Essentials of Biogeography PDF

ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPHY
H. S. Mathur
MA Ph D
,
Associate Professor
Department of Geography
University of Rajasthan
Jaipur
Pointer Publishers
Jaipur
© H S. Maihw
First Published In 1988 by
Mrs. Shashi Jain

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Preface
In recent years the study of Biogeography, often blending

the courses of Ecology, has gained importance in most of the Indian
Universities The present book aims to provide a comprehensive
readable material to meet with the needs of students who are
pursuing such courses My reasons for writing it spring from the
experience of several years of teaching this subject in the University

during which I have found a paucity of such books as to adequately
cover the course contents of advanced graduate studies of Indian
Universities Many of the existing books are either too limited in
scope and spatial coverage or too strident m the use of scientific

terms Efforts have therefore, been made here to present explan-
ations of the principles of biogeography in simplified form
While attempting to cover a wide field of interdisciplinary
knowledge, one encounters two major problems Firstly, some

salient aspects of physical and environmental sciences may be
overlooked or interpreted erroneously Secondly, the main pulse
of exploring the dynamic geographical phenomenon may at limes
be lost in the labyrinth of scientific facts The author expresses his
apologta for these errmgs if any, in the present book The text has
been presented in 16 chapters focussing upon the environmental
and human factors responsible for the distribution patterns of plants
and animals
Various people have helped in the production of the book,

the ioremost among them are mv students who infused the desire
to write it 1 would like in particular to thank, most gratefully
Professor R P Bhatnagar for editing the script and to Shn P R
Binda for designing the illustrations It is also a pleasure to
acknowledge my
indebtedness to various authors whose works have
been incorporated in this book I shall be thank*ul to the readers
if they send their suggestions to make this book more fascinating
—HS Mathur
Contents
Preface
1 Biogeography Scope and Development

Biosphere Phytogeography Zoogeography
Scope and Objectives Relation with other
Sciences History of Biogeography
2 Life in the Past Ages

Evolution of Early Life Life in Palaeozoic
Era, Mesozoic Era, Cainozoic Era

Pleistocene and Holocene Age Effects
of the Ice-age in Europe North America
and Southern Hemisphere
3 Plants and Their Classification
Taxonomic Classification Ecological
Climatic, Raunkiaer’s, Grime’s Classification

Floristic Survey
4 Plants and Their Environment
Physiographic, Climatic, Edaphic,

Anthropogenic Factors Plant Communities
Community Development and Succession
5 Atmospheric Factors Influencing the Biota
Climate Solar Radiation Water Temperature
Winds
6 Edaphic Factors Influencing the Biota
Soil Formation Composition Nutrient Cycles
Soil Types— Zonal, Azonal. Intrazonal
Soil Erosion Conservation
7. Anthropogenic Effects on the Biota
Preagricultural. Domestication of Plants
and Animals. Discoveries of New Lands.
Industrialization. Human Uses of Plants.

8. Plant Dispersal and Floristic Regions
Wind Dispersal. Water and Ice. Animals.
Mechanical. Barriers to Dispersal Floristic
Regions.
9. Major Biomes of the World-Forests

Distribution Pattern. Tropical Rainforests
Monsoon Forests. Thorny Forests. Sclerophyll
Woodlands Deciduous Forests Coniferous
Forests.
10 Major Biomes of the World-Grasslands

Tropical Grasslands Temperate Grasslands.
Deserts. Tundras
11. Nature and Classification of Animals

Animal Characteristics Environmental
Adaptation. Taxonomic Classification.
12 Zoogeographical Regions of the Old World

Palaearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental Regions
13 Zoogeographical Regions of the New World

Australian, Nearctic, Neotropical Regions.
14. Animal Dispersal and Migration

Mammals. Birds Reptiles. Amphibians.
Fishes. Land Bridges.
15. The Aquatic Fauna

Life in the Sea. Marine Biological Resources.
Major Fishing Grounds. Fishing in India.
16. Wildlife : Management and Conservation
Conservation. Depletion Causes. Legislative
Measures. Wildlife in India. Management.
1
BIOGEOGRAPHY:
Scope and Development
Biogeography is the geography of organic life, the study

of the spatial distribution of animate nature, including both plants
and animals and the processes that produce variations in the
patterns of distribution. This branch of geography is concerned
with the multitudinous forms of plant and animal life which inhabit
the densely populated zone over ihe earth’s surface, as well as the
complex biological activities which are controlled by natural
environment.
Geography itself has been variously defined as the study of',
areal distributions, spatial patterns, locational analysis, man-earth

relationships and the environmental relationships of man. Biogeo-
graphy, in a similar way, encompasses all these aspects of study in
relation to the living beings with an emphasis on the man's relations.
Thus this branch of geography studies all biotic things consisting of
the earth’s environment in respect to man, Its study, therefore,
involves the evaluation of distribution areas of btoia which
necessitates the deciphering of information available from propaga-
tion areas concerning the ecological potential, genetic viability,
phytogeny of biotic communities as well as the spatially and
temporally varying behaviour of environmental factors.
2 ESSENTIALS OF BlOGCOGRAFm
The basic material for biogeographlc investigations consists

of ihe organisms.plant and animal communities which exhibit wide
extensions over (he globe with varying degrees of concentrations
So more accurately, it is the study of the biosphere which envelops
the surface of the earth and consists of all living-organisms living
on land, aquatic and aerial areas The environmental factors and
ihe human activities which affect the distribution of living-being
form the main substratum of biogeography
BIOSPHERE
Biosphere, the organic world, is that part of the earth which

contains living organisms, comprising the biologically inhabited
soil, air and water It is a relatively shallow zone in comparison
the lithosphere and the atmosphere, as most of the organisms
need specific climatic conditions to grow and survive. In ihe oceans
also life is mainly confined to a depth of few hundred metres as far
as the solar radiations can penetrate Bui for all us limned extern,
biosphere is a densely populated zone teeming with a myriad forms
of life which exhibit bewildering varieties and complexities
Pig. 11 Biosphere and the various other zones of

the living planet-Earth
BIOGEOGRAPHY SCOPE AND DEVELOPMENT 3
The most readily visible part of the biosphere consists of

larger plants and animals but they constitute a very small percen
tage of the whole It is now known that about half a million species
of plants and an equal number of species of animals inhabit the
globe Besides the larger animals and plants, small microscopic
organisms called micro-flora and micro-fauna inhabit the soil, water
and air A microscopic examination of the humus-rich top soil
reveals that in one gram of soil there may be as many as 100,000
algae, 16 million fungi and perhaps several billion bacteria
Any study of biosphere involves the study of the habits and

habitats of all plants and animals against the backdrop of environ-
ment All living creatures show an inter-dependence on each other
and a complexity of tnter-relattons, as they donot exist in isolation
In this complexity of inter-relationship the key position is occupied
by green plants which have the unique ability to use solar energy
to manufacture food from simple substances like carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen etc The food thus manufactured and the solar
energy stored is essential not for them alone but also for the multi-
tudes of various animals through which it is circulated Animals
are therefore, directly or indirectly dependent on plants In some
cases such, activities are cwj.tu.aUg beneficial, in others antagonistic
For example, many plants rely on animals for pollination or seed
dispersal, while plants frequently provide food, shelter and protec-
tion to animals
Biosphere is not just a collection of living organisms,

rather it is a place where its animate and inanimate objects inter-
playand display a spectrum of life-forms and environment The
animate parts of biosphere are wholly dependent on the inanimate
enviionment of land, soil, air and water within which they exist
Living organisms have their total dependence on this environment
for water, light, oxygen, carbon dioxide and other mineral nutrients,
all of which are necessary for the very existence of life Conversely,
the inorganic environment
is profoundly affected by the
existence
of theorganisms which inhabit it There is thus a continual
exchange of energy and mineral nutrients within
the organic and
inorganic pans of the biosphere The study of biosphere in its
entirety is therefore, the main stem of biogeography
Biosphere includes man as well, who through his various
activities has changed the various life-forms
and the landscape
4 ESSENTIALS Or BIOGEOGRAPHY
Domestication of animals and plants and the resulting activities of
ranching, pastoralism, livestock-rearing, agriculture, deforestation

etc have changed the original landscape of this planet to a large
extent Hence a few biogeographers like Wooldridge and Margaret
Anderson have called man as the main focus of all biogeographical
studies True, man cannot be left out of the biogeographical
reckoning, for he is noi only the most significant agent in the bios-
phere but also an epitomist who has led the environment to epitasis
He is the main agent who has destroyed and altered the nature’s
equilibrium at every location and compelled the plants and animals
to adopt various modifications in their form and physiology Still
the main stem of biogeography lies in the studu of plants and

animals as the study of major world soil-chmate-vegetation units,
vegetational historv. energy and chemical nutrient flows eco-
systems and distribution patterns of plants and animals Man. as the
main subject of study is in the realm of human geography, anthro-
pology. ethnography and sociology It can be said, therefore, that
biosphere consists of all animate objects including man, and the
various activities of man in relation to the biosphere form the core
of biogeographical studies
Since biogeographv ts concerned u it/i the study of pfants

and animals it Is usually studied under two heads
Phytogeograptiy
It is the geography of plants, mainly concerned with the

scientific study of their distribution in space and over time, and of
ihe environmental elements influencing this distribution It is akin
lo plant ecology but broader in scope, drawing on chemisiry,
climatology, genetics, geologv, historv, palaeontology physics
taxonomy and plant sociology Plant geography is concerned with
plants as social units and wtlh the phenomena that affect their life-
cycles, including the origin, formation, composition, and structure
of plant communities, their development and change, the relation-
ships among species and between species and their environment,
and the classification of plant communities
Today phytogeographtcai studies are concerned utih the

higher forms of plants known as vascular plants which have well
developed vessels to transmit water and nutrients to everv part ot
MOGEOGRAPHY SCOPE AND DEVELOPMENT 5
the plant Nonetheless, a large bulk of non-vascular plants and

microflora exists on the earth which has a greater interaction with
higher plants as well as wnh animals and man The various effects
of these lower and higher plants show their manifestations in soil
formation, animal habitats and man’s dependency
Throughout the long history of biotic life on the earth there

have been changes in the forms of life either by accident or by the
slow process of evolution A palaeontological history of the various

life-forms denoting the evolution of plants from lowest microflora
to the highest forms is withtn the purview of phytogeography
Coupled with this process of natural eve lution are the deliberate
processes of selection to which man has been an integral part quite
lately Man has created new ‘genoljpes' and new ecosystems
Changes in the genetic make-up of plants have altered the future
generations of vegetational cover tn which human needs and
perceptions have influenced the basic characteristics of certain
plants Inadvertently, such changes have replaced forests with
croplands where the complex natural ecosystems of the woodland
are replaced by the relatively simple field of a single crop organism
and its associated plants and animals Man thus forms the datum
line to explore the phytological aspects of nature
Zoogeography
Another branch of biogeography is the sludy of animal

life in its various aspects of distribution patterns and interactions
with the environment Zoogeography which includes the
called
scientific study of various and the various other animals
'zootds
living in agglomerations showing interdependence on each other
and the plants
The study of distributional aspects of animals and their

causal relationships started with the Darwinian era when Charles
Darwin in the nineteenth century wrote the Origin of Species A R
Wallace, a contemporary of Darwin was another
great exponent of
zoogeogtaphy The great complexity of ecological factors which
influence the animal distribution have been lately studied by Richard
Hesse book entitled Ecological Animal Geograph
in his
y, as also by
PJ Darlington.CS Elton, CG Simpson and JZ Young
Animals
being devoid of the green chlorophyll
are directly or indirectly
6 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPHY
dependent on plants for their food and sustenance and the comple-
xities thatemerge out of these inter-relationships make the zoogeo-

graphical studies more interesting.
Human intervention in animal life has often been a field of

study zoogeography V. Zisweiler (1967) enumerated the extinct
tn
and vanishing species of animals which have been hunted by man

for their hides, skin, fur and flesh It is not astonishing to find,
therefore, that in the last 500 years, one in every hundred of the
world’s higher animals has become extinct and the shadows are
closing around several more. Thus because of man’s inadvertence
and ignorance about their ecological functions and economic poten-
tials, the process of extinction has escalated. Zoogeography
attempts to evaluate the ability of various species of animals to
adapt themselves to changing environmental conditions, which
varies from one species to another. The basic consideration in
such cases is the balance between reproduction and mortality. Some
of the endangered species are handicapped by a low reproductive

late while others may have higher mortality rates.
SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES
Biogeography, in its broadest sense, attempts to understand

the between and among the environment, animals,
interactions
plants and man, all of which constitute the sub-systems of the
global ecosystem The main objectives of biogeographtcal stu-
dies are :
• To examine, by means of experimental analysis, the

relationship between complex ecological systems and propagation
areas e.g. in a forest, grassland, pond or an estuary.
• To analyse the spatial and temporal affinities between

individual organisms and populations. For example, the spattal
variations of an individual species of plant or animal may differ in
the same type of ecosystem on account of the differences in the
intake of solar energy or the nutrients present. In other cases the
differences may be measured temporally and some species may
increase or decrease after some time on account of competition,
inhibition or mutualism. Still others may evolve into different spe-
cies by accident, mutation or evolution.

BIOGEOGRAPHY : SCOPE AND DEVELOPMENT 7
• To evaluate the ecological potential of the area for a

species of plant or animal The potential may bs influenced by
abiotic factors like soil, relief, amount of nutrients present in a given
area, climatic conditions of temperature, rainfall and moisture or
by biotic factors like the methods of dispersal of that species, beha-
viour towards enviroment, reproductive rate, adaptations to envir-

onmem etc
• To measure the impact of anthropogenic factors which

are responsible for the growth or extinction of certain species in a
region as human behaviour is diverse in every region due to enviro
nmental variations
• To explore the historical reasons of the patterns of

biotic dispersal in the past which to a large extent influence the
present distributional pattern as well Examination of the past
distributional paltern is done by palaentological studies of fossil
records
It will be pertinent here to point out that the cause-effect

relationships In the distributional pattern of biota are of paramount
importance to geographers Such studies are not done in any
other science, as they are invariably linked with the local
or regional
environment It is easy to evaluate for a geographer that the grass-
lands of the Americas are still in their original, flourishing state
due to poor grazing by animals which in turn is associated with the
recent inhabitation oi these two continents by man Similarly, it is
on account of the separation of Australian continent, in the
Eocene
period, from the ‘pangea' continent that the
animal and vegetal
forms of life differ from all the continents and the impact of geogra-
phic isolation is most prominent
The study of the responses of plants and animals to their

environmental conditions is within the purview of biogeography
Their behaviours cause different
biological
conditions in an area
Itis fascinating to f ind that
the flora and
fauna of equatorial regions
are different from those of temperate
regions on account of varia-
nons in climate Equally significant are the ways in which the
P ants and animals adapt to various climatic regimes Responses to
cltmate or to topography, so, and chemical nutrients are exhibited
l
by P ants m a multitude of morphological and physiological modi-

ncations They are also markedly noticeable m wild annuals
as the
live in burrows and have a thick cover of

animals of cold regions
fur or hair on save themselves against cold, while those
their skin to
living in tropical regions are devoid of the hairy cover and lead an
arboreal life
Variations in the biological productivity of various environ

ments are noticeable, locally, regionally or even on a global scale
The geographic objective of their study is to elucidate the proper-
ties ofgeographical regions in all such cases The information
provided by the distributional pattern of the biota is a useful index
for exploring the environmental specialities of the area For inst
ance, the xerophytic, scarce vegetation of an area is indicative of
the arid conditions where precipitation is less than the required

need for plants The biotic dispersal, on the other hand, also
provides a reliable evidence of human interference, as for examp'e,

the grasslands of the world have today largely been occupied by
man and their original foliage cover has been lost
atmoSPHEReJ
8 OSPKEfi!
rig 1 2 Biosphere and its interactions
Biogeography attempts to provide solutions to biotic dise-

quilibrium which has now gradually crept in on a large scale It
imparts a better understanding of ecological functions and proce-

sses and of the nature of ecological inter-relationships Such
studies, undoubtedly, stimulate the geographer’s interest in unfold-
ing the intricacies of various ecosystems Imbalances of energy and
nutrient flows in these system cause drastic fluctuations of popula-
tions inhabiting them The attention of geographers has now
BIOGEOGRAPHY SCOPE AND DEVELOPMENT 9
:
focussed on the study of ecosystems due to the rapid depletion of

