A Methodology for Profiling Consumers' Decision-Making Styles

Author(s): GEORGE B. SPROLES and ELIZABETH L. KENDALL

Source: The Journal of Consumer Affairs, Vol. 20, No. 2 (WINTER 1986), pp. 267-279
Published by: Wiley
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/23859027
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 WINTER 1986 VOLUME 20 NO. 2 267

SHORTER PAPERS

GEORGE B. SPROLES AND ELIZABETH L. KENDALL

A Methodology for Profiling

Consumers' Decision-Making Styles
Consumers use a variety of decision-making styles. This paper con
ceptualizes eight basic characteristics of these styles and develops a Con
sumer Styles Inventory to measure them empirically. Factor analysis of
the Consumer Styles Inventory validates these eight consumer charac
teristics. A valid and reliable method for presenting a Profile of Con
sumer Style, based on measures of the eight style characteristics, is
described. Unique findings of the research are discussed, and applica
tions of the Consumer Styles Inventory in consumer education, con
sumer research, and family financial counseling are suggested.

The individuality in consumers' behavior when choosing be

alternative products is perhaps the most widely analyzed t
consumer-interest studies. But although many factors influe
sumer decision-making, consumers are thought to appro
market with certain basic decision-making styles. For examp
sumers have been characterized as quality seekers, novelty-
seekers, comparison shoppers, information seekers, and habi
brand loyal consumers (Bettman 1979; Jacoby and Chestnut
Maynes 1976; Miller 1981; Sproles 1979; Sproles 1983; Thorelli,
Becker, and Engeldow 1975).
Identifying basic characteristics of decision-making styles is central
to consumer-interest studies. This identification helps to profile an
individual's consumer style, educate consumers about their specific
decision-making characteristics, and counsel families on financial
management. However, conceptualizing and measuring consumer
styles has not been a focus of the field. This paper therefore presents
a method for measuring characteristics of consumer decision-making

George B. Sproles is Professor and Elizabeth L. Kendall is Assistant Professor at the School
of Family and Consumer Resources, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721. This research
was supported by the Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Arizona.

The Journal of Consumer Affairs, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1986

0022-0078/86/0002-267 $1.50/0
© 1986 by The American Council on Consumer Interests

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268 THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER AFFAIRS

styles. The method employs a Consumer St

Profile of Consumer Style (PCS). The CS
teristics of decision-making; the PCS, desig
interest professionals, is a format for r
characteristics.

BACKGROUND AND RELEVANT LITERATURE

A consumer decision-making style is defined as a mental orienta

tion characterizing a consumer's approach to making choices. It has
cognitive and affective characteristics (for example, quality con
sciousness and fashion consciousness). In essence, it is a basic
consumer personality, analogous to the concept of personality in
psychology.1
The consumer literature suggests three ways to characterize con
sumer styles: the psychographic/lifestyle approach, the consumer
typology approach, and the consumer characteristics approach. The
psychographic approach identifies over 100 characteristics relevant to
consumer behavior (Lastovicka 1982, Wells 1974). Some are closely
related to consumer choices; others tap general lifestyle
activities or interests. The consumer typology approach attempts to
define general consumer "types" (Darden and Ashton 1974-75,
Moschis 1976, Stephenson and Willett 1969, Stone 1954). The con
sumer characteristics approach focuses on cognitive and affective
orientations specifically related to consumer decision-making
(Sproles 1985, Westbrook and Black 1985).
The consumer-interest literature also identifies fundamental con
sumer decision-making characteristics (Maynes 1976; Miller 1981;
Sproles 1979; Thorelli, Becker, and Engeldow 1975). These range
from rational shopping and quality consciousness to impulsiveness
and information overload. Thus approaches to characterizing styles
differ, yet certain characteristics are keys to consumer decision
making.

'Psychologists think of personality traits as relatively enduring, general factors influencing

many if not all behaviors. Similarly, we may provisionally expect that consumer characteristics
influence a variety of similar behaviors. Fashion consciousness, for example, may become
manifest in choices of apparel, interior design, "in" restaurants, popular movies, etc. This
does not mean that a person will be fashion conscious in all decisions where fashionability
influences consumer behavior, but it does suggest that characteristic would be influential in
many such related decisions.

