MODULE 2

LESSON 2. METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING

I. Objectives:
At the end of this module, students should be able to;
1. distinguish opinion from truth;
2. analyze situations that show the difference between opinion and truth;
3. realize that the methods of philosophy lead to rational thinking, wisdom, and
truth;
4. evaluate opinions; and
5. Apply theories of critical thinking in making strong and valid decisions.

II. Topics:
 Methods of Philosophizing
 Determining Truth from Opinion

III. Introductory Activity:

ACTIVITY 1 Think-Pair-Share (Two Lies and a Truth)

Tell two lies and a truth about yourself and your classmate will
guess which one is the truth.

DISCUSSION 1 Methods of Philosophizing

Philosophizing is to think or express oneself in a rational and logical manner. It considers or
discusses a matter from a philosophical standpoint.

A. Phenomenology: On Consciousness
Edmund Husserl founded Phenomenology- where the truth is based on the person’s
consciousness.
This focuses on careful inspection and description of phenomena or appearances, defines
as any object of conscious experience, that is, that which we are conscious of (Johnston, 2006).
The word “phenomenon” comes directly from a Greek (phainomenon) meaning “appearance”.
The phenomenological standpoint is achieved through a series of phenomenological
“reductions” that eliminate certain aspects of our experience from consideration. Husserl’s
formulates several of these and their emphasis shifts throughout his career.
1. Epoche or “suspension” brackets all the questions of truth and reality and simply
describes the contents of consciousness.
2. Focuses on the essential features, the meaning of consciousness.
3. What interest the phenomenologists are the contents of consciousness, not on the things
of natural world as such.

B. Existentialism: On Freedom
It emphasizes the importance of free individual choice, regardless of the power of the
other people to influence and coerce our desires, beliefs and decisions. In simpler term,
existentialism is a philosophy concerned with finding self and meaning of life through free will,
choice, and personal responsibility. The belief is that people are searching to find out who and
what they are throughout life as they make choices based on their experiences, beliefs, and
outlook. And personal choices become unique without the necessity of an objective form of
truth. An existentialist believes that a person should be forced to choose and be responsible
without the help of laws, ethic rules, or traditions.
Soren Kierkegaars, insisted that the authentic self was the personally chosen self, as opposed to
public or “herd identity” which is the tendency of people to blindly follow the crowd because it
is familiar, easy, and less stressful.
Friedrich Nietzsche, took this view of opposition of the genuine individual versus the identity
of “herd” identity.
Jean-Paul Sartre, French philosopher who emphasized the importance of free individual choice
regardless of the power of other people to influence and coerce our desires, beliefs and decisions.
Socrates “the good of his soul” he sought not mere opinions but knowledge, self-knowledge in
particular and prescribed not just right action but virtue, being “true to oneself”.
St. Augustine was concerned with the spiritual nature of the “true” self as opposed to the
inauthentic demands of desire and the body.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau essential goodness of the “natural” self contrast to the “corruption”
imposed by society.

C. Postmodernism: On Cultures
It is accepted that truth is not absolute (i.e. cultural). Post modernism is mot philosophy-it
is best a holding pattern, perhaps a cry of despair. Postmodernists believe that humanity should
come at truth beyond the rational to the non-rational elements of human nature. including the
spiritual.

D. Analytic Tradition
Language cannot objectively describe truth. “Analysis” refers to a method; owing a great
deal to the pioneers,
Ludwig Wittgenstein, an analytic philosopher, language is socially conditioned which means
the meaning of words is created by what people have agreed upon. There is no objective
meaning. We understand the world solely in terms of our language games, that is, our linguistic,
social constructs. Truth, as we perceive it, is itself socially constructed. Truth can change
depending on what people have decided it to be.

E. Logic and Critical Thinking: Tool in Reasoning – defined as the analysis and construction of
arguments. It also serves as the path to freedom from half-truths and deception.
Two Types of Reasoning:
1. Inductive Reasoning (observation in order to make generalizations often applied in
prediction, forecasting or behavior)
2. Deductive Reasoning (draws conclusion from usually one broad judgment or definition
and one more specific assertion, often an inference).

F. Fallacies
There are times when a person utters arguments that deceive and prove nothing. These
arguments somehow could sound convincing and very persuasive in order to shape other’s
opinion and deliver flawed judgment and reason. These arguments are called fallacies.

Below are the different types of fallacies.

FALLACY DEFINITION EXAMPLE

ad hominem (against the attacking the individual person “You are irritatingly ugly, that
person) instead of the argument is why you cannot be
promoted.”
appeal to force telling the hearer that “You have to pass this text
something bad will happen to message to 10 people or else
him/her if he/she does not you will receive bad luck.”
accept the argument
appeal to pity urging the hearer to accept the “I cannot take the exam. You
argument based upon an have to consider, my dog just
appeal to emotions, sympathy, died.”
 etc.
appeal to popular opinion urging the hearer to accept a
position because majority of
the people hold to it
appeal to tradition trying to get someone to
accept something because it
has been done or believed for
a long time
begging the question assuming the thing that you
are trying to prove is true
fallacy of composition assuming that what is true of
the part is true to the whole
fallacy of division assuming that what is true of
the whole is true the parts
fallacy of equivocation using the same term in
different places but the word
has different meanings.
“Everybody wants him/her to
be president; we should
support him/her too.”
“We have been doing this
since time immemorial;
therefore this is the right thing
to do.”
“I am pretty because my mom
said I am pretty, and I believe
her.”
“Hydrogen (H) is air. Oxygen
(O) is air. Therefore, H2O is
air.”
“Her entire family is a family
of beauty queens. I’m sure she
will be a beauty queen too.”
“Her grandmother loves to eat
apples but she is the apple of
the eye of her grandmother.
I’m sure her grandmother will
have a hard time eating her.”

ACTIVITY 2

Look for sample of fallacious statements, ideas, or concepts

from different media (commercials, periodicals, magazines).

Identify the type of fallacies being referred to by the said

statements or concepts.

DISCUSSION 2 Determining Truth from Opinion

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