organic material and the increasing modification of the biosphere
by man which has highlighted the serious complexity of existing
ecological problems. The significance of man as a universal and
long established ecological variable is, at last being fully realized by
ecologists, biologists and geographers Over- cropping, exacerbated

by direct and indirect habitat modification has sparked off biologi-
cal chain-reactions which man, as yet, has been unable to control
completely A synoptic view of such anthropogenic factors is one

of the main tasks of biogeographers.
BIOGEOGRAPHY : ITS RELATION WITH OTHER SCIENCES
Biogeography is firmly rooted in the biological sciences on

whose data, concepts and methods the geographer is obliged to
draw and whose developments have inevitably influenced his parti-
cular interest in the biosphere Quite often, the boundaries be

tween biogeography and ecology become blurred but razor-sharp
differences exist between the two. The actual research objective
which remains uniquely the province of biogeography, however, is
the propagation area and the elucidation of geographical regions

having homogeniety of plant and animal species in regard to
climate, topography and other environmental factors.
Biogeography is a border-line discipline, now closely rela-

ted to highly specialized and discrete disciplines of botany, zoology
geology, climatology, phyto-sociology, oceanography, chemistry,
paleantology, palynology etc. It forms an integral part of the early
and more catholic field of ‘Natural History’ or what today are called
the ‘Earth Sciences'.
Initially dependent upon the data collected and the conce-

pts formulated by the early naturalists like Carolus Linnaeus (1707-
1778 ), Alexander Von Humboldt, Joseph Hooker, Alfred Wallace
and Charles Darwin, biogeography distinguished itself by two com-
pletely lines of investigation, namely toxonomic and
distinct
ecological.The geographer’s approach, however, has been influen-
ced and determined more by ecological than taxonomic concepts.
Nonetheless, ecology constitutes the main theme of biogeo

graphical studies for a scientific understanding of the distribution
of taxa is of equal significance in unveiling the inter-relationships
10 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPHt
of particular plant and animal species in the eco-system The sub-

ject has now come to be known as 'autoecology' The impact of
man on the vegetation and animal dispersal of an area is studied
by geographers alone Also fascinating are the studies of domesti
cation of plants and animals which are the sole prerogatives of
geographers
HISTORY OF BIOGEOGRAPHY
Although the formal heswnmgs of this branch of geography

were made as late as in the nineteenth century, biogeography is as
old a discipline as botany, zoology and other natural sciences It
was Theophrastus (
327-288 B C )
who for the first time wrote
the Natural Histor ) of Plants distinguishing the forms of growth and
forms of life by means of comparative observation of different
countries He propagated the idea that the distribution of plants
depends upon climate, soil and water and that the period of matu
rity of fruits varies according to the geographical environment The
work Theophrastus was a landmark in botanical and biogeogra
of
phlcal studies which continued to have its pride of place till the
twelth century when further discoveries were made
It was towards the close of the twelth century that Francies

of Assist (
1181-1216 AD recognized animals as the co-inhabi-
)
tants of the earthand studied their dispersal The monumental work

of Albertus Magnus (1193-1280 A D) De Animalibus (26 volumes)
contains a vivid description of the animals which were known to
the people at that time In the same period Fredrick II of Hohenst
anfen ( 1194-1250 A D )
wrote the book The Art of Hunting it/ th
Birdswhich probes into the various habitats of birds, their nesting

periods and migratory habits A significant discovery by Chu Hsi
(
1131-1200 A D )
of China was about the fossils He called them
the remains of organic beings including all plants and animals that
existed in the past These significant beginnings were followed by
period of lull for nearly two centuries untill Leonardo da Vinci
(1452-1519 A D ) presented the vertical zcmation of the mountain
Monte Rosa up to the snow line Although Vinci was primarily
an
and sculptor but his knowledge about science and geography
artist
was remarkable He had biogeographic insights in explaining

the
causal relationship of distribution ofplants and animals The first
major work o n botany Contrafyt Krauter Buck published in
1532 by
BIOGEOGRAFHV SCOPE AND DEVELOPMENT 11
Otto Brunfels ( 1448 1534 A D )

gives a distributional pattern of
herbs known him and can therefore, be called an early attempt
to
on Phytogeography Later on Hieronymus Bock (1498-1554) brou-

ght out for the first time in 1539 the Neu Keuttei Buck which gave
the names of places where particular plant species are found
The German scientist Conrad Gessner ( 1516-1565 ),

called
the ‘German Pliny was truly a zoogeographer He wrote Htstona

Ammalium in 7 volumes describing the various animal species and
c assifying them scientifically The first volume of the book called
Tluerbuch, which was published n 1551 was a primer on modern
zoology In the second volume of the book, Gessner has descrr
bed 316 species of birds which included not only the local species
of Europe but also of far off places and continents
Europe had several naturalists m the sixteenth and seven

teenth centuries One of them was Charles de Lecluse (1526-1609)
who examined the plant species of southern France, the physiog-
nomy of alpine plants and their zonattons The lamous German
botanist Leonard Fuchs (1501-1565), professor in the university of
Tubingen brought forth his illustrated book De Histona Slirpwm
1542 which provided the base for classification of plants
In the age of dtscovety when new lands and continents

were being explored, the attention of naturalists was focussed upon
them Hans Staden for the first time published the Ethnological
Monograph of the 'New World and gave a detailed description of
plants and animals found in the Americas He observed that the
salt-water fishes (
Miigthdae )
of Brazil migrate to the fresh water
areas of the river Amazon to spawn He also described the
migratory habits of several fauna and flora found in the coastal
areas of North and South America At about the same time in
1574, Jostas S'mler (1530-1576) published the first monograph on
the Alps which gave the floral and faunal characteristics of the area
The science of Palaentology had also taken us roots in

this time Johann Jacob Scheuchzer (1672-1733), who was the
city physician of Zurich, discovered
for the first time, a fossil of a
giant salamander Andnas sclmichzen) neat lake Constance of
(
Switzerland Scheuchzer is regarded as the founder of palaen

tology. the science which greatly helped as to know the geological
history of the past ages
12 ESSENTIALS OF BiOGEOGRAPHY
II was Linneaus (1707-1788) the great systematic botanist,

uho classified the various plants into orders families sub families,
genra and species Truly called the father of modern botanv,

Linneaus recognized the importance of phenology in connection
uiih climatology He said that the climatic differences in the various
pans of the world cause variations in the flowering periods of plants
and the migratory habits of animals He studied the climatic maps
svstematicallv and derived the floral and faunal calendars to depict
the flowering seasons and migratory periods
The naturalist Haller (1708 1777) a contemporary of Lm

neaus is known for his physiognomic descriptions of Alpine vege
which are significant from the viewpoint of biogeography His
tation
work compiled in two volumes shows more clearly than ever before
the climatically dependent zonancn of vegetation according lo the
variations in altitudes Dunng the same period Johann Georqe
Gmelin (1709 1755) the professor of Botany and Chemistry in the
University of Tubingen, explored ihe virgin lands of Siberia and
discovered several plant species which are adapted lo cold climate
Buffon (1707-1788) the great geographer and naturalist

while studying the animal distribution over the globe formulated the
theory ihat the animals spread from the poles over the earth In
his book called Htstotrc propounded the idea that a
NatureHe. he
change of climate brings forth changes in the morphology and
physiology of animals and plants He also propounded the theory
that animal migrations in the past have taken place through the
landbridges which have greally helped ihe dispersal of animals all
ovet the earth He said that such a land connection musi have
existed between Europe and North America in the past which gave
rise lo ihe existence of ihe hypothetical continent ‘Atlantis
The first systematic taxonomic classification of animals was

given by aGerman zoogeographer Eberhard Zimmermann 1743- 1
1815) who gave the characteristic features of individual groups of

animals Some naturalists also explored the fossils and fried to
interpret the changes in climate during past geological ages as
reflected by the dispersal of animals and plants
Climatic effects upon the distribution of flora came to be

studied in the early nineteenth century Arthur Young (1741 1820)
established the northern limits of the olive tree vine and maize on
SCOPE AND DEVELOPMENT 13
BIOGEOGRAPHY
the basis of temperature Peter Simon Pallas (

1811-1871 )
investi
gated the climatic conditions of Russian steppes and established the

relation of vegetation found there Wildnow (1765-1812) distingui-
shed between natural vegetation and agricultural cultivation and
said that the true distribution pattern of plants can only be studied
in those areas which are undisturbed by man He was of the view
that man has greatly altered the vegetational characteristics of the
areas by planting the vegetation which is useful to him and weeding

out the plants that are useless to him Tha great German geograph-
er Alexander Von Humboldt (1769-1859) was also a plant geogra-
He established the relationship between
pher and a great naturalist
climate and vegetation and said that vegetation is the true index of
climate in any area During his journey to South and Central

America, Humboldt discovered many new plants and described
them In hisbook Phtsiognomik der Gewachse (Physiognomy of Plants)
Humboldt propounded several concepts on plants association, clim-
atic variation and modes of dispersal of plants He was also of the
view that the existence of vegetation is a pre requisite for any
human habitation and therefore, the vegetational aspects of the

area should be studied first and in detail
J F Schouw (1787-1852) made the first attempt to repre-

sent plant distribution in an atlas He also made a distinction
between phytogeography and boiamca! geography by emphasizing
the role of distribution patterns in the former The concept of plant
communities and the disparities in their regional distribution was

put forth by 0 Heer, who in 1835 wrote a book on plant sociology
called Conditions of Vegetation in the South-Eastern Part of Canton
Giants In 1872, A Grisebact published the Vegetation of the Earth

and introduced the concept of plant formations which showed the
inter-dependence of various plants in nature in any area of
wilderness
With the publicalion of the book On the Origin of Species by

means of Natural Selection in 1859, Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
heralded a new era in all natural sciences His journey around the
world brought forth the discoveries of various plants and animals
which were so far unknown to man The distribution pattern of
fauna and t [ora over the globe led him to propound the epoch-
making theory of evolution which brought forth radical changes in
i he disciplines of zoology and botany Darwin deciphered the

historical and phylogenetical aspecis of zoogeography which left
indelible imprints on the future A R Wallace, a contemporaru of

Darwin is accredited with the study of zoogeographical regions of
the world, the pattern of animal distribution which holds good
even today
Towards the turn of the century, a new branch of zoology

and botany developed which was termed as ecology, meaning the
study of natural ecosystem The distributional aspects ol plants
and animals soon came within the purview of geography Schimper
(1935) published the Pflan:engeograpIue and physiologischer ( Plant
Geography and Physiology ) which explained the physiological
changes m plants in regard to ihe different climatic regimes of the
world Similarly G E Warming (1895) brought forth ihe vegeia-
ttonal distribution
Under the influence of noted geographers like J H Fabre

(1823-1915) E Haeckel 1866) and K Mobius 11877) biogeography
(
developed as a special branch of geography, although very much

akin to ecology Haeckel’s book on Generelle Morplwlogie der
Orgttwswett (Ge.vAta.1 of OttgaswOTas) vs, a rwaowwaw?),
work ecology that shows a keen relationship between
in the field of
various plants and animals in the context of varied earth landforms,

climate and soil Morbms studied the relationship of various land-
forms and plant his]famous book Die Austerimd die Austermurt-
life in
schaft, with special reference to Austrian Flora A C Hardy (1924)

wrote the first book on the Geography of Plants and Animals He
also conducted research on the habitat of herring fishes in relation
to their animate environment
Notable among the other biogeographers are Ekman

(1876-1964), Fnederichs (1878-1969) and Hesse, who contributed
lo the development of zoogeography and traced its historical
beginnings Margaret Marion Newbegin, the British biogeographer
attempied to present a textual account of the discipline and it be-
gan to be treated as a subject of graduation studies in the beginning
of the present century. Quite lately, Nicholas
Pollunm wroie a
book on plant geography while Danserau (1957), Cole (1975) and
Schmuhusen (197b] presented deatiled studies on animal geogiaphy
P Danserau’s work t logeogrupli) -An Eeologital Perspecme
is an
BIOGEOGRAPHY '
SCOPE AND DEVELOPMENT 15
attempt to present the history of terrestrial and martneareas in rela-

tion to the history of past eras P. Darlington’s work Zoogeograph}’
(1957) presents a good account of the animal world and its distn
button in the past and the present
The ecological approach to the study of the subject has

been followed since the fifties of the present century Udvardy
(1969) wrote the Dynamic Zoogeography giving the temporal changes
in the animal populations of the past and the present and traced
then causal relations with respect to environment This enabled
the biogeographers to trace the propagation areas to faunas and
establish the regional focn of the origin of various stocks of animals
Biogeographical studies are also called Geographical Ecology and

denote the patterns m the distribution ol species of plants
and
animals Mac Arthur (1984) has compared the distribution patterns
of landscapes and climates using quantitative techniques
FURTHER READING
1 Clements, F E and Scheiford, V E (1939) Bio-Ecology

Me Graw Hill, New York
2 Dansereau, P 11957), Biogeography An Ecological Pers-
pectiie, Ronald Press, New York
3 Darlington, P (1957), Zoogeography Methuen,
New York
4 Mac Arthur, R H (1984), Geographical Ecology Patterns
m the Distribution of Species, Princeton Umv Press,
Princeton, New Jersey
5 Muller, P (1986), Biogeography, Harper
& Row New
York.
Pears, N (1985), Basic Biogeography; Longman, London

Robinson, H (1982). Bwgeograph) Macdonald and
fcvans, London
Udvardy M. D E (1969). Dynamic Zoogeography,
Nostrand Remhold,
V an
New York
Watts, D (1971), Principles of Biogeograph)
• Mac Millan
London
2
Life in the Past Ages
The earth ts probably more than 4500 million years old

It has a long geological and organic history The reconstruction
story has been pieced together by geologists, botanists, zoologists
and palaentologists using three principles First, the age of ihe
rocks can now be fairly accurately determined by radio-activity and

carbon-dating Secondly, the fossils found in the sedimentary
rocks can be dated in relaiive terms of chronology, and lastly the
clues in the contents and texture of a rock can be deciphered in
terms of past climatic conditions Thus the histones of landscape,

climate and organisms are interlinked exhibiting evolution of life in
the past ages
Evolution, the continuous adaptation of plants and animals

to new environments is not a simple straightline story There are
many side branches to the tree where whole groups of organisms
have become extinct leaving no descendents Changes in climate
and geography, due to continental drift and collision of comments
on moving tectonic planes of the earth, have also had a considera-
ble on the course of animal and plant evolution
effect The
evidences from rocks and fossils reveal that the pace of evolution
has sometimes been rapid and at other limes very slow
UT£ IN THE PAST AGES 17
EVOLUTION OF EARLY LIFE
In the precambrian age, the fossil records of which are

very rare today, the earth was unprotected bv an atmosphere and
great meterottes crashed into the surface The earth was cooling
slowly and high standing granitic continents separated gradually
from the basaltic crust As (he surface cooled, water vapour

condensed to form seas and rivers There was hardly 3 per cent
oxygen and only traces of the carbon dioxide gas to sustain any
ltle on rl The land surface was barren and rocky and the atmos-
phere noxious
It is believed that life, in its microscopic forms, originated

in water soon after the warm seas appeared on the land surface
about 3500 million years ago The first to evolve were bacteria
followed by green algae and then the soft-bodied ammal-like forms
Seaweeds were the only dominant vegetation for a long time,
perhaps for hundreds of millions of years, on account of lack of

oxygen in the atmosphere There was no life on land Fossil
records of these most primitive plants have been found in the rocks
of few places, as in Ontario (Canada) where traces of multicellular
algae and possibly a calcareous flagellated animal have been found

and dated 1900 million years old It is possible that some forms
of unicellular algae, fungi and traces of pumitwe animal forms
existed upon the earth in the pre-Cambrian age
These primitive plants increased oxygen content in the

atmosphere gradually and this process gave way to the evolution of
higher forms of life But it is believed that oxygen content remat
ned considerably low in the atmosphere perhaps lor more than
2000 million years and the evolution was slow
LIFE IN THE PALAEOZOIC ERA
The palaeozoic era, which started about 570 million years

ago with the onset of ‘Cambrian age ,
still had life conltned to the
seas In Cambrian times, which lasted for about 65 million years,
the sea cover was shallow extending over most parts of the conn
nents North America and Australia and on some parts ol
like
Europe such as Britain, Scandinavia and Russia, as also in northern

