CHEMISTRY 11 CONCEPT REVIEW

WHMIS SYMBOLS
This symbol indicates that the contents
of the container are under pressure
These materials produce oxygen or
another oxidizing substances, which can
cause or contribute to the combustion of
another substance.
These can produce many different toxic
effects: carcinogens, teratogens,
reproductive toxins, respiratory tract
sensitizers, irritants, or chronic toxic
hazards.
Corrosives that can cause decomposition
of other materials (e.g. metals) or
damage human tissue.
"Flammable / Combustible" materials are
solids, liquids or gases that will ignite and
continue to burn if exposed to a flame or
source of ignition.
The effects of Class D1 materials are very
harmful based on short-term exposures.
Very little exposure can produce serious
toxic effects or possibly death.
Refers to any organism, or the toxins
produced by these organisms, that have
been shown or are believed to be a
biological hazard in either humans or
animals.
Materials may react with other substances
to produce a wide range of negative
reactions.

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Scientific Notation is a special way of writing numbers: It makes it easy to use big and small values.

Examples:

𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐  This is because 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓

Note that 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

How can I?
First, in order to figure out the power of 10, think "how many places must I move the decimal point?"

• When the number is 10 or greater, the decimal point has to move to the left, and the power of 10 is positive.

• When the number is smaller than 1, the decimal point has to move to the right, so the power of 10 is negative.

The number is written in two parts:

Chemistry 11 Concept Review

• The digits (with the decimal point placed after the first digit)
• “× 10 to a power” 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝒙𝒙  that puts the decimal point where it should be

Example: 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟒 𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 BUT REMEMBER SIGNIFICAN FIGURES!!!

If we were at 2 significant figures the result would be 𝟓𝟓. 𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟒 units

FORMULA & MOLECULAR MASS

FORMULA MASS:

Figure 1. The average mass of a chloroform molecule, CHCl3, is 119.37 amu, which is the
sum of the average atomic masses of each of its constituent atoms. The model shows the
molecular structure of chloroform.

The mass of a substance determined by adding up all the average atomic masses of the atoms in the substance. These
numbers are found on the PERIODIC TABLE of the ELEMENTS.

Computing Molecular Mass for a Covalent Compound

Ibuprofen, C13H18O2, is a covalent compound and the active ingredient in several popular non-prescription pain
medications, such as Advil and Motrin. What is the molecular mass (amu) for this compound?

Solution
Molecules of this compound are comprised of 13 carbon atoms, 18 hydrogen atoms, and 2 oxygen atoms. Following the
approach described above, the average molecular mass for this compound is therefore:

NOTE: Ionic Compounds

We do not refer to the mass of the substance as the molecular mass, but rather the “formula mass”.
Chemistry 11 Concept Review

MASSES  MOLES & MOLES  MASSES

The mole (symbol: mol):

Represents a quantity of 6.02 x 1023 particles.
NOTE: Just as the term dozen refers to 12 particles.

• This value of 𝟔𝟔. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 is also called Avogadro’s constant (or “number”).
• The value for the quantity in a mole came from the number of atoms of 12 g of Carbon-12, but it’s universal!
 One mole of carbon contains 𝟔𝟔. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 atoms of Carbon.
 One mole of “NaCl” contains 𝟔𝟔. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 formula units of NaCl.
 One mole of hydrofluoric acid contains 𝟔𝟔. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 molecules of HF (aq).

Converting moles to number of particles (or formula units):

𝑵𝑵 = 𝒏𝒏 × 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵

Example: 𝒏𝒏 = 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴

𝑵𝑵 = 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷
N2H4 (hydrazine) is a compound that is used in pharmaceuticals, rocket fuels
𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 = 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝒐𝒐′ 𝒔𝒔 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪
and airbags. Suppose that a chemical sample in an airbag contains 3.65 mol of
hydrazine.

a) How many molecules are in the sample?

𝑵𝑵 = (3.65 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)(6.02 × 1023 )

= 2.20 × 1024 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

b) How many atoms are in the sample?

#𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 6 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = (#𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎) × � � = 2.20 × 1024 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × � � = 1.32 × 1025
𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Example:
How many moles are 4.1 x 1021 molecules of Mg(OH)2 ?

𝑁𝑁 4.1 × 1021
𝑛𝑛 = = = 6.8 × 10−3 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 6.02 × 1023
Chemistry 11 Concept Review

Molar Mass and the Mole Triangle

MASS

MOLES MOLAR MASS

𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 (𝒈𝒈)

 Find MOLES from MASS: 𝒈𝒈 = 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 NOTE
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 � �
𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝒈𝒈
𝒏𝒏 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
 Find MASS from MOLES: 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 (𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎) × 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 �𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒍� = 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 (𝒈𝒈)

EXAMPLES
1. Find the M (molar mass) of KNO3.
𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔
 𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝑂𝑂3 = 𝑀𝑀𝐾𝐾 + 𝑀𝑀𝑁𝑁 + 𝑀𝑀𝑂𝑂3 = �1.00795 �𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 � + �14.0067 �𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 � + �3 × (16) �𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 �

2. Find how many ATOMS in a MASS of something:

 How many atoms in 5g of Cu?
i. Gramsmolesatoms
1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 6.02×1023
ii. 5.0𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 × × = 4.7 × 1022 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
63.5𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

