21 BSC The Final Report TAS SVD

University of Tripoli
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department
Transmit Antenna Selection Using OSTBC

Scheme with Fully Digital SVD-Based
Precoding
A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
of Bachelor of Science in Electronics and Communication Engineering
Prepared by:
Mohammed Salem Alshawish
Supervised by:
Eng. Taissir Youssef Elganimi
Spring 2018
Tripoli - Libya
‫أهدي هذا العمل المتواضع ألعز وأغلى ما أملك‬
‫إلى أمي الحبيبة وأبي الغالي‬
‫وإلى كل إخوتي وأختي الغالية وكل عائلتي‬
‫لهم مني كل الحب والتقدير واإلمتنان‬
‫‪i‬‬
Dedication
I would like to dedicate this project to my parents, who started and nurtured my
academic interests; to my beloved brothers and sister, who gave me the ultimate
desire to finish this work; to my nephews and nieces Malek, Abdulrahman, Yasmin
and Yaqin, who I cannot force myself to stop loving; to my friends who encourage
and support me all the time; and to all people in my life who touch my heart,
ii
Acknowledgment
First of all, I give my thanks to “Allah” for all his blessings, and for giving me
strength and ability to complete this project.
I would like to extend my thanks and gratitude to my supervisor “Eng. Taissir Y.
Elganimi” for his support, suggestions, patience, and encouragement throughout the
project.
I would also like to express my regards to all my teachers who taught me and gave
me the knowledge and motivation got me here.
Mohammed Salem Alshawish

October 2018
iii
Abstract
Wireless communications is one of the most vibrant areas in the communication field
nowadays. It can be defined as the transfer of information between two or more
points. However, Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) systems can improve the
reliability of radio communications where multiple Radio Frequency (RF) chains
associated with multiple antennas are costly in terms of size, power consumption,
and hardware. Therefore, antenna selection systems are low cost and low complexity
alternative to capture many of the advantages of MIMO systems with low cost and
high performance. It appears as a competitive candidate for the next generation
wireless networks due to the attractive advantages they offer.
This project studies the Bit Error Rate (BER) of Transmit Antenna Selection (TAS)
systems using Orthogonal Space-Time Block Codes (OSTBC) scheme over
Rayleigh fading channel with Maximum Likelihood (ML) detection technique at the
receiver side. It also compares the error performance of these systems to Single Input
Single Output (SISO) and Alamouti STBC schemes with different modulation
orders. Furthermore, implementing the Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) based
precoding technique to improve the performance of TAS-OSTBC is considered.
Simulation results demonstrate that the comparison between SISO, Alamouti 2 × 1

and TAS-OSTBC systems shows that TAS-OSTBC gives better BER performance
than the other schemes with different modulation orders. It also shows that
increasing the number of transmit antennas in TAS-OSTBC systems improves the
error performance. Moreover, the simulation results of TAS-OSTBC with SVD-
based precoding show that the SVD-based precoding has a significant effect on the
BER performance of TAS-OSTBC systems. It shows a performance improvement
of about 1𝑑𝐵, 2.7𝑑𝐵, 5𝑑𝐵 and 6.7𝑑𝐵 with 4, 8, 16 and 32 transmit antennas,
respectively, over the conventional TAS-OSTBC systems.
iv
‫الملخص‬
‫االتصاالت الالسلكية هي واحدة من أكثر المجاالت حيوية في هندسة االتصاالت هذه األيا ‪ .‬يمكن تعريفها بأنها‬
‫نقل المعلومات بين نقطتين أو أكثر‪ .‬أنظمة اإلتصاالت متعددة المداخل والمخارج ‪ MIMO‬يمكنها تحسين آداء‬
‫وإعتمادية اإلتصال‪ ،‬حيث يوجد سالسل ‪ RF‬المرتبطة بهوائيات متعددة والتي تعتبر مكلفة من حيث الحجم‬
‫والطاقة المستهلكة والمكونات‪ .‬وبالتالي فإن تقنية إختيار الهوائيات هي بديل منخفض التكلفة ومنخفض التعقيد‬
‫إللتقاط العديد من مزايا أنظمة ‪ MIMO‬مع إنخفاض التكلفة واآلداء العالي‪ .‬تبدو هذه التقنية كمرشح تنافسي‬
‫للجيل القاد لشبكات اإلتصاالت الالسلكية بسبب المزايا الجيدة التي تقدمها‪.‬‬
‫درس هذا المشروع معدل أخطاء األعداد الرقمية )‪ (BER‬ألنظمة ‪Transmit Antenna Selection‬‬
‫)‪ (TAS‬بإستخدا ‪ (OSTBC) Orthogonal Space-Time Block Codes‬عبر قناة ‪Rayleigh‬‬
‫‪ fading‬مع تقنية كشف االحتمال األقصى )‪ (Maximum Likelihood‬في جانب المستقبل‪ .‬ويقارن أيضًا‬
‫أداء األخطاء لهذه األنظمة إلى المخرجات المفردة لإلدخال الفردي )‪ (SISO‬ومخططات ‪Alamouti STBC‬‬
‫مع أوامر تعديل مختلفة‪ .‬كذلك تم األخذ في اإلعتبار تطبيق تقنية التشفير الدقيق للقيمة المفردة )‪ (SVD‬لتحسين‬
‫أداء أنظمة ‪.TAS-OSTBC‬‬
‫تظهر نتائج المحاكاة أن المقارنة بين أنظمة ‪ SISO‬و ‪ Alamouti 2 × 1‬و ‪ TAS-OSTBC‬أن أنظمة‬
‫‪ TAS-OSTBC‬تعطي أداء ‪ BER‬أفضل من األنظمة األخرى بأوامر تعديل مختلفة‪ .‬كما يبين أن زيادة عدد‬
‫هوائيات اإلرسال في أنظمة ‪ TAS-OSTBC‬يحسن أداء األخطاء‪ .‬عليه فإن نتائج محاكاة ‪TAS-OSTBC‬‬
‫مع التشفير المسبق القائم على ‪ SVD‬تبين أن التشفير المبني على ‪ SVD‬له تأثير كبير على أداء ‪ BER‬ألنظمة‬
‫‪ .TAS-OSTBC‬وهو يُظهر تحسنًا في األداء بمقدار 𝐵𝑑 ‪ ، 5 𝑑𝐵 ، 2.7 𝑑𝐵 ، 1‬و 𝐵𝑑 ‪ 6.7‬مع هوائيات‬
‫إرسال ‪ 16 ، 8 ، 4‬و ‪ 32‬على التوالي‪ ،‬مقارنة بأنظمة ‪ TAS-OSTBC‬بدون ‪.SVD‬‬
‫‪v‬‬
Contents
Dedication ………………………………………..…………………………………… i
Acknowledgment …………………………………………………...………………… iii
Abstract ……………………………………………………...……………………..…. iv
‫……………………………………………………………… الملخص‬...……………..…. v
Contents ……………………..……………………………………………………..…. vi
List of Figures ……………………………..…….……………………….…………… ix
List of Tables ………………………………………...………………………...……… xi
List of Abbreviations …………………………………………………..…………...… xii
Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Introduction ……………………………...………………………………..……….. 2
1.2 MIMO Wireless Communication ……………...……..………………..………….. 3
1.3 Evolution from 1G to 5G Technology …………………………………………….. 4
1.4 Problem Statement …...……………………………………………………………. 7
1.5 Project Objectives ………………………………………………………….……… 8
1.6 Project Organization ……………………..…………………………………...…… 9
Chapter Two: Overview of MIMO Communications

2.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………..………………. 11
2.2 History of MIMO ……………………………………………………….…………. 11
2.3 MIMO System Model ……………………...………………………..…………….. 13
2.3.1 Additive White Gaussian Noise ……………………...…….…………..……. 15
2.3.2 Channel Models ……………………………………………………………… 15
2.3.3 Rayleigh Fading Model ………………………...……………………………. 16
2.4 MIMO Technology Categories ………………………………………………...….. 17
2.4.1 MIMO Classification with Respect to Antenna Configuration …………...… 17
2.4.2 Categories of MIMO with Respect to How Data is Transmitted ……..…….. 18
2.5 Advantages Offered by MIMO Technique ……………………………...…...….… 21
2.6 Disadvantages of MIMO Technology ……….……………………...…...…..……. 21
2.7 Massive MIMO Antennas …………………………………………….………...…. 22
2.8 Transmitter Cost Considerations …………………………………………..……… 23
2.8.1 Structure of Radio Frequency Chains ………………………….……...…….. 23
vi
Chapter Three: Transmit Antenna Selection Systems Using OSTBC Scheme
3.1 Transmit Antenna Selection Techniques ………………………………………….. 25
3.2 Space-Time Block Coding ………………………………………...………………. 26
3.2.1 Alamouti STBC ……………………………………...……...……………… 26
3.2.2 Orthogonal Space-Time Block Codes ……..……………..………………… 29
3.3 Transmit Antenna Selection Using OSTBC ………..………………………...…… 29
Chapter Four: Error Performance of Transmit Antenna Selection Using
OSTBC Scheme over Rayleigh Fading Channel
4.1 Modulated Signals ……………….………………….………………………..…… 35
4.1.1 𝑀-QAM Signal Constellations ……………….………………….…………… 35
4.1.2 𝑀-PSK Signal Constellations …………………….……………………..……. 36
4.2 Simulation Flowchart ……………….………………….……………………..…… 37
4.3 Simulation Results ………………………………………………………………… 37
4.3.1 A Comparison between SISO, Alamuoti STBC 2 × 1, and TAS-OSTBC
Systems …………………...…………………………………………...……… 39
4.3.2 BER Performance with Various Numbers of Transmit Antennas ……...…..… 40
4.3.3 BER Performance with Different Modulation Techniques ……………...…… 41
Chapter Five: Improved Transmit Antenna Selection Using OSTBC
Scheme with Fully Digital SVD-Based Precoding
5.1 Digital Precoding ……………………………………...…………………………… 46
5.2 Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) ……………………………….…………… 47
5.3 Performance Enhancement in TAS-OSTBC Systems with SVD-Based Precoding
Scheme ………………………………………………………………….…………. 49
5.4 Simulation Flowchart …………………………………………...…………….…… 52
5.5 Performance Results of TAS-OSTBC Systems with SVD-Based Precoding …..… 52
5.5.1 Performance Improvement of TAS-OSTBC with SVD-Based Precoding Under
Different Modulation Orders………………………………………………………… 54
5.5.2 BER Performance of TAS-OSTBC with SVD-Based Precoding and Various
Numbers of Transmit Antennas ………………………………………………. 55
Chapter Six: Conclusions and Future Work

6.1 Conclusions …………………………...…...…………...………...………...……… 68
vii
6.2 Future Work …..……………...……………………………...……………...……... 69
6.3 Gantt Chart …………...……………………...…………………………………….. 70
References …………………………………………………………………………….. 71
Appendix A: Frobenius Matrix Norm ……………………………………..…………. A1
Appendix B: Matlab Code of Alamouti STBC Scheme …...………………...…..…… B1
Appendix C: Matlab Code of TAS-OSTBC System ……………………………….… C1
viii
List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Time line of key multi-antenna advances ……….…………….……........ 14
Figure 2.2: Simplified block diagram of MIMO system …………...……..…………. 14
Figure 2.3: Forms of antenna configuration ………...……………….…...………….. 18
Figure 2.4: Illustration of three MIMO concepts, (a) spatial multiplexing, (b)
spatial diversity and (c) spatial modulation ………………………..……. 19
Figure 2.5: Distribution of antennas in massive MIMO systems ……….………........ 22
Figure 3.1: Transmit antenna selection with 𝑄 RF modules and 𝑁𝑡 transmit
antennas .………………………………………………………………… 25
Figure 3.2: Alamouti STBC with two transmit antennas and one receive antenna …. 28
Figure 3.3: TAS-OSTBC system model .………..………...…………….………....... 31
Figure 4.1: Constellation diagrams of different forms of 𝑀-QAM ……….…...……. 36
Figure 4.2: Constellation diagrams of different forms of 𝑀-PSK ……………...…… 37
Figure 4.3: Simulation flowchart of TAS-OSTBC system……………………..……. 38
Figure 4.4: BER performance of SISO, Alamouti STBC 2 × 1, and TAS-OSTBC
with 𝑁𝑡 = 4 and employing 16-QAM scheme …………..……………… 39
Figure 4.5: BER performance of SISO, Alamouti STBC 2 × 1, and TAS-OSTBC
with 𝑁𝑡 = 4 and employing 4-QAM scheme …..………..……………… 40
Figure 4.6: BER performance of TAS-OSTBC employing 16-QAM with various
numbers of transmit antennas …………………………………………… 41
Figure 4.7: BER performance of TAS-OSTBC with 𝑁𝑡 = 4 and low modulation
orders …………..…………………………………………...…………… 42
Figure 4.8: BER performance of TAS-OSTBC with 𝑁𝑡 = 4 and high modulation
orders …………………………...……………….………………………. 43
Figure 5.1: TAS-OSTBC scheme with digital precoder 𝑉 and digital post-coder
𝑈 𝐻 ……………………………….……………………………………….. 51
Figure 5.2: Simulation flowchart of TAS-OSTBC system with SVD-based
precoding………………………………………………………………… 53
Figure 5.3: BER performance of SVD-based precoding in TAS-OSTBC system
with different modulation orders …………………………….………….. 54
Figure 5.4: BER performance of fully digital SVD-based precoding in TAS-
OSTBC system of 4(2) × 1 and 16-QAM ……………….……………... 56
ix
OSTBC system of 8(2) × 1 and 16-QAM ………………..……………... 57
OSTBC system of 16(2) × 1 and 16-QAM ……………………………. 58
OSTBC system of 32(2) × 1 and 16-QAM …………….……………… 59
OSTBC system with different numbers of transmit antennas and
16-QAM ………………………………………………………………… 60
OSTBC system of 4(2) × 1 and 4-QAM ……………………………….. 61
OSTBC system of 8(2) × 1 and 4-QAM .…………………..…………. 62
OSTBC system of 16(2) × 1 and 4-QAM ……………….…………… 63
OSTBC system of 32(2) × 1 and 4-QAM ….………………………… 63
OSTBC system with different numbers of transmit antennas and
4-QAM ………………………………………………………………… 65
x
List of Tables
Table 1.1: Differences between generations ………………………………………… 6
Table 3.1: Transmission sequence for two transmit antennas in Alamouti STBC
scheme ………………………………..……………………………..……. 27
Table 4.1: Simulation parameters ……………………………………………………. 37
Table 4.2: Difference between the required SNR value for TAS-OSTBC system
employing 𝑀-QAM and 𝑀-PSK with low modulation order ……………. 42
Table 4.3: Difference between the required SNR value for TAS-OSTBC system
employing 𝑀-QAM and 𝑀-PSK with high modulation order ……...……. 44
Table 5.1: SNR improvement in TAS-OSTBC systems with SVD-based precoding
for different modulation orders …………………………….…………….. 55
and employing 16-QAM ………………..………………………….…….. 60
and employing 4-QAM ……..…………………………….……………… 65
Table 6.1: Gantt chart …………………………….………………………………….. 70
xi
List of Abbreviations
1G First Generation
2G Second Generation
3G 3rd Generation
4G 4th Generation
5G 5th Generation
ADC Analog-to-Digital Converter.
AoA Angle of Arrival
AoD Angle of Departure
AM Amplitude Modulation
AMPS Advanced Mobile Phone System
AWGN Additive White Gaussian Noise
BS Base Station
BER Bit Error Rate
BPSK Binary Phase Shift Keying
CSI Channel State Information
CDMA Code Division Multiple Accesses
CCI Co-Channel Interference
DAC Digital-to-Analog Converter
EDGE Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution
GSM Global System for Mobile
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
HSPA+ High Speed Packet Access Plus
ISI Inter-Symbol Interference
IP Internet Protocol
IoT Internet of Things
LNA Low Noise Amplifier
LOS Line of Sight
LTE Long-Term Evolution
MIMO Multiple Input Multiple Output
MISO Multiple Input Single Output
MRT Maximum Ratio Transmission
MMSE Minimum Mean-Square Error
MS Mobile Station
MRC Maximal Ratio Combining
ML Maximum Likelihood
M2M Machine to Machine
NOSTBC Non Orthogonal Space-Time Block Coding
xii
NLOS Non Line of Sight
NMT Nordic Mobile Telephone
OSTBC Orthogonal Space Time Block Coding
PSK Phase Shift Keying
QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
QoS Quality of Service
RF Radio Frequency
SNR Signal to Noise Ratio
SVD Singular Value Decomposition
SISO Single Input Single Output
SIMO Single Input Multiple Output
STBC Space Time Block Coding
SM Spatial Modulation
SMX Spatial Multiplexing
TAS Transmit Antenna Selection
TDMA Time Division Multiple Accesses
ToA Time of Arrival
UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
ZF Zero-Forcing
xiii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Introduction Chapter One
1.1 Introduction
Wireless communications is one of the most vibrant areas in the communication field
nowadays. It can be defined as the transfer of information between two or more
points that are not connected by an electrical conductor. It uses the air or space for
its transmission medium. The information in wireless communications is transmitted
as electromagnetic waves. These waves are affected by many factors including
frequency, power, distance, type of antenna and its height, curvature of the earth,
atmospheric condition, and obstacles like buildings and mountains [1].
Since wireless communication depends on air or free space as a transmission
channel, there are many advantages and disadvantages in using wireless techniques.
The most important advantages of wireless networks that have made them spread
significantly are as follows [2]:
 Flexibility: As wireless frequency penetrates the walls, wireless networks are
easy to install anywhere based on choice. This flexibility is one of the great
benefits of wireless networks where wired cables cannot be installed.
 Mobility: Wireless networks and devices allow the user to move from place
to place with their device within the wireless range while still acquiring a
signal.
 The freedom from wires.
 Global coverage.
 Wireless networks are easy to install and easy to maintain compared to the
wired networks. This will help when the network grows, thus it can be said
that the wireless networks are lower in the costs of deployment, maintenance,
management, and operation cost than the wired networks.
 More user supported: Cable devices have limited slots whereas wireless
systems do not.
2
The main disadvantages of wireless communications include [2]:

