In analog modulation, the

modulation is applied
continuously in response to the
Introduction about
analog information signal.
modulation
Aim
The aim of analog modulation is
In electronics, modulation is the
to transfer an analog baseband
process of varying one or more
(or low pass) signal, for example
properties of a high frequency
an audio signal or TV signal,
periodic waveform, called the
over an analog pass band
carrier signal, with respect to a
channel, for example a limited
modulating signal. This is done
radio frequency band or a cable
in a similar fashion as a
TV network channeL.
musician may modulate a tone
(a periodic waveform) from a
Common analog modulation
musical instrument by varying
techniques are:
its volume, timing and pitch.
• Amplitude modulation
The three key parameters of a
• Frequency modulation
periodic waveform are its
• Phase modulation
amplitude ("volume"), its phase
("timing") and its frequency
("pitch"), all of which can be
modified in accordance with a
low frequency signal to obtain
the modulated signal. Typically
a high-frequency sinusoid
waveform is used as carrier Amplitude modulation: -
signal, but a square wave pulse Amplitude modulation
train may also occur. (AM) is a technique used in
electronic communication,
Analog modulation most commonly for
 transmitting information via and remains in use today by
a radio carrier wave. AM many forms of communication
works by varying the —"AM" is often used to refer to
strength of the transmitted the mediumwave broadcast
signal in relation to the band (see AM radio).
information being sent. For
example, changes in the
Uses of amplitude
signal strength can be used
to specify the sounds to be modulation
reproduced by a
AMPLITUDE MODULATION IN
loudspeaker, or the light COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
intensity of television pixels.
Amplitude modulation (AM)
(Contrast this with frequency occurs when the amplitude of a
modulation, also commonly carrier wave is modulated, to
correspond to a source signal. In
used for sound AM, we have an equation that
transmissions, in which the looks like this:
frequency is varied; and
Fsignal(t) =
phase modulation, often A(t)sin(ωt)
used in remote controls, in
We can also see that the phase
which the phase is varied) of this wave is irrelevant, and
In the mid-1870s, a form of does not change (so we dont
even include it in the equation).
amplitude modulation—initially
called "undulatory currents"— AM Double-Sideband (AM-DSB
for short) can be broken into
was the first method to two different, distinct types:
successfully produce quality Carrier, and Suppressed Carrier
varieties (AM-DSB-C and AM-
audio over telephone lines. DSB-SC, for short, respectively).
Beginning with Reginald This page will talk about both
varieties, and will discuss the
Fessenden's audio similarities and differences of
demonstrations in 1906, it was each.

also the original method used

for audio radio transmissions,
 communication. It will work in
the traffic also with out
disturbances but frequency
modulation didn't work without
disturbances.

Characteristics

Modulation Index
we have two types of signals
namely the message signal and Amplitude modulation requires
a high frequency constant
the carrier signal. carrier and a low frequency
so if the amplitude of the carrier modulation signal.

is varied in accordance with the A sine wave carrier is of

instantaneous value of the the form
A sine wave modulation
message signal then it is known
signal is of the form
as the amplitude modulation. if
we want to transmit our
Here w can see that the
message signal to long amplitude of the high frequency
distances we need to do carrier takes on the shape of
the lower frequency modulation
modulation and hence signal, forming what is called a
amplitude modulation is modulation envelope.