3. Find MASS from number of ATOMS in something:

 What is the mass of a single Oxygen atom?
i. Atomsmolesgrams
1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑂𝑂 16.0𝑔𝑔 𝑂𝑂
ii. 1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑂𝑂 × × = 2.66𝑔𝑔 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
6.02×1023 1 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑙

4. Convert MOLES-A to MOLES-B:

 How many moles of H in 6.0 mol of H2O?
i. Look at the MOLE RATIO! (2:1)
2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻
ii. 6.0𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 × 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻 = 12 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻
2 𝑂𝑂
Chemistry 11 Concept Review

5. Convert MASS-A to MOLES-B:

 How many moles of methane (CH4) are needed to produce 0.860 g H?
i. Grams H  moles H  moles CH4 (NOTE: MOLE RATIO 1:4)
1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝐻𝐻4
ii. 0.860 𝑔𝑔 𝐻𝐻 × × = 0.22 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝐻𝐻4
1.0 𝑔𝑔 𝐻𝐻 4 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻

6. Convert MASS-A to Mass-B

 How many grams of oxygen (O) in 14.6 g CO2?
i. Grams CO2  moles CO2  moles O  grams O (NOTE: mole ratio is 2:1)
1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂 2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑂𝑂 16.0 𝑔𝑔 𝑂𝑂
ii. 14.6 𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂2 × 44.0 𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂2 × × = 10.6 𝑔𝑔
2 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂2 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑂𝑂

Molar Volume and Density

Density allows you to convert directly from VOLUME to MASS

Example:
The density of methanol CH3OH at 20°C is 0.813 g/mL. What is the mass of 0.500 L of methanol at 20°C?

 Litres CH3OH  grams CH3OH

 Density is in g/mL  g/L
0.813 𝑔𝑔 103 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 813 𝑔𝑔
i. × =
1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
ii. Calculate Litres to grams

𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒈𝒈 𝑪𝑪𝑯𝑯𝟑𝟑 𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶

𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝑳𝑳 𝑪𝑪𝑯𝑯𝟑𝟑 𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 × = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝒈𝒈 𝑪𝑪𝑯𝑯𝟑𝟑 𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶
𝟏𝟏 𝑳𝑳 𝑪𝑪𝑯𝑯𝟑𝟑 𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶

𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 =
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Chemistry 11 Concept Review

MASS PER CENT COMPOSITION

This is where we determine per-cent composition of each element in a compound based on mass.

𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒆𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏

% 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 = × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄

Example:
When a 20.00 g sample of the zinc-and-oxygen compound is decomposed, 16.07g of zinc remains. Determine the
percent composition of the compound.

 GIVENS: compound mass = 20.00 g, mass of Zn = 16.07 g

 Find % composition of Zn and O
i. Subtract to find the mass of oxygen in the compound

𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒈𝒈 − 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟕 𝒈𝒈 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝒈𝒈 𝑶𝑶

ii. Calculate % mass:

𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒈𝒈 𝒁𝒁𝒁𝒁
% 𝒁𝒁𝒁𝒁 = × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑% 𝒁𝒁𝒁𝒁
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒈𝒈 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄

𝟑𝟑. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝒈𝒈 𝑶𝑶
% 𝑶𝑶 = × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔% 𝑶𝑶
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒈𝒈 𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒏𝒏𝒅𝒅

SKILL TEST: Attempt this question and see if your answer agrees!
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 is a very useful chemical in industrial processes. If 196.0 g of sulfuric acid
contained 64.0g of oxygen and 4.0 g of hydrogen, what is the percent composition of the
compound?

Answer:

2.04% H, 32.65% S, and 65.3% O

Chemistry 11 Concept Review

MASS % COMPOSITION: FROM A CHEMICAL FORMULA

The percent composition of a compound can also be determined from the formula of the compound.

𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒆

% 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 = × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄

Example:
Dichlorine heptoxide (Cl2O7) is a highly reactive compound used in some organic synthesis reactions. Calculate the
percent composition of dichlorine heptoxide.

 GIVENS: molar mass Cl = 35.45 g (2:1) = 70.90 g, molar mass of O = 16.00 g (7:1) = 112.00 g
Molar mass of Cl2O7 = 182.90 g/mol
 Find % composition of Cl and O
i. Calculate % composition!
𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝒈𝒈 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 Calculate the percent by mass of each
% 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 = × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕% 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝒈𝒈 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶𝟕𝟕 element by dividing the mass of that
element in 1 mole of the compound by
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒈𝒈 𝑶𝑶 the molar mass of the compound and
% 𝑶𝑶 = × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐% 𝑶𝑶 multiplying by 100%.
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝒈𝒈 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶𝟕𝟕

NOTE: Percent composition can also be used to determine the mass of a certain element that is contained in any mass of
a compound.

Above, it was found that the percent composition of dichlorine heptoxide is 38.76% Cl and 61.24% O.

Suppose that you needed to know the masses of chlorine and oxygen present in a 12.50 g sample of dichlorine
heptoxide. You can set up a conversion factor based on the percent by mass of each element.

𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝒈𝒈 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 38.76

𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝒈𝒈 𝑪𝑪𝒍𝒍𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶𝟕𝟕 = = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒈𝒈 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 38.76 % =
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒈𝒈 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶𝟕𝟕 100

For every 100 g 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶𝟕𝟕 , there are 38.76 g

𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 .
𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒈𝒈 𝑶𝑶
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝒈𝒈 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶𝟕𝟕 = = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝒈𝒈 𝑶𝑶
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒈𝒈 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶𝟕𝟕
Chemistry 11 Concept Review

SKILL TEST: Attempt this question and see if your answer agrees!
Barium fluoride is a transparent crystal that can be found in nature as the mineral
frankdicksonite. Determine the percent composition of barium fluoride.

Answer:

78.32% Ba, 21.67% F

Calculating Empirical Formulas for Compounds

An EMPIRICAL FORMULA tells us the relative ratios of different atoms in a compound. [SIMPLEST FORMULA]

STEPS TO DETERMINE EMPIRICAL FORMULA

1. Assume a 100 g sample of the compound.
2. Use each element's molar mass to convert the grams to moles.
3. Divide the moles of each element by the smallest moles from step 2

If all the moles at this point are whole numbers (or really close), the empirical formula can be written with the
moles as the subscript of each element.

In some cases, one or more of the moles calculated in step 3 will not be whole numbers.

4. Multiply each of the moles by the smallest whole number that will convert each into a whole number.
Write the empirical formula.
Chemistry 11 Concept Review

Example:
A compound of iron and oxygen is analyzed and found to contain 69.94% iron and 30.06% oxygen. Find the empirical
formula of the compound.

 GIVENS: Fe = 69.4 %, O = 30.66%

i. Assume 100 g, convert the % values to grams

𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝒈𝒈 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 & 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒈𝒈 𝑶𝑶

ii. Convert to moles

𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭
𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝒈𝒈 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 × = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭
𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒈𝒈 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭

𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑶𝑶
𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒈𝒈 𝑶𝑶 × = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑶𝑶
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒈𝒈 𝑶𝑶

iii. Divide by smallest moles

𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒍 𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭: = 𝟏𝟏 𝑶𝑶: = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓
𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

iv. Multiply each of the moles by the smallest whole number that will convert each into a whole number.
𝟐𝟐(𝟏𝟏: 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓) = 𝟐𝟐: 𝟑𝟑

Answer: 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶𝟑𝟑

SKILL TEST: Attempt this question and see if your answer agrees!
Mercury forms a compound with chlorine that is 73.9% mercury and 26.1% chlorine by mass.
What is the empirical formula?

Answer: 𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐
Chemistry 11 Concept Review

Calculating Molecular Formulas for Compounds

A MOLECULAR FORMULA tells us the actual number of each types of atoms in a compound. [ACTUAL FORMULA]

NAME MOLECULAR EMPIRICAL n

FORMULA FORMULA NOTE
Methane CH4 CH4 1
Acetic acid C2H4O2 CH2O 2 Often, the molecular formula is the same as
Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O 6 the empirical formula.

The chemical formula will always be some

integer multiple (n) of the empirical formula

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
STEPS TO DETERMINE MOLECULAR FORMULA 𝑛𝑛 =
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
1. Calculate the empirical formula mass (EFM)
You can also find the integer multiple by
2. DIVIDE the molar mass of the compound by EFM
dividing the Molar Masses!
• The result should be a whole number (or close)
• Denoted ‘n’ on the integer equations to right 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
𝑛𝑛 =
3. MULTIPLY the subscripts of the empirical formula by n 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 (𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)

Example:
The empirical formula of a compound of boron and hydrogen is BH3. Its molar mass is 27.7 𝑔𝑔⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚. Determine the
molecular formula.

 GIVENS: Empirical formula = BH3 & molar mass = 27.7 𝑔𝑔⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

 Find: Molecular formula

i. Calculate the EFM

𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 (𝐵𝐵𝐻𝐻3 ) = 13.84 𝑔𝑔⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

ii. Divide molar mass by EFM

27.7 𝑔𝑔⁄𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑙
=2
13.84 𝑔𝑔⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

iii. Multiply the subscripts by n

Answer: 𝑩𝑩𝟐𝟐 𝑯𝑯𝟔𝟔

2(𝐵𝐵𝐻𝐻3 ) = 𝐵𝐵2 𝐻𝐻6
Chemistry 11 Concept Review

SKILL TEST: Attempt this question and see if your answer agrees!
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) contains 40.92 % C, 4.58 % H, and 54.50 % O, by mass. The
experimentally determined molecular mass is 176 amu. What is the empirical and chemical
formula for ascorbic acid?

ANSWER:

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓: 𝐶𝐶3 𝐻𝐻4 𝑂𝑂3

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓: 𝐶𝐶6 𝐻𝐻8 𝑂𝑂6

MOLAR GAS VOLUME

𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟒𝟒 𝑳𝑳 @ 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺

Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP):

Example: VOLUME  ATOMS
T = 0℃; P = 101.3 kPa
Neon gas: How many atoms in 75 mL of neon gas at STP?
 Your conversion factors are:
 GIVENS: 75 mL of gas; STP 22.4 𝐿𝐿 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
i. 75 mL  L 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 22.4 𝐿𝐿

1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 6.02 × 1023

75 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × × = 0.075 𝐿𝐿
1000 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

ii. Convert L Ne  moles Ne  atoms Ne

1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 6.02 × 1023 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁

75 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × × = 2.0 × 1019 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
22.4 𝐿𝐿 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
Chemistry 11 Concept Review

Example: VOLUME  MASS

Natural gas (primarily methane: CH4): What is the mass of 8.0 L of CH4 at STP?