Asia especially Siberia These seas were surrounded by barren
IS ESSENTIALS OF D1CGEOC.RAPHT
land as (he rainfall was too little to ptoduce any organisms

lifeless
The atmosphere too had small proportions ol oxygen to sustain

any life
Life was confined to the seas and consisted chiefly of the

algal forms of vegetation mixed with fungi moulds diatoms and
bacteria, but several animal groups like sponges, brachtopods sea-
snalls and trilobites, having hard skeletons, had also mean while
evolved The Cambrian rocks have fossils of soft-bodied animals like
jellyfishes as well as worms Trilobites were in great abundance in
these times and so the Cambrian age is often called the tnlo-
bite age
Life continued to remain confined to the seas in ihe

Ordoucmn age (505 m years ago), a period that lasted for 66 million
years It was a period of alternating volcanic activity and profuse
rainfall Fossil evidences also show that the Saharan part of
Africa constituted the south pole of the earth and was covered with
a mantle of snow Besides the trilobites which continued to exist
even in this age, several new species of sea animals like sealily
starfishes, graptolites and molluscs had evolved and lived in seas
Strange varieties of fishes which can be said to be ancestors of

modern fishes had evolved as their remains have been fourd in
Ordovician rocks of North America
The Silurian age (439 m years ago) marked the beginnings

of terrestial plants The fossil remains of such plants which were
leafless have been found m Australia Animal life in water was
abundant, chiefly consisting of coral-reefs sea lilies, graploli es
and
giant water scorpions up lo as much as 9 fi long In he
Dei Oman oyt
(409 m years aqo) the earth started looking green and the atmos
phere had sufficient oxygen to sustain on land
life So irees and
ferns reaching heights o f 40 ft or more called horsetails evolved
With land plants to feed on the first invertebrate animals left the
sea and adapted themselves to terrestrial
These early animals
life
were millipedes, centipedes, mites, scorpions and spiders of ihe
class Artluopoda In the oceans, a rapid evolution of vertebrate
animals went on and ancestors of all modern fishes
evolved The
Devonian age is known as the age of fishes when
primitive sharks
measuring upto 20 ft appeared It is also said ihat the first
amphi-
19
LIFE IN THE PAST AGES
Fig' 2.1 Evolution life in the Palaeozoic Age— 570 to 250 million
years before the present times.
20 ESSENTIALS OE BIOGEOGRAPHT
bians came into existence towards the close of this period which
lasted for 44 million years
The succeeding Carboniferous age (365 m years ago)

known as the coal-age, had a supra-abundance ol land plants which
were giant evergreen trees of ferns club-mosses and other pterido
phvtes reaching heights of over 100 ft and mostly growing in the
suampv areas Primmve conifers also evolved in this period which
lasted for 75 million years the longest span of anv period in the
history of the earth It assumed therefore, that the earth was
is
very moist and the atmosphere had almost 20 per cent of oxygen
age Great river deltas and later vast areas of sivampv forest
in this
surrounded the maior land-masses Due to constant deposition of

alluvium and increased erosional activities sandstones were formed
which accompanied with volcanic activities submerged vast forests
that are now mined in the form of coal and petroleum The clima'e
over most of Europe was warm and moist as evidenced by the
remains of coconut and palm trees found in Britain, Greenland
fossil
and France An abundance of vegetation led the terrestrial animals

to develop more profusely Amphibious creatures continued to
develop and salamanders, sometimes attaining the size of 15 ft,
began to appear on the edges of swampv areas and lakes. The
reptiles had thus began to evolve by this time but their species
were few The insects in the form of giant dragon flies developed
and most of them evolved wings to fly over the swamps Fossil
records also indicate that land snails also evolved in this period for
the first time
The Permian (290 m years ago) which marked the end of

Palaeozoic era, is known as the age of reptiles which were very
abundant on the earth Dimeslrodon is the best known animal of
this period These animals consis'ed of two groups, one evolving
towards mammals and the other towards the dinosaurs, the giant
reptiles In Permian times there was a change in climatic condi-
tions over the earth and it became drier and warmer leading to the
extinction of much of 'he life developed m the Carboniferous age
The Permian period marked the end of dominance by marine
creatures, as animal and plant life on land had increased The
southern half of pangea was covered with forests of small trees
called Glossojitcris, the remains of which are found in Africa,
Australia and India The Permian age, which lasted for 40 million
years, had left a few animal and plant species on the earth on acco-
unt of excessive warmth and dryness
UFE IN THE MESOZOIC ERA
Mesozoic, the era of middle life, was a period par excel-

lanceasanage of reptiles Towards the beginning of its fust
period called Trwsuc (250 m veers ago) the hot, dry conditions
prevailed almost everywhere, which discouraged the development
of plant life. Later on wnh wetter conditions the growth of conifers,
cycads and ferns also commenced This period, which lasted

for 45 million years, had deserts and shrub-covered mountains in
most areas of the earth The reptiles continued to dominate the

earth. Carnivorous fish shaped reptiles known as ichthyosaurs and
the flying fishes evolved in this period. Bwosanrj were not more
than 6 inches long as there was total lack of vegetation. Arthro-
pods like flies and termites which could live in and conditions also
evolved The atmosphere had lower percentage of oxygen which
discouraged the survival of higher forms of life
fig 22 Evolution of life in the Mesozoic Age on the Earth-250 to

66 million years before the present times
22 ESSENTIALS OF BlOGEOGRAPHt
The succeeding age called Jurassic (205 m years ago) was

marked by wetter conditions again Consequently, most of the
land areas became swampy, having meandering rivers and lakes
This period, which lasted for 70 million vears, had predominantly
mild climate becomtng sub-tropical in some areas in the latter part
Profuse rainfall was sulficieni to support luxuriant vegetation of

conifers, cvcads, ferns and tree-ferns some of which had evolved
flower-like cones— the first slep in the evolution of angiosperms
Seas were dominated by rapid swnmmers and aquatic reptiles like
ichthyosaurs which preyed on marine animals On the land, repti-

les increased in size and variely and many dinosaurs, including 'he
giant ones like Dtplodoctis weighing 35 tons, evolved Some smaller
reptiles became covered with hatr or feathers which was a step
towards the evolution of birds and mammals The first bird— like
animal called Archaeopteryx which used to glide down with flappv
forehands and feathers also evolved The Jurassic, was thus, an
age of multitude of life-forms
The last period of the Mesozoic was Cretaceous (135 million
years ago) which lasted for abou, 69 million years It was a period
of great orogentc activity when pangea, the large continent, began
to break up and an arm of the sea appeared bejween Africa and the
Amertca The continental drift disintegrated the Gondwanaland'
into smaller land units now called Africa, South America, Australia,
India, Madagascar and smaller islands of East Indies The fossil
remains of Glossopteris and Mesosaurits in the ancient rocks of these

continents support the theory of continental drift North of the
Gondwanaland was the ancient northern continent ‘Laurasia’ which
consisted of two continental blocks closed off by the ‘Tcthys Sea’,
one of which included the northern parts of North America called
'Laiirentia' and the other was a four-runner of Eurasia called
•Angaraland’ In Cretaceous times, while the chelonta animals and
the reptiles like ‘Mesosauna, Eosuchm, Rhynchocephaha and Ormthis-
dua underwent their development and segregation in Godwana, the
‘baiiropterygiu’ and ‘fherapsida' had their origin in Laurasia
Creatceous was a period of mild climate with alternating

wet and dry seasons that encouraged the growth of deciduous trees
like magnolia, figs, poplars and planes The parallel evolution of
insects helped in the pollination of flowering plants and their rapid
dispersal Giant reptiles like dinosaurs and pterosaurs continued
LIFE IN THE PAST AGES 23
to dominate over land. Some of the reptiles developed wings and

they can be called the ancestors of modern birds. A few had
developed peddles for swimming. Some primitive mammals had
also evolved towards the end of this period. There was sufficient
oxygen in the atmosphere to sustain plants and animals but by the

end of Cretaceous, the dinosaurs started becoming extinct which
may be accounted for their heavy Intake of food and depletion of
forests The oceans had rich aquatic life and some peculiar species
of sea-urchins, molluscs, ichthyosaurs and pleisiosaurs had evolved

in them which soon became exiinci at the end of the Cretaceous.
LIFE IN THE CAINOZOIC ERA
The Cainozok or the modern era which started nearly 66

million years ago is the age of modern animals The most charac-
teristic feature of the era is the stabilization of the present shape of
the continents which have undergone few changes since then on
account of the lesser volcanic activities and diastrophic movements
Eocene (66 m years ago), the iirst period of the Cainozoic

era, had higher temperatures and an abundance of rainfall which
made the climate tropical over
most parts of the world and tropical
vegetation like that of Malaya flourished even in
Greenland and
England. These conditions were favourable for the
growth of
flowering plants which grew in abundance. Malayan
type forests
existed in Greenland as the fossil record? of
this island reveal an
abundance of palm trees. Many varieties of
modern mammals
came into existence and the ancestors of elephants,
rhinoceros
horses, pigs, cows and sheep evolved.
Primitive gibbons and
monkeys existed in Burma at that time But
most of the giant
reptiles had disappeared from the earth.
Crocodiles and tortoises
evolved, as did groups of insects that we know today
all
Most of
the fishes which exist today
had evolved by this time and some
groups of mammals like early whales
and sea-cows had begun
to
adapt themselves to aquatic life. The
marine reptiles had become
extinct by now.
The next period was Ohgocene

(36 5 m years ago) in which
the warm, temperate climatic conditions
continued but
some parts
of the earth experienced a
cycle of cooler winters as
the earth was
becoming moister and cooler
than before, which dwmdled
the
deciduous forests and increased
the grasslands and
grass-eating
24 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAFHY
animals. Small elephants with short trunks and tusks in both upper
and lower jaws came into existence. Other herbivores like the
hoofed animals— cows, buffaloes, horses, sheep, goats, camels etc.
with odd numbers of toes and giant rhinoceros evolved. Quite
probably, a tailless primitive ape related to the ancestors of man
had also evolved on the earth. In the oceans, new species of crabs
and mussels evolved, otherwise the maritime biota remained the
same as in the earlier period.
25
In Miocene age (23 5 m years ago), the European and Asian
and masses joined together and the Mediterranean beacme

virtually a land-locked sea Mild, damp climate in Europe end
North America stimulated the growth of deciduous woods maple,

oak and poplar with cedars and sequoaias on higher elevations,
many of the subtropical parts of these continents
were
while
covered with grasslands The Indian subcontinent had developed
the monsoonal rhythm under which thick forests developed. Most
of ihe mammals like elephams. horses and rhinoceros attained the
present size but the number of mammalian species dwindled on
account of the rise of mountains in this period, which were barriers
to free migration During the later part of this period, probably,
the ancestral man know n as Homo credits evolved m central Africa
Quite possiblv the other speiciesof primitive man, Australo pitltecus
also evolved at this time and the two forms coexisted Giant sharks
developed in the sea along with a variety of bony fishes in this
period
Pliocene (5 m years ago) was the next geological period in
wmch the continents and oceans finally attained the present shape
and size and the orogenic activities subsided The climate was
much the same as today but Europe and North America were much
cooler, which led to the extinction of plants like maidenhair from
these continents Tropical parts had rich grasslands that encoura-
ged the development of forest apes in central Africa and their
open-country forms spread over Asia later on Elephants, steadily

increased in size and roamed over vasl areas from Africa mto
Europe, Asia and North America The fossil remains of these huge
elephants covered with fur, called ‘mammoths’ have been found even
in Siberia which is very cold now Most of the birds had evolved
Water birds like ducks pelicans, cranes etc ,
had developed long
legs and some waders with membranes over their claws had
evolved Primitive penguins, some as tall as man, lived in Antarc-
tica, In the oceans, giant sharks became extinct and marine life
became much as it is loday
Birds are most migratory forms of faunal life and their

sludy reveals a gradual development in the Cainozoic era that can
be traced back to the Eocene times
Table 2.1
Evolution of Birds in Cainozoic Era
Geological Age Families

Passeriforms Non- Passeriforms Species
Recent
Pleistocene
95
100
U3 53
53
8,656
10,653
Pliocene 101 K# 53 10.705
Miocene 102 53 10,753
Oligocene 82 48 8,157
Eocene 70 24 5,164
The gradual decline in the number ol passeriforms families

and species from Miocene onwards indicates a change towards the
unfavourable climate during the last 20 million years Of the 848
recent non-passeriform genera, 10 are known from the Oligocene,
42 from the Miocene and 34 from the Pliocene. 245 recent genera
have been established as also occurring in the Pleistocene.
Life during the present age in most varied In Pleistocene

and Holocene periods marked changes took place m climatic
regimes, which in turn affected topography, atmosphere, vegetation
and animal life and need therefore be dealt with separately
LIFE IN THE PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE AGE
The Pleistocene age started about 1 6 million years ago

and most popularly known as the ice-age on the earth when ice-
is
sheets and glaciers covered most parts of Europe, northern As'a.

North America, Antarctica and the Himalayas. This geological
period, though the briefest in earth history, most fascinating, for
is
it was in that period that the geography and topography of most
parts of the world acquired their final outlines, and their faunas and
floras in their present distribution The Holocene is the present age
that started only 10,000 years ago
The effects of the end of the Cainozoic or Tertiary era and
the commencement of the Quaternary are marked in the entire
northern hemisphere generally, by a great refrigeration of climate,
culminating in the ‘Glacial age' or 7cc Age’. The glacial conditions
prevailed as far south as 39“N. latitude and the countries which now
experience a temperae climate then had the arctic cold of the
polar regions, and were covered under ice-sheets radiating from the
higher grounds. Organic records of this period indicate extinction
of certain plant and animal species or their migration to better

areas which affected their distribution
§§
nmosoxsisj
Pig 2.4 Glacial Periods of Pleistocene Age
The glacial periods occurred in several stages intercepted

bp inter-glacial periods which were relatively warm. On the basis
of fossil records and rocks’ ages the reconstruction of Pleistocene
age can be done as follows
Table 2.2
Quaternary Glacial Periods with Provisional Dates

10.000-
Name of Glacial Years Rise) Pall of

and Interglacial Period Before Present Sea Level ( metres
360.000-
Wurm Glacial 670.000-125,000 -10 to -135
Eeemian Interglacial 780.000-
12,500-235,000 + 7 to + 18
Riss Glacial 900.000-
230,500-360,000 —200 or more
Great Interglacial 670,000 +32 to +45
Mindel Elster Glacial 1.150.000-
780,000
1.370.000-
Interglacial Cromerian yoo,oco +60
Cure Glacial 1,150,000
Interglacial Norwich 1,370,000 +80 to +100
Donau Glacial 1,600,000 -150
has been estimated by carbon-dating