done by amplitude modulation

we generate side bands which
consists of the part of the
message which signal which is
demodulated at the receiver to
get back the original message
The modulation index is defined
signal we are using this
as the ratio of the modulation
amplitude modulation in radio
signal amplitude to the carrier
amplitude.
where
The overall signal can be
described by:
More commonly, the carrier
amplitude is normalized to one
and the am equation is written
as:
It is simply written as:
If the modulation index is zero
(mam = 0) the signal is simply a
constant amplitude carrier.
If the modulation index is 1 (mam
= 1), the resultant waveform
has maximum or 100%
amplitude modulation.
Power and spectrum
efficiency
In terms of the positive
frequencies, the transmission
bandwidth of AM is twice the
signal's original (baseband)
bandwidth—since both the
positive and negative sidebands
are shifted up to the carrier
frequency. Thus, double-
sideband AM (DSB-AM) is
spectrally inefficient, meaning
that fewer radio stations can be
accommodated in a given
broadcast band. The various
suppression methods in Forms
of AM can be readily understood
in terms of the diagram in
Figure 2. With the carrier
suppressed there would be no
energy at the center of a group.
And with a sideband
suppressed, the "group" would
have the same bandwidth as
the positive frequencies of
The transmitter power
efficiency of DSB-AM is
relatively poor (about 33%). The
benefit of this system is that
receivers are cheaper to
produce. The forms of AM with
suppressed carriers are found to
be 100% power efficient, since
no power is wasted on the
carrier signal which conveys no
information.
FIGURE represents the
spectrogram of an AM broadcast
shows its two sidebands (green)
separated by the carrier signal
(red).
Introduction to Types of
Amplitude Modulation
In amplitude modulation, the
amplitude of the carrier signal is
varied by the modulating signal.
There are mainly three basic
types of amplitude modulation
schemes as described below:
1. Double Sideband Full
Carrier (DSB- LC)
2. Double Sideband-
Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC)
3. Single sideband-
Suppressed Carrier (SSB-SC)
Apart from these three, the
other types of amplitude
modulations are:
4. Single sideband Full
Carrier. This could be used as
compatible AM broadcasting
system with DSB-FC receivers.
5. Single Sideband - Reduced
Carrier: Here an attenuated
carrier is reinserted into the SSB
signal, to facilitate receiver
tuning and demodulation. This
method is steadily replaced by
SSB-SC.
6. Independent Sideband
Emission: Two independent
sidebands, with a carrier that is
most commonly suppressed or
attenuated is used here. It is
used in HF point-to -point
radiotelephony, in which more
than one channel is required.
7. Vestigial Sideband: Here a
vestige or trace of the
unwanted sideband is
transmitted, usually with the full
carrier. This is used in video
transmission.
8. Lincompex: This is an
acronym that stands for 'linked
compressor and expander'. it is
used commercial HF radio
telephony.
The type of amplitude
modulation used depends upon
the application it is used for.
AM Receivers
The most common receivers in
use today are the super
heterodyne type. They consist
of:
• Antenna
• RF amplifier
• Local
Oscillator and Mixer
• IF Section
• Detector and
Amplifier
The need for these subsystems
can be seen when one considers
the much simpler and
inadequate TRF or tuned radio
frequency amplifier.Its main
application is that it is used in
communication systems like
transmitting radio signals.
ADVANTAGES OF
AMPLITUDE MODULATION:-
Amplitude modulation (AM) allows for
simpler receivers. In the early days of radio
communication, that was important. The
AM signal can be readily demodulated with
a diode and a R-C filter. This is the "crystal
radio" that is a common simple experiment
that kids interested in electronics will do.
AM is wasteful, in terms of bandwidth,
because it occupies twice the bandwidth of
the modulation signal. It is wasteful, in
terms of power, because it transmits the
carrier along with the sidebands. AM is
more susceptible to interference from
noise sources than FM, and that is why AM
radio has declined for music broadcasting.
DISADVANTAGES OF
AMPLITUDE MODULATION:-
• Noisy Reception
Different types of
atmospheric and other electrical
disturbance are reproduced in
Amplitude modulation
receivers. This makes the
reception noisy.
• Small Operating Range
Due to small useful
power the messages cannot be
transmitted over large distance.
 So, the transmitter navigation, telemetering, radar,
based on amplitude modulation facsimile etc. Although the
has small range. message content may vary
• Reproduction is not of widely for these, the mechanism
High Fidelity of combining the message and

For high fidelity the message carrier at the

reception, the audio frequencies sending terminal is basically the

from 20Hz to 20000Hz must be same.