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WINTER 1986 VOLUME 20 NO. 2 269

OBJECTIVES AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Useful approaches to characterizing consumer styles are sugg

by the literature cited. However, no approach is specifically de
to serve consumer-interest professionals (virtually all previous
is on marketing-business needs). Therefore, this research de
and tests a method for filling this void. Ideally, such a method sh
meet four criteria:

(1) It should contain mental characteristics of a consumer's decision-making that

are among the most important "real world" consumer characteristics. Here we
distinguish between fundamental and tangential characteristics. Quality con
sciousness is fundamental because it is directly related to consumer decisions;
characteristics like altruism are tangential, with only indirect links to consumer
choices.
(2) The characterization should be as complete as possible, identifying a small
number of basic and independent consumer decision-making characteristics.
(3) The method should measure how a consumer rates on each characteristic.
Several measurable characteristics may make up a consumer's style, and the
consumer should be profiled accordingly.
(4) The method should include measures important to consumer-interest profes
sionals in their varied roles as consumer educators, researchers, and financial
counselors.

To formulate a measurement of consumer decision-making styles,

we listed the major characteristics of consumer decision-making
identified in the literature cited. After examining these characteristics
according to the four criteria, we identified the following as among
the most basic mental characteristics of consumer decision-making:

• Perfectionism or high-quality consciousness,

• Brand consciousness,
• Novelty-fashion consciousness,
• Recreational, hedonistic shopping consciousness,
• Price and "value for money" shopping consciousness,
• Impulsiveness,
• Confusion from overchoice (from a proliferation of brands,
stores, and consumer information, for example), and
• Habitual, brand-loyal orientation toward consumption.

These are the basis for a CSI. Each is a fundamental consumer

decision-making characteristic important to consumer-interest
studies. Each independently represents important mental approaches
to consumption and is consistent with our definition of consumer

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270 THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER AFFAIRS

style as a mental orientation characte

toward choosing. We acknowledge tha
be equally valuable for specific applica
chosen are among the most frequen
literature.2

METHODOLOGY

Based on an exploratory study (Sproles 1985), a CSI measuri

eight mental characteristics of decision-making was designe
characteristic was measured by six Likert-scaled items. Items
a scale of one to five, with ratings of "strongly disagree" and
"strongly agree" as end points.
The items were randomly ordered in a self-administered CSI in
strument. The CSI was administered in April 1985 to all 501 students
in 29 home economics classes in five high schools in the Tucson area.
The high schools were in urban, suburban, and rural locations and
represented the socioeconomic and cultural groups in the area.
Students were asked to respond to each item to the best of their
ability. All questionnaires were edited, and those with incomplete or
unlikely responses were deleted, resulting in 482 usable question
naires. Demographic data indicated that subjects broadly represented
high school home economics students in the Tucson area.
To assess the construct and content validity of the eight consumer
characteristics, data from the CSI were factor analyzed. The prin
ciple components method with varimax rotation of factors was
used.3 Communality estimates were 1.0. A constrained eight-factor
solution was extracted to test the eight characteristics model.
Reliabilities and descriptive statistics were also computed on eight
resulting subscales.

'There is no way to determine the most fundamental or basic characteristics to include; judg
ment of the researcher is required. Thus more than eight characteristics may be appropriate for
a CSI, but the eight included appear among the most relevant to developing a measurement
system useful to consumer-interest studies. Note that each is also relatively independent, thus
limiting potential redundancy among characteristics (see footnote 4 and the "Conclusions").
'Other factor analyses were computed on the eight factor model, including a principle fac
tors solution and a principle components solution with oblique rotation, to test the robustness
of the data to different factor analyses. All resulted in the same eight factors, but the principle
components solution provides the most mathematically usable solution (e.g., in producing
exact factor scores for subjects) and the most interprétable one.

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 WINTER 1986 VOLUME 20 NO. 2 271

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

First, we confirm the eight factor model through our

analysis of the CSI. Second, we describe methods for profi
sumer styles and present a Profile of Consumer Style based
CSI.

Confirmation Of The Eight-Factor Model

Table 1 presents the factor analysis of the CSI. This factor solution
explains 46 percent of the variation, a very reasonable proportion; all
eigenvalues exceeded 1.0 (the lowest was 1.3). More importantly, the
eight factors confirm the characteristics proposed.4

Factor one. This factor measures a perfectionistic, high-quality

conscious consumer characteristic. Items loading on this factor
measure a consumer's search for the very best quality in products.
Those consumers higher in perfectionism could also be expected to
shop more carefully, more systematically, or by comparison. They
are not satisfied with the "good enough" product.
Factor two. This factor identifies a brand conscious, "price equals
quality" consumer characteristic. It measures consumers' orienta
tions toward buying the more expensive, well-known national
brands. High scorers are likely to believe that a higher price means
better quality. They appear to have positive attitudes toward depart