It
methods that the
nnnnn years when “T

100,000 Tlasl 3 acial
P eriod - la * ed f°r more than
'
the sea level was reduced by

lOto 135 metres,
uhich exposed the shallower parts of the sea to be used as land

bridges for inter-continental migrations of animals This glacial
period was preceded by a warm Eemian interglacial period having a
span of 1,10,000 years in which the sea levels rose by 7
to 18
metres which started 3,60 000 years ago lasted
Riss glacial period
for about 1 25,000 years in which the sea levels reduced by 200
metres or more Prior to Riss was the Great Interglacial period

which had the longest duration of 3,10 000 years causing a rise of
32 to 45 metres in the sea level The Ahndel was the third glacial
period which started 7 80,000 years ago and remained for 1,10 000
years Little is known about
the fall in sea levels in this age The
warm Cromenan which preceded it had a duration
interglacial period
of 1 20,000 years making a rise of 60 metres in the water level of
seas Gum which was the second glacial period of Quaternary
started 11,50,000 years ago and lasted for two and a half lakh
years but little can be said about the sea level fall during this age
The Norwich Interglacial period that preceded it had a duration of
2,20 000 years during which water in the oceans rose by 100
metres The Donait glacial period which was the first in the glacial
age, probably started 16 lakh years ago lasting for 2,30,000 years,
that caused a fall of 150 metres in the sea level
Fossil records in India indicate that there was a sudden

and widespread reduction, by extinction, of the Siwalik mammals
The great carnivores, ihe varied races of the elephants of no less
than 30 species and numerous species of ungulates which were
found tn the Pliocene age in northern India became extinct in the
glacial age
In some parts of the world, the existence of 'glacial man'
in the second and third glacial periods is well established The
Australo pithecus of South Africa was probably born one million
vears ago in the Gunz glacial period The Pilheco antliropiis of Java
and the Sinanthropus of China existed in the Mindel glacial period
some 600,000 years ago The Homo lieidilbergensis of Germany
had evolved 500,000 years before m ihe great interglacial period
when the climate of Europe had become warmer The Homo
neanderthalensis of Prussia existed in the Wurm glacial period about
100,000 years ago
It is believed that early man migrated from Africa into Asia
and Europe Slone tools used by man became more sophisticated
LIFE IN CHE FAST AGES 29
and language evolved Our own species of Homo Sapiens appeared

about 2,50,000 years ago But the alterna'lng ice ages and warm
periods accelerated the migratory habits of man and other animals to
move to areas of optimum climate It has been found that m one
glacial period, the reindeer and the Arctic fox lived in southern
England and in the warmer period, hippopotamuses lived in the
Thames river and lions ranged as far north as Yorkshire
In North America, a large number of animals were present

in the Pleistocene age who have since then become extinct Some
of these animals are elephants, bovids, reindeer, mouse, ground
sloths, giant armadillos, water hogs, short-tailed bears, sabre-
toothed tigers, canids, giant beavers, tapirs, camels, musk ox, and
pronghorns
Succeeding ice-ages in Europe and North America caused

many plants to perish, leaving only hardier varieties— oak, willow,
poplar, elm, hawthorn etc to survive In Asia, vegetation seeking
wanner climates encountered no sea or mountain barriers and so
more plants survived Palaeobotamsts are of the view that in the
interglacial periods, when the temperatures became higher and the
glaciers receded, temperate boreal forests developed over vast
areas in Asia and America U has also been opined that the Hoeo-
cene period is again an when temperatures of
interglacial period
the earth are rising and the vegetation The maximum
is increasing
warmth in the Holocene reached perhaps, 5000 to 8000 years ago
and is now on the decline as the period is believed by many to be
nearing its end
EFFECTS OF THE ICE-AGE IN EUROPE
It is believed that in the preceding Eeemian interglacial

period, boreal forests had occupied much of the European conti-
nent which as a result ol the [low of
Weischellmn ice perished and
were replaced by tundra vegetation Frost action was intense and
permafrost covered large areas, as a result of
which steppe-shrub
l “ n<lr ®
^Se'etion extended across lowland areas and
boreal forest
shifted to the south of
the Alps in areas like Italy, Greece and Yug
oslavia Due to cold, wintry
conditions, even m these areas of sou
them Europe steppe grasslands
dominated the landscape with trees
of pine, spruce and
fir at higher elevations with
restricted growth
30 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGRAPHY
Beyond the limits of ice advance there was much floristic

and vegetational diversity with coniferous and deciduous trees.
Extensive grounds of steppe grasses provided sufficient food for
larger herbivores like bison and reii deer to roam and flourish
Before the complete disappearance of ice-sheet from the glacial
areas, glaciation continued for smaller periods alternating with wa-

rm which prob-
interstadials called the ‘Alierods’. In the last allerod,
ably occurred 12,000 to 10,800 years ago, there was an abundan-
ce of sub-arctic vegetation in these areas consisting of some hardy
birch and pine trees together with an abundance of grasses, sedges,
flowering herbs and dwarf shrubs like Empetrum The plant Dryas
ectopetala, which can grow in a severe cold climate, also grew in
abundance. Their remains have been found in the clays and organic
lake mud of these areas
In the post-glacial age called Holocene or more precisely

the ‘Flandrian m Europe, the ice sheets retreated bringing marked
changes of climate and a profuse growth of different types of vege-
tation. The climate assumed the present form in six successive
stages in the last 10,000 years, namely, Pre-Boreal, Boreal, Late-
Boreal, Atlantic, Sub-Boreal and the Sub-Altantic, which represent
the successive march of vegetation in glaciated areas as evidenced
by pollen analysis of various plants
Palnyology— The science of pollen analysis-has now decip-
hered that during the transition period from the late Weichsenan to
the early Flandrian, soil stability had increased in much of Europe
and the British Isles, which encouraged lhe growth of shrub vege-
tation of Jumperus and Empetrum species providing a heathy cover.
This was the pre-Boreal period. As the climate giew progressively
warmer, the forests advanced northwards in broad latitudinal belts
The first invaders about 10,000 years back were birches and will-
ows accompanied with herbs, heaths, jumpers and pines that provi-
ded tha birch-herb tundra vegetation. About 8000 years ago. as the
warmth of the boreal period increased, hazels, elms and oaks bec-
ame established on these lands, most prominently in western Europe.
The boreal period is hence known as the period of first woodlands
when trees were sparse and scattered and more of heaths and
herbs prevailed.
In the late-Borea! period of Flandrian times, dense forests of
oak, elm, hazels, birch, elms and willows had developed in these
areas but nonetheless hardy healhs and herbs coexisted with them
The Atlantic period, starred fi.000 years ago, experienced the maxi-
mum postglacial temperatures and it is thus called ‘hypsitherma!'
There was a marked increase in the rainfall too, which terminated
a long period of boreal dryness, increased the soil moisture and
produced a sudden expansion of alder trees In this period alders
were the dominant species, although other trees like birch, hazels
and elm coexi-ted
About 5,000 years ago sub-boieal conditions prevailed bring-

ing to an end the Atlantic times I he Neolithic agriculture had also
come in by this time which brougl t about forest clearances to be
used for cereal cultivation The cycle of felling of trees, cultivation
of crops, succeeded by fresh invasion of weeds and bracken (pteridi-
w») and then the stage of return to the original forest started In this
period of human interference, elm trees declined and oak, a more
hardy tree, dominated the European forests Sphagnum became the
prominent grass to survive and provided most of the humus to the
soilNonetheless, birches, alders and hazels coexisted with herbs
and heaths The sub-boreal conditions ended about 2500 years
ago
ihe climates became drier which brought about sub-Atlantic
conditions
The sub-Atlantic condition! started 500 years before

the birth of Christ and are continuing even today The present
era is of more warmth and dry conditions over the entire earth than
the past ones Consequently, trees grew in abundance and advan
ced at higher elevations at the beginning of the Christian era
There was a retreat of the mountain glaciers in the beginning,
followed by a significant cooling of world climates
later on The
present climatic period thus resembles an
interglacial in which the
temperature cycle has already run more than half
us course The
climatic conditions are alternating between short colder and hotter
periods. For instance, Europe had • Little Ice
age' from 1550 to
1850 In sub-Atlantic period there has been a profuse
growth of
pine, fir, birch, alder, elm, oak, hazel, willow, heaths
and herbs
Woodlands and forests spread tovast areas but the deforestation
activities of man
occupy more agricultural land and
to
settlement
nave shrunk the vegetation
32 ESSENTIALS OF BEOGEOGftAPHY
Effects of the Ice-Age In North America
North America was another continent where Pleistocene

main centres on the Lau-
glaciation occurred over large areas with
rentian shield and the Rockies It had tundra regions in ihe north
and coniferous forests in the south The dominant conifers were
pine and spruce with abundance ol oak in the piedmont region of
Appalachians The ice-sheet retreated and disappeared about
10,000 years ago and ihe climate warmed gradually. This encou-
raged the growth of coniferous trees in the north and these trees
occupied their present midlamudinal position in the past eight to
ten thousand years
The first invaders to the north were jack pine and red-pine
followed by spruce Broad-leaved deciduous trees followed later
about 5000 years ago in the mid Holocene, and consisted of oak.
maple, beech, hickory and chestnuts The conifers continued to
expand northwards with the gradual retreat of ice occupying the
newly exposed surfaces so much so that by about 3500 years ago
it was some 300 km north of the present northward limit
The last five thousand years witnessed the fluctuation of

warm and cold, dry and wet conditions in these areas The grass-
lands occupied the drier parts and have now developed in the form
of vast prairies at the expense of neighbouring forests Man entered
this continent only about 15,000 years ago and so, much of the
original vegetation remained preserved with little human inter-
ference
Effects of Pleistocene Ice-Age in Southern Hemisphere
The southern hemisphere has smaller protrusions of conti-

nents South America. Africa and Australia Except on the high
like
mountains like Andes, there was no large-scale glaciation in these

lands but changes m temperature and the accompatned changes in
vegetattonal cover were markedly noticeable Thus a cold period in
East Africa was synchronous wuh the Weichsel glaciation when the
were replaced by grasslands
forests of this region Dry periods of
the Quaternary brought drought conditions even m the equatorial
rain-lorests. The Savanna grasslands of Sudan are believed to be
the relics of the past climate The temperatures in the Atlas
mountains of Morocco were also reduced at this time by about 5°C
Pleistocene glaciation is also said to be responsible for

creating the Nanub desert of south-uiest Africa and its northward
extension in the present age which was due to northward shift of
the south-east Trade winds The composition and distribution of

biota in these arid areas were also affected in the glacial age It is
also believed that the ‘maquis' grassland vegetation of the Cape Pro-
vince of South Africa spread itself some 12,000 years ago replacing
the forests on account of amelioration in the climate
In South America tropical regions remained unaffected in
the Pleistocene age but during the cold glacial periods of the north,
the Notlwfagus forest vegetation of Chilean Andes mountains re-
treated northwards towards the equator Temperature oscillations
in the north also affected the rainforests of Brazil by restricting or
reexpanding the limits of tropical trees and thus some of the flora
and fauna got isolated in small pockets in this area, bearing no
resemblence to the neighbouring plants and animals
The late Pleistocence was a wei phase in Australia m which

the lake levels rose But about 16,000 to 18 000 years ago a dry
phase prevailed which was accompanied by high, strong winds
blowing from the continental interior towards the south-east
These climatic conditions caused an expansion of the Australian
desert to the east and xertc conditions prevailed
over most of this
continent Conditions have remained unaltered since then
leaving
a great part of the continent inhospitable
FURTHER READING
1 en FS and Shelford VE
S? L £
/
Wiley, New York
- (1939), Bw-Ecohgy,
2 Cole, MM Recent Development m Biogeography (1975)

Longman, London
3 Fitter, R and Leigh-Pemberton,
,
J (1978), Vanishing
Wild Animals of the World Oliver
& Boyd, London
4. Furley, P.A., and Newey, W.N. (1983], Geography of

the Biosphere Butterworths, London.
5. Godwin, H. (1956), The History of British Flora. Cam-

bridge University Press, London.
6. Kimble, G.H.T. and Good, D. (eds.). (1955), Geography

of the Northlands; John Wiley, New York.
7. Robinson, H. (1982), Biogeography, Macdonald and
Evans, London.
3
Plants and Their Classification
Plants are living orgamsims that are in many ways diffe-
rent from animals A typical plant has the green substance called
chlorophyll which helps it in carbon assimilation or photosynthesis
in the presence of sunlight As they are able to manufacture their
own food they are called ‘autotrophs' Plants have other characters
sites as well They lack locomotion which is so common in animals

They donot have central nervous system which animals have
Another major charctenstic of plants is that their cell walls are
made of cellulose which gives them a definite structure Their

classification can be done on the basts of their taxonomy and
ecology
TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION
The taxonomic classfication of plants is based upon the

variations in flowers, leaves, stems, roots and fruits Gespard
Bauhm (1560-1624) introduced the system of binomial nomencla-
ture of plants by writing the name of the genus and species of the
plants He gave the names of about 6000 species of plants in his

book 'pmax' (1623) Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) of Sweden,
known as the ‘Father of taxonomy' followed the system introduced
by Bauhin Linnaeus classified the plants into 24 classes, based
36 ESESNTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPI1Y
upon their methods of reproduction. The classical system which

is followed even today was first given by Bentham and Hooker
(1862-1893). They grouped plants into several families, orders,
classes and genera. They had recognized 202 families of plants
til] date. The system is based upon the Darwinian Theory of
Evolution, according to which primitive plants are on the lower
ladder of evolution than the higher ones. So it is considered that
a naked flower is primitive as compared to the one having a cover
of perianth and similarly the unisexual flower is primitive as com-
pared to a bisexual flower
The taxonomic classification, as followed today, can be
illustrated by taking the examples of the rose plant and the sun-
flower
Rose Sunflower
Unit Common Name Common Name
1 . Kingdom Vegetable Vegetable
2. Division Spermatophyta Spermatophyta
3. Subdivision Angiospermae Angiospermae
4. Class Dicotyledonae Dicotyledonae
5 Order Rosales Gamopetalae
6. Family Rosaceae Compositae
7. Tribe Roseae Asterales
8. Genus Rosa Helianlus
9 Species Rosa gallica Hehanthus annus
Broadly, the vegetable kingdom can be divided into two
divisions :
I Cryptogams
Those plants which do not bear flowers and so do not

produce fruits and seeds are called cryptogams Cryptogams is a
latin word which means hidden marriage These plants propagate
either by spores which are asexual or by gametes which are sexual.
The size of the plants is very small and ranges from unicellular
plants like algae to multicellular plants like ferns.
It Phanerogams
These are flowering plants and their reproduction is always

by the male and female parts of the flowers Such plants may be
37
PLANTS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION
'monogamous’ i e having only one sex either male parlor femaie

part or they may be ‘bigamous’ having both the male and female
parts All the higher plants which we see on the earth belong to
this division
Cryptogams can be divided into the following classes The
division is based on morphology, cell s nurture and reproduction
methods
(i) Mlctoflora
These plants are tiny, microscopic organisms which may

Therefore, some of them
or may not have the green chlorophyll
are autotrophic while others are either parasitic or saprophytic
Examples of microflora are bacteria, diatoms and euglena They

are found usually in small ponds, cesspools, rivers and coastal
waters. Bacteria do not have chlarophyll and so live upon living and
non-livimg organisms In man they cause several diseases like
tuberculosis, cholera, typhoid, dysentery etc Some bacteria are
useful to man such as curd forming bacteria and those inhabiting

the instestines of man called E Co h
lit) Algae
They are primitive, unicellular plants railed thalophyles.
exhibiting both the sexual and asexul methods of reproduction
Algae vary widely in size and form, from the unicellular micro-
scopic to the multicellular, filamentous or ribbon-ltke with a more
complex internal structure They always have chlorophyll and are
therefore, able to manufacture their own food Most of the algae
have green chlorophyll but others have blue-green (
Nostoc or
)
yellow and red, the last two forms being found in sea water
Simple examples of green algae are Ulollirix and Sftiiogyra The
terrestrial algae grow in ponds, tanks, rivers or live in damp places
of walls tree, trunk and tn sod The sea water algae are able to
grow in salty water and somenmes cover enormous space
(ill) Fungi
Like algae, they are also thallophytes, having a thallus
like structure, but they arc devoid of chlorophyll and hence unable
lo manufacture their own food They either feed upon the dead
remains of plants and animals or upon ihe living organisms
live
Bread mould (Mucor) which easily grows on rotten bread, pulses

vegetables and pickles is a saprophuiic lungi Mushroom, growing
in forests and fields are a useful fungi and are eaten by man
Penicillin too is a useful fungus as it kills all and viruses
bacteria
and so used as an antbiotic Some harmful fungi cause diseases

like ringworm and scabies as they are parasitic and feed upon the
living tissues
(iv) Lichens
Lichens form a group of their own in the vegetable king

dom, as they are slow-growing, dual organisms formed by the
symbiosis of a fungus and an alga Commonly found in the cold
tundra regions ol the earth, they survive only in unpolluted air
They grow upon soil but occur also elsewhere on tree-trunks walls
and exposed rock surfaces Their shape and size are variable
They may beflat and leaflike or upright and branched in form
Lichens exhibit the finest example of symbiosis in the plant

world Here the alga forms the upper layer to receive more sun-
light and undergoes photosynthesis In arctic regions the duration
of sunshine is far less lhan six months in a year In this small period
the alga manufactures us own fo ad and passes it on to the fungus
to store It for unfavourable periods During winter months when
there is total darkness and freezing cold the photosynthetic activity
stops and the stored food in fungus is used by alga and fungus
both Lichens are valuable food for arclic animals like ihe reindeer
They are also a source of dyes e g Rocella provides the dye litmus
for litmus paper, which turns red by the application of an acid or
blue by an alkali
|v) Bryophytes
Unlike the former four classes discussed above, bryophytes