reproduced. This requires

a bandwidth + 20000Hz i.e., Frequency modulation
40000Hz. (Note that
This is a process of varying the
sidebands must be reproduced).
carrier signal's frequency by
The bandwidth actually
means of original signal. The
assigned for AM transmission is
amplitude and phase in the
20000Hz. This is done to keep
carrier signal are constant. The
the interference from adjacent
information of message signal
broadcasting stations to a
changes the immediate
minimum. Thus, the highest
frequency of the carrier signal.
modulating frequency is
FM modulations produce low-
10000Hz. This is not sufficient
noise and give a high quality
to reproduce music properly.
which is used for broadcasts.
Thus, the reproduction is not of
Frequency Modulation is called
high fidelity.
as FM.
Frequency modulation can be
regarded as phase modulation
Applications
where the carrier phase
Amplitude modulation is utilized
modulation is the time integral
in many services such as
of the FM modulating signal.
television, standard
broadcasting, aids to
1. Frequency Modulation power source and can

Techniques for the control complicate EMC issues.

of LED Colour Mixing

A number of patents have been
and Intensity.
issued covering the use of PWM in
The technology is relevant to both
such applications. The latest
single colour intensity colour and
developments by Artistic Licence are
colourmixing applications. Most
intended to solve these problems.
existing production designs for LED
The technique of Frequency
colour mixing use a technique called
Modulation uses the concept of a
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). PWM
fixed width control pulse delivered
is characterised by a fixed frequency
at a variable frequency as shown in
control waveform, where the
the figures below. The average
intensity of each LED colour is
current supplied to the LEDs is of the
controlled by the width of the pulse.
ratio
This technology has been widely
X/(X+Y). As the frequency
used in the first generation of LED
increases, the intensity of the LEDs
colour mixing products. Whilst the
is reduced. It can be seen that the
technique works, it has a number of
technique is inherently non-linear.
drawbacks:
However, the benefit is that this
nonlinearity opposes the
1. The response of control input to
inherent non-linear LED response.
LED current is largely linear. As LEDs
The result is to increase the
are non-linear
resolution over the low intensity end
devices, this does not produce a
of the control range. The power
linear intensity response.
supply loading issue is also
2. PWM is a fixed frequency system,
addressed by Frequency Modulation.
this means that all LEDs switch on at
As the frequency varies, the switch
the same time in
on point for each circuit varies in
the cycle. In larger systems this
time. This effect reduces the
leads to asymmetric loading of the
asymmetric power supply loading.
 FM Theory

The basic principle behind FM is

that the amplitude of an analog
baseband signal can be
represented by a slightly
different frequency of the
carrier. We represent this
relationship in the graph below.

2. Radio and television

broadcast Figure 1. Frequency Modulation
Frequency modulation (FM) is As this graph illustrates, various
most commonly used for radio amplitudes of the baseband
and television broadcast. The signal (shown in white) relate to
FM band is divided between specific frequencies of the
varieties of purposes. Analog carrier signal (shown in red).
television channels 0 through Mathematically, we represent
72 utilize bandwidths between this by describing the equations
54 MHz and 825 MHz. In which characterize FM.
addition, the FM band also
First, we represent our
includes FM radio, which
message, or baseband, signal
operates from 88 MHz to 108
by the simple designation m(t).
MHz. Each radio station utilizes
Second, we represent a
a 38 kHz frequency band to
sinusoidal carrier by the
broadcast audio.
equation:
 message signal results in an
xc(t) = Ac cos (2πfct). equation for phase with respect
The actual mathematical to time. This equation is defined
process to modulate a by the following equation:
baseband signal, m(t), onto the
carrier requires a two-step
process. First, the message
signal must be integrated with
respect to time to get an
where kf is the frequency
equation for phase with respect
sensitivity. Again, the resulting
to time, θ(t). This integration
modulation that must occur is
enables the modulation process
phase modulation, which
because phase modulation is
involves changing the phase of
fairly straightforward with
the carrier over time. This
typical I/Q modulator circuitry. A
process is fairly straightforward
block diagram description of an
and requires a quadrature
FM transmitter follows.
modulator, shown below.