 The limited amount of bandwidth for communication.
 Wireless signals are easier to hack, and hence it will hamper privacy. To avoid
this, security algorithms and modulation techniques are employed in wireless
networks.
 Wireless networks require careful Radio Frequency (RF) planning at the
beginning of the installation.
 Wireless communication is subject to interference. There are various
modulation techniques that make the wireless system robust against any kind
of interference [3, 4].
 There are two types of wireless communication systems, the first type is called
fixed wireless which is similar to the traditional wired systems but uses the
wireless as a transmission medium, and the second type is called mobile
wireless which allows the mobility as the name indicates.
1.2 MIMO Wireless Communication

In Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) systems with a rich scattering
environment, a high data rate and low Bit Error Rate (BER) can be achieved by
increasing the number of transmit antennas without increasing the transmission
power and the use of spectrum. The motivation behind increasing the data rate or
user capacity and BER of a cellular system is to meet the demand for high data traffic
in the upcoming years.
Massive MIMO systems have been proposed for the Fifth Generation (5G) networks
to achieve high capacity performance by using a very large number of transmit
and/or receive antennas, typically more than 64 antennas. Employing transmit
precoding and receive combining in these systems is one of the techniques used to
improve the reliability and the performance of future communication systems. In
3
addition, significant improvement in the Quality of Service (QoS), energy efficiency

and in the reduction of the cost that is expected in massive MIMO. The simple linear
precoding schemes, such as Zero-Forcing (ZF) precoding, Maximum Ratio
Transmission (MRT), Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) and Singular Value
Decomposition (SVD) based precoding can be successfully implemented in massive
MIMO systems. The same linear schemes can be used in the receiver side as a digital
combiner. In massive MIMO systems with tens and hundreds antennas, multiple RF
chains associated with multiple antennas are costly in terms of size, power, and
hardware. This is the main issue of massive MIMO systems [5, 6].
1.3 Evolution from 1G to 5G Technology

In the 1980s, the First Generation (1G) mobile networks were introduced. These
systems were referred to as cellular, it is based on analog system transmissions.
Some of the most popular standards used for 1G systems were Advanced Mobile
Phone System (AMPS), Total Access Communication Systems (TACS) and Nordic
Mobile Telephone (NMT). The 1G continued until being replaced by the Second
Generation (2G) digital telecommunications, where the main difference between the
two mobile telephone systems is that the radio signals used by 1G networks are
analog, while 2G networks are digital. The 2G digital telecommunications was
introduced in the early 1990s. Global System for Mobile communications (GSM)
uses digital modulation to improve voice quality but the network offers limited data
service. The carriers of 2G are continued to improve transmission quality and
coverage. The 2G carriers also began to offer additional services, such as paging,
faxes, text messages and voicemail. After that, 2.5G was introduced in the late
1990s. It uses the General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) standard, which delivers
packet switched data capabilities to existing GSM networks. It allows users to send
graphics rich data as packets. This is the important rise of the Internet and the
4
Internet Protocol (IP). The Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)
network is an example of 2.5G mobile technology. The Third Generation (3G)
revolution was introduced to allow mobile telephone customers to use audio,
graphics and video applications. Over 3G, it is possible to watch streaming videos,
although such activities are severely constrained by network bottlenecks and over
usage. One of the main objectives of 3G was to standardize on a single global
network protocol instead of the different standards adopted previously in the United
States, Europe, and other regions. The speeds of a 3G phone deliver up to 2 Mbps.
3G services are also known as Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
(UMTS) delivers the first possibility of global roaming, with potential access to the
Internet from any location. In the 2000s, the Fourth Generation (4G) has been
developed with the aim of providing transmission rates up to 20 Mbps while
simultaneously accommodating QoS features. 4G applications include high
performance streaming of multimedia content and improved video conferencing
functionality. They also delivered wider bandwidth to vehicles and devices moving
at high speeds within the network area. Now, the 5G wireless systems are the
proposed next telecommunications standards beyond the 4G standards. Rather than
faster peak internet connection speeds, 5G planning aims at a higher capacity than
4G, allowing a higher number of mobile broadband users per unit area and allowing
consumption of higher or unlimited data quantities in gigabyte per month and user.
5G research and development also aim to improve support of Machine to Machine
(M2M) communication, also known as the Internet of Things (IoT), aiming at lower
cost, lower battery consumption, and lower latency than 4G equipment. 5G systems
require multiple antennas at both the transmitter and the receiver sides, which gives
better performance and reliable systems [7, 8]. Table 1.1 illustrates the differences
between generations in terms of throughput, technology, time period and the features
of each generation.
5
Table 1.1: Differences between generations [9].
Definition Technology Technology Features

Generation Speed
Time period
During 1G,
1𝐺 Analog 14.4 Kbps (peak) AMPS,NMT,TAC 1970 – 1980 wireless phones
S are used for voice
only.
2G capabilities
are achieved by
2𝐺 Digital 9.6/14.4 Kbps TDMA,CDMA 1990 to 2000 allowing multiple
Narrow users on a single
band channel via
multiplexing.
circuit data During 2, cellular
phones are used
for data also along
with voice.
In 2.5G, the
Internet becomes
popular and data
2.5𝐺 Packet 171.2 Kbps (peak) GPRS 2001-2004
becomes more
Data 20-40 Kbps
relevant. 2.5G
multimedia
services and
streaming starts to
show growth.
Phones start
supporting web
browsing through
limited and very
few phones have
that
3G has
multimedia
3𝐺 Digital 3.1 Mbps CDMA 2000 2004-2005 services support
Broadband (peak) (1xRTT, EVDO) along with
Packet 500-700 Kbps UMTS, EDGE streaming are
Data more popular. In
3G, Universal
access and
portability across
different device
types are made
possible.
(Telephones,
PDA’s, etc.)
6
3.5G supports
3.5𝐺 Packet 14.4 Mbps HSPA 2006 – 2010 higher throughput
(peak) and speeds to
Data 1-3 Mbps support higher
data needs of the
consumers.
Speeds for 4G are

further increased
4𝐺 Digital 100-300 WiMAX Now (Read to keep up with
Broadband Mbps (peak) LTE Wi-Fi more on data access
Packet All 3-5 Mbps Transitioning demand used by
IP 100 Mbps (Wi-Fi) to 4G) various services.
Very high
High definition
throughput
streaming is now
supported in 4G.
New phones with
HD capabilities
surface. It gets
pretty cool. In 4G,
portability is
increased further.
Currently, there is
no 5G technology
5𝐺 Not Yet Probably gigabits Not Yet Soon deployed. When
(probably this becomes
2020) available it will
provide very high
Update: speeds to the
Samsung consumers. It
conducts tests would also
on 5G provide efficient
use of available
bandwidth as has
been seen through
the development
of each new
technology.
1.4 Problem Statement

Massive MIMO systems require a large number of RF chains which in return
increases the implementation costs and the power consumption. It is possible to
alleviate this cost and at the same time capture many of the advantages of MIMO
systems by antenna selection technique. This technique retains most of the benefits
7
of MIMO systems with reducing the number of the utilized antennas, and hence,
reduces the number of RF chains required. Antenna selection has been studied well
in the recent literature [10, 11]. It appears as a competitive candidate for next-
generation wireless networks due to the attractive advantages they offer [12]. Thus,
this project studies Transmit Antenna Selection (TAS) with Orthogonal Space-Time
Block Codes (OSTBC) scheme as a technique for large-scale MIMO systems with
up to 32 antennas in order to reduce the number of RF chains. As well as improving
these systems with fully digital SVD-based precoding is discussed and implemented
in this project in order to eliminate the inter-symbol interference in these systems.
1.5 Project Objectives

The objectives of this project are as follows:
 To study and understand MIMO systems and the principles of OSTBC and
TAS-OSTBC systems.
 To simulate and compare the error performance of SISO, 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 STBC
and TAS-OSTBC systems over Rayleigh fading channel in Matlab
environment.
 To investigate the effect of varying the modulation technique and its order on
the performance of TAS-OSTBC systems using Maximum Likelihood (ML)
detection technique.
 To explore the effect of varying the number of transmit antennas in TAS-
OSTBC scheme on the BER performance.
 To further improve the BER performance of TAS-OSTBC systems with fully
digital SVD-based precoding technique.
 To evaluate the BER performance of employing SVD-based precoding in
TAS-OSTBC systems with different modulation orders and numbers of
transmit antennas.
8
1.6 Project Organization

This project is organized as follows:
Chapter one presents an introduction to wireless communications and MIMO
systems, differences between telecommunication generations, problem statements,
project objectives, and the project organization.
Chapter two describes the general system model of MIMO systems, categories of
MIMO systems, advantages and disadvantages of MIMO systems, and it also
introduces the massive MIMO systems, channel model, and the transmitter cost
considerations including the structure of transmit RF chains.
Chapter three discusses both 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 STBC 2 × 1 and TAS systems using
STBC scheme under the restrictions of low cost transmitters and very low rate
feedback transmission.
Chapter four presents a comparison between SISO, 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 STBC and TAS-
OSTBC systems, and discusses the error performance of TAS-OSTBC with different
modulation techniques and different numbers of transmit antennas.
Chapter five introduces the fundamental thought of precoding algorithm based on
channel matrix and employing SVD-based precoding technique in TAS-OSTBC
systems to improve the error performance.
Chapter six gives the conclusions of this project and the future work.
9
CHAPTER TWO
Overview of MIMO Communications

Overview of MIMO Communications Chapter Two
2.1 Introduction
When talking about wireless communications, it is important to mention the most
important factors affecting the integrity of transmitted data, namely fading [13]. One
of the technologies developed to address this problem is the diversity of MIMO-
based multichannel diversity. The principle of multi-antenna technology is to use
these antennas to transmit more than one stream of data simultaneously to a single
user. If more than one user is found, multi-MIMO or multiuser-MIMO technique
can be used to transmit data to the user. However, MIMO technology has the
advantage of multiple antennas and is superior in terms of handling high-fidelity
channels as well as in dealing with direct distribution such as Line of Sight (LOS)
propagation. SISO communication systems are the simplest form of the
communication systems among the other configurations in which there is single
transmit antenna at the source and a single receive antenna at the destination. The
throughput of the system depends upon the channel bandwidth and Signal-to-Noise
Ratio (SNR). In some conditions, these systems are exposed to the issues like
multipath effects. Using MIMO technology, many problems like fading and
multipath are solved, In MIMO technology, the signal can go through many paths
and if we move the antenna with a small distance, the path used by the signal will
change. By using MIMO, these additional paths can be used to provide additional
robustness to the radio link by improving the SNR, or by increasing the link data
capacity that cannot be handled by SISO systems. As everything comes with a price,
there are a few issues inherited with the MIMO such as complex detection, cost, and
hard to mount a few antennas in a small mobile phones.
2.2 History of MIMO

