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Study Guide
Liquid Penetrant
Testing Method
Published by
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
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Copyright © 2002 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ASNT is not responsible for the authen-
ticity or accuracy of information herein. Published opinions and statements do not necessarily reflect the opinion of
ASNT. Products or services that are advertised or mentioned do not carry the endorsement or recommendation of
ASNT.
1RRSP, The NDT Technician and www.asnt.org are trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing,
Inc. ACCP, ASNT, Level III Study Guide, Materials Evaluation, NDT Handbook, Nondestructive Testing Handbook,
Research in Nondestructive Evaluation and RNDE and are registered trademarks of The American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
IBN-13: 978-1-57117-092-7
ISBN-10: 1-57117-092-8
Contents.....................................................................................................................................................iii
Introduction.............................................................................................................................................vii
Review Questions.....................................................................................................................................31
Answers.....................................................................................................................................................37
History of Liquid Penetrant or the shape of the part. With proper sequencing of
Testing the process in manufacturing and the use of
appropriate cleaning methods with trained and
Liquid penetrant testing is one of the oldest certified operators, liquid penetrant testing is a very
methods of nondestructive testing. Its origin is reliable, accurate and effective surface inspection
generally attributed to the inspection of wheel process.
axles in the railroad industry in the 1890s. It was
noticed that after oil was wiped off of a part
surface, the oil would reappear where a crack or Advantages of the Penetrant Process
other type of discontinuity was located. This The following are advantages of the liquid
discovery led to the oil-and-whiting test. Parts penetrant process:
were immersed in oil and then wiped with rags 1. very small surface discontinuities can be
dampened with kerosene. Powdered chalk was detected,
used to dust the surface to increase the visibility of 2. a wide variety(sự đa dạng) of materials can be
any oil leaking back onto the part surface. Today's tested,
liquid penetrant testing evolved from the oil-and- 3. complex geometrical shapes can be inspected in
whiting test through continual improvements to the a single operation,
type of oil used, the addition of dyes and the 4. various sensitivities and processing methods are
creation of special removers and developers. available,
5. it is relatively (tương đối)easy to use,
6. it can be portable(xách tay, di chuyển được),
Principles of Liquid Penetrant and
Testing 7. when compared to other testing methods, it has
a low cost.
Liquid penetrant testing is based on the ability
of a liquid to seep into cavities that are open to the
surface and remain in the cavity when the excess Disadvantages of the Penetrant
liquid is removed. The liquid remaining in the Process
cavity is then drawn out to form an indication that The following are disadvantages of the liquid
is much more visible than the cavity itself. Liquid penetrant process:
penetrant testing is used to detect surface 1. porous(xốp) materials cannot be tested;
discontinuities in solid, nonporous materials. It is 2. surfaces must be clean and free of paint,
used on wrought, cast metal and metal alloys; coatings, soil, moisture(hơi ẩm) and
weldments, powdered metals, plastics, ceramics contaminants;
and glass. A variety of materials and application 3. it cannot be used following metal smearing
methods allow for some adjustment of the process operations such as shot peening, sand blasting,
sensitivity to certain types of discontinuities, certain machining operations (unless material is
surface conditions and material types. acid etched to remove smeared metal);
Liquid penetrant testing is one of the most 4. some materials (rubber and plastics) may be
widely used nondestructive testing methods in adversely affected by the penetrant's petroleum
industry. It is able to detect small discontinuities base;
open to the surface regardless of their orientation 5. it is very dependent on operator skill; and
6. some penetrant products use ingredients that
may cause skin irritation under prolonged
contact if proper protective clothing is not worn.
ASNT Level II Study Guide: Liquid Penetrant Testing
Basics of the Penetrant Process Coatings such as paint and plating interfere with
the penetrant's ability to enter a discontinuity by
The basic penetrant process can be divided into covering or filling the cavity. Indications produced
three steps: application of the penetrant, removal of on coated surfaces are generally from
the excess surface penetrant and development of the discontinuities in the paint or plating rather than
indication. However, the process must be preceded those in the base material. Anodized coatings are
by appropriate surface preparation and cleaning very porous. Absorption of the penetrant can mask
methods, parts must be dried after penetrant discontinuities by making relevant indications
removal, indications must be evaluated after indistinguishable from the anodized surface of the
processing and parts must be cleaned after testing. part.
Operations that deform the surface, such as
grinding, cutting, shot peening, sand blasting and
Preparation of Parts for Penetrant Testing vapor honing, can cover discontinuities by smearing
Final examination by the penetrant process a thin layer of metal over the opening, reducing its
should be performed following all operations that size or sealing it completely. Because liquid
may cause or expose discontinuities on the part penetrant testing cannot detect anything not open to
surface. Examples of these operations are heat the surface, this thin coating of metal prevents the
treating, machining, welding, bending and penetrant liquid from entering the cavity and
straightening. forming an indication. These operations also can
The penetrant process should be performed cause discontinuities in the material and performing
before any treatments that smear the surface of the the liquid penetrant test before the metal smearing
part such as: honing, lapping, sanding, deburring, operation is not always an option. In such cases, the
sand blasting or vapor honing. If these types of material should be chemically etched following the
operations have been performed, the parts must be mechanical operation and before the liquid
chemically etched before the penetrant process in penetrant test.
order to obtain any meaningful results. The most common surface condition that
Penetrant inspection also should be performed adversely affects the liquid penetrant testing process
before operations such as peening, plating, painting, is the presence of contaminants such as oils, grease,
anodizing, or any other surface coating operations. dirt, rust, scale, carbon deposits or others. These
materials may prevent the penetrant from entering
Surface Condition the discontinuity, absorb the penetrant and mask
The surface condition of a part must be evaluated indications, or chemically react with the penetrant
before the penetrant process begins. The condition materials reducing the penetrant's effectiveness.
of the surface plays a critical role in the success or Precleaning of components using the appropriate
failure of the liquid penetrant test to form an method before liquid penetrant testing is critical.
indication from a discontinuity. Table 1.1 lists common contaminants that affect the
penetrant process.
Recommended reading
Subject Reference*
history of liquid penetrant testing A,B,C
basic principles of liquid penetrant testing A,B,C
advantages and disadvantages of liquid penetrant testing A,B,C
*See introduction for explanation of references.
Penetrant System 3
Liquid penetrant testing is defined by the
materials used to perform the process. The 3. location, size of the part, quantity and
variations in the testing process produce several coverage required - field inspections are most
system sensitivities and types of penetrants. often performed with solvent removable visible
dye and nonaqueous developer because of
System Sensitivity portability and no special lighting is needed.