Figure 2.FM Transmitter Block

Diagram

As the block diagram above

illustrates, the integration of a
 Figure 3. Quadrature commercial and amateur radio
Modulator settings.

As a result of phase modulation,

Magnetic Tape Storage:
the resulting FM signal, s(t),
now represents the frequency FM is also used at intermediate
modulated signal. This equation frequencies by all analog VCR
is shown below. systems, including VHS, to
record both the luminance
(black and white) and the
chrominance portions of the
Where m(τ) = M cos (2πfmτ). video signal. FM is the only
More simply, we can also feasible method of recording
represent this equation as: video to and retrieving video
from Magnetic tape without
extreme distortion, as video
signals have a very large range
of frequency components —
from a few hertz to several
Applications of megahertz, too wide for
frequency modulation equalizers to work with due to
electronic noise below −60 dB.
Broadcasting FM also keeps the tape at
FM is commonly used at VHF
saturation level, and therefore
radio frequencies for high-
acts as a form of noise
fidelity broadcasts of music and
reduction, and a simple limiter
speech (see FM broadcasting).
can mask variations in the
Normal (analog) TV sound is
playback output, and the FM
also broadcast using FM. A
capture effect removes print-
narrow band form is used for
through and pre-echo. A
voice communications in
continuous pilot-tone, if added
to the signal — as was done on Disadvantages:
V2000 and many Hi-band Require a much greater
formats — can keep mechanical bandwidth to transmit and
jitter under control and assist receive than its analog
timebase correction. counterpart.
Special encoding and decoding
Sound techniques may be necessary to
FM is also used at audio increase transmission rates
frequencies to synthesize making the pulse stream more
sound. This technique, known as difficult to recover.
FM synthesis, was popularized
May require precise
by early digital synthesizers and
synchronization of clocks
became a standard feature for
between the transmitting and
several generations of personal
the receiving stations.
computer sound cards.

Advantages:
Types of Frequency
Modulation
1. Noise immunity
Frequency modulation is
2.Inexpensive digital circuitry
classified on the basis of the
3.Can be time-division bandwidth of the FM signal. The
multiplexed with other pulse bandwidth of an FM signal
modulated signals. depends on the deviation Kef(t).
Transmission distance is When the deviation is high, the
increased through the use of bandwidth will be large, and
regenerative repeaters vice-versa. Thus, for a given f
Digital pulse streams can be (t), the deviation, and hence
stored. bandwidth will depend on
Error detection and correction is frequency sensitivity Kef.
easily implemented
(i) Narrowband FM: When Kf
is small, the bandwidth of FM is Frequency Modulation
narrow. Hence known as Transmitter :
Narrowband FM. Bandwidth of Frequency modulation
Narrowband FM is same as that Transmitter (using direct
of AM (amplitude modulation). method of FM)
(ii) Wideband FM: When value
of Kf is high, then the FM signal
has a wide bandwidth, hence
known as Wideband FM. Ideally
bandwidth of wideband FM is
infinite.

Introduction to frequency
modulation transmitter:
Frequency modulation is Introduction about
another significant process of Phase Modulation
In this type of modulation, Ec, wc
modulation used for message
are kept constant. The phase
transmission. The frequency
angle q of the carrier wave is
modulation has an important
varied according to the
advantage over amplitude
modulating wave. The common
modulation, i.e. interference
name for "phase modulation"
due to noise is considerably
and "frequency modulation" is
reduced in the former. However,
"angle modulation".
this advantage of noise-
immunity is at the cost of
increased bandwidth and, hence
comparatively a less number of
channels can be accommodated
in a given frequency space
 envelope in direct proportion to
the message signal.
Suppose that the signal to be
sent (called the modulating or
message signal) is m(t) and the
carrier onto which the signal is
to be modulated is

Annotated:
Carrier (time) = (carrier
amplitude)*sin(carrier
frequency*time + phase shift)
This makes the modulated
signal:
The digital transmission of
analog signals involves pulse
modulation. In analog pulse This shows how m(t) modulates
modulation, time is represented the phase - the greater m(t) is
in discrete form. In digital pulse at a point in time, the greater
modulation, both time and the phase shift of the
signal amplitude are modulated signal at that point.
represented in discrete form. It can also be viewed as a