The phrase “Multiple Input Multiple Output” has an interesting history. Although
now it is used to describe the communication techniques that are the subject of this
11
project, it was originally used in electric circuit and filter theory as far back as the
1950s [14]. However, the first reference to the term MIMO in this newer
communications sense was in a paper by Peter Driessen and Gerry Foschini in 1999
where they published an analysis on the theoretical communications capacity of a
communication system with multiple transmit and multiple receive antennas [15]. It
is not the first multi-antenna technique to be developed. We begin by recognizing
that the idea of using multiple antennas to improve aspects of communications and
radar performance goes back to the beginning of the 1900s. The first use of multiple
antennas was for the purpose of creating phased array antennas, which were first
proposed and then demonstrated in 1905 by Karl Braun [16]. During the Second
World War, phased array technology was used to enable rapidly steerable radar [17],
and later, phased arrays were used in Amplitude Modulation (AM) broadcast radio
to switch from groundwave propagation during the day to sky-wave propagation at
night. This was accomplished by switching the phase and power levels supplied to
the individual antenna elements daily at sunrise and sunset so that the elevation angle
of the radiation pattern was towards the horizon during daylight hours and pointed
slightly upward at night. This had the obvious advantage of enabling the transmitter
to change the direction that it emitted energy without having to mechanically point
the antenna, a challenging feat with large antennas such as those used in AM radio.
Phased array technology has also long been used to perform adaptive nulling for
interference and jamming avoidance.
In addition to phased array applications, multi-antenna technology has been used for
more than 70 years to reduce the impact of fading on communication systems
through the use of receive diversity. An early paper on the concept of receive
diversity was published by H. Beverage and H. Peterson [18] in 1931. In the 1950s,
receive diversity combining found extensive application on troposcatter links for
military applications in which radio waves are scattered within the troposphere layer
12
of the atmosphere [19, 20]. Beginning in the 1990s, two new types of multi-antenna
techniques were developed. One of these techniques uses multiple antennas to
achieve transmit diversity, which reduces the effect of fading like receive diversity.
Two early papers on this technique were published in 1991 and 1993 by A.
Wittneben [21] and N. Seshadri, C. Sundberg, and V. Weerackody [22],
respectively. Later, 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 has published a landmark paper [23] that described
another way to achieve transmit diversity that required less processing at the
receiver. 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖’𝑠 technique has since become one of the most popular MIMO
schemes, another class of multi-antenna techniques was being developed. Unlike
those who were researching ways to use multiple antennas to combat the effects of
fading, this second group of researchers was interested in developing ways of
exploiting fading to support increased throughput capacity. In 1996, Gerry Foschini
published his landmark paper on layered space-time communications, which
described the underlying concept for the class of Spatial Multiplexing (SMX)
techniques that would eventually be called the Bell-Labs Layered Space-Time
(BLAST) schemes [24]. In 1998, Foschini and his team were the first to demonstrate
a laboratory prototype system that implemented a particular type of BLAST
technique called Vertical BLAST (i.e., V-BLAST) [25].
Since these initial breakthroughs in spatial diversity and SMX in the late 1990s. The
first commercial MIMO technology was introduced by Iospan Wireless Inc. in 2001.
Since 2005, when the WiMAX standard first included MIMO technology, most
wireless standards now include MIMO. Figure 2.1 shows a time line of some key
breakthroughs in MIMO technology over the past century.
2.3 MIMO System Model

MIMO systems are composed of three main elements, namely the transmitter (𝑇𝑥 ),
the channel 𝐻, and the receiver (𝑅𝑥 ). 𝑁𝑡 is denoted as the number of antennas at the
13
transmitter, and 𝑁𝑟 is denoted as the number of antennas at the receiver. Figure 2.2
shows a simplified block diagram of MIMO system in terms of the channel.
Figure 2.1: Time line of key multi-antenna advances [26].
The channel with 𝑁𝑟 antennas at the receiver, and 𝑁𝑡 antennas at the transmitter is
expressed as a 𝑁𝑟 × 𝑁𝑡 matrix as follows:
ℎ11 ⋯ ℎ1Nt
𝐻=[ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ] (2.1)
ℎN r 1 … ℎN r N t
Figure 2.2: Simplified block diagram of MIMO system.
14
The received signal of MIMO systems can be represented as:

𝑌 = 𝐻𝑋 + 𝑁 (2.2)
where 𝑌 is the received signal matrix of size 𝑁𝑟 × 1, 𝐻 is the channel matrix of size
𝑁𝑟 × 𝑁𝑡 , 𝑋 is the transmitted signal matrix of size 𝑁𝑡 × 1, and 𝑁 represents the
noise vector of size 𝑁𝑟 × 1.
This can be written in matrix form as follows [5]:
𝑦1 ℎ11 ⋯ ℎ1𝑁𝑡 𝑥1 𝑛1
[ ⋮ ]=[ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ][ ⋮ ] + [ ⋮ ] (2.3)
𝑦𝑁𝑟 ℎ𝑁𝑟 1 … ℎ𝑁𝑟 𝑁𝑡 𝑥𝑁𝑡 𝑛𝑁𝑟
2.3.1 Additive White Gaussian Noise

To mimic the effect of many random processes that occur in any wireless system,
the Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) is a basic noise model used. The
AWGN name denotes that it is added to the transmitted information, and has the idea
that it has uniform power across the frequency band for the information system, and
has a normal distribution in the time domain with an average time domain value of
zero. This noise comes from many natural sources, such as the thermal noise in
conductors, the natural factors such as the weather and the sun. AWGN is often used
as a channel model in which the only factors affects the transmitted information is a
linear addition of white noise with a constant spectral density and a Gaussian
distribution of amplitude. But, in wireless communications, the transmitted
information is usually affected by other phenomena like fading, frequency
selectivity, interference, nonlinearity and/or dispersion [27].
2.3.2 Channel Models

Channel models for MIMO systems can be either simple or very complex, depending
on the environment modeled and the desired accuracy. There are two different
techniques for modeling MIMO channels. One method is to calculate the MIMO
15
channel matrix according to a physical representation of the environment. The

channel matrix in such a physical model would depend on physical parameters such
as the Angle of Arrival (𝐴𝑜𝐴), the Angle of Departure (𝐴𝑜𝐷), and Time of Arrival
(𝑇𝑜𝐴), to represent a physical MIMO model and provides typical physical
parameters for both macro and microcell environments. As expected, these types of
deterministic models is highly complex. Another technique to model MIMO
channels is to model the channel analytically. Such a model treats all channels
between each transmit antenna to each receive antenna as SISO channels. This type
of model assumes that the channels are independent and identically distributed.
However, depending on the environment modeled, this assumption is rarely true,
because of that MIMO channels can experience spatial correlation between links. It
is possible to generate a MIMO channel with a specific correlation matrix. The
channel correlation matrix is usually measured in the field and it is tied to the
environment setup such as antenna element patterns, the spacing between antennas,
and surrounding reflectors [28].
2.3.3 Rayleigh Fading Model

In a wireless communication channel, the transmitted signal can travel from the
transmitter to the receiver over multiple reflective paths. This gives rise to multipath
fading which causes fluctuations in amplitude, phase, and 𝐴𝑜𝐴 of the received
signal. For example, the transmitted signal from the base transceiver station may
suffer multiple reflections from the buildings nearby before reaching the mobile
station. So wireless transmission systems are classified into two categories, Line of
Sight (LOS) and Non-Line of Sight (NLOS) [29]. MIMO systems are NLOS
wireless transmission schemes that are based on multi-path propagation [30]. In
multi-path propagation, the transmitted signal arrives the receiver from different
paths due to reflection, diffraction, and scattering. This means that multiple copies
16
of the same signal arrive the receiver. These multiple signals can create either
constructive interference or destructive interference [31]. One of the models for
wireless MIMO channels is the complex Gaussian random process having zero mean
and variance 𝜎 2 . This model is called the Rayleigh model which is used in this
project. The Probability Density Function (PDF) of the magnitude of the Rayleigh
channel is described by [32] as follows:
ℎ −ℎ2
𝑝(ℎ) = 2 exp ( 2 ) (2.4)
𝜎 2𝜎
2.4 MIMO Technology Categories

MIMO technology has attracted attention in wireless communications because it
offers significant increases in data throughput and link range without additional
bandwidth or transmitted power. It achieves this by higher spectral efficiency (more
bits per second per Hertz of bandwidth) and link reliability or diversity (reduced
fading). Because of these properties, MIMO is an important part of modern wireless
communication standards as IEEE 802.11n (Wi-Fi), 3GPP Long Term Evolution
(LTE), WiMAX, and High Speed Packet Access Plus (HSPA+).
2.4.1 MIMO Classification with Respect to Antenna Configuration

MIMO technology has been mainly developed and implemented by some standards,
for example, IEEE 802.11n products. It is classified with respect to antenna
configuration as follows:
 MIMO: Multiple-input multiple-output is a case when the receiver and the
transmitter have more than one antenna.
 MISO: Multiple-input single-output is a case when the receiver has a single
antenna and the transmitter has more than one antenna.
 SIMO: Single-input multiple-output is a case when the transmitter has a single
antenna and the receiver has more than one antenna.
17
 SISO: Single-input single-output is a radio system where neither the transmitter

nor receiver have multiple antennas.
Figure 2.3 shows these four forms of MIMO systems.
Figure 2.3: Forms of antenna configuration.
2.4.2 Categories of MIMO with Respect to How Data is Transmitted

The wireless communication environment is very hostile. The signal transmitted
over a wireless communication link is susceptible to fading (severe fluctuations in
signal level), co-channel interference, and dispersion effects in time and frequency,
path loss effect, etc. On top of these woes, the limited availability of bandwidth
possess a significant challenge to a designer in designing a system that provides
higher spectral efficiency and higher quality of link availability at low cost [33].
There are three techniques in MIMO to transmit data across a given channel that
consists of different propagation paths. The first technique, called spatial diversity
or simply diversity, which improves the reliability of the system by sending the same
data across different propagation paths. The second technique increases the data rate
of the system by transmitting different portions of the data stream on different
propagation paths. This is called Spatial Multiplexing (SMX) and it provides a
multiplexing gain or degree of freedom. The third technique is called Spatial
18
Modulation (SM) which is based on activating only one transmit antenna to convey
data. Figure 2.4 illustrates the three MIMO concepts, SMX, spatial diversity and SM
systems.
Figure 2.4: Illustration of three MIMO concepts for data transmission, (a) spatial
multiplexing, (b) spatial diversity and (c) spatial modulation [34].
a) Spatial (Transmit/Receive) Diversity

In diversity techniques, the same information is sent across independent fading
channels to combat fading. When multiple copies of the same data are sent across
independently fading channels, the amount of fade suffered by each copy of the data
will be different. This guarantees that at least one of the copies will suffer less fading
compared to the rest of the copies [33]. Thus, the chance of properly receiving the
transmitted data increases. In effect, this improves the reliability of the entire system.
This also reduces the co-channel interference significantly. This technique is
referred to as inducing a “spatial diversity” in communication systems.
b) Spatial Multiplexing
In these systems, a high rate signal is split into multiple lower rate streams and each
stream is transmitted from a different transmit antenna in the same frequency
19
channel. If these signals reach the antenna array of the receiver with enough different
spatial signatures, the receiver can separate these streams into parallel channels.
SMX is a very powerful technique for increasing channel capacity at higher SNR. It
can also be used for simultaneous transmission to multiple receivers, known as
space-division multiple access [33].
In SMX, the data bit streams are divided into blocks of 𝑁𝑡 log 2 (𝑀) bits to be
transmitted at one time instant as follows [35]:
a) Each log 2 (𝑀) bits are separately modulated using 𝑀-QAM or 𝑀-PSK
modulation, where 𝑀 is the modulation order.
b) The modulated symbols are then transmitted simultaneously from the 𝑁𝑡
transmit antennas.
c) Spatial Modulation
Spatial Modulation (SM) is recently developed as a transmission technique that uses
multiple antennas. The basic idea is to map a block of information bits to two
information carrying units, 1) a symbol that was chosen from a constellation diagram
and 2) a unique transmit antenna number that was chosen from a set of transmit
antennas. The use of the transmit antenna number as an information bearing unit
increases the overall spectral efficiency by the base-two logarithm of the number of
transmit antennas [36]. SM systems activate only one transmit antenna each time
instance, and transmits the symbol 𝑠𝑙 ∈ 𝑆 from the active transmit antenna, where 𝑆
contains all possible constellations symbols. Thus, the spectral efficiency of SM
systems is log 2 𝑁𝑡 + log 2 𝑀 𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑠. Therefore, only one power amplifier is required
at the transmitter of SM systems, which causes less power consumption, since it is
known that vast majority of the power at the transmitter is consumed by the power
amplifier [36].
20
2.5 Advantages Offered by MIMO Technique

The advantages offered by MIMO technology are as follows [37]:
a) Increased data flow rate: The more antennas, the more data streams can be sent
separately and thus more users can be served at the same time.
b) Improved reliability: By increasing the number of antennas, the number of
different paths in which the signal is transmitted increases, thus a variety of
transmissions can be obtained.
c) Improved power efficiency: This is because the base station can focus the
radioactive power where the users are exist.
d) Reduced interference because the base station can avoid transmission in
unwanted directions where spreading interference would be harmful.
2.6 Disadvantages of MIMO Technology [13]

a) Interference: The performance of a particular user may be significantly reduced
due to the interference because other users use the same system resources. To
overcome this problem, techniques must be used to eliminate or minimize
interference such as interference alignment.
b) Channel state information estimation: In order to achieve high mixing power,
the base station must process the received signals simultaneously. This requires that
the channel status information be accurate in terms of the reliability of this
information about the channel status and the time it takes to estimate. This is not
easy, especially in cases where mobility is high in the system.
c) Scheduling users: When multiple users subscribe to the same system resources
(for example, time and frequency), the use of scheduling methods based on multiple
considerations such as channel information is required. However, this complicates
the design.
d) Each transmit antenna has its own RF equipment.
21
e) Channel interchange: The mode of operation known as time division is based

on the principle of channel reciprocity, that is, the state of the channel in the uplink
is the same as in the downlink, but base station components and user devices may
not be interactive.
2.7 Massive MIMO Antennas

