Proof :  The robots are much cheaper than humans.
 The Boolean equation for NOR gate is  Robots never get tired like humans. Hence
𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩 absenteeism in work place can be reduced.
 The Boolean equation for a bubbled AND gate is  Robots are more precise and error free in
𝒀= 𝑨 ̅ .𝑩
̅ performing the task.
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502