They have true roots
are higher plants, as they are multicellular
and leaves are embryonic They
called rhizoids’, but their stems
are commonly found in damp places as on the walls, near ponds,
lakes and rivers They are non-vascular plants and have therefore
no system to supply water and nutrients to the stems and leaves
39
PLANTS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION
About 25,000 species of bryophytes are known. They propagate

both by sexual and asexual methods of reproduction. At one lime
o( their life-cycle the sexual method of reproduction takes place
while at the other time, the asexual method of reproduction occurs.
This is called as ‘alternation of generation’. In the sexual method
the male and female gametes combine to form the plant while in
the asexual method spores are formed which are able to germinate
into new plants.
(vii Pterldophytes
This is still a higher group of plants consisting of ferns,
horsetails and club-mosses They have true roots, stems and

leaves but methods are both sexual and asexual.
the reproduction
They are elementary vascular plants in which water and nutrients
are circulated from roots up to leaves They exhibit the alternation
of generations by producing both spores and gametes alternatively.
Today there are about 10,000 species of ferns, 600 species of club-
mosses and k5 species of horsetails They are all water-loving
plants that grow in shades and moist places.
PHANEROGAMS
Phanerogams are seed-bearing plants and are therefore

called as ’Spermatophyte':' They produce flowers and bear fruits
Tha flowers have male organs called ‘androecium’ and female
organs called ‘gynoecium'. The androecium having one or more
stamens produces male gamtes called ‘pollens’ and the gynoecium
having an ovary produces the female gemete called ‘ovules'. It
is by the union of pollens and ovules that fruits and seeds are
produced. The seeds are dormant living organisms which are able
to germinate and produce new plants under optimum conditions
of climate and soil. Nearly all phanerogams are terrestrial,
Spermatophytes have been classified into two mam sub-

classes.
(i) Gymnospcrms
These plants have naked seeds and fruits Their seeds

are not covered in an ovary. All coniferous plants which grow in
40 ESSENTIALS OF BIOOEOGRAPHI
mid-latitudes and over the high mauntains belong to this group

The most common examples are pine deodar, birch, larch and
junipers They have slender, needle-like leaves to sustain the cold
winters Their seeds are contained in a cone Generally, the male
and female plants grow separately, having woody carpels closely
grouped around a central axis, bearing pollens in male plants and
ovules In female plants On account of bearing the cones they are
called coniferous plants and trees Gymnosperms are on the
lower ladder of evolution as their seeds are uncovered
Today the coniferous trees cover vast areas of the earih
particularly in the mid-latitudes where vast coniferous forests exist
About 600 species of gymnosperms are identified They have

been classified into iwo groups viz Cjcas and Punis They have
soft wood used for making wood-pulp, synthetic fibres, paper and
cardboard
(ii) Angiosperms
Angiosperms are (lowering plants with enclosed seeds

Their seeds are enclosed in the fruits where they remain well-
protected About 200,000 species of angiosperms have been

identified upto now They are most common plants which we see
everywhere upon (he earth Angiosperms are divided' into two
groups— Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons The monocots have
one cotyledon at the time of germination e g wheat, maize, pearl
sorghum
millet, etc. The Dicots have two cotyledons on germina-
tion of seeds e g gram, beans, raddish, carrot, cauliflower etc
Both the groups have well developed vascular system to conduct
water and nutrients through stems and branches to leaves, flowers
and fruits
ECOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
The ecological classification of plants is an approach in

geography in which the tnler-relationships of human and environ-
mental variables are studied and their links, interpreted In this
classification the study of ecochmate in relation to plants and
animals is more significant and hence more useful to geographers.
The balance of na f ure as exhibited by gradual readjustments in the
composition of plant communities in an area forms the basis of such
a classification
41
PUNTS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION
was Theophrastus (370 285 B C ),

the disciple of Greek
II
who first attempted to classify plants based

philosopher Aristotle,
upon their size and form On the basis of their height, he classified
higher than 10 It
the planis into3 categories viz trees, which are
in height, which range from 3 to 10 ft in height and herbs
shrubs,
Theophrastus also classified
which have a height ol less than 3 ft
of growth Thus ‘annuals' are those
planis according to their period
plants which grow only in one growing season From the stage of
germination of seed to the flowering and fruit making they complete

months e g wheat, rice, gram, pearl-
the life cycle in a span of 4 5
The second category is of 'biennials' which take two
millel etc
seasons to grow and flotoer fn the first season, most of their
branches and leaves sprout and in the second

season (lowering
takes place After flowering and fruit formation the plant dies e g
sugarcane and pigeon pulse (arhar) Lastly, there are ‘perennials’
which continue to grow for more than two seasons and may be for
several years Thus neem, peepul, banyan etc are perennial trees
which have their lifespan of even upto a hundred years Every
year they shed their old leaves and grow new leaves and flowers
Red-wood trees of U S A have a life-span of over four thousand
years
CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION
Plants can be classified according to ihe climatic conditions
in which they grow All plants need water to grow and perform
their metabolic activities They draw water from the soil which is
periodically replenished by condensation and precipitation from the

atmosphere The amount of precipitation in an area, which
becomes available for plant growth, is called ‘effective precipita-
tion This is dependent on a number ol inter-related climatic

factors A certain percentage of the precipitation may be lost by
evaporation in the atmosphere or from the surface of the soil; some
of it is intercepted by the vegetation cover itself and evaporated
before it can reach the soil, a certain amount may run-off the
surface or percolate to depths in the soil beyond the reach of plant
roots Thus different areas have varying water balance to the
vegetal cover, and plants adapt themselves to these different
environmental conditions
The rate of absorbtton of water by plants ts, however,

affected by the temperature and the chemical composition of (he
soil solution Low soil temperatures decrease the rate of absorbtton,
as do extremely acid or alkaline conditions Frozen soils with
permafrost conditions inhibit absorbtion of water bv plains
completely So in arctic tundras vast plains are desolate and barren

The amount of dessication that can be tolerated and the ability
to survive and recover from an unfavourable water-balance varies
from species to species and ts also dependent on the severity and
duration of the drought conditions On the basis of varied climatic
conditions and the consequent adaptability of plants, the vegetable
world can be divided into the following classes :
(it Hydrophytes
These plants either grow in water e g Nympheo, Valhsitena

or grow around water bodies such as ponds, lakes and rivers where
there is permanent moisture e g ferns, algae, mosses etc There
are some plants which grow in water-logged, boggy soils or in tidal
areas which get inundations of wafer periodically such as the
sundari' plant growing abundantly in the deltaic region of the
Ganga
Hydrophytes develop several modifications to endure the

abundance of water Their roots are either floating in water or
may remain partly fixed in the mud as in water hyacinth The stems
are hollow and filled with atr so that they may float over water
easily Their leaves are impregnated with wax and oily substances
so that the water does not stick to the surface and inhibit
photosynihests and transpiration Due to abundance of water,

the plants absorb water profusely and transpiration is high To
have maximum photosynthenc activiiy the leaves of hydrophytes
are often very broad Pollination of flowers is through the medium
of water and so pollens are light and waxy which can float to long
distances without any disintegration Their fruits are also able to
boat and traverse long distances as in lhe case of coconuls in which
the seed is covered with a fibrous tissue Water-lovmg plants which
grow in saline sea water or riverine estuaries are called 'halophytes'
Such plants have long floating roots and stems called rhizophores
plants and their classification
«
(if) Mesophytes
too little water

These plants are intolerant to too much or
plants either
and extremes of temperature The majority of such
*o
unfavourable climatic conditions The
evade or resist desstcatton in
to conditions of periodic
means by which mesophytes are adapted
or permanent water deficiency and
extreme warm and cold temper-
atures are varied and complex,

and by no means completely under-
of completing
stood Short-lived, ephemeral, annual plants, capable
cycles in one single season, when conditions are favour-

their life
periods of prolonged drought Therefore, most

able, easily die in
grow only in the rainy season when precipita
of the annual herbs
non is in abundance
Perennial mesophytes can evade severe water stresses
temperature because their normal

and extreme diurnal ranges of
that when water is deficient
period of dormancy coincides with
Thus in deciduous trees leaves die and fall before the onset of winter
season so as to reduce the transpiration to a minimum In these
trees new leaves sprout again with the coming of favourable con-
ditions in spring and summer In favourable season the trees
increase tn size and girth and form annual rings which can be
counted in iheir trunk to assess their age Such mesophytic plants
and trees which undergo periods of favourable and unfavourable
climatic conditions alternately are called 'Trophophyvc'
(111) Xerophytes
These plants are adapted to dry habitats They are capable

of resisting and remaining active in conditions where water is per-
manently scarce In these plants the water content is maintained
at a high and constant level by means of one or more anatomical
and physiological modifications, which either reduce excessive
water loss through transpiration, or facilitate greater absorbtion

from the soil, or permit water conservation in plant's tissues
Generally, xerophytes have long, tapering roots which reach

greater depths of the soil to absorb more water In Khejia trees
(Prosopis amenta) the roots are twice as long as the stem and
penetrate deep into the soil The stem of xerophytic plants is thick
and covered with bark to reduce any transpiration loss In some
<14 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPHV
cases as in cactn, the stembecomes bulbous and stores water for

dry conditions The leaves too become modified in various ways
In some cases they become ‘sclerophyllous by becoming thick and
impregnated wilh wax cuticles to minimse cuticular transpiration

In some trees, as in babul and nagphan! the leaves become very
small and often spine like to reduce any water loss through stomata
Leaves of almost all desert plants are very small in size for the
same reason The stomata of xerophvtes are protected from ex
cessive exposure to sun-rays by bping sunk in pus’ below the level
of the leaf surface or by growing hairy leaves which help to mam
tain a layer of more humid air near their surfaces Rolling or
folding of leaves Is also noticeable In certain plants which is a device
to reduce loss of water
Among all xerophyles the most significant modification is
the reduction in area of the transpiring surface In small leavpd
plants, size of leaf may be more than compensated by large num

bers As (Zizyphm) the leaves are small but in large num-
in ‘Ber’
bers During the day when the sun is bright and temperatures are
more, the stomata in the leaves of these plants remain closed 10
conserve water but in the morning and the evening they open widely
toperform photosynthetic activity The leaves of xerophytic plants
have a high density of veins which can conduct a large volume of
water when there is an abundance
Root growth, both laterally and vertically is very rapid and

extensive so as to draw maximum available water A feature of
manv perennial desert shrubs is the possession of exceptionally
deeplu penetrating roots which draw water from the strata much
below the permanent water-table Such plants are called ‘phraeto-
ph)les\ meaning the plants which use ground water Another dis-
tinctive group of xerophyles has the ability to conserve water in
their tissues If the water and nutrients are stored in stems and
roots, they are calledtubers and rhizomes e g potato and ginger
These plants can remain dormant for long periods of drought and
high temperatures and can reactivate their physiological activities
utth the coming of favourable season
Xeromorphic characteristics are also noticeable in plants

that grow in alkaline soils and boggy areas Glassworts Sahcormo ( )
heather ( Calluna uilgansj and Crowberry { Empelrum nigrum) which

plants and their classification 45
grow m salt-marshes and heathlands do noi have deficiency of

water in the soil Rather the excessive salt content of the water
reduces the rate of absorbtion of soil water In these cases the
stems become succulent and the leaves become hard to conserve
the stored water
The temperature of the atmosphere through its effect on

relative humidity and hence on evaporatatmg power of the air is of
paramount importance Moreover, temperature provides the
‘working condition’ for all organisms and controls the rate of their
biological activity Vant Hoff’s Law states that the speed of chemi-
cal reactions in plants and animals doubles with every temerature
increase of 10°C but only upto a certain optimum which differs in
every species Most of the biosphere operaies within a temperature
range of between 0°C and 50°C However, exceptions are there
Simple algal plants can grow and reproduce at temperatures below
0»C and others can tolerate temperatures as high as 70°-80°C in
hot springs. The following table gives the minimum, maximum
and optimum temperatures of various plant groups and the place of
xerophytes can be located m them
Table 3 1
Cardinal Temperatures of Plants
Plant Type Temperatures (°C)

Minimum Maximum Optimum
Herbaceous Plants
l Tropical 5-7 50-60 35-45
2 Crop Plants 0-over 0 40-50 20-30
3 Sun Plants -2-0 40-50 20-30
4 Shade Plants -2-0 30-40 10-20
5 Arctic- Alpine -7-2 30-40 10-20
Woody Plants
1 Tropical Trees 0-5 45-50 25-30
2 Arid Shrubs -5-1 42-55 15-35
3 Temperate Deciduous -3-1 40-45 15-25
4 Evergreen Trees -5-3 35-42 10-25
5 Arctic dwarf Trees -3-0 40-45 15-25
Lichens (Cold regions) -25-10 20-30 5-15
Modified from Bannister, Peter (1976) Introduction to Philological Plant Eeolopv
Bhckwcll, Oxford
46 ESSENTIALS OF MOGEOGRAPHY
The threshold minimum and maximum temperatures ol

\erophytes is 5-°C and 55°C respectively, which no other group of
plants has By having such a wide range for their survival, thev are
called 'megatherms'. These plants can bear a wide range of tempera-
tures exceeding 20 ’C<
for at least four months or sometimes more
On the other hand, 'mesothcrms' can tolerate temperature variations
of 10-20°C and microtherms' to less than 10°C. Crop plants which
are cultivated by man are usually microtherms and soon die wnh
the rise and fall o! temperature above tolerable limits Plants ol
the polar regions where all months have an average temperature of
less than 10°C are called ‘hektstothetms’ and they cannot tolerate
even the slightest rise in temperature
RAUNKIAEH'S CLASSIFICATION
Charles Raunkiaer, a Danish botanist, adopted a new method

ol classification of plants in 1934 He grouped ihe plantson the
basis of the position of their regenerating parts Depending on the
relative exposure of their perennating buds to the impact of clima-
tic extremes, he categorized all plants into 6 life-form classes
These classes are as follows .
(t) Phanerophytes
The renewal buds of these plants grow high on upright

shoots and remain exposed to the vagaries of weather They can
sustain effects of extreme cold or hot temperatures, drought and
high speed winds. Phanerophytes are mostly tall, perennial trees,
shrubs, bushes, lianesand creepers They have succulent stems
and high conductivity of water and nutrients through herbaceous,
woody stems. Such plants are commonly found m temperate and
moist tropical regions where adverse weather is rare and little pro-
tection is needed to the regenerating buds.
The sub-divisions of this group are
la) megaphanerophytes-more than 30 metres high

(b) mesophanerophytes— 8 to 30 metres high
(c) microphanerophy tes— 2 to 8 metres high
(d) nanophanerophytes— less than 2 meires high
(e) Chmber-phanerophyles— no restriction of height.
PUNTS AND THE® CLASSIFICATION 47
Pig. 3.1. Raunkiaer’s Life Forms of Plants showing

relative position of growing buds.
IN) Chnmaephytes
These are herbaceous or woody plants m which the regen-

erating buds are produced close to soil surface. The renewal buds
are not more than 10 inches above the soil. The buds can remain
dormant in unfavourable seasons and so such plants grow In told
and dry climates most abundantly. In cold tundras
and taigas the
buds find protection under the mantle o! snow, These
plants are
usually trees and shrubs.
HEmletvptophytes
The regenerating buds in these plants lie at or just

below
the sod surface. Usually the buds remain half buried
m
the top
soil layer ot humus. Small herbs and grasses belong to this
group
which dte soon after the growing season but sprout again with
the
onset of favourable season. These plants are very hardy and
can
sustain the vagaries of climate to
a great extent. They are
mostly
found in cold climates and hot deserts.
Their roots are fibrous
an d
reach the tower depths of soii-a
characteristic feature which
helps
them to tide over the unfavourable
climatic conditions.
|lv) Geophytes
The renewal buds of these plants always remain buried

under the ground in the form of tubers, bulbs or rhizomes as in ihe
case of onion, garlic, poiato, sweet potato, lilies etc So the buds
remain protected from snowi, ice, frost, high temperatures or
‘
dessicating, dry-hot winds They are also called as cr)piopli)lic
plants because their buds are small and concealed Geophytes are
found more in cold Arctic regions and areas having mediterranean
tvpe of climate, where summers are dry and hot and winters cold
and moist
(v) Therophytes
benerally, these are annual plants which do not have any

renewal buds They complete their life-cyclefrom seedling stage
to fruit formation stage in a single season which is favourable lo
iheir growth The seeds or spores, produced at the end of the
growing season, remain dormant and inactive nil the next favoura-
ble season returns Such plants are mostly found in tropical and
lands where the growing season is of short durahon and vicissitu-
des of climate are high
(vi) Epiphytes
These plants remain in the air, sucking to the leaves and

branches of other trees They have no true roots, rather they
extract moisture from the air or from the host-plant Sticking to
the higher reaches of trees enables them to get more 'unhghl and
perform the function of photosynthesis more efficiently Epiphytes
are most abundant in tropical moist areas such as forests of Congo
and Amazon where both humidity and temperature are high
They are also found in monsoon forests but are totally absentin dry
climates of hot deserts and Arctic tundras
Raunkiaer compared the life forms of 4 different climatic

regions as given in Table 3 2
Quite noticeably, u can be discerned that in the world as a

whole the largest percentage is of phanerophytes followed by
hemicryptophytes and therophytes It is also clear that phanero-
phytes are found most abundantly in tropical moist climate while