Massive MIMO antennas are also known as the large-scale antenna systems, and
full-dimension MIMO [37]. It is a pivotal technology especially in 5G systems to be
introduced in 2020. Figure 2.5 shows the distribution of antennas in massive MIMO
systems. This technique relies on the use of a number of antennas ranging from
dozens and up to hundreds in order to achieve the efficiency of low power and obtain
a large number of degrees of freedom that is to obtain a large number of independent
propagation paths to send and receive data [38].
Figure 2.5: Distribution of antennas in massive MIMO systems.
One of the most important features of massive MIMO antenna technology is the
following points [13, 37]:
a) It operates in low-cost components and operates at low power.
b) It dramatically reduces the time response.
c) It widely simplifies the multi-layer access.
22
d) It increases immunity against interference and intentional interference.
2.8 Transmitter Cost Considerations

Deployment of multiple antennas is normally associated with a high cost since
multiple antennas usually require an equal number of RF chains which are expensive
and power consuming. However, if the signal transmitted via a certain antenna is
equal to the signals transmitted via the other antennas at all times, then the number
of RF chains can be reduced. The most effective way to reduce the number of RF
chains is to transmit signals via a selected subset of the available antennas. This
reduces the transmitter cost by antenna selection technique which can be made
optimal in the sense of maximizing the transmission rate or minimizing the error
probability as will be discussed in the following chapters [39].
2.8.1 Structure of Radio Frequency Chains

RF chains convert 𝑛𝑡 symbol streams from the digital baseband domain to analog
radio frequency. Each RF chain must at least have one of the following elements
implemented [40]:
 Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC).
 Mixer.
 Power amplifier.
 Additional analog circuitry (such as filters and impedance converters).
Some of the required analog components do not have to be replicated necessarily for
each RF path since their functionality could be reused (for example, the local
oscillators).
To summarize, the high cost and power consumption of RF chains are the main
drawbacks of massive MIMO systems with multiple transmit and receive antennas.
Therefore, reducing the number of RF chains by activating a subset of antennas will
be discussed as in chapter 3.
23
CHAPTER THREE
Transmit Antenna Selection Systems Using

OSTBC Scheme
TAS Systems Using OSTBC Scheme Chapter Three
In MIMO systems, reducing the number of RF chains is a promising technique in

order to design a communication system under the restrictions of low cost
transmitter, high data rate and better performance. This can be done by activating a
subset of antennas out of 𝑁𝑡 antennas at the transmitter. In this chapter, Transmit
Antenna Selection (TAS) using Orthogonal Space-Time Block Codes (OSTBC)
scheme is described, and the channel is modeled as a Rayleigh fading channel.
3.1 Transmit Antenna Selection Techniques

The advantage of MIMO systems is that better performance can be achieved without
using additional transmit power or bandwidth extension. However, its main
drawback is that additional high cost RF modules are required as multiple antennas
are employed. In general, RF modules include low noise amplifier, frequency down-
converter, DAC, and an Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC). In an effort to reduce
the cost associated with the multiple RF modules, antenna selection techniques can
be used to employ a smaller number of RF modules than the number of transmit
antennas. Figure 3.1 illustrates the end-to-end configuration of TAS system in which
only 𝑄 RF modules are used to support 𝑁𝑡 transmit antennas, where 𝑄 < 𝑁𝑡 [41].
Figure 3.1: Transmit antenna selection with 𝑸 RF modules and 𝑵𝒕 transmit antennas [41].
Since 𝑄 antennas are used among 𝑁𝑡 transmit antennas, the effective channel can
now be represented by 𝑄 columns of 𝐻 ∈ ℂ𝑁𝑟×𝑁𝑡 . Let 𝑝𝑖 denote the index of the 𝑖 th
selected column, 𝑖 = 1, 2, …, 𝑄. Then, the corresponding effective channel will be
modeled by 𝑁𝑟 × 𝑄 matrix, which is denoted by 𝐻{𝑝1,𝑝2,…,𝑝𝑄 } ∈ ℂ𝑁𝑟 ×𝑄 . Let 𝑥 ∈ ℂ𝑄×1
25
denote the space-time coded or spatially multiplexed stream that is mapped into 𝑄
selected antennas. Then, the received signal 𝑦 is represented as [41]:
𝐸𝑥
𝑦 = √ 𝐻𝑝1,𝑝2,…,𝑝𝑄 𝑥 + 𝑛 (3.1)
𝑄
where 𝑛 ∈ ℂ𝑁𝑟×1 is the noise vector whose elements (noise samples) are independent
zero mean circularly symmetric complex Gaussian random variables with variance
𝑁𝑂 ⁄2 per dimension (𝑁𝑂 ⁄2 is the two-sided noise power spectral density). The
factor 1⁄√𝑄 assures that the available symbol energy 𝐸𝑥 is shared among the 𝑄
active antennas [41].
3.2 Space-Time Block Coding

One of the methodologies for exploiting the capacity in MIMO system is using the
additional diversity of MIMO systems, namely spatial diversity, to combat the
channel fading. This can be achieved by transmitting several replicas of the same
information through each antenna. By doing this, the probability of losing the
information decreases exponentially. The diversity order or diversity gain of a
MIMO system is defined as the number of independent receptions of the same signal.
A MIMO system with 𝑁𝑡 transmit antennas and 𝑁𝑟 receive antennas has potentially
full diversity (i.e. maximum diversity) gain equal to 𝑁𝑡 𝑁𝑟 . The different replicas sent
for exploiting diversity are generated by a space-time encoder which encodes a
single stream through space using all the transmit antennas and through time by
sending each symbol at different times. This form of coding is called Space-Time
Block Coding (STBC) [42].
3.2.1 𝑨𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒊 STBC
The 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 STBC 2 × 1 scheme uses two transmit antennas and one receive
antenna has full rate since it transmits 2 symbols every 2 time intervals. In this
26
subsection, a description of the 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 scheme is provided for 1 receive antenna

where it uses two transmit antennas. The 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 scheme is encoding two signals
that are simultaneously transmitted from the two transmit antennas. The signal
transmitted from the first antenna is denoted by 𝑥1 and from the second antenna 𝑥2 .
During the next symbol period, the signal −𝑥2∗ is transmitted from the first antenna,
and 𝑥1∗ signal is transmitted from the second antenna, where ∗ is the complex
conjugate operation [23]. This transmission sequence is shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Transmission sequence for two transmit antennas in 𝑨𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒊 STBC scheme.
Symbol interval Antenna 1 Antenna 2
Time 𝑡 𝑥1 𝑥2
Time 𝑡 + 𝑇 −𝑥2∗ 𝑥1∗
The most important and referenced OSTBC schemes is the 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 code, which
can be also described by the following codeword matrix:
𝑥1 𝑥2
𝑋 = [−𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 ∗ ] (3.2)
2 1
where rows and columns correspond to symbol interval and the transmit antennas,
respectively. Assuming that two channel gains ℎ1 (𝑡) and ℎ2 (𝑡) are time-invariant
over two consecutive symbol periods as follows [41]:
ℎ1 (𝑡) = ℎ1 (𝑡 + 𝑇) = ℎ1 (3.3)
and ℎ2 (𝑡) = ℎ2 (𝑡 + 𝑇) = ℎ2 (3.4)
where 𝑇 is the symbol duration. Let 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 denote the received signals at time 𝑡
and 𝑡 + 𝑇, respectively, then [23]:
𝑦1 = 𝑦1 (𝑡) = ℎ1 𝑥1 + ℎ2 𝑥2 + 𝑛1 (3.5)
𝑦2 = 𝑦2 (𝑡 + 𝑇) = −ℎ1 𝑥2∗ + ℎ2 𝑥1∗ + 𝑛2 (3.6)
27
where 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 are complex random variables representing the AWGN noise at
time 𝑡 and 𝑡 + 𝑇, respectively.
The combined signals that enter the Maximum Likelihood (ML) detector can be
written as follows:
𝑥̃ ℎ∗ ℎ2 𝑦1
[ 1 ] = [ 1∗ ][ ] (3.7)
𝑥̃2 ℎ2 −ℎ1 𝑦2
Figure 3.2 shows the 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 STBC 2 × 1 system includes two transmit antennas
and one receive antenna with the optimum ML detector that is used to decide which
symbol was sent, and this can be written as [39]:
𝑥̂𝑡 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑥∈𝑊 𝑚𝑖𝑛{‖𝑦 − 𝐻𝑥‖2𝐹 } (3.8)
where 𝑊 contains every possible (𝑁𝑡 × 1) transmit vector, and 𝑥̂ denotes the
estimated transmission vector.
Figure 3.2: 𝑨𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒊 STBC with two transmit antennas and one receive antenna [23].
28
3.2.2 Orthogonal Space-Time Block Codes

The 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 scheme discussed in the previous subsection is part of a general class
of STBCs known as Orthogonal Space-Time Block Codes (OSTBC) with full rate.
This technique has been generalized through the concept of orthogonal designs to
an arbitrary number of transmit antennas by Tarokh et al. in [43], who coined the
name Space-Time Block Codes (STBC). In the subclass of STBCs called Orthogonal
STBC (OSTBC), a code designed for 𝑁𝑡 transmit antennas and 𝑁𝑟 receive antennas
has the desired property of achieving full diversity order 𝑁𝑡 𝑁𝑟 . Non-orthogonal
STBC (NOSTBC) schemes, on the other hand, cannot achieve full diversity but they
usually have a greater transmission rate. The full diversity complex orthogonal codes
are designed by Tarokh as presented in [43] are for the case of 𝑁𝑡 > 2. All these
STBC codes are designed to satisfy the orthogonality condition which can be
represented as follows [39]:
𝑛𝑥
𝑋𝑋 𝐻 = ∑ |𝑥𝑘 |2 . 𝐼𝑁𝑡 (3.9)

𝑘=1
where 𝐼𝑁𝑡 is the 𝑁𝑡 -dimensional identity matrix, |𝑥𝑘 | denotes the modulus of the
complex number 𝑥𝑘 of the transmitted data sequence with a set of 𝑛𝑥 scalar complex
symbols, and the superscript 𝐻 stands for the Hermitian transpose operation.
3.3 Transmit Antenna Selection Using OSTBC

It is well-known that MIMO wireless communication systems have increased
capacity [42, 44, and 45] if the number of receive antennas is at least as large as the
number of transmit antennas. On the other hand, practical constraints have resulted
in the need for systems employing multiple antennas in the transmitter only. In this
case, good performance can be achieved by means of space-time coding. In
particular, 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 [23] introduced a very interesting space-time coding technique
29
that called the researcher’s attention also because of its simplicity and its low
decoding complexity, ML decoding is simplified because of the orthogonality
imposed on the codeword matrix. 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 STBCs are indicated when the channel
is known only to the receiver, in which case the total average transmit power is
distributed uniformly among the transmit antennas. When a reliable feedback path
is available, the transmitter can use side information to improve the system
performance in a way that depends on the amount of feedback available [39].
Deployment of multiple antennas is normally associated with high cost since
multiple antennas usually require an equal number of RF chains, which are
expensive and power consuming. To circumvent this problem, a subset of the
available antennas can be selected, thereby reducing the number of RF chains. The
amount of feedback required in this case is much smaller. Such approach is called
Transmit Antenna Selection (TAS). The most well-known TAS scheme has been
proposed by Gore and Paulraj [44]. In [44], an OSTBC is used along with the optimal
subset of transmit antennas, which is the one whose associated sub-channel matrix
has the largest Frobenius norm*. This translates to maximizing the instantaneous
received SNR. Although this scheme applies to any OSTBC, this project focused on
TAS with 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 STBC (TAS-OSTBC) with single receive antenna. An
important result proved in [44] is that TAS with OSTBC provides full diversity order
as if the antennas were used. Figure 3.3 represents the system model of TAS using
OSTBC scheme.
The switch used in TAS system is controlled by the selection logic located at the
receiver via the feedback information link and connects the outputs of the RF chains
to 𝑄 of the total available 𝑁𝑡 transmit antennas [40].
* The Frobenius norm of a matrix or vector 𝐴 is defined as:

2
‖𝐴‖2𝐹 = ∑ ∑|𝐴𝑖.𝑗 |
𝑖 𝑗
30
Figure 3.3: TAS-OSTBC system model.
TAS technique is the effective way were it can be optimal in the sense of minimizing
the error probability or maximizing the transmission rate. The former approach is
adopted in this project.
In TAS-OSTBC system, transmit antennas are selected so as to minimize the error
probability. Let 𝑃𝑟 (𝐶𝑖 → 𝐶𝑗 |𝐻{𝑝1,𝑝2,…,𝑝𝑄 } ) denote the pairwise error probability when
a space-time codeword 𝐶𝑖 is transmitted but 𝐶𝑗 is decoded for the given effective

channel 𝐻{𝑝1,𝑝2,…,𝑝𝑄 } , 𝑗 ≠ 𝑖. For this effective channel with 𝑄 columns of 𝐻 chosen,
an upper bound for the pairwise error probability for OSTBC is given as [41]:
𝑃𝑟 (𝐶𝑖 → 𝐶𝑗 |𝐻{𝑝1,𝑝2,…,𝑝𝑄} )
2 2
𝜌 ‖𝐻{𝑝1 ,𝑝2 ,…,𝑝𝑄 } 𝐸𝑖,𝑗 ‖ 𝜌 ‖𝐻{𝑝1 ,𝑝2 ,…,𝑝𝑄 } 𝐸𝑖,𝑗 ‖
√ 𝐹 𝐹
=𝑄 ≤ exp (− ) (3.10)
2𝑁𝑡 4𝑁𝑡
( )
where 𝜌 is the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR), and 𝐸𝑖,𝑗 is the error matrix of OSTBC.
The 𝑄 transmit antennas can be selected to minimize the upper bound in Equation
(3.10), or equivalently [41]:
2
𝑜𝑝𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡
{𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … , 𝑝𝑄 } = arg max ‖𝐻{𝑝1 ,𝑝2,…,𝑝𝑄} 𝐸𝑖,𝑗 ‖
𝑝1 ,𝑝2 ,…,𝑝𝑄 ∈𝐴𝑄 𝐹
= arg max 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 [𝐻{𝑝1 ,𝑝2,…,𝑝𝑄} 𝐸𝑖,𝑗 𝐸𝐻𝑖,𝑗 𝐻𝐻{𝑝 ,𝑝 ,…,𝑝 } ]