The sensitivity of a system is defined as a
Type of Penetrant
measure of the smallest discontinuity that will
produce a discernible indication. The sensitivity of Penetrant can be fluorescent, visible or dual
a system must meet the needs of the mode dye that has both visible and fluorescent
circumstances. If a system is too sensitive, the properties.
results may be misleading and time will be wasted Fluorescent penetrant is further defined by a
in the evaluation process. If the system is not sensitivity level category. The sensitivity of a
sensitive enough, rejectable defects could remain penetrant is related to the brightness of an
undetected. The cost of materials can be directly indication when measured with a photometer and
related to system sensitivity and the use of a compared to a standard. There are five levels of
sensitivity higher than required would increase the sensitivity for fluorescent dyes:
cost unnecessarily. 1. Level 1/2: ultralow sensitivity,
The appropriate liquid penetrant testing system 2. Level 1: low sensitivity,
is determined by considering the following: 3. Level 2: medium sensitivity,
1. governing standard or specification - certain 4. Level 3: high sensitivity, and
industries require specific penetrant methods, 5. Level 4: ultrahigh sensitivity.
or specify restrictions on the materials that
may be used; Fluorescent penetrant contains a dye that is
2. surface condition and the type of visible under UV-A light. To view the indications,
discontinuities associated with the part - rough inspection is performed in a darkened area with an
surfaces, threads, keyways, internal cavities, ultraviolet light source.
wide, shallow or tight crack discontinuities are Visible penetrant uses a red, orange or purple dye
conditions that can affect the optimum choice that is highly visible when contrasted against a
for a penetrant system; and white developer coating the part surface. Inspection
must be performed under white light.
Table 1.1: Precleaning
suspected, the minimum dwell time required is aerospace and nuclear power programs can be used
often 2 h, but for stress corrosion up to 4 h may be in extremely cold or relatively high temperatures.
required. When the dwell exceeds 1 h, applying
fresh penetrant every hour improves the rate of
penetration.
Penetrant Removal Method
It is important to allow sufficient time for the Excess penetrant is removed by water wash,
appearance of minute indications from fine hydrophilic emulsification, lipophilic
discontinuities, such as tight fatigue cracks. To use emulsification, or solvent wipe.
the time required for an indication to develop as a The penetrant must be removed from the part
measure of the extent of the discontinuity, other surface without removing it from within a
variables such as type of liquid penetrant, discontinuity. An optimum amount of removal must
sensitivity of technique, temperature of part, dwell be obtained. Too little removal will cause an
time and condition of examination must be excessive penetrant background and indications will
controlled. be indistinguishable from the part surface. If too
Fine liquid penetrant indications usually denote much is removed from the discontinuity, a weak
fine discontinuities, however, fine indications may indication or no indication will be formed. The
also be caused by insufficient dwell time. methods for removing surface penetrant and the
SAE AMS 2644 designation are:
Temperature 1. Method A - Water Washable
The temperature of the penetrant materials and 2. Method B - Lipophilic Emulsifier
the part must be within an acceptable range for 3. Method C - Solvent Removable
processing. ASTM E 1417 specifies a temperature 4. Method D - Hydrophilic Emulsifier
range of 4 to 52 °C (40 to 125 °F).
The viscosity of most liquids, including Fluorescent penetrant should be removed in a
penetrants, increases at low temperatures. If a part darkened area equipped with ultraviolet lighting
is quite cold, under 16 °C (60 °F) for example, the regardless of the removal method.
liquid penetrant may become chilled and thickened Table 1.5 lists the advantages and disadvantages
when applied, making the dwell time for very fine of the various removal methods.
discontinuities longer than for parts at higher
temperatures. If a part or liquid penetrant is too hot, Water Washable (Method A)
the volatile components of the liquid penetrant may Water washable penetrants contain emulsifying
evaporate, changing the ability for revealing small agents that make the oil miscible (mixable) with
discontinuities. Material temperatures from 10 to 52 water. The penetrant may be removed with a manual
°C (50 to 125 °F) produce optimum results with or automatic coarse water spray, by immersion in an
conventional liquid penetrants, however, special air agitated water wash or by manually wiping.
penetrants developed for
ASTM E 1417 limits lipophilic emulsifiers to a 3 particular application. The emulsifier concentration
min maximum dwell time. Finding the optimum for spray methods is limited to 5%. Immersion
time for specific conditions is generally method concentration levels can vary from 5% to
accomplished through experimentation. Experience 35% depending on the manufacturer. Do not exceed
under similar circumstances related to the type and the concentration levels suggested by the
size of suspected defects, surface roughness of the manufacturer. The emulsifier dwell time should not
part, temperature of materials, water contamination exceed 2 min.
levels of the penetrant and emulsifier can be used
for a guideline. If the emulsification time is either
too short or too long, the part must be entirely Drying
cleaned and reprocessed with an adjusted emulsifier The need to dry parts after penetrant removal
dwell. depends on the removal method used and the type
Following the appropriate dwell, the part should of developer that will be applied. When dry or
be quickly sprayed with water wash to stop the nonaqueous developer is used, parts are dried before
diffusion process. Once the diffusion process is the developer is applied. When aqueous developer is
halted, the emulsified penetrant is rinsed using the used (water soluble and water suspended), parts are
same methods as the water washable method. dried after the developer is applied.
For water washable and emulsified applications,
Solvent Removable (Method C) parts are dried at room temperature or in a
Solvent remover is usually supplied in aerosol recirculating forced air oven. Parts should be rotated
spray cans. The solvent works by diluting the during drying and pools of water should be
surface penetrant. The part is first wiped with clean, removed. Oven drying time should not be any
dry, lintfree cloths or towels. After the major longer than the minimum time necessary to dry the
portion of penetrant has been wiped from the part. Oven temperature should never exceed that
surface, the surface should be wiped with a clean specified in the written procedure or in ASTM E
cloth, lightly sprayed with solvent, until just a trace 1417(71 °C or 160 °F).
of penetrant is observed on the cloth. Extreme
caution must be used to avoid excessive removal. Develop the Indication
Hydrophilic Emulsifier (Method D) An indication may be selfdeveloped, where the
This process is similar to method B except that penetrant seeps to the surface after the excess is
the emulsifier is waterbased and uses detergent removed. Development is normally enhanced with a
action rather than diffusion to remove the surface developing agent. Developer is available in dry,
penetrant. Emulsification of the penetrant within a water soluble, water suspended or solvent
discontinuity is less likely to occur with hydrophilic suspended forms. Developers are described in more
emulsifier than with lipophilic emulsifier. This detail starting on page 15.
allows complete removal of surface penetrant and
improves contrast for inspection. Prerinsing the part
following the penetrant dwell is recommended for
Inspection
hydrophilic emulsification processing. The prerinse A vital part of the liquid penetrant testing process
is performed using the water spray techniques is the evaluation of the results. Indications must be
described for water washable penetrant. Prerinsing reviewed for their relationship to discontinuities in
should be held to the minimum time required to the material. Consideration must be given to the type
remove the bulk of surface penetrant. Immediately of material, size, shape and processing history of the
following the prerinse, the hydrophilic emulsifier part that is being inspected. Processing history
should be applied by spraying or immersing. includes information specific to the part and may
Agitation of the emulsifier is required to produce include forming, casting, welding, machining, heat
the detergent (scrubbing) action that removes the treating or other manufacturing operations.
penetrant. The optimum emulsification time must be
determined through experimentation for the
9
When properly during manufacturing for personnel, Fluorescent penetrant
performed, the and processing. materials, processing inspection requires an
penetrant process will Inspectors who know methods and/or inspector to allow for
provide visible what discontinuities to acceptance criteria. visual adjustment to the
indications at all look for and where they Examples include darkened area. Eyes
relevant surface are likely to occur are ASTM E 165, ASTM E become adapted to the
discontinuities. able to select the best 1417, MIL-STD-6866, dark after
techniques available for MIL-STD-271, MIL- approximately 5 min.