Theory change of the frequency of the

An example of phase carrier signal, and phase

modulation. The top diagram modulation can thus be

shows the modulating signal considered a special case of FM

superimposed on the carrier in which the carrier frequency

wave. The bottom diagram modulation is given by the time

shows the resulting phase- derivative of the phase

modulated signal.PM changes modulation.

the phase angle of the complex

The spectral behaviour of phase
modulation is difficult to derive,
but the mathematics reveals
that there are two regions of
particular interest:
For small amplitude signals,
PM is similar to amplitude
modulation (AM) and exhibits
its unfortunate doubling of
baseband bandwidth and
poor efficiency.
For a single large sinusoidal
signal, PM is similar to FM, and
its bandwidth is approximately

where fM = ωm / 2π and h is the

modulation index defined
below. This is also known as Modulation index
Carson's Rule for PM.
As with other modulation
indices, this quantity indicates
by how much the modulated
variable varies around its
unmodulated level. It relates to
the variations in the phase of
the carrier signal:
 , Mbit/s modes use OFDM
modulation where each sub-
where Δθ is the peak phase
carrier is BPSK modulated. The
deviation. Compare to the
12 and 18 Mbit/s modes use
modulation index for
OFDM with QPSK. The fastest
frequency modulation.
four modes use OFDM with
forms of quadrature amplitude
Uses of phase
modulation.
modulation
Owing to PSK's simplicity, Because of its simplicity BPSK is
particularly when compared appropriate for low-cost passive
with its competitor quadrature transmitters, and is used in RFID
amplitude modulation, it is standards such as ISO/IEC
widely used in existing 14443 which has been adopted
technologies. for biometric passports, credit
The wireless LAN standard, IEEE cards such as American
802.11b-1999[1][2], uses a variety Express's ExpressPay, and
of different PSKs depending on many other applications[4].
the data-rate required. At the Bluetooth 2 will use π / 4-DQPSK
basic-rate of 1 Mbit/s, it uses at its lower rate (2 Mbit/s) and
DBPSK (differential BPSK). To 8-DPSK at its higher rate (3
provide the extended-rate of 2 Mbit/s) when the link between
Mbit/s, DQPSK is used. In the two devices is sufficiently
reaching 5.5 Mbit/s and the full- robust. Bluetooth 1 modulates
rate of 11 Mbit/s, QPSK is with Gaussian minimum-shift
employed, but has to be keying, a binary scheme, so
coupled with complementary either modulation choice in
code keying. The higher-speed version 2 will yield a higher
wireless LAN standard, IEEE data-rate. A similar technology,
802.11g-2003[1][3] has eight data IEEE 802.15.4 (the wireless
rates: 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48 standard used by ZigBee) also
and 54 Mbit/s. The 6 and 9 relies on PSK. IEEE 802.15.4
allows the use of two frequency The use of this basis function is
bands: 868–915 MHz using BPSK shown at the end of the next
and at 2.4 GHz using OQPSK. section in a signal timing
Notably absent from these diagram. The topmost signal is
various schemes is 8-PSK. This a BPSK-modulated cosine wave
is because its error-rate that the BPSK modulator would
performance is close to that of produce. The bit-stream that
16-QAM — it is only about 0.5 causes this output is shown
dB better[citation needed]
— but its above the signal (the other
data rate is only three-quarters parts of this figure are relevant
that of 16-QAM. Thus 8-PSK is only to QPSK).
often omitted from standards
and, as seen above, schemes
tend to 'jump' from QPSK to 16-
Applications of phase
QAM (8-QAM is possible but modulation
difficult to implement).