𝑝1 ,𝑝2 ,…,𝑝𝑄 ∈𝐴𝑄 1 2 𝑄
31
= arg max 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 [𝐻{𝑝1 ,𝑝2,…,𝑝𝑄 } 𝐻𝐻{𝑝 ,𝑝 ,…,𝑝 } ]

𝑝1 ,𝑝2 ,…,𝑝𝑄 ∈𝐴𝑄 1 2 𝑄
2
= arg max ‖𝐻{𝑝1,𝑝2 ,…,𝑝𝑄} ‖ (3.11)
𝑝1 ,𝑝2 ,…,𝑝𝑄 ∈𝐴𝑄 𝐹
𝐻
where the error matrix 𝐸𝑖,𝑗 has the property 𝐸𝑖,𝑗 𝐸𝑖,𝑗 = 𝑎𝐼 with constant 𝑎, the
Frobenius matrix norm used in these equations is described in Appendix A, and the
trace function in a linear algebra of 𝑛 − 𝑏𝑦 − 𝑛 square matrix that is defined to be
the sum of the elements on the main diagonal from the upper left to the lower right.
From Equation (3.11), it can be seen that the antennas corresponding to high column
norms are selected for minimizing the error rate. The average SNR on the receiver
𝑄
side with 𝑄 selected antennas of {𝑃𝑖 }𝑖=1 is given as [41]:
𝜌 2
𝑛{𝑝1,𝑝2,…,𝑝𝑄 } = ‖𝐻{𝑝1,𝑝2,…,𝑝𝑄 } ‖ (3.12)
𝑄 𝐹
Equations (3.11) and (3.12) imply that the antennas with the highest SNR on the
receiver side must be chosen. Denoting the indices with the highest 𝑄 column norms
𝑜𝑝𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡
of 𝐻 by {𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … , 𝑝𝑄 }, we have the following inequality [41]:
2
‖𝐻{𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑡,𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑡,…,𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑡} ‖
1 2 𝑄 𝐹 ‖𝐻‖2𝐹
≥ (3.13)
𝑄 𝑁𝑡
Since 𝑄 ≤ 𝑁𝑡 , we also have the following inequality [41]:
2 2 2 2
‖𝐻{𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑡,𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑡,…,𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑡} ‖ = ‖𝐻{𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑡} ‖ + ‖𝐻{𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑡} ‖ + ⋯ + ‖𝐻{𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑡} ‖
1 2 𝑄 1 2 𝑄
𝐹
2 2 2
≤ ‖𝐻{1} ‖ + ‖𝐻{2} ‖ + ⋯ + ‖𝐻{𝑁𝑡} ‖ = ‖𝐻‖2𝐹 (3.14)
where 𝐻{𝑘} represents the 𝑘𝑡ℎ column of 𝐻. From Equations (3.13) and (3.14), the
average SNR on the receiver side with the optimally selected antennas is ranged by:
𝜌 𝜌
‖𝐻‖2𝐹 ≥ 𝑛{𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑡,𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑡,…,𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑡} ≥ ‖𝐻‖2𝐹 (3.15)
𝑄 1 2 𝑄 𝑁𝑡
32
From the inequality in (3.15), we can see that the upper and lower bounds of the
average received SNR are functions of ‖𝐻‖2𝐹 . This implies that a diversity order of
𝑁𝑡 𝑁𝑟 is achieved with optimal antenna selection with entries of 𝐻 are Gaussian
distributed.
To conclude, this chapter presented the mathematical analysis of the BER of TAS
systems using OSTBC scheme. The performance evaluation of these systems will
be discussed in the next chapter.
33
CHAPTER FOUR
Error Performance of Transmit Antenna Selection

Using OSTBC Scheme over Rayleigh Fading
Channel
Error Performance of TAS-OSTBC Over Rayleigh Fading Channel Chapter Four
MIMO systems with multiple RF chains associated with multiple antennas are costly
in terms of size, power consumption and hardware. TAS system with OSTBC
scheme is a low cost and low complexity alternative to capture many of the
advantages of MIMO systems with high performance. In this chapter, however, the
error performance of TAS-OSTBC systems is simulated and compared to SISO and
𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 STBC schemes. In addition, the effect of increasing the number of
transmit antennas and the modulation order of 𝑀-QAM and 𝑀-PSK schemes on the
BER performance of TAS-OSTBC systems is evaluated and presented.
4.1 Modulated Signals

In communication systems, the modulated signal is used for the transmission of
digital information. Basically, modulation process involves the change of either
amplitude, phase, frequency, or any combination of these parameters of a carrier
signal according to the information signals to be transmitted. The two most common
modulation schemes are the 𝑀-array Phase Shift Keying (𝑀-PSK) and the 𝑀-array
Amplitude-Phase Shift Keying (𝑀-APSK) which is commonly known as 𝑀-array
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (𝑀-QAM). The letter 𝑀 represents the size of
the signal constellation, which is also called the modulation order. 𝑀-PSK is a
specific symbol set where all symbols lie on the unit circle, while 𝑀-QAM is the
family of symbol sets where the symbols all lie on straight lines that forms a square.
4.1.1 𝑴-QAM Signal Constellations

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) consists of two amplitude modulation
schemes combined in quadrature onto a common carrier. The baseband
constellations for these are usually square or rectangular. Some typical QAM
constellations are shown below in Figure 4.1 [45]. In 𝑀-QAM, the modulation
spectral efficiency is related to the modulation order (𝑀) by log 2 𝑀. In general, 4-
QAM scheme has better BER performance than 64-QAM technique, but with lower
35
Figure 4.1: Constellation diagrams of different forms of 𝑴-QAM.
modulation spectral efficiency (i.e. 2 bits/symbol), while 64-QAM has a higher

modulation spectral efficiency (i.e. 6 bits/symbol). This is because the higher order
𝑀-QAM schemes are vulnerable to errors despite their high spectral efficiencies
[45].
4.1.2 𝑴-PSK Signal Constellations

Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is a form of digital modulation techniques in which the
baseband symbols map onto a number of discrete phases of a carrier signal. Some
typical PSK constellations are shown in Figure 4.2. For a signal constellation with
𝑀 symbols, the phase values ∅𝑖 that are impressed onto the carrier is expressed as
follows [45]:
𝜋
∅𝑖 = (2𝑖 − 1) , 𝑖 = 1,2, … … , 𝑀 (4.1)
𝑀
36
Figure 4.2: Constellation diagrams of different forms of 𝑴-PSK [45].
4.2 Simulation Flowchart

In order to represent the simulation of TAS-OSTBC systems, the flowchart shown
below in Figure 4.3 illustrates the whole process of TAS-OSTBC system.
4.3 Simulation Results

In this section, the error performance of TAS-OSTBC system over Rayleigh fading
channel is evaluated in different cases with simulation parameters outlined in Table
4.1 as follows:
Table 4.1: Simulation parameters.
Parameter Value
Modulation scheme 𝑀-QAM and 𝑀-PSK
Number of frames per packet 100000
Number of packets 10
Number of transmit antennas 4, 8, 16 and 32
Number of receive antennas 1
Number of RF chains 2
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) −10 𝑑𝐵 to 55 𝑑𝐵
Bit Error Rate (BER) 1 to 10−5
37
Start
Set input parameters
Generating transmit data
Modulating the transmit signal
Applying OSTBC scheme
Activating the best two antennas

with (TAS)
Applying Rayleigh fading channel
Adding AWGN to the received signal
OSTBC decoding and ML detection

of the received signal Move to the
next SNR
Demodulating the received signal
Computing the BER
No
Is maximum
SNR reached?
Yes
Plotting the BER
End
Figure 4.3: Simulation flowchart of TAS-OSTBC system.
38
4.3.1 A Comparison between SISO, 𝑨𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒊 STBC 𝟐 × 𝟏, and TAS-OSTBC

Systems
The BER performance of TAS-OSTBC 4 × 1 system employing 16-QAM technique
is compared to SISO and 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 STBC 2 × 1 schemes with the same modulation
technique as shown below in Figure 4.4. This comparison shows that the BER
performance of TAS-OSTBC system is better than that of the other systems because
it is based on selecting and activating two transmit antennas out of four antennas to
send data, while SISO system uses only one antenna to transmit data, and 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖
STBC uses only two transmit antennas instead of four transmit antennas as in TAS-
OSTBC system. Therefore, a further diversity gain has been achieved in TAS-
OSTBC system with the presence of only two active antennas out of four transmit
antennas. It is also demonstrated that TAS-OSTBC scheme employing 16-QAM
requires an SNR value of about 21.4 𝑑𝐵 to achieve the BER of 10−5 instead of
32 𝑑𝐵 and 52.5 𝑑𝐵 in 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 STBC 2 × 1 and SISO systems, respectively.
Figure 4.4: BER performance of SISO, 𝑨𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒊 STBC 𝟐 × 𝟏, and TAS-OSTBC with
𝑵𝒕 = 𝟒 and employing 16-QAM scheme.
39
Similarly, the error performance of TAS-OSTBC 4 × 1 system employing 4-QAM

technique is compared to SISO and 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 STBC 2 × 1 schemes as shown in
Figure 4.5. It is clear from this figure that TAS-OSTBC system employing 4-QAM
requires an SNR of about 14.5 𝑑𝐵 to achieve the BER of 10−5 instead of 27.5 𝑑𝐵
and 47 𝑑𝐵 in 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 STBC 2 × 1 and SISO systems, respectively.
Figure 4.5: BER performance of SISO, 𝑨𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒊 STBC 𝟐 × 𝟏, and TAS-OSTBC with
𝑵𝒕 = 𝟒 and employing 4-QAM scheme.
4.3.2 BER Performance with Various Numbers of Transmit Antennas

In this subsection, TAS-OSTBC scheme employing 16-QAM technique is evaluated
with various numbers of transmit antennas to investigate the effect of increasing the
number of antennas at the transmitter on the BER performance of this system as
illustrated in Figure 4.6. It is clear form this figure that increasing the number of
transmit antennas in TAS-OSTBC system shows a performance improvement of
about 3 𝑑𝐵, 5.5 𝑑𝐵 and 7.25 𝑑𝐵 at the BER of 10−5 with 𝑁𝑡 = 8, 16 and 32
transmit antennas, respectively, as compared to TAS-OSTBC with 𝑁𝑡 = 4.
40
Figure 4.6: BER performance of TAS-OSTBC employing 16-QAM with various numbers
of transmit antennas.
4.3.3 BER Performance with Different Modulation Techniques

The error performance of TAS-OSTBC scheme with different modulation
techniques is evaluated and compared in this section.
Case 1) BER with lower order 𝑀-QAM and 𝑀-PSK modulation techniques:
The BER versus SNR of TAS-OSTBC 4 × 1 scheme with activating only two
transmit antennas employing 𝑀-QAM and 𝑀-PSK techniques with low modulation
orders is shown in Figure 4.7. From these results, it is seen that the performance of
TAS-OSTBC system employing 𝑀-QAM technique is close to that with 𝑀-PSK
scheme with the same modulation order in the cases of low modulation orders such
as 𝑀 = 4 and 8. On the other hand, employing 𝑀-QAM technique gives better error
perfoamcnce than that with 𝑀-PSK technique with higher modulation orders for the
same 𝑀. For instance, achieving the BER of 10−5 with 16-QAM requires an SNR
value of about 21.4 𝑑𝐵, while it requres almost 25.4 𝑑𝐵 with employing 16-PSK.
41
Figure 4.7: BER performance of TAS-OSTBC with 𝑵𝒕 = 𝟒 and low modulation orders.
Table 4.2 shows the difference between the required SNR value in TAS-OSTBC
system with 𝑀-QAM and 𝑀-PSK techniques to achieve the same BER performance
of 10−5 with the same modulation order.
Table 4.2: Difference between the required SNR value for TAS-OSTBC system employing
𝑴-QAM and 𝑴-PSK with low modulation order.
Modulation SNR required Modulation SNR required The difference
technique for 𝑴-QAM technique for 𝑴-PSK of SNR
4-QAM 14.5 𝑑𝐵 QPSK 14.5 𝑑𝐵 0 𝑑𝐵
8-QAM 19.3 𝑑𝐵 8-PSK 20 𝑑𝐵 0.7 𝑑𝐵
16-QAM 21.4 𝑑𝐵 16-PSK 25.4 𝑑𝐵 4 𝑑𝐵
Case 2) BER with higher order 𝑀-QAM and 𝑀-PSK modulation techniques:
Figure 4.8 shows the BER performance versus SNR of TAS-OSTBC 4 × 1 scheme
with activating only two transmit antennas employing 𝑀-QAM and 𝑀-PSK
techniques with high modulation orders 𝑀 ≥ 32.
42
Figure 4.8: BER performance of TAS-OSTBC with 𝑵𝒕 = 𝟒 and high modulation orders.
This figure reveals that the error performance of TAS-OSTBC system employing
𝑀-QAM technique is better than that with 𝑀-PSK technique with the same 𝑀. For
instance, achieving the BER of 10−5 with 32-QAM requires an SNR value of about
24.3 𝑑𝐵, while it requres just less than 31.2 𝑑𝐵 with employing 32-PSK technique.
For another example, achieving the BER of 10−5 with 64-QAM requires an SNR
value of about 27.6 𝑑𝐵, while it requres almost 37 𝑑𝐵 with employing 32-PSK
scheme. Table 4.3 shows the difference between the required SNR value in TAS-
OSTBC system with 𝑀-QAM and 𝑀-PSK techniques for 𝑀 ≥ 32 to achieve the
same BER performance of 10−5 with the same modulation order.
In a nutshell, it is obvious that the error performance of TAS-OSTBC systems
employing 𝑀-QAM technique gives better performance than that with employing
𝑀-PSK schemes for the same modulation order. However, the difference between
the required SNR values between these two modulations schemes to achieve a
particular BER performance increases as the modulation order increases.
43
Table 4.3: Difference between the required SNR value for TAS-OSTBC system employing
𝑴-QAM and 𝑴-PSK with high modulation order.
Modulation SNR required Modulation SNR required The difference
technique for 𝑴-QAM technique for 𝑴-PSK of SNR
32-QAM 24.3 𝑑𝐵 32-PSK 31.2 𝑑𝐵 6.9 𝑑𝐵
64-QAM 27.6 𝑑𝐵 64-PSK 37 𝑑𝐵 9.4 𝑑𝐵
128-QAM 30.4 𝑑𝐵 128-PSK 43 𝑑𝐵 12.6 𝑑𝐵
256-QAM 33.5 𝑑𝐵 256-PSK 49 𝑑𝐵 15.5 𝑑𝐵
To conclude, this chapter has shown the simulation results of TAS-OSTBC systems
with varying the number of transmit antennas and the modulation techniques.
However, improving the error performance of these systems is very important as
MIMO systems with reduced RF chains play an important role in reducing the cost
of 5G wireless networks. This can be done by different techniques. One of these
techniques is employing digital precoding schemes in TAS-OSTBC systems as will
be presented in details in chapter 5.
44
CHAPTER FIVE
Improved Transmit Antenna Selection Using