 GIVENS: 8.0 L of CH4 at STP

i. Convert L  moles  grams CH4

1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶4 16.0 𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶4

8.0 𝐿𝐿 × × = 5.7 𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶4
22.4 𝐿𝐿 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶4 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶4

Example: MASS-A  VOLUME-B

What volume of CO2 at STP contains 0.20 g of carbon?

 GIVENS: 8.0 L of CH4 at STP

i. Convert grams C  moles C  moles CO2  Litres CO2

1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 22.4 𝐿𝐿 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2

0.20 𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶 × × × = 0.37 𝐿𝐿 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2
12.0 𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2

MOLAR CONCENTRATION
MOLARITY (Symbol = M): the number of moles of a chemical per litre of solution

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (𝒏𝒏)
𝑪𝑪𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 =
𝑽𝑽𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝒏𝒏
𝑴𝑴 =
𝑳𝑳

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
These are the types of chemical reaction covered in chemistry 11. Here we will review the following:

• Synthesis Reaction
• Decomposition Reaction NOTE
• Combustion Reaction
• Single Replacement Reaction You will want to make sure you can
• Double Replacement Reactions BALANCE chemical equations!
• Neutralisation Reactions
Chemistry 11 Concept Review

SYNTHESIS: (often exothermic)

This is a combination reaction where two or more simple substances combine to form one or more complex substances.

Example: Formation of Halides and Oxides

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
 Halide: 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵(𝑠𝑠) + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2(𝑔𝑔) �⎯⎯⎯� 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵2(𝑠𝑠)
𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
 Oxide: 2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(𝑠𝑠) + 𝑂𝑂2(𝑔𝑔) �⎯⎯⎯� 2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(𝑠𝑠)

Example: Two compounds to form a more complex compound

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆3(𝑔𝑔) + 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂(𝑙𝑙) �⎯⎯⎯� 𝐻𝐻2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆4(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)

Example: Metal oxide reactions [2 types: reaction with water, and reaction with non-metal oxide]

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
 𝐾𝐾2 𝑂𝑂(𝑠𝑠) + 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂(𝑙𝑙) �⎯⎯⎯� 2 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2(𝑔𝑔) �⎯⎯⎯� 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶3(𝑠𝑠)

DECOMPOSITION: (often endothermic)

These are basically the opposite of SYNTHESIS reactions!

Example: Aluminum from Aluminum oxide

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
• 2 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴2 𝑂𝑂3(𝑙𝑙) �⎯⎯⎯� 4 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠) + 3 𝑂𝑂2(𝑔𝑔)

Example: Acid decomposition

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
• 𝐻𝐻2 𝑆𝑆𝑂𝑂4(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) �⎯⎯⎯� 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂(𝑙𝑙) + 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆2(𝑔𝑔)
Some decomposition reaction do not form
Example: Base decomposition elements, but rather simple compounds
𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
• 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵(𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂)2(𝑠𝑠) �⎯⎯⎯� 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵(𝑠𝑠) + 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂(𝑙𝑙)  Acid decomposition
 Base decomposition
Example: Salt decomposition  Salt decomposition
𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
• 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹2 (𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆4 )3 �⎯⎯⎯� 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹2 𝑂𝑂3(𝑠𝑠) + 3 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆3(𝑔𝑔)
Chemistry 11 Concept Review

COMBUSTION: (Endothermic)
These are all endothermic (heat producing) reactions that release a lot of energy! These involve burning an organic
compound in atmospheric oxygen. [Form CO2 and H2O]

• Example: Combusting gasoline

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
 2 𝐶𝐶8 𝐻𝐻18 (𝑙𝑙) + 25 𝑂𝑂2 (𝑔𝑔) �⎯⎯⎯� 16 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 (𝑔𝑔) + 18 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂(𝑔𝑔)

• Example: Slow internal combustion (oxidation) of Glucose within the body

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
 2 𝐶𝐶6 𝐻𝐻12 𝑂𝑂6 (𝑠𝑠) + 6 𝑂𝑂2 (𝑔𝑔) �⎯⎯⎯� 6 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 (𝑔𝑔) + 6 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂(𝑔𝑔)

SINGLE DISPLACEMENT/REPLACEMENT: (Endothermic)

These are reactions where a single free element replaces a combined element.

The result is a new compound and a new element!

Examples: Compare CHEMICAL REACTIVITY to see if a

single replacement reaction will proceed
• Metal replacement of metal

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
2 𝐾𝐾(𝑠𝑠) + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶(𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁3 )2 (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) �⎯⎯⎯� 2 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾3 (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠)

• Metal replacement of hydrogen

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
2 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁(𝑠𝑠) + 2 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻(𝑙𝑙) �⎯⎯⎯� 2 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) + 𝐻𝐻2 (𝑔𝑔)

• Non-metal replacement of non-metal

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵2(𝑙𝑙) + 2 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) �⎯⎯⎯� 2 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) + 𝐼𝐼2 (𝑠𝑠)
Chemistry 11 Concept Review

DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT/REPLACEMENT:
A reaction between two compounds that trade CATIONS (+).