Implementation Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a

Binary data is often conveyed
digital modulation scheme that
with the following signals:
conveys data by changing, or
for binary "0"
modulating, the phase of a
for binary "1"
reference signal (the carrier
where fc is the frequency of the
wave).
carrier-wave.
Any digital modulation scheme
Hence, the signal-space can be
uses a finite number of distinct
represented by the single basis
signals to represent digital data.
function
PSK uses a finite number of
where 1 is represented by and 0
phases, each assigned a unique
is represented by . This
pattern of binary bits. Usually,
assignment is, of course,
each phase encodes an equal
arbitrary.
number of bits. Each pattern of
bits forms the symbol that is demodulator to have a copy of
represented by the particular the reference signal to
phase. The demodulator, which determine the exact phase of
is designed specifically for the the received signal (it is a non-
symbol-set used by the coherent scheme). In exchange,
modulator, determines the it produces more erroneous
phase of the received signal and demodulations. The exact
maps it back to the symbol it requirements of the particular
represents, thus recovering the scenario under consideration
original data. This requires the determine which scheme is
receiver to be able to compare used
the phase of the received signal
to a reference signal — such a
system is termed coherent (and Binary phase-shift
keying (BPSK)
referred to as CPSK).
Alternatively, instead of using BPSK (also sometimes called
the bit patterns to set the phase PRK, Phase Reversal Keying, or
of the wave, it can instead be 2PSK) is the simplest form of
used to change it by a specified phase shift keying (PSK). It uses
amount. The demodulator then two phases which are separated
determines the changes in the by 180° and so can also be
phase of the received signal termed 2-PSK. It does not
rather than the phase itself. particularly matter exactly
Since this scheme depends on where the constellation points
the difference between are positioned, and in this figure
successive phases, it is termed they are shown on the real axis,
differential phase-shift at 0° and 180°. This modulation
keying (DPSK). DPSK can be is the most robust of all the
significantly simpler to PSKs since it takes the highest
implement than ordinary PSK level of noise or distortion to
since there is no need for the make the demodulator reach an
incorrect decision. It is, An 8.6-mm-wavelength Doppler
however, only able to modulate radar incorporating a PN phase
at 1 bit/symbol (as seen in the modulation scheme is
figure) and so is unsuitable for described. The radar has been
high data-rate applications used to measure the time
when bandwidth is limited. variations of drop-size
In the presence of an arbitrary distributions in rainfall and for
phase-shift introduced by the monitoring physical processes
communications channel, the in clouds and precipitation.
demodulator is unable to tell
which constellation point is Modem design using
which. As a result, the data is continuous phase
often differentially encoded modulation with coding
prior to modulation. The combination of coding and
low index modulation can result
in both bandwidth and power
. The use of pseudo- efficient modem design. The low
noise phase
index modulation format is
modulation in
meteorological obtained by using a frequency
Doppler radars division and multiplication
It is shown that pseudo-noise network to alter the modulation
(PN) phase modulation of index of 1/2 for convertioned
Doppler radar parameters can MSK to a lower value. This lower
be used to adapt the radar value modulation index in
pulses to a meteorological concert with restricted range
target. The specific radar encoding provides a system
parameters used in PN phase that can achieve a 2 bits/sec/Hz
modulation are: range bandwidth efficiency at a power
resolution; maximum level equivalent to that required
unambiguous range; and for MSK. The design concepts
unambiguous Doppler velocity. are such that data rates in the
hundreds of megabits/second
are practical.

REFRENCES:-
http://www.tutorvista.com/physics/typ
es-of-amplitude-modulation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_
modulation

http://zone.ni.com/devzone/cda/tut/p/i
d/3013

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation
#Analog_modulation_methods

http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the
_advantage_of_amplitude_modulation

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/phy
sics/physics-iv/communication-
systems/amplitude-modulation-
disadvantages.php

http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_th
e_disadvantages_of_pulse_amplitude_
modulation

http://www.tutorvista.com/physics/freq
uency-modulation-and-demodulation

http://www.tutorvista.com/physics/wha
t-is-frequency-modulation

www.mathworks.com/access/helpdesk/
.

http://www.answers.com/topic/phase-
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www.radio-electronics.com/

www.tpub.com/neets/book12/49e.htm/