OSTBC Scheme with Fully Digital SVD-Based
Precoding
Improved TAS-OSTBC Scheme with Fully Digital SVD-Based Precoding Chapter Five
Generally, there are several precoding schemes that can be utilized in MIMO
systems to improve the system performance. However, applying digital precoding
schemes is an essential technique to eliminate the inter-symbol interference. The
fundamental thought of some precoding algorithms based on channel matrix
decomposition is to decompose the channel matrix appropriately into the
corresponding transmitter precoding matrix, as well as equivalent channel matrix
that can transform the MIMO channel to a series of independent sub-channels. In
this chapter, the fully digital Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) based precoding
is applied in order to improve the error performance of TAS-OSTBC systems.
5.1 Digital Precoding

Transmitter design for the MIMO broadcast channel is an important problem in
modern wireless communication systems. The main difficulty in this channel is that
the coordinated receive processing is not possible and all the signal processing must
be employed at the transmitter side. From a signal processing point of view, there
are still many open questions and there is ongoing search aimed at finding efficient
yet simple transmitter design algorithms. In particular, the main idea of the linear
digital precoding schemes is that the transmitted signal 𝑥 must be the same received
signal 𝑦 at the receiver with assuming that no error occurred to the transmitted signal.
However, the linear precoding schemes which seem to provide a promising tradeoff
between performance and complexity [46, 47] has cough the attention of a plenty of
researchers nowadays. Therefore, MIMO schemes raises the challenge of finding
techniques that avoid collaborative detection at the receiver side [48]. Most of these
techniques consider employing the precoding of the transmitted symbols at the base
station side in order to eliminate the inter-symbol interference.
The most commonly used linear precoding techniques that facilitate the reduction of
the inter-symbol interference is the Zero-Forcing (ZF) precoding technique, which
46
uses the inverse of the channel matrix as the precoding matrix. This technique also
eliminates in theory the inter-symbol interference and drastically reduces the
receiver complexity at the user side.
The ZF precoding matrix is expressed as [49]:
𝑃𝑍𝐹 = 𝐻𝐻 (𝐻 × 𝐻𝐻 )−1 (5.1)
By denoting 𝑥 as the vector of non-precoded symbols that are to be transmitted, then,
in case of applying a ZF precoding scheme, the precoded transmitted signal vector
𝑠 becomes as follows:
𝑠 = 𝑃𝑍𝐹 𝑥 (5.2)
Then, the input-output relationship can be represented as:
𝑦 = 𝐻𝑃𝑍𝐹 𝑥 + 𝑛 (5.3)
where the multiplication of the precding matrix 𝑃𝑍𝐹 to the channel matrix 𝐻 is the
identity matrix 𝐼, and then the received signal can be written as follows:
𝑦 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝑛 = 𝑥 + 𝑛 (5.4)
In general, the ZF precoding forces equal SNR values for all receive antennas,
causing reduced flexibility in adjusting the received power levels for each user
separately. This leads to inefficient energy distribution [50]. In contrast, the Singular
Value Decomposition (SVD) based precoding scheme has a very good flexibility in
terms of power balancing, even without applying a power allocation policy, it proves
to achieve a higher sum capacity as compared to the ZF method [35]. Therefore, this
type of precoding is chosen in this project to be applied in TAS-OSTBC systems.
5.2 Singular Value Decomposition (SVD)

Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) technique is to execute the singular value
decomposition to a matrix 𝐴 which is presented as follows [51]:
𝐴 = 𝑈𝑆𝑉 𝐻 (5.5)
47
where 𝐴 is 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix that can be decomposed to three subsequent matrices, 𝑈 is

an orthogonal and unitary matrix of size 𝑚 × 𝑚, 𝑆 is a real-valued diagonal matrix
of the positive square roots of the eigenvalues of the matrix 𝐴𝐻 𝐴 sorted in
descending order and with the same size of 𝐴, and 𝑉 𝐻 is the Hermitian transpose of
an 𝑛 × 𝑛 orthogonal and unitary matrix 𝑉. Equation (5.5) can be written in matrix
form as follows:
𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 𝑢11 ⋯ 𝑢1𝑚 𝑠11 ⋯ 𝑠1𝑛 𝑣11 ⋯ 𝑣1𝑛 𝐻
[ 𝑎21 ⋱ ⋮ ]=[ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ][ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ][ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ] (5.6)
𝑎𝑚1 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑢𝑚1 ⋯ 𝑢𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑚1 ⋯ 𝑠𝑚𝑛 𝑣𝑛1 ⋯ 𝑣𝑛𝑛
The SVD is a highlight of linear algebra and a matrix decomposition method for
reducing a matrix to its constituent parts in order to make certain subsequent matrix
calculations simpler. It is also known as matrix factorization that involves describing
a given matrix using its constituent elements. SVD technique is often used in a wide
array of applications including image compressing, denoising, and data reduction
[52].
For example, the SVD of a complex matrix 𝐴 with a size of 3 × 3 is as follows:

3 + 𝑗5 7 + 𝑗7 7 + 𝑗8
𝐴 = [ 6 + 𝑗5 9 + 𝑗12 3 + 𝑗8 ]
22 + 𝑗7 9 + 𝑗10 17 + 𝑗4
The subsequent matrices of 𝐴 can be obtained by the built-in function in MATLAB
as follows:
[U S V]=svd(A)
where the subsequent matrices are as follows:
−0.2770 − 0.2566𝑖 −0.4643 − 0.0883𝑖 0.6464 + 0.4649𝑖
𝑈 = [−0.3163 − 0.3164𝑖 −0.3391 − 0.5971𝑖 −0.2004 − 0.5367𝑖 ]
−0.7685 − 0.2581𝑖 0.5284 + 0.1604𝑖 −0.1326 + 0.1422𝑖
38.6438 0 0
𝑆=[ 0 11.0551 0 ]
0 0 2.7286
48
and
−0.6290 + 0.0000𝑖 0.5331 + 0.0000𝑖 −0.5658 + 0.0000𝑖
𝑉 = [−0.5144 + 0.1670𝑖 −0.6989 − 0.2273𝑖 −0.0867 − 0.3999𝑖 ]
−0.5582 + 0.0178𝑖 −0.0114 + 0.4190𝑖 0.6098 + 0.3750𝑖
The Hermitian transpose of 𝑉 is as follows:
−0.6290 −0.5144 − 0.1670𝑖 −0.5582 − 0.0178𝑖
𝐻
𝑉 = [ 0.5331 −0.6989 + 0.2273𝑖 −0.0114 − 0.4190𝑖 ]
−0.5658 −0.0867 + 0.3999𝑖 0.6098 − 0.3750𝑖
Then, the multiplication of the three matrices 𝑈, 𝑆 and 𝑉 𝐻 verifies that it satisfies
equation (5.5) as follows:
3 + 𝑗5 7 + 𝑗7 7 + 𝑗8
𝐻
𝑈𝑆𝑉 = 𝐴 = [ 6 + 𝑗5 9 + 𝑗12 3 + 𝑗8 ]
22 + 𝑗7 9 + 𝑗10 17 + 𝑗4
From this example, some properties can be realized such as the absolute value of the
determinant of matrix 𝐴 is 1165.7, and the absolute value of the determinant of the
diagonal matrix 𝑆 is 1165.7 which is the same determinant of the matrix 𝐴. It is also
noticeable that the determinant of matrices 𝑈 and 𝑉 is 1. This shows that the
multiplication of the determinant of the three subsequent matrices is equal to the
determinant of the original matrix 𝐴. In addition, it is also clear that the orthogonality
condition expressed in Equation (3.9) can also be applied to the orthogonal
subsequent matrices 𝑈 and 𝑉, where 𝑈𝑈 𝐻 = 𝑉𝑉 𝐻 = 𝐼 as follows:
1 0 0
𝐻 𝐻
𝑈𝑈 = 𝑉𝑉 = [0 1 0]
0 0 1
5.3 Performance Enhancement in TAS-OSTBC Systems with SVD-Based

Precoding Scheme
In this project, the fully digital SVD-based precoding algorithm is applied in TAS-
OSTBC systems. The idea of SVD-based precoding technique is to execute the
singular value decomposition to the channel matrix 𝐻 which is presented as follows:
49
𝐻 = 𝑈𝑆𝑉 𝐻 (5.7)
The received signal equation without employing SVD-based precoding scheme in

TAS-OSTBC system can be expressed as:
𝑦 = 𝐻𝑥 + 𝑛 (5.8)
This equation can be rewritten as follows:
𝑦 = 𝑈𝑆𝑉 𝐻 𝑥 + 𝑛 (5.9)
The effective channel after applying SVD-based precoding algorithm to the channel
matrix 𝐻 is expressed as follows:
𝐻𝑆𝑉𝐷 = 𝑈 𝐻 𝑈𝑆𝑉 𝐻 𝑉 = 𝑆 (5.10)
where 𝑉 is the precoder matrix which is implemented at the transmitter to eliminate

and minimize the inter-symbol interference, and 𝑈 𝐻 is considered as a digital post-
coder, or digital combiner, which is also called as receiver shaping as in [53]. This
digital post-coder is designed to successfully reconstruct the transmitted symbols.
Due to the orthogonality of both 𝑉 and 𝑈 matrices, the effective channel of Equation
(5.10) becomes equal to the diagonal matrix 𝑆 instead of the complex matrix 𝐻.
In TAS systems with OSTBC scheme, two transmit antennas are selected to
minimize the error probability and to reduce the number of RF chains. Then the
effective channel 𝐻𝑆𝑉𝐷 {𝑝 with SVD-based precoding scheme becomes with two
1 ,𝑝2 }
columns of 𝐻𝑆𝑉𝐷 chosen. In this case, the received signal equation of TAS-OSTBC
systems utilizing the SVD-based precoding technique becomes as follows:
𝑦 = 𝐻𝑆𝑉𝐷 {𝑝 𝑥 + 𝑈𝐻 𝑛 (5.11)
1 ,𝑝2 }
The second term of the noise 𝑈 𝐻 𝑛 will be eliminated by the receiver detector which
is chosen in this project to be ML detector.
50
The system model of TAS-OSTBC with fully digital SVD-based precoding is shown
in Figure (5.1).
Figure 5.1: TAS-OSTBC scheme with digital precoder 𝑽 and digital post-coder 𝑼𝑯 .
The whole processing flow of TAS-OSTBC scheme shown in this figure follows the
following steps:
 Mapping random bits as transmitted information into transmitted signal 𝑥, and

then modulating this information signal by employing 𝑀-QAM or 𝑀-PSK
techniques.
 Applying the fully digital SVD-based precoding algorithm to the channel matrix
𝐻, to get the unitary matrices 𝑈 and 𝑉, and the diagonal matrix 𝑆.
 Encoding the precoded signal by 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 STBC encoder, and selecting two
transmit antenna with the highest norm to convey data.
 The channel is modeled as a Rayleigh fading channel, and a random noise is
added and assumed to be AWGN.
 Shaping the received signal 𝑦 by the Hermitian transpose form of the unitary
matrix 𝑈.
 Decoding the received signals with OSTBC decoding scheme, and then
recovering and detecting the information by means of ML detection algorithm by
taking into consideration the effective channel with SVD precoding algorithm
𝐻𝑆𝑉𝐷 {𝑝 as described in section (3.3).
1 ,𝑝2 }
 Finally, demodulating these detected signals.

51
The following example shows the employment of SVD algorithm to the channel
matrix 𝐻 of TAS-OSTBC system with 4 transmit antennas and single receive
antenna. The channel matrix in this case is a 4 × 1 matrix as follows:
𝐻 = [0.4913 − 0.2002𝑖 0.3282 + 0.5216𝑖 −0.5576 − 0.5114𝑖 − 0.3901 + 0.40𝑖]
With applying SVD algorithm to this matrix, the post-coder matrix is a unitary
matrix with size of 1 × 1 as there is only one antenna at the receiver side.
𝑈 = [1]
The diagonal matrix which is considered as the effective channel matrix in this
chapter is with a size of 1 × 4 as follows:
𝑆 = [1.2435 0 0 0]
The precoder matrix is a unitary matrix with size of 4 × 4 due to using 4 transmit
antennas in this example as follows:
0.3951 + 0.1610𝑖 −0.1615 − 0.4685𝑖 0.3429 + 0.5026𝑖 0.3788 − 0.2422𝑖
0.2639 − 0.4194𝑖 0.8263 − 0.0200𝑖 0.2122 − 0.0325𝑖 −0.0193 − 0.1575𝑖
𝑉=[ ]
−0.4484 + 0.4113𝑖 0.1992 + 0.0800𝑖 0.7381 − 0.0302𝑖 −0.0281 + 0.1928𝑖
−0.3137 − 0.3221𝑖 −0.0547 + 0.1489𝑖 0.0165 − 0.1941𝑖 0.8570 − 0.0165𝑖
From these matrices, it is clear that 𝑆 matrix is defined by a matrix with one row and
four columns with all zeros and only the first column is non-zero because it is a
diagonal matrix.
5.4 Simulation Flowchart

Figure 5.2 illustrates the flowchart of the simulation of TAS-OSTBC system with
the fully digital SVD-based precoding technique.
5.5 Performance Results of TAS-OSTBC Systems with SVD-Based Precoding
This section presents the simulation results of employing the fully digital SVD-based
precoding in TAS-OSTBC systems over Rayleigh fading channel model. The error
performance is evaluated with varying the number of transmit antennas and the
modulation order of 𝑀-QAM technique.
52
Start
Set input parameters
Generating transmit data
Modulating the transmit signal
Applying OSTBC scheme
Activating the best two antennas (TAS)
Applying Rayleigh fading channel H
Applying SVD algorithm to H
Adding AWGN to the received signal
Applying 𝑼𝑯 post-coder at the receiver
OSTBC decoding and ML detection of

the received signal Move to the
next SNR
Demodulating the received signal
Computing the BER
No
Is maximum
SNR reached?
Yes
Plotting the BER
End
Figure 5.2: Simulation flowchart of TAS-OSTBC system with SVD-based precoding.
53
5.5.1 Performance Improvement of TAS-OSTBC with SVD-Based Precoding