Importance of the their detection. STD-410, NAV-SEA Periodic eye
Inspector's 250-1500 and ASME examinations by
Evaluation Penetrant Inspection Boiler and Pressure qualified medical
Inspector training Documents Vessel Code, Section personnel are
and experience are Penetrant testing is V. recommended for those
necessary for conducted with a Acceptance criteria involved in the
determining the specific technique in generally indicate the interpretation of
relevancy of an accordance with a maximum size of penetrant indications.
indication. Evaluating written procedure. The allowable indications.
indications correctly is technique defines the They may define a total Classification of
a skill learned by process variables number or a total area Discontinuities by
working with (dwell, emulsification, for acceptable Origin
experienced inspectors etc.) specifically for the indications over a There are three times
and observing the part being inspected. specified surface area during the life of a part
interpretation process The technique should of a part. A minimum where discontinuities
until sufficient reference the distance for separation can be introduced. They
knowledge is gained. acceptance criteria as between rounded may exist in the raw
Effective evaluation per contract, indications may also be material, they may
cannot be mastered engineering drawing, defined based on the result from forming and
from classroom specification or size of the largest machining, or they may
training alone. standard. indication. Weldments be caused by service
In some mass The procedure is a and castings are often conditions. Table 1.6
inspection operations, general inspection photographed for use lists common
the person who instruction that defines as accept and reject discontinuities that can
operates the test the materials, examples of various be detected with
equipment merely equipment, cleaning types of indications. penetrant inspection.
segregates the parts and process methods These reference This classification is as
that show indications. that may be used. It standards also assist in follows.
Others decide their defines the minimum determining the type of
disposition. In most and maximum times, discontinuity that 1. Inherent
cases, however, the temperatures, pressures, caused the indication. discontinuities are
inspector who first sees etc., for each step in the introduced into the
the indication is also penetrant process. Visual Requirements basic materials as
expected to interpret it. Requirements for Penetrant inspection the result of its
Skill and proficiency personnel qualification standards and initial production
in developing and then and certification are specifications have from ore to raw
interpreting indications also defined. minimum requirements components up to
must be acquired by Procedures are based for an inspector's visual the point where it is
experience. A skilled on the requirements of acuity and color ready for initial
and experienced industry or military perception. Visual processing. Inherent
inspector can add specifications, acuity (the ability to discontinuities can
greatly to the standards or codes. resolve details) form during the
effectiveness of liquid These specifications decreases as light levels solidification
penetrant testing. define the requirements decrease. The ability to process of molten
The inspector must distinguish between metals in
also know the materials colors is necessary to
under test: what they locate indications. An
are, how they are made individual with red-
and how they have green color blindness
been processed. In may not be able to
addition, the inspector distinguish indications
must understand what at various levels of
types of discontinuities brightness because of
may be introduced the penetrant's colors.
10 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Liquid Penetrant Testing
castings and ingots. Welding produces many of existing discontinuities. Machining can expose
the same discontinuities when the metal subsurface discontinuities or contribute to the
becomes molten and flows during the process. formation of new discontinuities during grinding,
Discontinuities occur when the material, or a lapping, milling, cutting and lathing operations. 3.
portion thereof, cools too slowly or too fast, is Service discontinuities develop as the result of the
subjected to localized moisture or other material or part being in service. This group
material that creates gas pressure buildup, or includes fatigue from repetitive cyclic loads,
develops internal stresses after solidification. service loads, corrosion, residual stress and stress
Processing or forming discontinuities fall into corrosion.
two groups: (a) discontinuities introduced
during primary processes, such as casting, Identifying Indications
rolling, forging, drawing, welding, etc. and (b)
discontinuities introduced during finishing Indications as small as 0.4 mm (0.015 in.) may
processing, such as machining, heat treating, be considered relevant and may affect the
grinding, plating, etc. Forming operations that serviceability of a part. Inspection may result in
involve hot and cold working can produce new multiple indications being observed that must be
discontinuities or alter the appearance of
Table 1.6: Types of discontinuities
Recommended reading
Subject Reference*
surface condition, cleaning A, B, C
penetrant application removal A, B, C
drying__________________________ A, B,C
inspection A, B,C
________________________________
A, B, C
visual requirements
________________________________ B,C A,
identifying indications B,C A, B,
________________________________ C A, B, C
formation of discontinuities
________________________________
post cleaning __________________
*See Introduction for explanation of references.
Chapter 2
Developer
Penetrant remaining in a discontinuity is drawn
out by the same capillary forces that draw it into
the cavity. The adhesive force between the
penetrant liquid and the solid surface will cause the
penetrant to be drawn back out of the discontinuity.
The cohesive force of the liquid will stop its rise
out of the discontinuity at the point where it is Figure 2.4: Developer
balanced by the adhesive force. enhancement of discontinuity
If the discontinuity is large, the penetrant drawn
Penetrant Developer
to the surface is visible without further processing.
Developer is applied to aid the detection of smaller
discontinuities. Developers provide an absorbent
surface containing fine capillary paths that assist in
drawing penetrant out of a discontinuity. This
provides a much larger penetrant indication surface
area (Figure 2.4). Observation of indications is
further enhanced by the contrasting background
that the developer provides.
The following are types of developers:
1. form a, dry powder developer,
2. form b, water soluble developer, Discontinuity
3. form c, water suspendible developer,
Recommended reading
Subject Reference*
penetrant properties B,C
systems C
"See Introduction for explanation of references.
16
Dry Powder Water Soluble
Dry developer is a light, fluffy powder that This type of aqueous developer is dissolved in
clings to the part in a fine film. Dry developer is water and forms a translucent film. Water soluble
easy to use and has good development properties for developer can be used for fluorescent dyes, but it is
fluorescent penetrant. Under ultraviolet light, metal not recommended for use with visible dye or the
surfaces appear deep violet in color, which contrasts water washable removal method. Water in the
well with the bright yellow-green fluorescence of developer may remove water washable penetrant
the penetrant. Dry developer does not interfere with from discontinuities. Water soluble developer can
this contrast because it dusts the surface lightly but save time during processing because drying is
does not coat it. It does not work well for visible included in the developer dwell time. Water soluble
penetrant because it does not provide a contrasting developer is supplied as a dry concentrate that must
background. If dry developer becomes wet, be mixed and maintained at the proper ratio of
clumping may occur. Clumping limits or eliminates developer to water. The developer should be
the developer's capillary action. Dry developer in checked at regular intervals for penetrant
tanks may become fluorescent if it is recycled contamination and water evaporation.