PLANTS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION 49
Table 3.2
Percentage Composition of Life Forms in

Different Climatic Regions (Raunkiaer)
Region Percentage Composition
Phanero C/iaruoe Hemi (?eo- The- Spi-
phytes pltytes cry- phy- rit phy-

pto US phytes
phytes tes
1. Arctic 1 20 60 18 1
-
2 Temperate 16 ! 58 21 4 —
3. Tropical And 8 13 19 7 53 -
4, Tropical Moist 60 5 10 6 18 1
5. World as a whole 48 9 25 5 n 1
Based on Raunkiaer, C, The Life Form of Plants and Statistical Plant Geography,
Clarendon, Oxford, 1934,
hernicryptophytes constitute the largest share of vegetal cover

in Arctic and temperate climates. Chamaephytes do not exhibit
any preferences, except that their percentages are higher in Arctic
and temperate regions as compared to others. Similarly, geophytes
grow more in the above two regions In tropical deserts the
largest percentage of floral spectrum is of iherophytes which are
emphemeral plants.
In addition to the above 6 groups of life forms three more

groups can be identified They are—
(i) Hydrophytes
Plants which grow in water or near moist places are called

hydrophytes. However, a few biogeographers opine that these
plants are equivalent to geophytes because their
growing buds
remain protected under water. But on account of a
different habi-
tat, these plants can also be grouped
separately
(N) Saprophytes
These plants, which feed upon the dead organic

material,
are ephemeral and have found no place in the Raunkiaer’s scheme!
F/g. 3.2 Distribution of Plant Life Forms in the Various Regions

of the world as per Raunkiaer's scheme.
All hough their number is small, they have a global existence and
should be considered as a part of earth's flora.
( HI) Parasites
Parasitic plants are not many in number. They feed upon

the livtny tissues of animals and plants, Pitcher plant and butter
common examples, typically found
wort are in tropical rainforests-
A common parasitic plant called ‘Amar Bel' is found in India which

grows like a creeper and sucks the nutrients of the host plant to
such an extent that the host dies.
Raunkiaer's system of ecological classification of plants is
a good yardstick to measure variations in two or more regions It
also tells us about the microclimate of the regions. Braun-Blanquet

attempted to assess the floral spectra of two regions, viz. Swiss
Alps and the Death Valley in California He found that In the
former region the percentage of hemicryplophytes was highest
(68%), followed by chamaephytes (24 5%), geophytes (4%) and

therophytes (3.5%) with a total absence of phanerophytes. This is
on account of the rigours of cold climate in which the phanero-
phytes cannol survive but hemicryplophytes and chamaephytes

can due to the lower posiiion of regenerative buds. In the Death
Valley, the largest percentage of foliage cover is of therophytes
(42%) due to aridity. It is followed by phanerophytes (26%).

hemicryptophytes (18%), chamaephytes (7%) and geophytes (7%).
Due to variations in climate the f total spectra of the two areas is
different.
Raunkiaer also studied the variations in floral life forms

according to altitudinal zones. He demonstrated that for Clova
Mountain in Scotland there was an increase from 7 to 27 per cent

in chamaephytes and a decrease from 42 to 21 per cent in pbane-
rophytes when moving from zones below 300 metres to those

above 1000 metres. Similar changes are noticeable in high
mountains like the 'Himalayas, the Rockies and the Andes.
GRIME'S CLASSIFICATION
Recently, Grime, an American biogeographer'proposed an

ecological classification of plantsbased upon two external factors
52 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOORAPHY
of environment He suggested that the composition of vegetal

cover in a region depends on the interaction of two factors viz
Stress and Disturbance The stress factors, such as moisture defi-
ciency, reduced solar radiation, lack of sun— light, improper mineral

nutrients, droughts, excessive rain etc limit the growth of plants
and so the biomass production is less
The second group of factors, called disturbance, destroy

ihe biomass These factors may be anthropogenic as grazing and
browsing, burning of fuel-wood or felling of timber trees or they
may be natural as increase in the population of herbivores, natural
fires m forests or spread of dtsease in certain species of plants
Those plants which are unable tolerate the effects of both

stress and disturbance soon die and their species are lost in time
However, others, which are able to sustain any one of the factors,
effectively, grow. These plants can thus be of three types
(i) Competitors
These plants have low intensity of disturbance and also

low intesity of stress They are generally herbs, shrubs and trees
which have a dense growth of leaves and an extensive canopy
In the process of competition those plants which can grow their
roots and shoots faster will eliminate others which are slow-grow-
ing. Generally large trees that can tap greater resources of soil
and have an ever-increasing zone of roots and leal canopy will
increase and will gradually exclude the smaller plams and shrubs
(il) Stiess-Tolerators
Under the environmental conditions with low intensity of

disturbance and high intensity of stress, the plants which grow are
stress-tolerators These plants grow under deficient conditions of
water, nutrients and sun-lighi To overcome the stress imposed by
natural environment such plants may develop several types of
morphological and physiological modifications Because their
growth is retarded (for example, in the Arctic tundras) on account
of severe cold, only dwarf trees grow In some cases, as in the com
ferous trees, the leaves become needle-like to minimise transpira
tton In plants of arid region, due to scarcity of water, the leaves
at e either small or they modify themselves into thorns or spines
PUNTS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION 53
In regions of winter rams and summer droughts, the stems of the

trees become succulent or barky. The stress-tolerators present
Pig 3.3 Location of Various Plants in Grime’s Model

(After Grime 1979).
a wide range of modifications from smallest plants like algae and

lichens to tall trees.
0U) Ruderals
Plants that grow under high intensity of disturbance

and
low intensity of stress are called ruderals.
These plants suffer a lot
of human interference and are sub]ected to intensive grazing
by
animals which threaten the very existence of their
species. There-
fore, such plants grow in protected places which are not so often
visited by man and animals. Such sites may be stone rubbish,
demolished or abandoned human settlements, wasteland on road
54 ESSENTIALS or BIOGEOCRAPHY
verges orwaste tips near liuman habitations Generally, such

plants are herbs of low heights and mostly annuals Thev have a
rapid growth-rate in order to complete their life-cycle in a single
season These plants utilize a large proportion of their nutrient in-
take for flowering and fruit production Certain weeds which are
unnamed by man and are not grazed by animals also suffer from
high disturbance In order to continue their species the weeds mau
often grow wildly in secluded undisturbed areas
Besides the above three mam types, there maybe several
intermediate situations of stress and disturbance leading to a variety
of life forms According to Grime s model, it can be said that the

central position of the triangle is ihe most favourable one in which
all the three types of forms viz competitors, stress-tolerators and
ruderals will grow In situations of 50 per cent ol stress and 50 per
cent of competition, the two types viz competitors and s ress-tole
rators will grow If the environmental situction is 50 per cent of
disturbance and 50 per cent of stress then competitors and rude-
rals will occupy that area In a similar way, several conditions can
be identified in which only the competitors or the stress-tolerators

and ruderals will flourish and form the main vegetal cover
Plant species which suffer from high intensity of competi-
tion or stress and disturbance adopt a variety of regenerative
strategies which mav function in the juvenile or mature phases of

the plant Regenerative processes can be by
— Vegetative expansion as m grasses
— Seasonal regeneration as in rainy season when there is
a large herbal growth,

— Perisistent seed reserve in the soil as in weeds
— Dispersal of seeds or spores through wind as in deserts
during summers
— Persistent seedmgs m the soil as in Acer saccharum

Grime’s model gives a comprehensive vipw of the life forms
of an area or region and also explains us relationship with the envi
ronment But m nature it is not always so In an area of wilder-
ness it is not aiwaus true that only competitors or stress-tolerators
or ruderals will be found Plant communities have a complex

structure that can hardly be explained by geometrical lines of
stress and disturbance percentages Micro-climatic modifications,
ubich are controlled be temperature gradients, humidity variations,

light intensity and wind-flow patterns are largely responsible for
the multiplicity of plant species in an area The Grime’s model

also does not take into account the impact of urban climates upon
the ecology of the area
FLORISTiC SURVEY
A biogeographer or an ecologist needs to survey the plant

communities of specific areas both qualitatively and quantitatively
This enables him to understand the mter-relatioriships of climate,
soil, plants, animals and man The foremost pre-requisite for a
survey is the proper identification of plant species both by local

names and botanical nomenclature The purpose of the study, and
the accuracy required should be decided according to the time

available A quick reconnaissance of a large area might best be
dealt with by physiognomic methods A detailed study of (bristle
variations over a small area in terms of density, foliage cover and

frequency of particular species should best reveal subtle environ
mental changes
For a detailed survey the area has to be divided Into larger

quadrats and then further subdivided into smaller quadrats. While
it is not possible to count every tree, shrub or herb in a large area
and to identify them, it is possible lo do so in smaller quadrats The
size of the larger quadrats may be 100m 2 and those of smaller ones
10m 2 . Quite often these quadrats are chosen randomly for detai-
led study because this method eliminates the factor of personal
bias But if the purpose of study is to assess the ecology of spe-
cific sites like boggy areas, mud plains, dry aeoltan deposits or
rocky escarpments, then the selection of the quadrat may be done
accordingly Care has to be taken that the sample sitesmay not be
affected by personal bias such as easy accessibility to a certain
area, avoidance of wet muddv sites and tangled undergrowth
areas or preference for colourful, conspicuous trees and plants. The
approach to study may be either the Raunktaer’s scheme or Grime's
model, both having their merits and demerits Bui the former is
followed by most ecologists

56 ESSENTIALS Or BIOGEOGRAPHY
After the selection of the quadrats and the approach the
following qualitative and quantitative measures are taken up for
studv. They have been given merely as guide-lines and are in no

way exhaustive Additions and alterations may be done as per
requirements of the survey and the area under study
QUALITATIVE MEASURES
1 Sociability Attributes
Here we measure the association of one plant species with

anolher It is done in order to know how individuals of each
species tend to be grouped with other spec.es in the field According

to sociability plants may be grouped tn 5 classes
Class 1 Single plants growing at one place.
Class 2 Plants grouped in small tufts

Class 3 Plants grouped m small patches or cushions
Class 4 Plants grouped in extensive patches of small colonies
Class 5 Plants grouped in crowds covering extenstve areas
2 Abundance Attributes
This is a measure for learning about the dominance of one

species over others Over an area, it is easy to have a glance and
know which type of plant species is more dominant than others ?
Here also we can classify that species tn 5 classes
Classl. Very sparse Class 2 Sparse

Class 3 Not Numerous Class 4 Numerous
Class 5 Vet y Numerous
3 Vitality Attributes
In order to evaluate the vitality of a plant species, the plant
has to be observed throughout the entire growing period Plants

exhibit their vitality status bv producing leaves, branches, flowers
and fruits Some plants may produce slender stems due to high
density of floral growth or lack of sun-light Others of the same
species may do extensive branching and flowering because of the
abundance of nutrients, water and solar radiation. Thus 5 vitality
classes can be made which show the performance measure of

plants
PLANTS and their classification 57
Class 1. Ephemeral advenlives, germinate occasionally but can not

increase their area.
Class 2. Ephemeral but germinating profusely in selected, favou-

rable sues.
Class 3. Growing all the year round by vegetative reproduction

but not completing a full life cycle.
Class 4. Regularly completing the life cycle but growth of leaves

and flowers limited
Class 5. Well-developed plants with profuse canopy and flowering.
QUANTITATIVE MEASURES
While qualitative measures give a rough and random

picture of the vegetal cover, quantitative measures are more precise.
Survey in this regard often covers density, frequency and abun-

dance of foliage cover.
1 Density
This is a measure to know the exact number of individual

plants of a particular species, in the given area (quadrat) If there
are 50 plants of a particular species in a quadrat of 100 m2 then
the density will be 50/100 m2 This will demonstrate the dominance
of a particular species in the unit area The method of counting
the individuals is very time-consuming as well as difficult. It is
difficult to count such plants as grasses which grow in tufts or the

bulbs and rhizomes which produce several shoots from a single
plant In such cases the plants are counted by root growth and
not by the visible part of the shoot system.
2 Frequency
This is a measure to evaluate the regularity of distribution

of a particular plant species in a given area. By counting the
number of individuals in different quadrats, frequency classes
can be madeat an interval of 20. Thus we have five classes ranging
from 1-20%, 21-40%, 41-60%, 61-80% and 81-100%. The fre-

quency values are a reflection of the density and pattern of
occurrence shown by each species.
In some cases, we shall find that although the number of
individuals oi a species in diHerent quadrats is the same, their
58 ESSENTIALS OF B[OGEOGRaPH\
pattern of distribution vanes Regular distribution patterns denote

high frequency while the clumped occurrences exhibit loti
frequency A random distribution pattern shows moderate

frequency
3 Foliage Cover
The numerical values of the foliage cover express the

percentage area of the ground surface covered when the aerial
parts of each plant are projected perpendicularly down on to it
Quite often in a dense forest several plants and climbers intertwine

and overlap and so in such cases the total percentage cover for a||
species in a quadrat will often exceed 100 per cent
It Is difficult to measure the foliage cover precisely bpcause

under the shade of a large tree several small herbs shrubs and
climbers may grow On the basts of the foliage cover, some forests
are regarded dense and thick others are open forests woodlands
scrublands savannahs, pasturelands etc Cover values can be
arranged into six classes viz less than 1% 1-5% 6-25% 26-50%
51-75% and 75-100% Here the last two classes show the abun
dance of flora in the area
4 Fidelity
This is a measure of the degree to which a plant is found

onlv in a certain type of community and not in others thereby
depicting the relative exclusiveness of a parncular species Thus
some plants may be found in different types of vegetation while
others will occur only in (he company of a selected few On the
basts of fidelity status plants can be classified following
in 5
classes
Class I Solitary, strange accidental species These may be

iniruders from another community or the remnants of
some species which were previously present in this
area
Class 2 Indifferent species having no strong affinity for any

community They are just companions by chance
Class 3 Preferential species, having piedommance in certain

communities and exhibiting vitality in association with
selected plants They can grow in the company ol other
communities also but notwi'h vigour.