Ionic compounds are comprised of a

positively charged CATION [+] bonded to a
There are three types of DOUBLE REPLACEMENT reactions:
negatively charged ANION [−].
• Precipitation: A solid forms in solution
• Neutralisation: Acids and Bases react forming a SALT and H2O
• Gas formation

Example: Precipitation Reaction Predicting the product that will PRECIPITATE

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 out in the solution requires RELATIVE
 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴3 (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) �⎯⎯⎯� 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑙𝑙(𝑠𝑠) + 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁3 (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) SOLUBILITY!

NOTE: Compounds that contain Family I [Alkali metals and/or Nitrate] are ALWAYS soluble.

Example: Neutralisation NOTE

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
 𝐻𝐻2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆4 (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) + 2 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) �⎯⎯⎯� 𝐾𝐾2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆4 (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) + 2 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂(𝑙𝑙) + 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇 The SALT comes from:

• CATION from the BASE

• ANION from the ACID

The WATER comes from:

• HYDROGEN ION from the ACID

• HYDROXIDE ION from the BASE
Example: Gas formation (form of neutralisation)

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
 𝐾𝐾2 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶3 (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) + 2 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) �⎯⎯⎯� 2𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) + 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 (𝑙𝑙) + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 (𝑔𝑔)

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁4 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) + 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) �⎯⎯⎯� 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) + 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 (𝑙𝑙) + 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁3 (𝑔𝑔)

Some products of DOUBLE REPLACEMENT reaction are UNSTABLE and DECOMPOSE quickly. They ARE formed, but
BREAKDOWN.  this can make seeing the double replacement difficult in the whole equation.

Two such common products are: Carbonic Acid [𝐻𝐻2 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶3 ] and Ammonium hydroxide [𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁4 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂].

You do not see these in the above reaction equations, but you should now be able to note where they were!
Chemistry 11 Concept Review

REDOX REACTIONS

Some reactions involve ELECTRON TRANSFER, these are called Oxidation-Reduction reactions, or REDOX.

SYNTHESIS and DECOMPOSITION reactions involving species in NOTE

elemental form ALWAYS involve electron transfer.
Reactions tat DO NOT involve electron
transfer are referred to as METATHESIS
reactions.

 All double replacement

In order to determine electron transfer, you must keep track of
reactions are metathesis
the atom’s OXIDATION NUMBER.
reactions!

 Synthesis and Decomposition

Sometimes this is called “combining capacity”.
reactions involving oxides are
metathesis reactions!
Recall MULTIVALENT metals like IRON!

𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟑𝟑 depending upon its oxidation state!

RULES FOR OXIDATION NUMBERS

RULE
RULE EXAMPLES
NUMBER
Atoms in elemental form = 0 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁, 𝑂𝑂2 , 𝑃𝑃4 , 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴, 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍
1
Monatomic ions = ion charge 𝐾𝐾 +1 , 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶+2 , 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 +2 , 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 +3 , 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 −1
2
*Oxygen always = −2 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁2 𝑂𝑂2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂2
3
** Hydrogen always = +1 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐻𝐻2 , 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
4
Oxidation state of compounds sum to ZERO 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 (Copper I&II)
5
Oxidation state in polyatomic IONS sum to ION CHARGE 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶41− , 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶31− (Contain Cl= +7&+5)
6
MORE electronegative element gets negative oxidation 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃5 (Contains F… F= -1; P= +5 )
7
Compound or ion with more than 2 elements; element 𝑆𝑆𝐶𝐶𝑁𝑁 − (Contains N… -3 most
8 furthest to the right takes its common oxidation state common) so, S= -2, so C= +4
Except in peroxides (𝑂𝑂2−2 ) = −1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂2 = +2
*
Except in metal hydrides = −1
**
Chemistry 11 Concept Review

THERMOCHEMISTRY
∆𝐻𝐻 notation and Thermochemical equations

Example:

Given the following ∆𝐻𝐻 value, write a balanced thermochemical equation using ∆𝐻𝐻 notation and the smallest
whole number coefficient possible.

∆𝑯𝑯𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑵𝑵𝑶𝑶𝟐𝟐(𝒈𝒈) = + 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟗𝟗 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌⁄𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
1. 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁2 (𝑔𝑔) �⎯⎯⎯� 𝑁𝑁2 (𝑔𝑔) + 𝑂𝑂2 (𝑔𝑔) Decomposition of a binary compound (2 elements)
implies the formation of its elements.

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 Here you need to remember that BOTH nitrogen

2. 33.9 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘�𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁2 (𝑔𝑔) �⎯⎯⎯� 𝑁𝑁2 (𝑔𝑔) + 𝑂𝑂2 (𝑔𝑔)
and oxygen gas are diatomic!

 UNBALANCED [Heat value PER MOLE] Decomposition here: likely more energy REQUIRED
to break the bonds… ENDOTHERMIC.

• Endothermic: Heat as REACTANT

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
3. 2 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁2 (𝑔𝑔) �⎯⎯⎯� 𝑁𝑁2 + 2 𝑂𝑂2

 The balanced equation shoes 2 mole NO2  TWICE AS MUCH HEAT!