excessively. Fluorescent specks or particles may
cause false indications. Dry developer in a powder
bulb is often kept in the inspection area and applied Water Suspendible
to a part surface that has been wiped during Water suspendible developer is supplied as a dry
evaluation. concentrate that must be mixed and maintained at
the proper ratio of developer to water. Suspended
aqueous developer does not dissolve in water so it
must be thoroughly agitated just before application
Table 2.1: Developer types
Material Form/ Method of Application Dwell Advantages and Disadvantages
AMS-2644 Application Sequence Time Primary Uses
Designation
Dry powder Dust/fog, dip, After drying 1/2 Easy to use Not for Type II
spray Penetrant Easy to remove Parts must dry first
dwell to Good for Type I Penetrant
4h contaminated
Water soluble Spray, flow, Before drying 1/2 Needs no Acts as detergent
dip Penetrant agitation Not for Method A
dwell to Easy to remove Not for Type II
2h Applies thin coat Bacteria/fungus
Evaporation
Water suspendible Spray, flow, Before drying 1/2. Visible'coating , Critical immersion
dip Penetrant Surface contact Frequent agitation
dwell to 2h Bacteria/fungus
Difficult to remove
Nonaqueous Spray After drying 10 min to Most sensitive Expensive
Type I and Type 11 1h High contrast Flammable Not for
Portable large areas Frequent
agitation Parts must
dry first
17
to suspend the particles in water. The development be applied in a thin, uniform coat. The spray does
of indications does not begin until the moisture is not cover larger surfaces quickly and each part
completely evaporated from the developer. The must be separately sprayed while the developer is
thickness of the coating and its white color work constantly agitated. A consistent, even coating of
well with visible dyes. Parts should be checked to developer should be maintained.
ensure a uniform coating of developer has been
applied. The developer should be checked at
regular intervals for penetrant contamination and Special Application
water evaporation. Special application developers are designed for
use with only specified penetrant materials and
Nonaqueous must be qualified with a particular penetrant
system. An example would be qualification of a
Nonaqueous solvent suspended developer is specific manufacturer's visible dye with a dry
supplied in bulk containers and in aerosol spray developer.
cans. It may be used for all penetrant types and
methods. This type of developer is applied after
drying and is considered to be the most sensitive Material and Process Control
developer method available. When nonaqueous Tests
developer is supplied in aerosol spray cans, process
controls are not required, but to ensure the proper Successful penetrant processing relies on
coat of developer, it is necessary to shake the can to properly functioning material and equipment.
be sure the developer particles are resuspended. Process system variables of time, temperature and
When the developer is supplied in bulk, it is pressure along with material concentration,
important that the suspension be thoroughly mixed contamination, consistency, etc., must be verified
before use. The developer must be thoroughly as acceptable at regular intervals. Equipment used
agitated before spraying and should for verification may also require scheduled
Table 2.2: Typical equipment calibration
Equipment Where Used Calibration Item
Tolerance
Temperature gage Spray water rinse/wash station ±1 °C at 21 °C 3 months
(±2 °F at 70 °F)
Pressure gage Spray water rinse/wash station ±2% of scale 3 months
Timers Penetrant, emulsifier, rinse, ±1 s at 10 min 3 months
dry stations
White light meter Type 2 lighting/ambient light ±10% of scale 6 months
for Type 1
Ultraviolet light Ultraviolet light intensity ±10% of scale 6 months
meter
Refractometer Hydrophilic emulsifier ±2% of scale 1 year
concentration
Temperature gage Drying oven ±5.6 °C at 66 °C 6 months
(±10°F at 150 °F)
Measuring Inspection booth — measuring ±0.1 % of scale 1 year
equipment indications
18
calibration. Tables 2.2 and 2.3 contain standard penetrant area cleanliness are examples of typical
process control requirements and equipment process controls that may be specified in the
calibration. penetrant inspection procedure.
Ultraviolet light intensity, emulsifier
concentration, ambient white light intensity and
Table 2.3: Typical process control requirements
Stationary Portable
Penetrant Application
Spray booth —• standard or electrostatic Penetrant spray can
Immersion tanks
Brushes, cotton swabs, etc.
Dwell/drain area
Timer for penetrant dwell
Penetrant Removal
Coarse water spray Solvent spray can
Ultraviolet light (Type 1) Cloths/rags
White light (Type 2) Portable ultraviolet light (Type 1)
Emulsifier tanks and/or spray apparatus Tarp
Water rinse spray and/or tank
Water pressure and temperature gages
Timer for emulsifier dwell
Drying/Development
Hot-air recirculating oven Developer spray can or powder bulb
Oven temperature gage
Developer dip tank, fog chamber, or spray area
Developer dwell area
Timer for developer dwell
Inspection
Ultraviolet light and darkened booth (Type 1) Portable ultraviolet light (Type 1)
White light (Type 1 and 2) Tarp
Magnifier, measuring devices Magnifier, measuring devices
Solvent Solvent
Developer powder bulb or spray can Developer spray can or powder bulb
22 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Liquid Penetrant Testing
Automated Equipment disadvantages are the cost and inflexible nature of
Fully automated liquid penetrant testing systems the system.
process materials through cleaning, penetrant Semiautomated systems may have conveyors to
application, dwell and removal, drying and move parts to the various stations where processes
developer application and dwell time without an are manually performed, or may include automated
operator. Automatic loading and unloading emulsifier, rinse, and/or oven and developer
capabilities also can be incorporated in some stations.
systems. Automated systems are custom designed Automated processing ends at the inspection
for specific applications of high volume processing. area. Human inspectors are almost always required
The elimination of inconsistencies in dwell and to evaluate indications resulting from the process.
rinse time associated with human processing is the
major advantage. The
Recommended reading
Subject Reference*
developer A,B,C
equipment A,B,C
materials and process controls A,B
*See Introduction for explanation of references,
Chapter 3
or pressing. A steel ingot, for example, is reheated In the case of die or drop forging, laps, surface
to the proper temperature and passed between tears and bursts may be produced. In die forgings,
heavy rolls to form blooms or billets. The size of excess metal is forced out between the two halves
ingots varies widely. Ingots of alloy and tool steel of the die forming the flash and this excess metal is
may be quite small, weighing perhaps 100 kg (220 subsequently trimmed off. If not properly done,
lbm), whereas ingots from which large forgings or flashline cracks or tears may be formed. Another
large thick plate are to be made may weigh many type of forging discontinuity is the internal rupture,
tons. Blooms and billets are formed in an usually called flake, which occurs in the process of
intermediate step between the ingot and the cooling relatively large forgings. These may be very
finished size or product. severe and extremely objectionable.
The surface of blooms and billets may contain
seams due to rolled out ingot cracks resulting from Discontinuities in Rolled and Pierced
cooling stresses, bursts, tears, rolled-in scale or
metal particles. All of these surface imperfections Products
should be removed before the final finishing In the production of seamless tubing, the billet is
operation. The surfaces of blooms and billets may pierced. Discontinuities on the inside surface of the
be freed of such objectionable conditions by pierced billet may take the form of tears. Seams
chipping, grinding or flame scarfing. Billets, may occur on the outside surface, especially if the
especially when intended for seamless tube surface of the billet or blank had not been properly
piercing, are often cleaned up by scaling, by taking cleaned.
a cut off the surface, or by planing the surface.