Class 4 Selective species, found more frequently in a certain
community but also, though rarely, in other communities.
Class 5 Fxclusive species, which are completely confined to one

community and cannot grow in association with other
communities These are called as Characteristic species
On the basis of the above qualitative and quantitative

measures the dominance index of certain plants can be numerically
evaluated
Dominance Index
In finding the dominance index of a certain area we select
some attributes and assign them the scores Here, as an example,

we have selected 4 attributes and assigned them the scores.
(a) Maximum plant height (c) Relative Growth Rate per
Height Score
Week
25 cm 1
Growth Scon
26-50 cm. 2 Less than 0 30 cm. 1
51-75 cm 3 031 to 0.65 cm 2
76-100 cm 4 0 66 to 1 00 cm 3
100 cm. 5 1 10 to 1 35cm. 4
lb) Morphology More than 1 35 cm 5
(d) Persistency of Species

Plant form Scoie (i e,
Growing from one season

Small Therophytes 0
to another)
Robust Therophytes 1
Liltcr Produced Score
Perennials with
tussocks 2 None 0
Perennials with Ttan teoTi\Tnuous
large tussocks 3 cover 1
Perennials with Thin continuous cover 2
diameter of 26-100crr 4 Litter 1 cm. depth
i
3
Perennials with Litter up to 5 cm
diameter o! over of depth 4
100 cm. 5 Litter more than
5 cm depth 5
On the basis of the
above scores, the dominance index of
following 10 species has been deterowncd in an aud
area
60 ESSENTIALS or BIOGEOGRAPMV
Table 3 3
Dominance Index Of Selected Plant Species
In An Arid Land
Species Attributes Total Dominance

(a) (b) (c) (d) ( Index Total12)
1. Acacia Senegal 5 5 1 I 12 60
2 Acacia nilolica 5 4 1 1 11 55
3 Acacia catechu 5 4 1 1 11 55
4 Acacia tortilis 4 4 1 1 10 50
5 Prosopis juliflora 4 3 I 0 8 40
6 Boswellia serrata 5 5 2 1 13 65
7. Anogeissus pendula 5 4 2 2 13 65
8 Zizyphus nummularia 4 3 1 1 9 45
9. Prosopis spicegera 5 5 2 2 14 70
10. Acacia babulantus 5 4 1 1 11 55
DOMINANCE INDEX
VERY
(p LOW LOW
r^y?
<?
9 ^
^ \V/
medium
?? v ?9 v
*- =tf
* O ^%
'?» c
r’
*
Fig. 34 Visual View of Dominance Index
plants and their classification 61
It is obvious that the dominant species among the 10

selected species of the area ts Prosopis spicegera (Khejrt) which has
the dominance index of 7 II is closely followed by Bosnellm
sermta (Salar) and inngeissus pendula (Dhok) both of which have the
dominance index of 65 Prosopis phflora (Vilayati babul) and
Zcyplms mmmwlana (Ber) have the lowest index
In a floristic survey several approaches can be applied
depending upon the terrain conditions and micro-climatic variations
A quick reconnaissance is always essential before the detailed
survey This helps in making presuppositions regarding the area
and the methodology to be adopted
FURTHER READING
1 Billings. WD (1964), Plants and the Ecosystem, Macmil

lan London
2 Braun Blanquet, J (1932) Plant Sociology (transl GD
Fuller and H S Conrad) McGraw Hill, New York
3 Grime, JP (1979), Plant Stialegies and Vegetation

Processes, Wiley, New York
4 Oostmg, HJ (1956) The Stud) of Plant Communities,
WH Freeman, San Francisco
5 Raunkiaer.C (1934), The Life Torn is of Plants and

Statistical Plant Geograph)
Clarendon Press Oxford
6 Tribe, I (1970), The Plant Kingdom, Hamlyn, London
7 Treshaw, M (1970), Enuronment and Plant Response,

McGraw Hill, New York
8 Wadsworth, R M (1968), Measurement of Envu oinnental
ractors w Terminal Ecobg) McGraw Hill, New York
4
Plants and their Environment
Environment is a complex ot dillerent laclors which are
closely inter related and which affect plant growth either singly
or collectively For example, the growth of plants depends upon
soil-moisture which in turn is affected by not only the precipitation
but also by temperature, wind and evapo-transpiration. The most
significant factors of the environment can, however, be categorized
as follows
1 Physiographic— structure relief, altitude, slope

2 Chmat'c— temperature, light, precipitation, uind
3 Edaphic— soil conditions and soil properties
4 Biotic— the influence of one organism on other
5 Anthropogenic— human influences like deforestation,
fire, cultivation etc
PHYSIOGRAPHIC FACTORS
Plant life is influenced, directly or indirectly, by such phy-

siographic factors as altitude, slope of the land, structure of the
ground etc. The relief of the area is responsible for causing parti-
cular conditions of temperature, moisture and wind that
light,
mlluence the growth of plants Plants growing in shade may gel less
solar ladiations and these parts may show poor foliage cover
PLANTS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT 63
Altitude m itself induces climatic changes that give rise to

vertical zonatlnn of vegetation Almost on every mountain vegeta-
tion changes according to altitude on account of the fall of temper
ature Over the Andes Cordillera of Brazil, the differences in
vegetation are most marked In the ptedmont zone of these

mountains, which is less lhan 5,000 ft. in height, the savanna grass-
lands grow From 5,000 to 70,00 ft there is a zone of evergreen
forests which gradually merges with the temperate rain-forests
upto 8,000 From here onwards upto 11.000 ft
ft, there is a distinct
zone of bamboo forest which, on accont of lesser rainfall on higher
elevations gives way to bushes and grasses up to 14,000 ft From
14,000 to 15 000 ft there is a zone ol giant lobelias Still upwards
upto 16,000 ft there are alpine meadows and beyond that lies the
snow-lme. It has been observed that with increased altitude, tem-
peratures decrease but precipitation and exposure to wind
increase and vegetation responds by forming zones of different
communities
fig 4 Compartston of Vegetation Zones

over the
Himalayas and Andes
Undulating relief and the slope

gradients become important
spects to influence vegetation,
especially higher m latitudes where
64 ESSENTIALS OF BtOGEOGRAPH\
the sunshine is for less duration and the areas gel slanting sun-rays
In northern Scotland species of northern affinities such as Voccmmm

Htis-idaca are more abundant on north-facing slopes which recteve
less sun shtne, whereas Erica Cmerca of southern affinity, is more

abundant an south-facing slopes
Even minor undulations tn the land surface are of great
significance to plant life in the tundra regions These depressions

provide significant protection to plants against dry-cold winds or
through the accumulation of snow cover on the leeside Here the

south-facing slopes are usually warmer and drier than those which
face the north The quantum of light energy and thermal radiations
received from the sun are critical to plant life and they exhibit large
variations in the foliage cover and richness of floral life
Valievs or depressions are often subject to accumulation

of cold, stagnant atr or advection fogs which may damage froslsen
sitive plants In the depressions of Scottish highlands, there is
generally poor vegetation ot dead bracken fronds and grasslands of

Fcstuca o\ma due to frosts while the highlands have a dense growth
of healthy bracken trees
Slopes influence the drainage and soils which, in turn,
aflect plant life On steep slopes, there is a thin cover of soil and
so the vegetation is sparse On such slopes water may also flow
down without penetrating into the soil and so the area may be dry
presenting a xeric vegetation On the other hand depressions may
have an accumulation of thick soil cover and profuse water, giving
rise to rich biggy soils and extensive vegetation In flat, ill-drained
sub arcnc regions, the thaw of ihe summer saturates the soils with
ice-cold water in which plants cannot grow, yet sloping land with
better drainage may exhibit a carpet of herbs and flowering plants
Areas of undulating land, where the soil has developed

from a uniform parent rock may show contrasts in vegelauon due
10 obvious differences in soil formation and drainage The steeper
slopes have freely-drained sods and a podzolised profile but ihe
gentler slopes become gleyed due to impeded drainage The deep
peat on the topmost part of the mountain may have a blanket of
mire or bog The thin iron pans of podsols have dry dwarf shrub
healths on the steeper slopes and the podsolized brown forest soils
may have the grasslands On valley bottoms, having deep peats,

65
PLANTS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
waterlogging may occur resulting m boggy vegetation Therefore,
many ways a powerful

the surface topography m ns exerts
can also be noticed in mangrove

influence upon vegetation which
swampy forests of deltaic regions and
forests of tidal estuaries,
alluvial plains of regular fresh

mundalion.
CLIMATIC FACTORS
Climatic influences on vegetation are

more than any other
index of the
factor and so the vegetation of a place is the true
Climate may affect vegetation directly in terms
climate of a region
sunlight, rainfall etc or
of various variables like temperature, wind,
biotic factors All these
indirectly through its effect upon soil and
with m detail in the next chapter It should
(actors will be dealt
be sufficient here to , discuss them in brief and to explore their
direct effects upon plants
Temperature
Temperature exerts a fundamental control on plant growth

Plants can thrive, only within specific temperature limits and the
limit differs m each plant species The critical temperatures of each
species are defined by the minimum and maximum limits beyond

which the plants of that species die. They also have an optimum
temperature which is most favourable for their growth Tempera-
tures, over the earth, differ according to latitudinal location, altitude,
nearness to the sea and prevailing winds. On this basis, plants are
usually classified as tropical, that grow in warm latitudes, temperate,
that grow m mid latitudes and alpine, which grow in cold arctics
and over high mountains
The lower temperature limit for each plant species is known

as 'specific zero' which is 6°C (43°F) of which it may not have vegetal
and floral growth or ai which the seeds and fruit formation may
not occur But some plants like lichens and arctic mosses can
regularly withstand temperatures of even -2°C Low temperatures
slow down the process of photosynthesis and may also freeze the
moisture of the soil causing 'physiological drought’ which may damage
plant tissues The physiological activity of plants increases vigor-
ously above the cardinal limit of specific zero
66 ESSENTIALS OF BtOGFOGRAPHY
Most of the terrestrial plants cannot withstand tempera-

tures of above 55°C (131°F) as thev become inactive or may even
die at such high temperatures when exposed for prolonged periods
At high temperatures, the transpiration increases and if deviod of
enough soil moisture, the plant may desslcate or dehydrate and
ultimately wither or die Plants undergo these vagaries ol tempe-
rature daily as the day and night temperatures change or the sea-
sonal changes occur Minimum duration of optimum temperature
is needed to enable the plant to grow fully as the cotton plant
requires at least 200 frost-free days to grow and mature and the
wheat needs 100 days when the lemperaiures should be above 6°C,
Thermopwodtaty or rhythmic temperaiure changes accord-

ing to seasons are essentia! for the growth of deciduous trees and
bulbs (e.g Illy and tulips). A period of dormancy is essentia! m
winters to awaken and begin new growth in the spring season
Sunlight
Light is essential to plant life for providing the energy

recquired by autotrophs for photosynthesis Increasing light at dawn
or decreasing light at dusk infuses the photosvnthetic activity which
is just sufficient for the needs of the plant This amount of light is
known as ‘Compensation point' when respiration is just balanced by
gains from photosynthesis As ihe inienstty of light increases dur
mg the day, surplus sugars and food materials are produced for
being used in the future Plants having a high compensation point
are called ‘heliopli)ies’ while those needing less
intensity of light are
called ‘sciophytes'
The intensity and duration of light differs in regard to

latitudinal location, degree of cloud cover, thickness and density of
vegetation Plants attain greater heights in order to get more
sunlight as in equatorial forests The leaves ol certain plants like
beech grow in such a fashion as to minimise overlapping and inter-
cept maximum light. Climbers and epiphytes attain a sufficiency
of light by supporting themselves
on tall host plants
The
diurnal and seasonal duration of
sunlight has Us repe-
rcussions on plant life The duration of sunshine known as phoio-
perw/ determines the growth of plants
species in certain areas
6?
plants f nd their environment
Tropica! plants need a greater photopenod than the temperate

arctic plants
Moisture
Water in lire form of soil-moisture is essential to every
plant such processes as germination ol seed, transport of nutrients,
transpiration and photosynthesis Atmospheric moisture denoted

in lerms of relative humidity is of special significance to plants as
n influences their rate of transpiration If the relative humidity is
less in most parts of the year, the plants and trees may adopt such
modification as dwarfness, smaller leaves, reduction in the size of
leaves or thickening of stems and trunks as in xenc plants and the

vegetation of the mediterranean region
Rainfall is essential to provide atmospheric moisture and to
replenish ground water Approximately 30 per cent of the rainfall
enters the surface-subsuiface flow system to be utilized by plants

in (mure in the form of groundwater. The effluent streams tend to
be perennial and stream (low is maintained during the dry season
by groundwater seepage into the channel while the infulent streams
are every where above the gtouna’waier table and flow onfy in
cirect response to rainfall Water from these channels moves down
through the water-table, forming a recharge mound which helps
the plants and trees to get water m dry season,
Snowfall and ice deposition is a phenomenon of cold
climates which affects plant growth in many ways. Today, about
20 percent of the world area (sunder permanent tee and perma-
frost conditions which cannot support any plant or animal life
But the melting ol snow and ice supplies water fur plants and the
arctic vegetation grows for brief periods in these areas In ice-
laden areas only hardly plants that can tolerate low temperatures
and have a short growing-penod can survive
Winds
Winds influence vegetation both directly and indirectly

Strong dry winds of tropical deserts increase the transpiration-rate
of plants These winds also uproot many trees and plants Dust-
storms and ice-cold winds have devastating effects on crops
and
natural vegetation They may bend the tree trunks, cause stunted
growth of trees and shrubs or cover them with a thick mantle of
sand The growth of plants in such areas has often been noticed
(8 ESSENTIALS OF BIOCEOGRAPIIT
on the sheltered or leeward side of the terrain where the ill-effects
of winds are minimum
EDAPHIC factors
The various combinations of soil factors that influence
plant life are referred to as edaphic factors Soil system Is an

intergral part of the biosphere vital to the transfer of energy and
nutrients from one plant to the other or from humus to the plants
and then the animals The root system of plants absorbs water and
nutrients from the soil and also depends upon it for anchorage
Plants derive about 16 major nutrients from soil chiefly the salts of
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur etc
Soil texture and structure are its most significant qualities
and influence vegetation by affecting drainage aeration, moisture
and nutrient availability to plants Thus clay soils, although rich

is nutrients, are poor for vegetation due to lack of aeration Cal
careous soils, rich in calcium salts, are often correlated with plants
‘
preferring lime-rich soils called Calcicoles e g hoary plantain
[Plantago media) Podzolic soils having undergone strong leaching
action have ‘Cakifuge’ or
‘
acidoplule vegetation such as common
heather {Calluna utigans) because the soihs deficient in bases and
neb in acid salts Sods deficient in drainage also develop characi
eristic indicator plants Acid peaty soils have an abundant growth
of mosses [Sphagnum spp.) and cotton-sedges [Eriopliorumspp /
Similarly boggy areas and iidal areas have halomorphic soils, with an
abundance of sodium chlorate salts, where onlv haloplnles or plants
tolerant to varying degrees of salinity can grow
BIOTIC FACTORS
These factors include the effects of one plant species on

the other, together with the influences exerted by animals and men
upon plants 1 he effects may be manifested in various ways when
one plant competes for light, soil space, nutrients, water and space
f
or seed dispersal with the other In this act plants and animals
may show various behaviours with each other and the interactions
may be in the following forms
Most of the plants exhibi' the interaction of neutralism In

general, the various species can live together and given proper
69
Table 4 I
Types of Interactions Among Species
Interaction Effect
Species Species
A B
1 Neutralism 0 0 Neither affects the other

- - A and B have negative
2 Compeiiton
effect on the other
3 Inhibition 0 A inhibits B, A ts unaffe-
cted
4 Parasitism/ X A, the parasite or predator

Predation benefits A feeds on B,
the host or prey, which
thereby suffers a direct
negative effect
5 Mutualism + + A and B require each other

(Obligatory to survive
symbiosis)
6 Protocooperation + + A and B benefit, but can
(Non obligatory survive separately
symbiosis)
7 Commensalism 4 0 A requires B to survive but
B is not affected significa-
ntly
space and living conditions survive without benefiting or harming

each other
Competition occurs when different individuals of the same
species or different species and their populations compete for the
same resources and the presence of one has a detrimental effect on
the other In this process one species will always win out and the
other will go extinct because both the species have similar require-
ments to survive and thus cannot persist in the same habitat inde-
finitely. For example, large trees of redwood growing in equato-
rial forests do not permit any undergrowth of herbs as boih are
deriving nutrients from the same soil.
Simple inhibition is exemplified "by some lower plants like

moulds and fungi Pencdlmm fungi that live on bread mould pro
70 essentials of mqgeografhy
duce toxins and antibiotics that inhibit the growth ol other organ-
isms In this process the species A (e g Penicilllum) is benefmed
but oiher fungi or moulds, which try to develop there have a nega
tive effect and can not develop
Parasitism is a relationship between individuals or popula

tions of two different species in which one benefits and the other
suffers some loss of growth, vigour, reproductivity, lonqevitv or
even survival. This is usually restricted to disease-host or pest-
host relationship Certain fungi and pests are parasites on plants

as the red pest in sugarcane and black pest in wheat Amar bcl is
a parasitic climber which draws nutrients from the host plant to
the extent that it makes the latter die
Mutualism is an obligatory symbiosis in which both the

species necessarily require each other for their existence and
survival It is a symbiotic relationship in wmch both the species
work for the benefit of each other Lichens is the best example of
mutualism in which the algae and the fungi are closely knitted with
each other Protocooperatum is a symbiotic relationship which is
non-obligatory Although the living together of the two species

is beneficial to both, it is not essential as each one of them can
exist separately as well The bacteria feeding on dead animals and
plants can exist separately but they are useful in decomposing the
organic wastes A relationship between two kinds of organisms in
which one benefits from the relationship and the other is neither
helped nor hurt is called Commensalism The leguminous plants
having nitrogen fixing bacteria in their root nodules exhibit
commensalism as ihe former are benefilled by the latter in making

the soil fertile but the bacteria are unharmed and can exist separa-
tely as well
ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS
These factors influence the plant communities by means of

human activities Destructive activities of man like felling of trees
for timber and fuel or burning of forests for clearances to be used
for agriculture and settlement have greatly influenced the vegeta-
tional cover. Establishment of new kinds of vegetation like lea and
coffee plantation or growing of rubber. Eucalyptus and Sapwn trees
lor human benefit are conspicuous human interferences in natural
vegetation Selective breeding and hybridization of domesticated
plants have greatly altered the landscape
All these factors of environment will be dealt with in grea-