"Employing the principal components solution with orthogonal rotation is based on the
proposition that each factor is conceptually separate and relatively independent of all others.
However, we may determine whether intercorrelations exist between factors by obliquely
rotating factors to a terminal solution. A fairly oblique solution yields the same eight factors,
with modest correlations for only four of the 28 factor intercorrelations. These correlations
were between fashion consciousness and brand consciousness (.29), fashion consciousness and
recreational shopping consciousness (.27), value consciousness and confusion from overchoice
(.19), and brand consciousness and habitual, brand-loyal shopping consciousness (.17).
Though small, these correlations indicate modest dependence that readers can easily interpret.
All remaining correlations were .14 and below (absolute value) and have no meaningful inter
pretation. Overall, the eight factors appear largely, if not perfectly, independent of one
another; i.e. each factor measures a conceptually separate and unique decision-making
characteristic.
Also note that these data can be represented by fewer than eight factors but that this
sacrifices valuable information. For example, a six-factor solution confirms factors 1, 2, 4, 5,
6, and 8; it submerges the potentially important factors of novelty-fashion consciousness and
confusion from overchoice.

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 272 THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER AFFAIRS

TABLE 1.
Consumer Style Characteristics: Eight Factor Modela

Factor 1—Perfectionistic, High-Quality Conscious Consumer

Getting very good quality is very important to me. .68
When it comes to purchasing products, I try to get the very best or perf
choice. .66
In general, I usually try to buy the best overall quality. .62
I make special effort to choose the very best quality products. .61
1 really don't give my purchases much thought or care. -.54
My standards and expectations for products I buy are very high. .54
1 shop quickly, buying the first product or brand I find that seems good
enough. -.41
A product doesn't have to be perfect, or the best, to satisfy me. -,41b

Factor 2—Brand Conscious, "Price Equals Quality" Consumer

The well-known national brands are best for me. .63
The more expensive brands are usually my choices. .61
The higher the price of a product, the better its quality. .59
Nice department and specialty stores offer me the best products. .57
I prefer buying the best-selling brands. .54
The most advertised brands are usually very good choices. .48
A product doesn't have to be perfect, or the best, to satisfy me. -,40b

Factor 3—Novelty-Fashion Conscious Consumer

I usually have one or more outfits of the very newest style. .75
I keep my wardrobe up-to-date with the changing fashions. .70
Fashionable, attractive styling is very important to me. .64
To get variety, I shop different stores and choose different brands. .50
It's fun to buy something new and exciting. .46
Factor 4—Recreational, Hedonistic Consumer
Shopping is not a pleasant activity to me. -.70
Going shopping is one of the enjoyable activities of my life. .70
Shopping the stores wastes my time. -.69
1 enjoy shopping just for the fun of it. .66
I make my shopping trips fast. -.64

Factor 5—Price Conscious, "Value for Money"

I buy as much as possible at sale prices. .66
The lower price products are usually my choice. .56
I look carefully to find the best value for the money. .54

Factor 6—Impulsive, Careless Consumer

I should plan my shopping more carefully than I do. .55
I am impulsive when purchasing. .53
Often 1 make careless purchases I later wish I had not. .52
1 take the time to shop carefully for best buys. -.51
I carefully watch how much I spend. -.43

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WINTER 1986 VOLUME 20 NO. 2 273

TABLE 1. (continued)

Loadings

Factor 7—Confused by Overchoice Consumer

There are so many brands to choose from that often I feel confused. .68
Sometimes it's hard to choose which stores to shop. .61
The more I learn about products, the harder it seems to choose the best. .53
All the information I get on different products confuses me. .44

Factor 8—Habitual, Brand-Loyal Consumer

I have favorite brands I buy over and over. .70
Once I find a product or brand I like, I stick with it. .60
I go to the same stores each time I shop. .58
I change brands I buy regularly. -.48

aEach factor includes only those items loading .4

bFactorial complexity = 2 (loads on Factors 1 an

ment and specialty stores, where br

prevalent. They also appear to prefe
Factor three. This factor measure
consumer characteristic. High scor
fashion conscious and apparently no
likely to gain excitement and pleasu
They keep up-to-date with styles, a
them. Variety-seeking also appears
characteristic.
Factor four. This measures a recreational and hedonistic shopping
consciousness characteristic. Those scoring high on it find shopping
pleasant; they shop just for the fun of it. In previous research, this
was a "shopping avoider" or time-saver factor, and thus several
items load negatively on it. However, the loadings show that this
factor measures shopping for recreation and entertainment.
Factor five. This measures a price conscious, "value for money"
consumer characteristic. Those scoring high look for sale prices and
appear conscious of lower prices in general. Importantly, they are
also concerned with getting the best value for their money. They are
likely to be comparison shoppers.
Factor six. This factor measures an impulsive, careless consumer
orientation. High scorers on this characteristic do not plan their
shopping. Furthermore, they appear unconcerned about how much
they spend or about the "best buys."
Factor seven. This factor measures a confused by overchoice con