Discontinuities in Extrusions
Discontinuities in Hot Rolled Bars, Nonferrous seamless tubing is often made by
Shapes, Plate or Strip extrusion, starting with hollow or pierced billets, or
Blooms and billets are often reheated to proper from solid ingots. Discontinuities that occur may be
working temperature and rolled into bars, shapes, checks and tears, or imperfections may result from
plate or strip. Seams, stringers and laminations may uncovering internal discontinuities of the billets or
appear in the finished product as a result of rolling, ingots. Many shapes and products are made by
forging or extrusion. The rolling operation itself various extrusion processes. Because of flow of the
may introduce certain discontinuities, the most metal of the original ingot during extrusion, oxide
common of which are laps resulting from too much and surface skin sometimes become folded into the
or too little metal to fill the rolls. Too rapid interior. A form of pipe also results from this action,
reduction of cross section, especially if the metal is which is most objectionable when it appears in a
at too low a temperature, may produce tears and finished shape.
internal rupture called cupping.
Internal shrinkage cavities or gas pockets may Discontinuities in Cold Worked Metal
result in laminations in plate, strip, pipe, bars or
other shapes. Uneven cooling of some types of steel
Products
may cause cooling cracks to appear in bars and Cold rolling and cold drawing of strip, rod and
shapes. wire is a process for improving the surface finish of
steel products. Close dimensional tolerances can
thus be maintained and the metal becomes
Discontinuities in Forgings somewhat work hardened. Die marks, scratches and
If an ingot or billet is used for forging, a variety surface imperfections sometimes make their
of discontinuities can be produced from improper appearance in this process. The process does not
handling of the metal under the hammer or from remove seams or other discontinuities present in the
working at too low a temperature. Common material before the cold finishing is applied.
discontinuities are laps and folds. Forging bursts,
both external and internal, can also occur.
Chapter 3, Testing in Primary Metals Production 25
Discontinuities in Fusion Welds Cracks During Plating or Chemical
In fusion welding processes, where liquid metal Treatment
solidifies in the weld, the same sort of
discontinuities may occur as in castings — namely, Parts containing residual stresses from heat
slag inclusions, gas porosity and thermal cracks. In treatment or cold working may crack during plating
addition, cracking in the parent metal may occur processes or during the pickling that precedes
because of thermal stresses or as a consequence of plating. Pickling etch removes some of the metal
hydrogen pressure. There are also discontinuities surface containing compressive stresses, permitting
from a lack of penetration of the weld and failure to the internal tensile stress to be relieved through
get proper fusion of the weld metal to the parent cracking. Embrittlement by absorbed hydrogen
metal. during pickling may sometimes be a factor in such
cracking.
Discontinuities in Heat Treating
Processes Service Discontinuities
Most metal products undergo some form of heat
treatment to produce desirable physical properties. Fatigue Cracks
Heat treatment discontinuities may be produced as
the result of warping or cracking. Quenching cracks Fatigue cracking and failure resulting from
occur in steel when the process is not properly fatigue is by far the most important group of
carried out or when the design of the part or the service discontinuities. Fatigue occurs during
steel used is not adapted to the operation. repeated or cyclic loading or stressing of materials.
Quenching cracks are apt to appear in connection A fatigue failure starts with a crack initiated by a
with changes in cross section of the material that variety of causes. Under cyclic loads, this crack
cause excessive cooling stresses or at locations progresses through the cross section of the metal
where the contour of the surface permits stress until only a small portion of the original section
concentrations to occur. Sometimes hardened parts remains sound. Finally failures occur even when
are cracked when an attempt is made to straighten calculated or average stresses are far below the
those that have warped slightly out of shape. elastic limit and do not depend directly on whether
Special nondestructive test techniques have the tensile strength of the metal, as determined by
been devised for checking hardness against static tests, is either high or low.
specification tolerances and for unwanted
conditions such as abnormal grain size, Significance of Surface Discontinuities
segregations, etc. under Repeated Loading or Vibration
Fatigue cracks almost invariably start at the
surface and are initiated by conditions that bring
Discontinuities in Machined and about locally high stresses. These stress
Ground Surfaces concentrations involve stresses above average for
Machining operations may cause surface the part. The stresses may, in their local area, be
damage, leaving discontinuities in the form of above the fatigue strength of the metal. Surface
surface tears. Grinding of surfaces for accurate scratches, cracks or other discontinuities may cause
dimensions or for finish is a common source of these local areas of high stress. Localized high
surface cracking, especially on hardened steel stresses may also be caused by design features of
surfaces. Parts that have been hardened may have the part — for example, high stresses occur around
residual internal stresses, produced in the holes, fillets and stiffening members.
quenching process and not subsequently removed Prevention of Fatigue Failures in Service
by drawing or stress relieving. Such parts are
particularly sensitive to the formation of grinding One of the main purposes of liquid penetrant
checks. testing is to locate and eliminate discontinuities
likely to lead to fatigue failures. Fatigue cracking is
a serious indication sought by nondestructive
26
techniques when the machine or structure is cracking of steel beams around bolt holes, leading
inspected at intervals during its service life. to bridge collapse, is an example. The corrosion
Fortunately, fatigue cracks do not often propagate allows the tension stress at the surface to be
so rapidly that they cannot be located early in their relieved by cracking.
existence and the part replaced before failure.
Other Causes of Service Damage
Stress Corrosion Cracking Other sources of service damage causing
If a part that is subject to frequent stress cracking are abnormally high stresses caused by
reversals or fluctuations is at the same time subject vibration, as in steam turbine blades and jet engine
to corrosion, fatigue cracks may appear very buckets; impact due to wrecks and other sudden
rapidly and may progress to failure in a very short stoppages; and overloads due to abnormal service
period of time. conditions or simple abuse of the engine or
Corrosion leads to service failure through machine.
cracking of metal subject to corrosion at the same
time it is under tensile stress. Stress corrosion
Recommended reading
Subject Reference
producing metal A
processing discontinuities A
service discontinuities A
* See Introduction for explanation of reference
Chapter 4
Several factors influence the exact appearance irregular in outline. Deep crater cracks in welds
of individual liquid penetrant indications. frequently show up as rounded indications because
However, there are certain general trends that hold a large amount of liquid penetrant is entrapped and
true for all sorts and forms of materials. the individual indications merge.