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
4. 67.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘�𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 2 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁2 (𝑔𝑔) �⎯⎯⎯� 𝑁𝑁2 (𝑔𝑔) + 2 𝑂𝑂2 (𝑔𝑔)

ANSWER
𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚
𝟐𝟐 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 (𝒈𝒈) �⎯⎯⎯� 𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 (𝒈𝒈) + 𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶𝟐𝟐 (𝒈𝒈)

∆𝑯𝑯 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟖𝟖 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌⁄𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎

Chemistry 11 Concept Review

STOICHIOMETRY
Review of a balanced chemical equation:

 1 molecule of nitrogen reacts with 3 molecules of hydrogen to form 2 molecules of ammonia.

• This is the smallest possible relative amounts of the reactants and products.

 10 molecules of nitrogen would react with 30 molecules of hydrogen to produce 20 molecules of ammonia.

THE MOST USEFUL QUANTITY FOR COUNTING PARTICLES IS THE MOLE

If each coefficient is multiplied by a mole, the balanced chemical equation tells us that 1 mole of nitrogen reacts with 3
moles of hydrogen to produce 2 moles of ammonia.

Converting each mole quantity to grams (using MM) shows that the law of conservation of mass is followed.

 1 mol of nitrogen has a mass of 28.02 g, while 3 mol of hydrogen has a mass of 6.06 g, and 2 mol of ammonia
has a mass of 34.08 g.

Consider:

𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝐻𝐻2 + 𝟔𝟔. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑂𝑂2 �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂

It is balanced! Look. But, did you notice it is in “Avogadro’s number” amounts… which is a mole!

𝟐𝟐 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻2 + 𝟏𝟏 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑂𝑂2 �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� 𝟐𝟐 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂

The coefficients are referring to molar amounts… And we don’t write 1

Our MOLAR RATIO is 2: 1: 2

Chemistry 11 Concept Review

EXAMPLE QUESTIONS: USING THE MOLE RATIO

MOLES-A  MOLES-B
How many moles of oxygen react with hydrogen to produce 27.6 mol of H2O?

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
 𝟐𝟐 𝐻𝐻2 + 𝑂𝑂2 �⎯⎯⎯� 𝟐𝟐 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 [BALANCED EQUATION]

 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑂𝑂2 = 2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 [MOLAR RATIO]

 Prepare to cancel and calculate

𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑶𝑶𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟕𝟕 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶 × = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑶𝑶𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟐 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶

How many moles of NH3 are produced if 4.20 moles of H2 gas are reacted with an excess of N2 gas?

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
 𝑁𝑁2 + 3𝐻𝐻2 �⎯⎯⎯� 𝟐𝟐 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁3

 We WANT moles NH3  MOLAR RATIO is 2:3

2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁3
 24.20 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻2 × 3 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻2
= 2.80 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁3

SKILL TEST: Attempt this question and see if your answer agrees!
𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚
GIVEN: 𝑪𝑪𝟓𝟓 𝑯𝑯𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝟖𝟖𝑶𝑶𝟐𝟐 �⎯⎯⎯� 𝟓𝟓𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 + 𝟔𝟔𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶, How many moles of water can be formed if
0.0652 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶5 𝐻𝐻12 were to react?

ANSWER: 𝟑𝟑. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶

Chemistry 11 Concept Review

SKILL TEST: Attempt this question and see if your answer agrees!
𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚
BALANCE: 𝑵𝑵𝑯𝑯𝟑𝟑 + 𝑶𝑶𝟐𝟐 �⎯⎯⎯� 𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 + 𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶, How many moles of water are formed if 1.65 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑁𝑁𝐻𝐻3
were to react?

𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚
ANSWER: 𝟒𝟒 𝑵𝑵𝑯𝑯𝟑𝟑 + 𝟑𝟑 𝑶𝑶𝟐𝟐 �⎯⎯⎯� 𝟐𝟐 𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 + 𝟔𝟔 𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶

𝟐𝟐. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶

MOLES-A  MASS-B (or VISE-VERSA)

GENERATION OF ALUMINUM OXIDE

𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚
𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝒍𝒍𝟑𝟑 + 𝟑𝟑𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶(𝒍𝒍) �⎯⎯⎯� 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶𝟑𝟑 (𝒈𝒈) + 𝟔𝟔𝑯𝑯𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪(𝒈𝒈)
How many moles of HCl will be produced when 249 g of AlCl3 are
reacted according to this chemical equation?

𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝟑𝟑 𝟔𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎

𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒈𝒈 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝟑𝟑 × × = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟔𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝒍𝒍
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝒈𝒈 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝟑𝟑 𝟐𝟐 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
Chemistry 11 Concept Review

MASS-A  MASS-B

DECOMPOSITION OF AMMONIUM NITRATE

𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚
𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝟒𝟒 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝟑𝟑 (𝒈𝒈) �⎯⎯⎯� 𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶(𝒈𝒈) + 𝟐𝟐𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶(𝒍𝒍)
Ammonium nitrate decomposes to dinitrogen monoxide and water.

In a certain experiment, 45.7 g of ammonium nitrate is decomposed.

Find the mass of each of the products formed.

𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒.𝟐𝟐 𝒈𝒈

A) 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟕𝟕 𝒈𝒈 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁4 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁3 (𝑔𝑔) × × × = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟏𝟏 𝒈𝒈
𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖.𝟔𝟔 𝒈𝒈 𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎

1 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 18.02 𝑔𝑔

B) 45.7 𝑔𝑔 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁4 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁3 (𝑔𝑔) × × × = 20.6 𝑔𝑔
80.6 𝑔𝑔 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

SKILL TEST: Attempt this question and see if your answer agrees!
𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚
GIVEN: 𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟑𝟑 + 𝟑𝟑𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶(𝒍𝒍) �⎯⎯⎯� 𝟓𝟓𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 + 𝟔𝟔𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝒍𝒍, How many moles of 𝐴𝐴𝑙𝑙2 𝑂𝑂3 will be produced
when 23.9 𝑔𝑔 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 are reacted?

ANSWER: 𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶𝟑𝟑

Chemistry 11 Concept Review

SKILL TEST: Attempt this question and see if your answer agrees!
𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚
GIVEN: 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟒𝟒 (𝒈𝒈) + 𝟒𝟒 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 (𝒈𝒈) �⎯⎯⎯� 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝒍𝒍𝟐𝟐 (𝒍𝒍) + 𝟒𝟒 𝑯𝑯𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪(𝒍𝒍) ,

Methane can react with elemental chlorine in order to make carbon tetrachloride (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶4 ). How
many moles of 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 are produced if 100.0 g CH4 are reacted?

ANSWER: 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟕𝟕 𝒈𝒈 𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯

LIMITING REACTANTS, THEORETICAL and PER-CENT YIELDS

When elements and or compounds combined in non-stoichiometric amounts, one of these reactants will limit the

amount of the others that can be produced.

HOW TO IDENTIFY THE LIMITING REACTANT (LIMITING REAGENT)

The "Reactant Mole Ratio Method": Calculating or looking at the number of moles of each reactant.

 Determine the balanced chemical equation for the chemical reaction.

 Convert all given information into moles (most likely, through the use of molar mass as a conversion factor).
 Calculate the mole ratio from the given information. Compare the calculated ratio to the actual ratio.
 Use the amount of limiting reactant to calculate the amount of product produced.
 If necessary, calculate how much is left in excess of the non-limiting reactant.

The "The Product Method": Calculating and comparing the amount of product each reactant will produce.

 Balance the chemical equation for the chemical reaction.

 Convert the given information into moles.
 Use stoichiometry for each individual reactant to find the mass of product produced.
 The reactant that produces a lesser amount of product is the limiting reactant.
 The reactant that produces a larger amount of product is the excess reactant.
 To find the amount of remaining excess reactant, subtract the mass of excess reactant consumed from the
total mass of excess reagent given.

Key to recognizing the limiting reagent is based on a mole-mass or mass-mass calculation:

whichever reactant gives the lesser amount of product is the limiting reagent.
Chemistry 11 Concept Review

EXAMPLE: Identify the Limiting Reagent

𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚
Consider the balanced equation 𝟒𝟒 𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 𝑯𝑯𝟑𝟑 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝟑𝟑 + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑶𝑶𝟐𝟐 �⎯⎯⎯� 𝟖𝟖 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 + 𝟔𝟔 𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶 + 𝟔𝟔 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝟐𝟐

What is the limiting reactant if 76.4 𝑔𝑔 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 𝑯𝑯𝟑𝟑 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝟑𝟑 reacted with 49.1 𝑔𝑔 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝟑𝟑 ?

APPROACH 1: [uses MASS to MOLE calculations]

1) ALREADY BALANCED

2) CONVERT ALL INFORMATION INTO MOLES!

1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
 76.4 𝑔𝑔 × = 0.286 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 𝑯𝑯𝟑𝟑 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝟑𝟑
266.72 𝑔𝑔
1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
 49.1 𝑔𝑔 × = 1.53 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑶𝑶𝟐𝟐
32.00 𝑔𝑔

3) CALCULATE THE MOLE RATIO FROM THE OBTAINED INFORMATION AND COMPARE

4 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶2 𝐻𝐻3 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵3

 1.53 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑂𝑂2 × 11 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑂𝑂2
= 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 𝑯𝑯𝟑𝟑 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝟑𝟑 These are the REQUIRED AMOUNTS!
11 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑂𝑂2
 0.286 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 𝑯𝑯𝟑𝟑 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝟑𝟑 × 4 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶 𝐻𝐻 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟓 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑶𝑶𝟐𝟐 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒍 > 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
2 3 3

MORE moles are REQUIRED than we have available for 𝐶𝐶2 𝐻𝐻3 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵3

Therefore 𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 𝑯𝑯𝟑𝟑 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝟑𝟑 is our limiting reagent

SKILL TEST: Attempt this question and see if your answer agrees!
GIVEN: 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶𝟐𝟐 (𝒔𝒔) + 𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶(𝒍𝒍) �⎯⎯� 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵(𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂) + 𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶𝟐𝟐 (𝒍𝒍) , What is the LR if 78.0 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 of
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁2 𝑂𝑂2 were reacted with 29.4 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂?

ANSWER: H2O is the LR

Chemistry 11 Concept Review

APPROACH 2: [uses MASS to MASS calculations]

1) ALREADY BALANCED

2) CONVERT ALL INFORMATION INTO MOLES

1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
 76.4 𝑔𝑔 × = 0.286 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 𝑯𝑯𝟑𝟑 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝟑𝟑
266.72 𝑔𝑔
1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
 49.1 𝑔𝑔 × = 1.53 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑶𝑶𝟐𝟐
32.00 𝑔𝑔

3) CONVERT MASS of each REACTANT to MOLES of THE SAME PRODUCT!