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274 THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER AFFAIRS

TABLE 2.
Reliability Coefficients for Eight Consumer Style Characteristics

Cronbach
Cronbach Alpha
Alpha for for
Cronbach Alpha
Cronbach Alpha
subscale of all for subscale of
items loading above top three loading
Consumer
Consumer Style
Style
Characteristics
Characteristics ,4a (see Table 1) items

Perfectionistic .74 (7)b .69

Brand Conscious .75 (6)b
■75 (6)b .63
Novelty-Fashion Conscious •74
.74 (5) .76
Recreational Shopping
Recreational Shopping Conscious
Conscious .76
•76 (5)
(5) .71
Price-Value Conscious •48
.48 (3) .48
Impulsive .48
•48 (5) .41
Confused
Confused by
by Overchoice
Overchoice •55 (4) .51
Habitual,
Habitual,Brand-Loyal
Brand-Loyal •53 (4) .54

aNumber of items used to compute alpha indicated in parentheses.

bThe one item with factorial complexity of two was not included in these calculations.

sumer characteristic. High scorers on this characteristic perceive

many brands and stores from which to choose and have difficulty
making choices. Furthermore, they experience information overload,
as several items in this factor imply.
Factor eight. This factor measures a habitual, brand-loyal con
sumer orientation. High scorers on this characteristic are likely to
have favorite brands and stores and to have formed habits in choos
ing these. Habitual behavior is a well-known aspect of consumer
decision-making, and this factor reinforces its existence as a general
characteristic.

A Profile of Consumer Style

Having validated the eight characteristics, we now describe

methods for measuring individuals' style characteristics. One
method, based on the principal components model, is to calculate
factor scores for each individual. These scores are exact
mathematical transformations of the data and have desirable
mathematical properties. Further, they normalized and have
appropriate statistical properites for other statistical analyses or for
norming.
A second approach is to use subjects' raw scores on each
characteristic to establish scale reliabilities and standard norms. This
is our approach to developing the PCS. The first step is to establish
scale reliabilities. Table 2 presents Cronbach alpha reliabilities for

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 WINTER 1986 VOLUME 20 NO. 2 275

TABLE 3.
Consumer Styles Inventory
Statistical Analysis of Three-Item Subscales for Eight Style Characteristics

Percentage Scoring: Quartile Score Ranges:3

Style Char Three-Item High Medium Low
acteristics Scale Mean (12-15) (7-11) (3-6) Upper 2nd 3rd Lower

Perfectionistic 11.6 54% 45% 1% 14-15 12-13 11 3-10

Brand
Conscious 8.7 13% 72% 15% 11-15 9-10 8 3- 7

Novelty
Fashion
Conscious 10.1 30% 61% 9% 12-15 10-11 9 3- 8

Recreational
Shopping
Conscious 11.8 62% 35% 3% 14-15 13 11-12 3-10

Price-Value
Conscious 10.4 27% 70% 3% 12-15 11 10 3- 9

Impulsive 9.5 16% 73% 9% 12-15 10-11 9 3- 8

Confused by
Overchoice 9.7 18% 74% 8% 12-15 10-11 9 3- 8

Habitual,
Brand-Loyal 9.8 21% 73% 6% 12-15 10-11 9 3- 8

3These ranges are only approximate in order to keep score ranges in whole number terms. This
provides an approximate guide for evaluating high school students' ratings in comparison to
one another.

items loading above .4 on each factor and for three-item subscales,

which use the three items loading highest on each factor. These
subscales provide a short-form measurement for each characteristic.5
The reliabilities are satisfactory in all cases with the possible excep
tion of the impulsiveness characteristic, which has marginal relia
bility. This may reflect the psychological nature of impulsiveness and
the youth of the subjects.
Next we develop a PCS based on the three-item subscales. Table 3
presents raw data for each of the three-item scales. These data were
calculated by adding the raw scores on the three top-loading items for
each factor (items worded negatively were reverse scored). This addi

!A short-form test could use only the top one or two items, with a modest sacritice ot
reliability and validity. The three item subscales are preferable to build reliability and validity.
However, the two item scale may be appropriate for many applications, particularly in
classroom consumer education.