Porosity resulting from shrinkage cavities may
produce rounded liquid penetrant indications or
Continuous Line Indications may give the appearance of cracks. Usually,
A crack usually shows up as a continuous linear shrinkage cavities have a dendritic pattern that
liquid penetrant indication. The width and helps the inspector identify them. For high stress
brightness of fluorescence or color depend on the applications, shrinkage cavities are rejectable
volume of the crack. The line may be fairly straight discontinuities.
or jagged. A cold shut on the surface of a casting
also appears as a continuous line, generally a Small Dot Indications
relatively narrow one. Because cold shuts are
caused by imperfect fusion where two streams of Liquid penetrant indications in the form of small
metal meet but do not merge, the indication is dots result from a porous condition. Such
likely to be smooth in outline rather than jagged. A indications may denote small pin holes, excessively
forging lap may also cause a continuous line coarse grains in castings, or may be caused by a
indication. shrinkage cavity.
temperature and time allowed for indications to cracks or holes. Or metal can be peened over
develop, and the type of liquid penetrant used. surface discontinuities by forging, polishing or
Generally, clear cut indications come from narrow shot blasting.
linear discontinuities. 2. Rough or porous areas may retain liquid
penetrant, producing irrelevant indications. Or
naturally fluorescent materials (such as many
Brilliance and Extent of Indications oils and greases) may cause confusing
The color or fluorescent brightness of liquid indications.
penetrant indications can be useful in estimating 3. Deposits on the surface or in openings may
the seriousness of the discontinuity. Brightness is dilute the liquid penetrant reducing its
directly related to the amount of penetrant present effectiveness, or such materials may react with
and therefore to the size of the discontinuity. It is the liquid penetrant, destroying fluorescence or
difficult for the human eye to detect slight dye color.
differences in color of dye or brilliance of 4. Water or moisture within crack discontinuities
fluorescence. Fortunately, larger discontinuities can prevent the liquid penetrant from entering
usually produce larger indications in addition to the crack.
increased brightness. Proper cleaning before liquid penetrant testing
will remove any contaminants, leaving surface
openings clear. If it is impossible to adequately
Persistence of Indications clean the surface, this fact must be taken into
One good way to estimate the size of a account when weighing the importance of
discontinuity is by the persistence of the indication. indications.
If it reappears after the developer has been removed
and reapplied, there must be a reservoir of liquid Temperature
penetrant present. Where faint or weak indications
leave some doubt as to the type or even the The viscosity of most liquids increases at low
existence of a discontinuity, it is good practice to temperatures and liquid penetrants are no exception.
repeat the entire liquid penetrant test. If the If a part is quite cold, under 16 °C (60 °F) for
indication reappears, it is probably due to a small example, the liquid penetrant may become chilled
discontinuity rather than to incomplete cleaning. and thickened when applied, making the dwell time
for very fine discontinuities longer than for parts at
higher temperatures. If a part or liquid penetrant is
Other Variables Affecting too hot, the volatile components of the liquid
Indication Appearance penetrant may evaporate, changing the capability
for revealing small discontinuities. Material
The following variables have a marked effect on temperatures from 10 to 52 °C (50 to 125 °F)
the size, brilliance and appearance of liquid produce optimum results with conventional liquid
penetrant indications: condition of surface, penetrants.
temperature of the part or the liquid penetrant,
dwell times, amount of washing, developer, Dwell Time and Washing
conditions of examination and previous testing.
Fine liquid penetrant indications usually denote
fine discontinuities. However, fine indications may
Surface Conditions also be caused by insufficient dwell time. A diffused
There are four general ways in which the surface indication may mean a generally porous condition
conditions can interfere with the proper results from but may also imply incomplete washing. If excess
liquid penetrant testing. 1. Surface openings may liquid penetrant is not removed, false indications are
be closed. This can occur when lubricants, evident. On the other hand, washing too long and
polishing compounds, dirt, scale or other too hard can remove liquid penetrant from large or
contaminants are forced into shallow discontinuities, resulting in less intense
indications.
29
Developer many of the materials
used in magnetic actual discontinuities is indicated by a
The developer particle, fluorescent that do not affect the complete lack of
makes indications liquid penetrant and usability of a part. background or
more visible by: visible dye liquid False indications, a indications; a slight
1. providing a penetrant techniques subcategory of background is normal.
contrasting are incompatible. nonrelevant Overremoval will not
background, Discontinuities may indications, are best result in a false
2. pulling liquid remain undetected by defined as indications indication but increases
penetrant out of liquid penetrant testing that distract from the the chances of
openings by a if magnetic particle quality of the removing a valid
blotting action, testing has been inspection but do not discontinuity
3. making the previously used. The indicate a discontinuity indication.
indication easier to residual iron oxide may in a part. False Underremoval of
read by enlarging it fill or bridge the indications have excess liquid penetrant
as the penetrant discontinuity. Similarly, several causes but are can cause a high
spreads into the fluorescent liquid usually caused by a background intensity
developer and penetrant will often fail deficiency in process and decrease the
4. reducing glare to show discontinuities control. contrast needed to
from reflected previously found by reveal small
light during visible dye liquid indications. In addition,
observations penetrant because the Poor Process the remaining liquid
of fluorescent visible dye may Control penetrant background
indications. interfere with may mask a relevant
Regardless of the indication. In either
fluorescence. liquid penetrant
A thick film of Subsequent visible dye case, a part that has
technique used, the been subject to
developer may absorb liquid penetrant testing level of sensitivity can
liquid penetrant, may miss improper removal of
be adversely affected excess surface liquid
resulting in faint discontinuities by poor process
indications or even indicated by fluorescent penetrant must be
control, such as cleaned and
masking very fine liquid penetrant improper application of
discontinuities. Most because the later affects reprocessed.
liquid penetrant, Lack of cleanliness
faulty liquid penetrant the visible dye color. improper removal of
processing techniques in the inspection area is
liquid penetrant, lack often a cause of false
are because of loss of
indications. Common of cleanliness in the indications. An
inspection area and inspection area should
Causes of poor handling of parts be free of all liquid
Previous Testing Nonrelevant being processed. Any penetrant. Liquid
of these can cause false
In judging the and False indications that will
penetrant on roller
assemblies, dryer
presence or absence of Indications interfere with or cause shelves or inspection
liquid penetrant a distraction during the
indications, the tables should be
Nonrelevant visual detection and cleaned up before parts
inspector must know indications may be due interpretation of
whether the parts have are processed.
to misapplied or indications. Otherwise the penetrant
been subjected to other improper testing Improper application
test processes. If so, can be absorbed by the
procedures or to can cause pooling of developer and cause
extreme care must be the liquid penetrant.
taken to clean parts nonrelevant indications.
This produces an Proper handling of
thoroughly before the uneven coating of
additional liquid parts during all phases
liquid penetrant on the of the liquid penetrant
penetrant testing. surface of a part and, process is important.
Test processes, such on certain types of Rubber gloves should
as fabrication, can materials, results in be cleaned between
change the surface areas of high processing steps. Small
condition. It is not background bleedout. parts processed
possible to determine Improper removal together should not
the relative efficiency can cause overremoval
of various test or underremoval of
processes by excess surface liquid
subsequent checks of penetrant. Overremoval
the same part because
30 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Liquid Penetrant Testing
rub against each other. Lint from towels or rags will difficult to inspect, especially with solvent
fluoresce under near ultraviolet light and give the removable method. The major concern on a weld
appearance of a crack. False indications due to bead is masking of relevant indications. As-cast and
improper handling of parts can be easily prevented. as-forged surfaces may also lead to nonrelevant
indications because of surface roughness or other
irregularities. Machined parts may have machining
Part Geometry and Surface grooves or marks, or scratches from rough
Condition handling.