Under Different Modulation Orders
In this subsection, the performance improvement of implementing SVD-based
precoding scheme in TAS-OSTBC 4 × 1 system by varying the modulation order of
𝑀-QAM technique is demonstrated as shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: BER performance of SVD-based precoding in TAS-OSTBC system with

different modulation orders.
This figure shows that employing SVD-based precoding in TAS-OSTBC systems

has improved the error performance by about 1 𝑑𝐵 as compared to the conventional
54
TAS-OSTBC system in all cases with different modulation orders. This shows that
the modulation order has no effect on the improvement achieved by applying SVD-
based precoding scheme in TAS-OSTBC system. For example, the required SNR
value to obtain the BER of 10−5 is about 13.5 𝑑𝐵 in TAS-OSTBC with SVD-based
precoding and employing 4-QAM technique, while TAS-OSTBC without SVD-
based precoding requires almost 14.5 𝑑𝐵 to achieve the same BER value. Therefore,
the SNR improvement is about 1 𝑑𝐵, and similarly with the other modulation orders.
Table 5.1 shows the required SNR value to achieve the BER of 10−5 in TAS-
OSTBC schemes with and without employing the SVD-based precoding and various
modulation orders.
Table 5.1: SNR improvement in TAS-OSTBC systems with SVD-based precoding for
different modulation orders.
SNR required SNR required
Modulation
with SVD-based without SVD-based SNR improvement
technique
precoding precoding
4-QAM 13.5 𝑑𝐵 14.5 𝑑𝐵 1 𝑑𝐵
8-QAM 18.3 𝑑𝐵 19.3 𝑑𝐵 1 𝑑𝐵

16-QAM 20.4 𝑑𝐵 21.4 𝑑𝐵 1 𝑑𝐵
32-QAM 23.3 𝑑𝐵 24.3 𝑑𝐵 1 𝑑𝐵
64-QAM 26.6 𝑑𝐵 27.6 𝑑𝐵 1 𝑑𝐵
128-QAM 29.4 𝑑𝐵 30.4 𝑑𝐵 1 𝑑𝐵

256-QAM 32.5 𝑑𝐵 33.5 𝑑𝐵 1 𝑑𝐵
5.5.2 BER Performance of TAS-OSTBC with SVD-Based Precoding and

Various Numbers of Transmit Antennas
In this subsection, the performance improvement obtained by applying SVD-based
precoding in TAS-OSTBC systems with different numbers of transmit antennas is
evaluated with employing 16-QAM and 4-QAM techniques.
55
Part 1) TAS-OSTBC with SVD-based precoding employing 16-QAM technique:
The simulation results of the BER performance of TAS-OSTBC scheme with SVD-
based precoding employing 16-QAM technique is evaluated with 𝑁𝑡 = 4, 8, 16 and
32 as follows:
Case 1) BER Performance with 𝑁𝑇 = 4

In this case, the error performance of TAS-OSTBC system with and without SVD-
based precoding with four transmit antennas but only two antennas are activated
according to TAS-OSTBC scheme is evaluated as shown in Figure 5.4. From this
figure, it can be seen that the required SNR value in TAS-OSTBC without SVD-
based precoding is about 21.4 𝑑𝐵 to achieve the BER of 10−5 , while with applying
the SVD algorithm to the channel matrix, it requires almost 20.4 𝑑𝐵. Therefore, it
is clear that the improvement of using SVD-based precoding scheme is about 1 𝑑𝐵.
Figure 5.4: BER performance of fully digital SVD-based precoding in TAS-OSTBC system
of 𝟒(𝟐) × 𝟏 and 16-QAM.
56

Figure 5.5 shows the error performance of TAS-OSTBC system with and without
SVD-based precoding employing 16-QAM technique with eight transmit antennas
and activating only two antennas. From this figure, it is noticeable that the required
SNR value in TAS-OSTBC system without SVD-based precoding scheme to
achieve the BER of 10−5 is about 18.5 𝑑𝐵, while with applying the SVD algorithm
to the channel matrix, it requires almost 15.8 𝑑𝐵. Therefore, it is clear that the
improvement of utilizing the fully digital SVD-based precoding scheme in TAS-
OSTBC system with eight antennas is about 2.7 𝑑𝐵.
of 𝟖(𝟐) × 𝟏 and 16-QAM.

In this case, the error performance of TAS-OSTBC scheme with and without SVD-
based precoding using single receive antenna, 16 transmit antennas but only two
antennas are activated, and employing 16-QAM scheme is evaluated as shown in
57
Figure 5.6. From this figure, it is obvious that the required SNR value in TAS-
OSTBC without SVD-based precoding to achieve the BER of 10−5 is about 16 𝑑𝐵,
while with employing the SVD-based precoding scheme, it requires almost 11 𝑑𝐵.
This shows that the improvement of utilizing the fully digital SVD-based precoding
in TAS-OSTBC system with 16 antennas is about 5 𝑑𝐵.
of 𝟏𝟔(𝟐) × 𝟏 and 16-QAM.

Figure 5.7 shows the error performance of TAS-OSTBC scheme with and without
SVD-based precoding employing 16-QAM with 32 transmit antennas and activating
only two antennas. From this figure, it is noticeable that the required SNR value in
TAS-OSTBC system without SVD-based precoding to achieve the BER of 10−5 is
about 14.5 𝑑𝐵, while with applying the SVD algorithm to the channel matrix, it
58
requires almost 7.8 𝑑𝐵. Therefore, it is clear that the improvement of using SVD-
based precoding in TAS-OSTBC system with 32 antennas is about 6.7 𝑑𝐵.
of 𝟑𝟐(𝟐) × 𝟏 and 16-QAM.
The previous results show the error performance of TAS-OSTBC systems with
SVD-based precoding scheme with 𝑁𝑡 = 4, 8, 16 and 32 antennas and employing
16-QAM technique. Figure 5.8 shows the BER performance includes all these four
cases where it reveals that the SNR improvement obtained by applying the SVD-
based precoding scheme in TAS-OSTBC systems increases as the number of
transmit antennas increases. It is also seen that the BER performance of TAS-
OSTBC 8 × 1 system with SVD-based precoding is almost the same of that of TAS-
OSTBC 16 × 1 system without employing SVD algorithm to the channel matrix.
This shows that utilizing SVD algorithm reduces the required number of transmit
antennas in these two schemes and achieves almost the same error performance.
59
Table 5.2 illustrates the required SNR value in TAS-OSTBC systems employing 16-
QAM with and without SVD-based precoding technique, and the SNR improvement
obtained to achieve the BER of 10−5 .
with different numbers of transmit antennas and 16-QAM.
Table 5.2: SNR improvement in TAS-OSTBC systems with SVD-based precoding and
employing 16-QAM.

Number of
without SVD-based with SVD-based SNR improvement
transmit antennas
precoding precoding
𝟒(𝟐) × 𝟏 21.4 𝑑𝐵 20.4 𝑑𝐵 1 𝑑𝐵
𝟖(𝟐) × 𝟏 18.5 𝑑𝐵 15.8 𝑑𝐵 2.7 𝑑𝐵

𝟏𝟔(𝟐) × 𝟏 16 𝑑𝐵 11 𝑑𝐵 5 𝑑𝐵
𝟑𝟐(𝟐) × 𝟏 14.5 𝑑𝐵 7.8 𝑑𝐵 6.7 𝑑𝐵
60
Part 2) TAS-OSTBC with SVD-based precoding employing 4-QAM technique:

In the previous results, the impact of applying the SVD-based precoding scheme on
the error performance of TAS-OSTBC systems is evaluated with employing 16-
QAM technique. In order to investigate the effect of the modulation order on the
improvements achieved by using SVD-based precoding with different numbers of
transmit antennas, 4-QAM is employed with 𝑁𝑡 = 4, 8, 16 and 32 antennas.
The BER performance of TAS-OSTBC system with and without SVD-based

precoding scheme and employing 4-QAM technique with four transmit antennas and
activating only two antennas according to TAS-OSTBC scheme is evaluated as
shown in Figure 5.9. From this figure, it can be seen that the required SNR value in
TAS-OSTBC without SVD-based precoding scheme to achieve the BER of 10−5 is
about 14.5 𝑑𝐵, while with employing the SVD algorithm to the channel matrix, it
requires almost 13.5 𝑑𝐵. Therefore, it is clear that the improvement of using SVD-
based precoding in this system is about 1 𝑑𝐵. This improvement is equal to the SNR
improvement that obtained with employing 16-QAM as shown in Figure 5.4.
of 𝟒(𝟐) × 𝟏 and 4-QAM.
61
Figures 5.10, 5.11 and 5.12 show the error performance of TAS-OSTBC systems
with and without SVD-based precoding technique employing 4-QAM with 8, 16
and 32 transmit antennas, respectively. Figure 5.10 reveals that the required SNR
value in TAS-OSTBC 8 × 1 system without SVD-based precoding to achieve the
BER of 10−5 is about 11.7 𝑑𝐵, while with applying the SVD algorithm to the
channel matrix, it requires almost 9 𝑑𝐵. It is clear that the improvement of using
SVD-based precoding in TAS-OSTBC systems with eight antennas is about 2.7 𝑑𝐵.
From Figure 5.11, it is obvious that the required SNR value in TAS-OSTBC 16 × 1
system without SVD-based precoding to achieve the BER of 10−5 is about 8.8 𝑑𝐵,
while with employing the SVD algorithm to the channel matrix, it requires almost
3.8 𝑑𝐵. This shows that the improvement of employing the SVD-based precoding
in TAS-OSTBC systems with 16 antennas and employing 4-QAM is about 5 𝑑𝐵.
Figure 5.10: BER performance of fully digital SVD-based precoding in TAS-OSTBC

system of 𝟖(𝟐) × 𝟏 and 4-QAM.
62

system of 𝟏𝟔(𝟐) × 𝟏 and 4-QAM.

system of 𝟑𝟐(𝟐) × 𝟏 and 4-QAM.
63
In contrast, Figure 5.12 shows that the required SNR value in TAS-OSTBC 32 × 1
system without SVD-based precoding scheme to achieve the BER of 10−5 is about
7.5 𝑑𝐵, while with employing the SVD algorithm to the channel matrix, it requires
almost 0.8 𝑑𝐵 to achieve the same BER performance. Therefore, it is clear that the
improvement of using SVD-based precoding technique in TAS-OSTBC system with
32 antennas is about 6.7 𝑑𝐵.
These results show that the improvement obtained from applying the SVD-based
precoding scheme in TAS-OSTBC systems with 4-QAM is the same as the
improvement that achieved with employing 16-QAM technique. Thus, these results
show that the modulation order has no effect on the improvement achieved by
applying SVD algorithm to the channel matrix of TAS-OSTBC systems.
To summarize, Figure 5.13 demonstrates the BER performance includes all cases
with different numbers of transmit antennas, and it shows that the SNR improvement
obtained by employing SVD-based precoding in TAS-OSTBC systems increases as
the number of transmit antennas increases. It is also seen from this figure that the
BER performance of TAS-OSTBC 8 × 1 system employing 4-QAM technique with
SVD-based precoding scheme is almost the same of that of TAS-OSTBC 16 × 1
systems without employing the SVD algorithm to the channel matrix. This also
shows that utilizing the SVD algorithm reduces the required number of transmit
antennas in these two systems and achieves almost the same error performance,
similar to the results shown in Figure 5.8 for these two schemes with 16-QAM.
Table 5.3 illustrates the requires SNR value in TAS-OSTBC systems employing 4-
QAM technique with and without SVD-based precoding scheme, and the SNR
improvement obtained to achieve the BER of 10−5 .
64

system with different numbers of transmit antennas and 4-QAM.
Table 5.3: SNR improvement in TAS-OSTBC systems with SVD-based precoding and
employing 4-QAM.

Number of
without SVD- with SVD-based SNR improvement
transmit antennas
based precoding precoding
𝟒(𝟐 × 𝟏) 14.5 𝑑𝐵 13.5 𝑑𝐵 1 𝑑𝐵

𝟖(𝟐 × 𝟏) 11.7𝑑𝐵 9 𝑑𝐵 2.7 𝑑𝐵
𝟏𝟔(𝟐 × 𝟏) 8.8 𝑑𝐵 3.8 𝑑𝐵 5 𝑑𝐵
𝟑𝟐(𝟐 × 𝟏) 7.5 𝑑𝐵 0.8 𝑑𝐵 6.7 𝑑𝐵
65
In general, MIMO systems offer transmission with increased capacity, but require
the mitigation of both Co-channel Interference (CCI) and Inter-symbol Interference
(ISI) for the transmitted data streams over channel. The use of SVD helps to
eliminate not only the CCI but also a part of the ISI too [54], and improves the BER
performance by using 𝑉 as precoder matrix which is implemented in the transmitter
and 𝑈 𝐻 is placed in the receiver and considered as a digital post-coder as
demonstrated in this chapter.
To conclude, applying the fully digital SVD-based precoding scheme for TAS-
OSTBC systems is presented and simulated in this chapter, and it is seen that there
is an improvement of about 1 𝑑𝐵, 2.7 𝑑𝐵, 5 𝑑𝐵 and 6.7 𝑑𝐵 with 𝑁𝑡 = 4, 8, 16 and
32 antennas, respectively. Moreover, all results of this chapter show that varying the
modulation order has no effect on the improvement obtained by utilizing the SVD-
based precoding technique in TAS-OSTBC systems.
66
CHAPTER SIX
Conclusions and Future Work

Conclusions and Future Work Chapter Six
6.1 Conclusions
The main reason for the augmentation of MIMO technology and its variants in the
past few years is the appealing advantages they offer compared to the classical
wireless communication systems. This chapter presents a summary of this project,
and its main conclusions and results, and a possible future work is also discussed.
The main conclusions of this project are summarized as follows:
 The important achievement in this project is studying and simulating TAS-