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276 THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER AFFAIRS

TABLE 4.
A Profile of Consumer Style—Example Format for One Subject

Name:

Your Your Quartile/

Your Group Group Percentile Verbal Interpretation of
Style Characteristics Score3 Mean Range Rating Your Consumer Style

Perfectionism/ 12 11.6 6-15 2nd You are moderate to high in

High-Quality 25% perfectionism—you usually
Consciousness seek better quality products.
Brand Consciousness 10 8.7 3-15 2nd You are moderate in brand
25% name consciousness.

Novelty-Fashion 9 10.1 3-15 3rd You are average to below

Consciousness 25% average in novelty and fashion
consciousness.
Recreational 15 11.8 3-15 Top You are high in recreational
Shopping 25% shopping—you get great
Consciousness pleasure from shopping.
Price-Value 8 10.4 5-15 Bottom You are below average in
Consciousness 25% price-value consciousness—
price matters little to you.
Impulsiveness 7 9.5 3-15 Bottom You are low in impulsiveness
25% and probably make few care
less purchases.
Confusion from 9 9.7 4-15 3rd You are not
not confused
confused by
by the
the
Overchoice 25% many different brands and
products available for choice.
Habitual and Brand 10 9.8 4-15 2nd You are average in habitual,
Loyal Shopping 25% brand-loyal purchasing. You
Consciousness probably have several favorite
brands, however.

aPossible scores range from 3 to 15 on each three-item style characteristic.

tion yields scores of 3 to 15 for each subject on each characteristic.

Table 3 presents the means of each three-item scale, the percentage
of subjects scoring high to low on each scale, and quartile score
ranges. The quartiles are approximate to keep ranges in whole
number terms. They provide a guide for comparing a subject's
ratings to others in this cohort. For example, a subject scoring 14 or
15 on the perfectionism subscale is in the upper fourth of these
students and appears very perfectionistic in consumer style.
Table 4 presents a model format for a Profile of Consumer Style,
illustrating a consumer with one dominant (high-rated) characteris
tic: recreational shopping. Otherwise, this consumer appears reason
ably average (see Table 4 for specifics). We speculate that many con

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WINTER 1986 VOLUME 20 NO. 2 277

sumers will have patterns of one or t

Some may have more than two; oth
neither dominance nor lack of any ch
As the verbal interpretations in Tab
especially useful in consumer educatio
ing. In courses on consumer education
diagnose their style and analyze short
counselors may find that diagnostic t
about their mental approaches to dec
money. Educators and counselors use
dividuals meet their goals as consume
such standardized tests would be part

CONCLUSIONS

Several issues must be addressed in future investigations o

sumer styles. One of the most important is the generality of con
style characteristics. Assessing this requires studying many consu
decisions. Given that much of the literature suggests the generali
consumer characteristics, we can provisionally assume that s
generality is likely. But we cannot assume that a consumer with h
brand consciousness would consider "name" products on every
sion. Other characteristics may lack perfect generality as we
deed, a consumer may have different consumer styles for e
product category. Just as psychologists find some flexibility
individual personalities, we must expect some variation in con
styles.
Also note that this study was done on high school students, who
have limited marketplace experience and are still learning their con
sumer styles. Of course, young people are eager to consume, are con
scious of their experiences, and are thus valid consumers for study.
Nevertheless, we cannot generalize to all consumers from these sub
jects. To establish generality further, the CSI must be administered
to other populations, particularly to adults.
Equally important is further validation of the CSI and PCS.
Establishing validity is a complex process involving many research
approaches and studies over time (Brinberg and McGrath 1985, Peter
1981). Prior research has established elements of validity for the
eight characteristics of consumer style, though most studies include
only a few of the eight. However, one study that used college

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278 THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER AFFAIRS

students confirmed six of the eight factors f

identically (Sproles 1985). Thus previous resea
dations for validation and suggests that the e
robust across populations.
Finally, do eight characteristics fully profile
characteristics of consumers? It is not easy to id
more basic than the eight of the CSI. Inform
parison shopping may seem to merit considerati
imbedded in the more basic characteristics
value consciousness and merely manifest thos
Therefore, before adding characteristics, we
tions are not redundant to those already inclu
In conclusion, the Consumer Styles Inventor
sumer Style is useful for consumer-intere
measurement system provides a foundation f
of consumer decision-making styles, and it h
plications. This methodology is unique to con
because no measurement of consumer behavio
tion of consumer style characteristics incl
Further application and validation of the
populations is encouraged.

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