The geometry of a part or assembly can cause
nonrelevant indications. The indication of an Evaluation of Nonrelevant
interface between a turbine blade and a disk can not
only produce a nonrelevant indication, but can also Indications
mask possible small indications if the bleedout from One technique that can be used to help identify a
the interface is excessive. In many cases inspection nonrelevant indication is wiping off the indication
procedures will require that an assembly be with a solvent dampened, lint free, swab or cloth
completely disassembled before inspection. and reapplying the developer. The original
Press fittings are a source of nonrelevant developer dwell time must be repeated; however,
indications caused by part geometry. It is sometimes the bleedout should be monitored to help evaluate
impossible to completely disassemble a part that the indication. If there is no bleedout, the original
must be inspected. The bleedout of the liquid indication can be considered nonrelevant or false.
penetrant around press fittings can be considerable This technique may also reveal multiple relevant
and can mask relevant indications. In these indications that had previously merged into one or
situations the part must be monitored very closely had been hidden by excessive bleedout from an
during the developer dwell time to properly evaluate adjacent nonrelevant indication during the
the indications as they form. developer dwell.
Another cause of false and nonrelevant
indications is a rough part surface. Rough weld bead
surfaces and weld spatter make welds very
Recommended reading
Subject Reference*
appearance of liquid penetrant indications A
variables affecting indication appearance A
causes of nonrelevant indications A
*See Introduction for explanation of references.
Review Questions
1. One disadvantage of liquid penetrant 5. A penetrant inspection cannot find:
inspection is that:
a. surface porosity.
a. penetrant materials may cause drying b. surface cracks.
and cracking of the skin. c. an internal cavity.
b. large subsurface discontinuities with d. a surface forging lap.
openings to the surface will not form Ref B
indications.
c. it can only be used with nonferrous 6. Which of the methods listed below is most
material. applicable for detecting fine, tight surface
d. the materials are only available in cracks?
aerosol spray cans.
Ref B a. Visible dye, water washable.
b. Visible dye, postemulsifiable.
2. Which of the following is not a physical c. Fluorescent, water washable.
property associated with penetrant d. Fluorescent, postemulsifiable.
materials? Ref B
a. Solvent resistance. 7. The term used to describe the total time
b. Flash point. that penetrant remains on the workpiece is:
c. Viscosity.
d. Chemical inertness. a. immersion.
Ref B b. drain.
c. dwell.
3. The removal of smeared metal by chemical d. presoak.
processes is called: Ref B;Ref C
a. grit or sand blasting. 8. Developer assists in the detection of
b. machining. discontinuities by:
c. etching.
d. quenching. a. providing a contrasting background.
Ref B b. emulsifying the penetrant bleedout.
c. providing a clean surface.
4. A standard classification for a type of d. providing a dry surface.
developer is: Ref B
a. water soluble.
b. water washable.
c. nonfluorescent.
d. solvent removable.
Ref B
32
Ref B;Ref C
32. What comparison standard has control over
the depth and quantity of cracks?
a. A stainless steel test panel.
b. A cracked aluminum test block.
c. A ceramic test block.
d. A grit blast panel.
Ref B
Review Questions 35
33. Compared to a certified Level I inspector, 37. Which of the following would not be the
a Level II inspector: cause of a nonrelevant indication?
a. can process all forms of a product. a. Penetrant on the inspection table.
b. is authorized to approve all penetrant b. An improperly cleaned surface.
procedures. c. A corrosion crack.
c. requires more formal training hours d. Penetrant trapped in the threads of a
and work experience. part.
d. can determine the acceptance criteria Ref C
for a part.
Ref B 38. The periodic checks performed to assure
that the penetrant testing system is
34. A limitation on materials used to inspect functioning are called:
nickel alloy welds in a nuclear or pressure
vessel system is that the penetrant a. process control tests.
materials should have: b. maintenance tests.
c. certification tests.
a. d. performance evaluations.
sulfur and halogen residual of 10% or Ref C
less by weight.
b. sulfur, chlorine and fluorine residual of 39. A relevant indication in a casting may be
1 % or less by weight. caused by:
c. chlorine and halogen residual of 5% or
less by weight. a. a burst.
d. halogen and fluoride residual of 10% b. a crater crack.
or less by weight. c. laminations.
Ref B d. porosity.
Ref C
35. A weld discontinuity that appears
starshaped with small indications 40. The relative size of a surface discontinuity
emanating from a central point is a: is estimated based on the indication
a. burst. intensity and the: Ref C
b grinding crack.
c. crater crack. a. amount of bleedout.
d heat affected zone (HAZ) crack. b. size and shape.
Ref B c. direction of
bleedout
36. Multiple round or nearly round indications
scattered on a weld are the result of: 41. Which of the following is a nonrelevant
indication found during penetrant
a. crater pits. inspection?
b undercut.
c.
. porosity. a. Marks on the part due to penetrant on
d. weld laps. Ref B the inspector's hands.
b. A press fit insert ring in the bore of a
shaft.
c. Linear indications on a heat treated
weldment.
d. Dry developer residue.
Ref B
36 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Liquid Penetrant Testing
42. A visual method used as acceptance 46. Ultraviolet lights over a fluorescent
criteria for a part uses: penetrant wash station are used to:
a. sized wires. a. verify a uniform coating of penetrant
b. a calibrated scale. has been applied to the part.
c. a testing and monitoring panel. b. verify the emulsifier covers the entire
d. referenced photographs. surface.
Ref C c. monitor the removal of surface
penetrant.
43. The purpose of a penetrant system monitor d. check the cleanliness of parts before
is to provide: processing.
Ref C
a. a method of estimating the cost of
inspection. 47. An advantage of inspecting forgings with
b. verification of the overall processing the penetrant process is that:
system performance.
c. standardization for performing process a. it can detect any type of discontinuity
controls. associated with forgings.
d. the means to reject test objects. b. there are no limitations to the part size
Ref B or shape.
c. forging scale does not interfere with
44. Using a weld standard for interpretation of the test.
indications provides: d. penetrant materials do not have any
adverse affects on any alloy that is
a. reliable acceptance criteria. forged.
b. an accurate method to determine repair Ref B
costs.
c. the format for a test report. 48. Discontinuities that may be found in
d. the means to reject linear indications. aluminum extrusions are:
Ref B; Ref C
a. porosity and inclusions.
45. Dry developer is checked for fluorescent b. laminations.
contamination by: c. cracks.
d. laps and seams.
a. comparing the in-use developer to new Ref B
material.
b. processing a testing and monitoring 49. Which of the following discontinuities are
panel. associated with forgings?
c. a laboratory examination for chemical
composition. a. Tears.
d. viewing under an ultraviolet light for b. Cracks.
fluorescent specks. c. Bursts.
Ref B d. Blow holes.
Ref B
37
Review Question
Answers
Angstrom unit - A unit of length that may be used to express the wavelength of electromagnetic
radiation, that is light. One angstrom unit is equal to 0.1 nanometers.
Background -~ The surface of the test part against which the indication is viewed. It may be the
natural surface of the test part or the developer coating on the surface.
Ultraviolet light - Electromagnetic radiation used for nondestructive testing in the range of
wavelength 330 to 390 nm (3300 to 3900 A), also known as UV-A.
Ultraviolet light filter - A filter that transmits near-ultraviolet radiation while absorbing other
wavelengths.