OSTBC system and comparing its error performance to SISO and 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖
STBC 2 × 1 schemes. It is shown that the BER performance of TAS-OSTBC
4 × 1 system is better than that of the other systems because it is based on
selecting and activating two transmit antennas out of four antennas to send data,
and a further diversity gain has been achieved in TAS-OSTBC system with only
two active antennas out of four transmit antennas. The simulation results of these
three systems are similar to several published works, which proves our results.
 TAS systems provide a good BER performance as compared to the classical
MIMO systems with multiple RF chains associated with multiple antennas which
are costly in terms of size, power consumption, and hardware. Therefore, antenna
selection is a low cost low complexity alternative to capture many of the
advantages of MIMO systems with low cost and high performance.
 This project highlighted the TAS-OSTBC systems as a key enabling technology
for the future communication systems beyond 4G cellular systems, and massive
MIMO systems for 5G networks. This technology offers huge advantages in
terms of energy efficiency, spectral efficiency, robustness and reliability. It
allows the use of low-cost hardware at the base stations. At the base station, the
use of expensive and powerful components of RF chains is a significant
68
drawback, thus the hardware is replaced by several transmit antennas that used
of parallel low-cost low power units with a limited number of RF chains.
 Simulation results showed that the BER performance of TAS-OSTBC systems
employing 𝑀-QAM technique is close to that with 𝑀-PSK scheme with the same
modulation order in the cases of low modulation orders such as 𝑀 = 4 and 8. On
the other hand, employing 𝑀-QAM technique gives better error perfoamcnce
than that with 𝑀-PSK technique with higher modulation orders for the same 𝑀.
 It is also demonstrated that applying the fully digital SVD-based precoding for
TAS-OSTBC systems improves significantly the reliability and the error
performance, and the SNR improvement increases as the number of transmit
antennas increases. It showed a performance improvement of about 1 𝑑𝐵,
2.7 𝑑𝐵, 5 𝑑𝐵 and 6.7 𝑑𝐵 with 𝑁𝑡 = 4, 8, 16 and 32 antennas, respectively, with
both 4-QAM and 16-QAM techniques. As well as, all simulation results showed
that varying the modulation order has no effect on the improvement obtained by
utilizing the SVD-based precoding technique in TAS-OSTBC systems.
6.2 Future Work

In this project, ML detection is used in all schemes, however, another detection
techniques can be considered in a future work such as low-complexity Log-
Likelihood Ratio (LLR).
Another modulation techniques can be also considered as a future work, where it

should be noted that using the ML detector becomes impractical for higher values of
modulation orders due to its exponentially growing decoding complexity.
Another precoding schemes can be used to evaluate the performance of TAS-

OSTBC systems such as Zero-Forcing (ZF), Maximum Ratio Transmission (MRT)
and Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) precoding techniques.
69
6.3 Gantt Chart

Table 6.1 illustrates the time spent on each task of this project.
Table 6.1: Gantt chart.
Start March April June July August September Oct.

Task
[week]
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Project Planning
1 and Reading about 1
MIMO Systems
2 SISO and Alamouti

STBC
Studying both SISO
2.1 and Alamouti 4
schemes.
Simulating and
2.2 comparing both 6
SISO and Alamouti
schemes.
3 TAS-OSTBC
Reading about TAS-
3.1 7
OSTBC systems.
Simulating TAS-
3.2 9
OSTBC systems.
Comparing TAS-
OSTBC to SISO and
3.3 Alamouti STBC in 10
terms of BER
performance.
Fully Digital SVD-

4
Based Precoding
Studying and
4.1 simulating SVD 12
technique.
Implementing SVD-
4.2 based precoding in 13
TAS-OSTBC system.
Simulating and
varying different
4.3 15
parameters with
comparisons.
Writing The
5 17
Report
6 Report Submission 26
70
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77
APPENDICES
Appendix A
Appendix A: Frobenius Matrix Norm
The Frobenius Norm of a matrix 𝐴 ∈ ℂ𝑚×𝑛 is defined by the equation:
2 2
‖𝐴‖2𝐹 = ∑|𝑎𝑖𝑗 | = ∑‖𝐴𝑖∗ ‖22 = ∑‖𝐴∗𝑗 ‖ = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒(𝐴𝐴𝐻 )
2
𝑖,𝑗 𝑖 𝑗
The Frobenius matrix norm is fine for some problems, but it is not well suited for
all applications. So, similar to the situation for vector norms, alternatives need to be
explored. But before trying to develop different recipes for matrix norms, it makes
sense to first formulate a general definition of a matrix norm.
A1
Appendix B
Appendix B: Matlab Code of Alamouti STBC Scheme

% Alamouti_scheme.m
clear all
N_frame=130;
N_packet=4000; %Number of frascmes/packet
NT=2;
NR=1;
b=2;
SNRdBs=0:2:30;
sq_NT=sqrt(NT);
sq2=sqrt(2);
for i_SNR=1:length(SNRdBs)
SNRdB=SNRdBs(i_SNR);
sigma=sqrt(0.5/(10^(SNRdB/10)));
for
i_packet=1:N_packet
msg_symbol=randint(N_frame*b,NT);
tx_bits=msg_symbol.';
tmp=[];
tmp1=[];
for i=1:NT
[tmp1,sym_tab,P]=modulator(tx_bits(i,:),b);
tmp=[tmp; tmp1];
end
X=tmp.';
X1=X;
X2=[-conj(X(:,2)) conj(X(:,1))];
for n=1:NT
Hr(n,:,:)=(randn(N_frame,NT)+j*randn(N_frame,NT))/sq2;
end
H=reshape(Hr(n,:,:),N_frame,NT);
Habs(:,n)=sum(abs(H).^2,2);
R1 =
sum(H.*X1,2)/sq_NT+sigma*(randn(N_frame,1)+j*randn(N_frame,1));
R2 =
sum(H.*X2,2)/sq_NT+sigma*(randn(N_frame,1)+j*randn(N_frame,1));
Z1 = R1.*conj(H(:,1)) + conj(R2).*H(:,2);
Z2 = R1.*conj(H(:,2)) - conj(R2).*H(:,1);
for m=1:P
tmp = (-1+sum(Habs,2))*abs(sym_tab(m))^2;
d1(:,m) = abs(sum(Z1,2)-sym_tab(m)).^2 + tmp;
d2(:,m) = abs(sum(Z2,2)-sym_tab(m)).^2 + tmp;
end
[y1,i1]=min(d1,[],2); S1d=sym_tab(i1).'; clear d1
[y2,i2]=min(d2,[],2); S2d=sym_tab(i2).'; clear d
B1
Appendix B
Xd = [S1d S2d]; tmp1=X>0 ; tmp2=Xd>0;

noeb_p(i_packet) = sum(sum(tmp1~=tmp2));% for coded
end % end of FOR loop for i_packet
BER(i_SNR) = sum(noeb_p)/(N_packet*N_frame*b);
end % end of FOR loop for i_SNR
function [mod_symbols,sym_table,M]=modulator(bitseq,b)
N_bits=length(bitseq);sq10=sqrt(10);
if b==1 % BPSK modulation
sym_table=exp(j*[0 -pi]); sym_table=sym_table([1 0]+1);
inp=bitseq; mod_symbols=sym_table(inp+1); M=2;
else
if b==2 % QPSK modulation
sym_table=exp(j*pi/4*[-3 3 1 -1]);sym_table=sym_table([0 1 3
2]+1);
inp=reshape(bitseq,b,N_bits/b);
mod_symbols=sym_table([2 1]*inp+1); M=4;
else
if b==3 % generates 8-PSK symbols
sym_table=exp(j*pi/4*[0:7]);
sym_table=sym_table([0 1 3 2 6 7 5 4]+1);
mod_symbols=sym_table([4 2 1]*inp+1); M=8;
elseif b==4 % 16-QAM modulation
m=0;
for k=-3:2:3 % Power normalization
for l=-3:2:3, m=m+1; sym_table(m)=(k+j*l)/sq10;
end
end
sym_table=sym_table([0 1 3 2 4 5 7 6 12 13 15 14 8 9 11 10]+1);
mod_symbols=sym_table([8 4 2 1]*inp+1); M=16; %16-ary symbol
sequence
else error('Unimplemented modulation');
end
end
end
end
B2
Appendix C
Appendix C: Matlab Code of TAS-OSTBC System

%####################################################################
%************************ Simulation of TAS-OSTBC system ***********************%
%####################################################################
clear all;
clf;
%%%%%% Parameter Setting %%%%%%%%%

N_frame=100000; %Number of frames/packet
N_packet=10; %Number of packets
b=2; %modulation order
M=2^b; %number of levels
mod_obj=modem.qammod('M',M,'SymbolOrder','Gray','InputType','bit
'); %% QAM modulation
demod_obj = modem.qamdemod(mod_obj); %%QAM demodulation
% MIMO Parameters
T_TX=4; %number of transmit antennas
NT=2; % actual transmit antennas
NR=1; %single recieve antenna
N_pbits=NT*b*N_frame;
N_tbits=N_pbits*N_packet;
SNRdBs = [-10:2:45]; %signal to noise ratio (SNR) Range

sq2=sqrt(2);
for i_SNR=1:length(SNRdBs)
SNRdB= SNRdBs(i_SNR);
noise_var = NT*0.5*10^(-SNRdB/10);
sigma = sqrt(noise_var);
rand('seed',1);
randn('seed',1);
N_ebits = 0;
%%%%%%%%%%%%% Transmitter side %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

for i_packet=1:N_packet
msg_bit = randint(N_pbits,1); % Bit generation
s = modulate(mod_obj,msg_bit);
Scale = modnorm(s,'avpow',1); % Normalization factor
S = reshape(Scale*s,NT,1,N_frame);
Tx_symbol = [S(1,1,:) -conj(S(2,1,:)); S(2,1,:)
conj(S(1,1,:))];
%%%%%%%%%%%%% Channel and Noise %%%%%%%%%%%%%
C1
Appendix C
H = (randn(NR,T_TX)+j*randn(NR,T_TX))/sq2;
for TX_index=1:T_TX
ch(TX_index)=norm(H(:,TX_index),'fro');
end
[val,Index] = sort(ch,'descend');
Hs = H(:,Index([1 2]));
norm_H2=norm(Hs,'fro')^2; % H selected and its norm2
for i=1:N_frame
Rx(:,:,i) = Hs*Tx_symbol(:,:,i) +
sigma*(randn(NR,2)+j*randn(NR,2));% Y= Hx+n
end
%%%%%%%%%%%%% Receiver side %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

for i=1:N_frame
y(1,i) = (Hs(1)'*Rx(:,1,i) +
Hs(2)*Rx(:,2,i)')/norm_H2;
y(2,i) = (Hs(2)'*Rx(:,1,i) -
Hs(1)*Rx(:,2,i)')/norm_H2;
end
S_hat = reshape(y/Scale,NT*N_frame,1);
msg_hat = demodulate(demod_obj,S_hat);
N_ebits = N_ebits + sum(msg_hat~=msg_bit);
end
BER(i_SNR) = N_ebits/N_tbits;% BER error calculator
end
C2

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University of Tripoli

Transmit Antenna Selection Using OSTBC

‫إلى أمي الحبيبة وأبي الغالي‬

‫وإلى كل إخوتي وأختي الغالية وكل عائلتي‬

‫لهم مني كل الحب والتقدير واإلمتنان‬

Mohammed Salem Alshawish

Simulation results demonstrate that the comparison between SISO, Alamouti 2 × 1

Chapter One: Introduction

Chapter Two: Overview of MIMO Communications

Chapter Six: Conclusions and Future Work

The main disadvantages of wireless communications include [2]:

1.2 MIMO Wireless Communication

addition, significant improvement in the Quality of Service (QoS), energy efficiency

1.3 Evolution from 1G to 5G Technology

Table 1.1: Differences between generations [9].

Definition Technology Technology Features

Speeds for 4G are

1.4 Problem Statement

1.5 Project Objectives

1.6 Project Organization

Overview of MIMO Communications

2.2 History of MIMO

2.3 MIMO System Model

Figure 2.1: Time line of key multi-antenna advances [26].

Figure 2.2: Simplified block diagram of MIMO system.

The received signal of MIMO systems can be represented as:

2.3.1 Additive White Gaussian Noise

2.3.2 Channel Models

channel matrix according to a physical representation of the environment. The

2.3.3 Rayleigh Fading Model

2.4 MIMO Technology Categories

2.4.1 MIMO Classification with Respect to Antenna Configuration

 SISO: Single-input single-output is a radio system where neither the transmitter

Figure 2.3: Forms of antenna configuration.

2.4.2 Categories of MIMO with Respect to How Data is Transmitted

a) Spatial (Transmit/Receive) Diversity

2.5 Advantages Offered by MIMO Technique

2.6 Disadvantages of MIMO Technology [13]

e) Channel interchange: The mode of operation known as time division is based

2.7 Massive MIMO Antennas

Figure 2.5: Distribution of antennas in massive MIMO systems.

d) It increases immunity against interference and intentional interference.

2.8 Transmitter Cost Considerations

2.8.1 Structure of Radio Frequency Chains

Transmit Antenna Selection Systems Using

In MIMO systems, reducing the number of RF chains is a promising technique in

3.1 Transmit Antenna Selection Techniques

3.2 Space-Time Block Coding

3.2.1 𝑨𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒊 STBC

subsection, a description of the 𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑖 scheme is provided for 1 receive antenna

Symbol interval Antenna 1 Antenna 2

Time 𝑡 + 𝑇 −𝑥2∗ 𝑥1∗

and ℎ2 (𝑡) = ℎ2 (𝑡 + 𝑇) = ℎ2 (3.4)

𝑦2 = 𝑦2 (𝑡 + 𝑇) = −ℎ1 𝑥2∗ + ℎ2 𝑥1∗ + 𝑛2 (3.6)

3.2.2 Orthogonal Space-Time Block Codes

𝑋𝑋 𝐻 = ∑ |𝑥𝑘 |2 . 𝐼𝑁𝑡 (3.9)

3.3 Transmit Antenna Selection Using OSTBC

* The Frobenius norm of a matrix or vector 𝐴 is defined as:

Figure 3.3: TAS-OSTBC system model.

a space-time codeword 𝐶𝑖 is transmitted but 𝐶𝑗 is decoded for the given effective

= arg max 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 [𝐻{𝑝1 ,𝑝2,…,𝑝𝑄} 𝐸𝑖,𝑗 𝐸𝐻𝑖,𝑗 𝐻𝐻{𝑝 ,𝑝 ,…,𝑝 } ]

= arg max 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 [𝐻{𝑝1 ,𝑝2,…,𝑝𝑄 } 𝐻𝐻{𝑝 ,𝑝 ,…,𝑝 } ]

Error Performance of Transmit Antenna Selection