8 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 44.01 𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2

 0.286 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 4 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶 × = 25.2 𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2
2 𝐻𝐻3 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵3 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2

8 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 44.01 𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2

 1.53 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 11 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑂𝑂2 × = 49.1 𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2
2 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2

4) 𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 𝑯𝑯𝟑𝟑 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝟑𝟑 was the reactant that produced the smaller amount of product!

SKILL TEST: Attempt this question and see if your answer agrees!
GIVEN: 𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹(𝒔𝒔) + 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 (𝒔𝒔) �⎯⎯� 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴(𝒔𝒔) + 𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹(𝒔𝒔) .
A 5.00 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 quantity of 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 are combined with 3.44 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 .
What mass of Mg is formed and what mass of what reactant is left over?

HOT TIP:
• Find mass of product Mg based on reactant Rb
• Find mass of product Mg based on reactant MgCl
 Lower mass of Mg comes from the LR!
• Use the LR versus the other reactant to determine
the amount consumed
• Subtract the GIVEN mass of the excess reactant
from the calculated mass of the excess reactant

ANSWER:

Rb is the limiting reagent, and 0.711 g of Mg are formed

Chemistry 11 Concept Review

SKILL TEST: Attempt this question and see if your answer agrees!
GIVEN: 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟕𝟕 𝒈𝒈 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀(𝑠𝑠) + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟗𝟗 𝒈𝒈 𝐻𝐻2 𝑆𝑆 �⎯⎯� 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀(𝑠𝑠) + 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂(𝑙𝑙) .
A 5.00 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 quantity of 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 are combined with 3.44 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 .

ANSWER:

H2S if the LR; 1.5 g of MgO are left over

Chemistry 11 Concept Review

PER-CENT YIELD
The percent yield is the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield, expressed as a percentage.

𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀 = × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏%
𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀

EXAMPLE:

Potassium chlorate decomposes upon slight heating in the presence of a catalyst according to the reaction below:

2 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙3 (𝑠𝑠) �⎯⎯� 2 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑠𝑠) + 3 𝑂𝑂2 (𝑔𝑔)

In a certain experiment, 40.0 g KClO3 is heated until it completely decomposes. The experiment is performed, and the
oxygen gas is collected, and its mass is found to be 14.9 g.

a) What is the theoretical yield of oxygen gas?

b) What is the percent yield for the reaction?

SOLUTION:

a) Calculation of the Theoretical Yield

I. Mass KClO3 = 40.0 g, MM KClO3 = 122.5 g/mol, MM O2 = 32.00 g/mol, Mole ratio 3:2

1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 3 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 32.00 𝑔𝑔

II. 40.0 𝑔𝑔 × × × = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕 𝒈𝒈 𝑶𝑶𝟐𝟐
122.55 𝑔𝑔 2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

b) Calculation of Percent Yield

I. Theoretical yield of oxygen gas is 15.7 g; actual yield collected was 14.9 g

𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟗𝟗 𝒈𝒈
II. 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀 = × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏% = 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟗𝟗%
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝒈𝒈
Chemistry 11 Concept Review

SKILL TEST: Attempt this question and see if your answer agrees!
GIVEN: 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶4 + 2 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 �⎯⎯� 𝐶𝐶𝐹𝐹2 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 + 2 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻.

What is the percent yield of a reaction that produces 12.5 g of the Freon CF2Cl2 from 32.9 g of
CCl4 and excess HF?

ANSWER: 48.3%
Chemistry 11 Concept Review

Quantum-Mechanical Orbitals and Electron Configurations

We can apply our knowledge of quantum numbers to describe the arrangement of electrons for a given atom. We do
this with something called electron configurations.

They are effectively a map of the electrons for a given atom.

We look at the four quantum numbers for a given electron and then assign that electron to a specific orbitals below.

Quantum Allowed Number of Orbitals Number of Orbitals Number of Electrons per Number of
Number (n) Sublevels Per Sub-level Per Energy-level sub-level electrons
1 s 1 1 2 2
s 1 2
2 4 8
p 3 6
s 1 2
3 p 3 9 6 18
d 5 10
s 1 2
p 3 6
4 16 32
d 5 10
f 7 14

ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS: DIAGONAL RULE

Chemistry 11 Concept Review

ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS: HUND’S RULE

Hund's rule states that orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron before any
orbital is occupied by a second electron and that each of the single electrons must have the
same spin.

The 2p sublevel, for the elements

boron (Z=5), carbon (Z=6)
nitrogen (Z=7), oxygen (Z=8).

According to Hund's rule, as electrons

are added to a set of orbitals of equal
energy, one electron enters each orbital
before any orbital receives a second
electron.

Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table

Chemistry 11 Concept Review

The shape of the periodic table mimics the filling of the subshells with electrons.
Chemistry 11 Concept Review

Abbreviations [SHORT-HAND] for electron configurations

H: 1s1

Li: 1s22s1

Na: [Ne]3s1

K: [Ar]4s1

Rb: [Kr]5s1

Cs: [Xe]6s1