Bieedout - The action of an entrapped liquid penetrant in surfacing from discontinuities to form
indications.
Blotting - The action of the developer in soaking up the penetrant from the discontinuity to
accelerate bieedout.
Carrier - A liquid, either aqueous or nonaqueous, in which liquid penetrant examination
materials are dissolved or suspended.
Clean - Free of contaminants.
Contaminant ~ Any foreign substance present on the test surface or in the inspection materials
that will adversely affect the performance of liquid penetrant materials.
Contrast - The difference in visibility (brightness or coloration) between an indication and the
background.
Defect - One or more flaws whose aggregate size, shape, orientation, location, or properties do
not meet specified acceptance criteria and are rejectable.
Developer - A material that is applied to the test surface to accelerate bieedout and to enhance
the contrast of indications.
Developer, aqueous - A suspension of developer particles in water.
Developer, dry powder - A fine, freeflowing powder used as supplied.
Developer, liquid film - A suspension of developer particles in a vehicle that leaves a
resin/polymer film on the test surface after drying.
Developer, nonaqueous - Developer particles suspended in a nonaqueous vehicle before
application.
40 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Liquid Penetrant Testing
Developer, soluble - A developer completely soluble in its carrier, not a suspension of powder in a
liquid, which dries to an absorptive coating.
Developing time - The elapsed time between the application of the developer and the
examination of the part.
Discontinuity - A lack of continuity or cohesion; an intentional or unintentional interruption in the
physical structure or configuration of a material or component.
Dragout - The carryout or loss of penetrant materials as a result of their adherence to the test piece.
Drain time - That portion of the dwell time during which the excess penetrant or emulsifier
drains from the part.
Drying oven - An oven used for increasing the evaporation rate of rinse water or an aqueous
developer vehicle from test parts.
Drying time - The time required for a cleaned, rinsed, or wet developed part to dry.
Dwell time - The total time that the penetrant of emulsifier is in contact with the test surface,
including the time required for application and the drain time.
Electrostatic spraying - A technique for attaining a uniform coating in which the material
sprayed is given an electrical charge.
Emulsification time - The time that an emulsifier is permitted to remain on the part to combine
with the surface penetrant before removal. Also called emulsification dwell time.
Emulsifier - A liquid that interacts with an oily substance to make it water washable.
Emulsifier, hydrophilic - A waterbased liquid used in penetrant examination that interacts with the
penetrant oil rendering it water washable. The hydrophilic is supplied in a concentrate and
is mixed with water to a concentration not exceeding that listed in the QPL.
Emulsifier, lipophilic - An oil based liquid used in penetrant examination that interacts with the
penetrant oil rendering it water washable.
Etching - The removal of surface material by chemical or electrochemical methods.
Evaluation - A review, following interpretation of the indications noted, to determine whether they
meet specified acceptance criteria.
False indication - A nondestructive testing indication that is interpreted to be caused by a
discontinuity at a location where no discontinuity exists.
Family - A complete series of penetrant materials required for the performance of a liquid
penetrant examination. The term Family only applies to Method B and Method D and
only includes the penetrant and the emulsifier. Developers are not part of the Family.
Flaw - An imperfection or discontinuity that may be detectable by nondestructive testing and is
not necessarily rejectable.
Flaw characterization - The process of quantifying the size, shape, orientation, location, growth,
or other properties of a flaw based on nondestructive testing response.
Appendix 1, Standard Terminology for the Liquid Penetrant Examination 41
Fluorescence - The emission of visible radiation by a substance as a result of and only during the
absorption of ultraviolet light radiation.
Footcandle - The illumination on a surface, 1 ft2 in area, on which is uniformly distributed a flux of
1 lm (lumen). It equals 10.8 lm/m2.
Immersion rinse - A means of removing surface penetrant in which the test part is immersed in a
tank of either water or remover.
Imperfection -A departure of a quality characteristic from its intended condition.
Indication - Evidence of a discontinuity that requires interpretation to determine its significance.
Inspection - Visual examination of the test part after completion of the liquid penetrant
processing steps.
Interpretation - The determination of whether indications are relevant or nonrelevant.
Liquid penetrant examination - A nondestructive test that uses suitable liquids that penetrate
discontinuities open to the surface of solid materials and, after appropriate treatment,
indicate the presence of discontinuities.
Nondestructive testing (NDT) - The development and application of technical methods to examine
materials or components in ways that do not impair future usefulness and serviceability in
order to detect, locate, measure and evaluate discontinuities, defects and other
imperfections; to access integrity, properties and composition, and to measure geometrical
characteristics.
Nonrelevant indication -A nondestructive testing indication that is caused by a condition or
type of discontinuity that is not rejectable. False indications are nonrelevant.
Over emulsification - Excessive emulsifier dwell time that results in the removal of penetrants
from some discontinuities.
Over washing - Too long or too vigorous washing, or both, which results in removal of
penetrants from some discontinuities.
Penetrant - A liquid which has been formulated to enter surface discontinuites and which
contains a tracer dye.
Penetrant comparator - An intentionally flawed specimen having separate but adjacent areas for
the application of different liquid penetrant materials so that a direct comparison of their
relative effectiveness can be obtained. It can also be used to evaluate liquid penetrant
techniques, liquid penetrant systems, or test conditions.
Penetrant, fluorescent - A penetrant that emits visible radiation when excited by an ultraviolet
light.
Penetrant, postemulsifiable - A liquid penetrant that requires the application of a separate
emulsifier to render the excess surface penetrant water washable.
Penetrant, solvent removable - A liquid penetrant so formulated that most of the excess surface
penetrant can be removed by wiping with lintfree material, with the remaining surface
penetrant traces removable by further wiping with a lintfree material lightly moistened with
solvent remover.
42 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Liquid Penetrant Testing
Penetrant, visible - A liquid penetrant that is characterized by an intense color, usually red.
Penetrant, water washable - A liquid penetrant with a built-in emulsifier.
Pooling - The existence of excessive amounts of penetrant, emulsifier, or developer in an
incompletely drained area.
Post cleaning - The removal of residual liquid penetrant examination materials from the test part
after the penetrant examination has been completed.
Post emulsification - A penetrant removal technique employing a separate emulsifier.
Precleaning - The removal of surface contaminants from the test part so that they will not
interfere with the examination process.
Relevant indication - A nondestructive testing indication that is caused be a condition or type of
discontinuity that requires evaluation.
Rinse - The process of removing liquid penetrant examination materials from the surface of a
test part by means of washing or flooding with another liquid, usually water. The process is
also termed wash.
Solvent remover - A volatile liquid penetrant used to remove excess from the surface being
examined.
Temperature envelope - The temperature range over which a particular penetrant inspection test
will operate.
Viscosity - The property of a fluid that presents a resistance to shearing flow.
Visible light - Electromagnetic radiation in the 400 to 700 nm wavelength range.
Visual adaptation - The adjustment of the eyes when one passes from a bright to a darkened place.
Water tolerance - The amount of water that a penetrant or emulsifier can absorb before its
effectiveness is impaired.
Wetting action - The ability of a liquid to spread over and adhere to solid surfaces.