ter detail in the succeeding chapters Suffice it to say here that
much of the original plan! cover has either been lost or is now on
the verge of extinction According to an estimate of the Threa-
tened Plants Committee of the IUCN, about 10 per cent of the
work? s flowering plants are reported to be “dangerously rare" o-
“under threat” In India, an inventory of 135 threatened species of
plants has been prepared which includes some of the finest orchids
growing in the Himalayas
The environmental factors in communion with each other

have formed plant communities and affected the floral distribution
in the world So it would be worth attempting to present them in
some detail here.
PLANT COMMUNITIES
Plant groupings, in certain areas, which are adapted to the
physical conditions of the habitat are known as Plant Communities
or Associations These communities are groups of plant populations,
ot species living in the same local area and interacting with
one
another, Plant communities are indicative of the sociology
of
plants and such studies are known as phytosociological The
structure of these communities depends on the daily and
seasonal fluctuations of the species— specific niche variables
Biotic communities are associated with certain types of sites,
soils,
ternan, climate and fauna and so the spatial
classification of the
potential natural vegetation is an indicator ot the physio-cltmatolo
gtcal characteristics of the landscape For instance, the analysis of
plant associations in weed communities not only allows a determina-
tion of the age of the cleared land surface
but also, by knowing the
course of succession, the future development
of that landscape
Many plant populations show characteristic gradients
which
correlate wit h environmental variables
Dependence of plants and
animals on geographtc-climattc factors
can be broadly generalized
as plants of arid regions have
spiny, short leaves and long
root
svstem an d those of mediterranean
regions have bulbous sclero-
phy lous stems These character,
site gradtenls of plant
populations
merS n9 fr ° m 0nG
'
to another are known
as
cco/mcl’
72 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEQGRAPHY
Several methods and mathematical models have been

evolved to ascertain the structure of plant communities by analy-
Fig 4 2 Plant Communities with dominant, co-dominant

and sparse species
sing group diversities constituting it The species diversity of a
community is dependent on the frequency of the occurring species
and evenness of the distribution of individuals among the
individual species Diversity can be compared to the degree of

probablity associated with making a random grasp into an ecosys-
tem Therefore species diversity will be the greatest when all
species are equally frequent among the largest possible number of

species Quantitatively it can be shown as
s
H,= - ft log p,
i=l
Where H 3 represents the species diversity
and p, represents the relative abundance of species i
Therefore, a system containing two equally frequent species

possesses a greater diversity of species than the other having
eleven species in which one species constitutes 90 per cent of the
individuals and each of the remaining species only 1 per cent of
the individuals The possibility of two systems having the same
value of species diversity at different composuions can be shown
bv ‘dnerstly difference li can be formulated thus
H diff —Hi— (H j+Hj)#

FLAMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT 73
Where H dift shows Ihe diversity diflerence
H] is the species diversity of first area
H; indicates the species diversity of the second area

ard Hi represents the diversity of both sues
In biogeogtaphv, he species diversity and diversity differences

show the possibility of determining the degree of relationship
between biotic communities and the sites they populate Diversity
indices indicate anthropogenic pressures, since the species diversity
of a system will generally dimmish with changes in the relative
aburdance of orcanl'ms within a system The area of a habitat is
of importance if several species compete wuh each other within

the community
Competitive pressure and the number of niches within a

biome also control species abundance and are closely related lo
diversity Lcohycnl niche indicates the role which a species assumes
based on the demanas it makes on the environment and on its

utilization of the environmental conditions within an ecolope
Niche is therefore, the ’profession’ or role of an organism or
species, which represents the total environmental conditions
under
w hich an individual or species can persist ft can be a ‘fundamental
mch in which a species can persist in the absence of

competition
or a 'reshad niche m which under a given set
of environmental
conditions the species compete with each Ollier in
ihe real world
Thus, ihe mare uniform ihe environmental
conditions, the less the
fewer the species competing among themselves that can live there
for a long term, and contrarily, the more diverse the environment,
the larger the number of species that can eNist alongside each
mher, leading lo move competition among them
Plant communities are therefore,
more than a mere assem-
blage or collection of various species or
individuals of plants They
suggest some degree of organization and
integration of ihe compo-
nent members If an area represents a collection
of contiguous
plains at! belonging to ihe same species, it is called a 'Plain social'
If it is composed of two or more different speciesof plants that
are
ecologically and are organized in the sense
related
of having a
composition and structure, which result
from Ihe mteracnon
between the component plants and
between them and their environ-
ment through time, it is known as
a 'plant community
74 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPfn
Plant communit.es are grouped according to the dominant

species of vegetation Thus, those having a predominance of
sedges (?arc\) are known as Caricotum or an oak [Quercus) are
called Qmcctum and of khejri (Prosopis) are known as Prosopium
plant formations
Plant communities are recoqntzed bv the floristic composition
and the pin siognomy or the form of the vegetation cover Plant
forms depict the behaviour and adaptation of various species to
ihe environment These formations determine the appearance of

vegetation and thus to a large extent the physiognomy of the
landscape Raunklaer classified these life-forms of plants into 5

mam groups, as already described in the previous chapter However,
Smithusen (1968) distinguished 30 classes of plant forms as given
below
(1) Crown trees, mega and meso-phanerophvtes, (2) Mic

rophanerophytes, (3) Savanna grasses, (4) Creeping and hanging
plants, (5) banes of equatorial-tropical moist lands, (6) Shrubs,
nanophanerophytes, (7) Dwarf trees. (8) Stalked succulent plant
of mediterranean reqion (9) Herbaceous stalked plants of and
region, (10) Epiphytes of moister areas. (11) Dwarf shrubs of cold
arctics, (12) Subshrubs of and and cold lands, (13) Dwarf succulent
of sene vegetation (14) Chamaepfutic herbaceous plants,
(15) Hemicryptophytic woodv plants, I16t Hemicryplophytic her-

baceous plants, (17) Winter annual plants of sub tropical and
temperate lands, (18) Geophvttc herbaceous plants (I9t Therophytic
herbaceous plants, (20) Floating aquatic plants 121) Submerged
herbal plants of aquatic areas, (22) Thalloid epiphvtes-bryophvtes
(23) Thalloid chamaephytes, (24) Thalloid hemicryptophvtes,

(25) Thalloid geophytes-lichens (26) Thalloid therophvtes,
(27) Underground plants-rhizomes and tubers (28l Thallod
hydrophytes-diatoms and algae, (29) Plankton, (30) Endophytes
These life-forms are the ecological answer ol an ecosystem

to the challenges of its environment Thev exhibit various mam
festations which occur on account of biotic, pedologtcal and climatic
influences
PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
When plant communities are characterized not only bv their
plant-forms but also by their floristic composition, they are called
PLANTS and THEIR ENVlROM,IES.r 7)
plant associations It is very tare that an area has the life-form

I a single plant species A particular formation or type of vegeta-
non ts made up of a variety of species which may have in common

certain characteristics of form but which are distinguished bv differ
ent assemblages of species reflecting varying habitat conditions

Thus the broad leaved deciduous forests foimtng an ecological
community can have various associations of oak, ash, beech, eln-i
etc , depending upon the dominance of each species in a particular

sector of the forest
Plant associations are usually associated with various soil
types Thus pedunculate oak {Quercus robin) attains its greatest

development on heavier, damper soils while the sessile oak (Q
pctraea ) is dominant on poorer, siliceous soils Subordinate species
in these plant associations may also vaty Oakwood associations
vary from those with well developed, species-rich shrubs to those
in which the shrub layer may be absent and the ground layer may
be composed of a few species of heath plants and mosses Such
subordinate species tend to reflect minor variations in habitat
Similarly, the ubiquitous heather-dominated associations

may have subordinate species in varying proportions ol bell heather
(Enca catena), crowbetry (Empeietum nigrum) and blaeberry {(Vacc-
tmitm myrlil/is] on drier sues and the cross-leaved heath (Erica
tetiahx), bog-cotion (Erioplioiwnspp and deer sege (Trichophorum
)
caespilosus) on wet peaiy areas Therefore, most ol the American,

British and Scandinavian plant ecologists have demarcated areas
of different plant associations on 'he basis of dominant species
and the accompanied subordinate species Dominant species can
easily be identified m Europe, Siberia,
tundra, temperate North
America and Arctic lands where the vegetation is sparse
on acco
unt of extreme cold They can also be
identified in arid deserts
where on account of aridityand high temperatures, only a few spe-
cies can survive and only hardy plants capable of withstanding
vagaries of weather can grow But in other parts of the world
where environmental and climatic conditions
are more favourable,
the diversity of species is greater and
competition more severe and
hence dominance of extensive areas by one
or more species is much
less common
Such diversities are noticeable in
the floristicaliy richer
deciduous forests of eastern North
America, tropical ramforesis of
76 ESSENTIALS OF RIOGEOGRAPHY
Congo and Amazon and the monsoon lands of India and Indo-
China In these areas one combination o( plant association is rarely
repeated at other sites In such cases the criteria of total rionstic
composition, Constancy (presence) and ritlehiv (exclusiveness) in
recognition of related stands has to be taken into account Accord-

ing to the fidelity criterion, Braun-Blanquet has classified plant
species into 5 types
1 Strangers— that appear accidentally in some areas.
2 Companions — which are indifferent species without a
well-defined, pronoucetd affinity for any community.

3 Preferents — species that are present in sevetal comm-
unity tvpes but predominantly in one
4 Selectnes— species that are present specifically in one
community-types but occasionally found in others
5 Exclusives— that are found exclusively in one commu

nity-type
The last three types are olten called faithful species as

t hey have close associations with other species
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AND SUCCESSION
Development of plant communities and associations is a
continuous and gradual process The land surface usually shows a
series of gradual changes in the vegetative cover over a period ol

time which may vary from a few years to hundreds ol years
Changing physical conditions, such as change in climate, soil, drain
age or anothropogemc factors like grazing, deforestation etc will
cause an area to be colonized tn course of time by successive plant

communities The sequence of such changes through which comm
unties have passed is called a ‘sere' and the process of replacement
of one species by another and their evolution is called ‘plant suclc
ssion. When a community has reached a stable form and become

self sustaining in its habit, it is called a ‘Climax’ community and thus,
the sere reaches the complete stage

Clements (1916) described the various types of successions
occurring in different lands They can be categorized as pi unary
succession and secondary succession The former is initiated upon

sites not previously occupied by plant or animal communities, such
as rock material recently exposed by deglaciation, or a dry river
bed, or recently cooled lava flow. The latter develops on sites which
had primary plants in the initial stages that have now been removed
either by forest fires or defellmg of wees or clearances bv man
Such sites are not completely barren and have the seeds and spores
of plants that occupied them previously
The influences that affect the successions may be biotic

and abiotic, the former usually termed as autogenic, meaning that the
changes in plant communities are brought about by the vegetation
itself, and the latter are called allogenic which pertain to the changes
brought about by the climatic factors or deposition of sand or
alluvium or eroding and weathering of a site
PRIMARY SUCCESSION
The sere is extremely gradual on bare rocks and islands
which in the initial stages are totally devoid of vegetation and
animals The recent example of primary succession was studied
on Krakatoa island, an island m the East indies, which was blown
off bu volcanic eruptions in August 1883 leading to the disappear-
ance of two-third of the island and producing a caldera, 1000 ft
deep After 44 years of superficial quiscence, eruptions broke

through the caldera again and the cone ol a new volcano with some
surrounding land reappeared on which fresh vegetation grew. The
succession of plants and accompanying events, as studied by
Dammerman (1948) can be summarised as follows
Table 4 2
Primary Succession of Plants and Animals

on Krakatoa (1883-1933)
Dale of Duration Piobable and Animal Life

Suriei of Time Obsened IB) species)
(Years I Vegetation
1 2 2 4
Presurvey — Initial colonizers, Initial colonizers, proto-

algae, ferns. zoans and air-borne
grasses organisms
1908 27 Grass to Mixed Vertebrates—
Forest 16 birds. 2 reptiies-mom-
tor lizard and house
gecko
78 ESSENTIALS OT B10GEQGRAH1Y
I 2 3 4
hnertebrates—
192 insects
31 bettles
6 butterflies
2 dragonflies
2
21 anis
spiders, scorpions, wood-
lice and 2 snails
1921 38 Mixed Forest Vertebrates—
dominant 47 birds
5 reptile including a
snake, geckos and a
skink
mammals (bats)
Invertebrates—
2 earthworms
620 insects
40 ants
1933 50 Mixed Forest Vertebrates—

including beech, 59 birds
moss, fungi, 8 reptiles, including
grasses crocodiles
2 mammals (bats)
Invertebrate—
3 earthworms
930 insecis
59 ants
Total 1100 species
Source Dammermann, K3V (1948) The Tamm of kraUtoa (1S83-1933),

Amesterdam
It was found that after the eruption of the island, nothing

biotic was left on the Krakatoa island, except the sterile volcanic
ash and pumice stones, and the nearest colonized islands lay at a
distance of about 40 km But due to strong wind and water

currents, aided by a tropical warm climate, the colonization of the
79
island was quick The first coionizers must have been mostly
lizards,
scavengers and carnivorous animals such as snails, flies,
crows and rats which ultimately produced 1100 species ofverte

brate and invertebrate animals Today, a large number of insects
arthropods, reptiles like crocodiles and euryphagic herbivores
are found
Fig 4 3 Changes in the outlines ol Krakatau Island

The pattern of animal colonization was paralleled here by
plants in a sequence of vegetation changes, with the dominance

moving from that grasses to of mixed forests and of more
specialized trees and shrubs Another example of primary succes-
sion is also afforded by Surtsey island, located
at the northern end
where a volcanic eruption and lava flow

of the mid-Atlantic ridge
occurred as recently as in 1967 and where colonization of the

island by primary succession is yet going on Here also, the water
ocean and wind dispersal of spores and seeds are
currents o' the
helping the primary vegetation to grow During the last 10 years,
over 1000 terrestrial invertebrates have been identified on this
island
The pioneer community on open bare soil and rocks is

always the microflora of algae, lichens and a few grasses which
soon gives way to a secondary commumtv of mosses These plants
add to the soil-motsture, stability and depth, and their dense turf-
like mai form helps in binding the soil as also in
adding to the
organic matter At this stage, hardy biennial grasses grow and lake
£0 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAFm
roots, followed by perennial grasses, both of which provide food

and shelter to msecis and molluscs The grasses modify ;he
microclimates, altering light and temperature conditions, and
bringing about a decrease in evapoiranspiration, which encouraqe
a few herbs lo establish ihere. and the habitat is soon crowded by

plants
With the estabh'hment of newer plant species, wtra-specfic

and interspecific competition lakes place between individuals of [he
same species and different species, a phenomenon which eliminates
the weaker plants and promotes the dominance of most aggressive

species. In the process of competition several species are eradi-
cated and become extinct and a complete balance of ecosystem is
attained
The next stage in succession is the introduction of peren-
nial woody plants like shrubs which eliminate some weaker herbs
and eventually form a scrub community. A little later, some trees
may come in; especially those in which the dispersal of seeds lakes
place by wind or water, as by such methods of dispersal ihe propa-
gation of plants is faster Such a landscape in which the shrubs

and trees and their particular species are yet to establish their
dominance is known as Pie-ihmax Community Primary successions

on bars rocks are called 'Lithoseres' but these can happen on the
watery areas also such as lake margins, river beds and sea beaches,
where the name given is ii)drosere Colonization of coastal mud-
flats, sandbars and lagoons where the brackish waler-loving plants
grow is especially called •lialosere'. Here the halophytic pioneer
plants promote the deposition of mud and the gradual elevation of
the land, forming a salt marsh Later on non-halophytic plants are
able to enter the sequence, but progress of the sere is strongly
subject to alloqemc influences like the changes in the sea-level.

After t he pre-climax stage, the sere attains its ultimate composition
with the establishment of dominant communities The process may
be rapid or slow, depending upon the successful dispersal, germinb-
non and growth of the dominant vegetation In the final stage a
climax community may emerge in the area.
SECONDARY SUCCESSION
These successions of vegetation occur in areas where part

plants and their environment 81
of the primary ecosystem still exists In these cases the primary

may have been destroyed by fires floods,
vegetation strong winds,
human interferences-cultivauon and grazing. Here, the soil in its
mature form exists Seeds and spores of plants already existent

before mav be present in a dormant stage and may sprout again at
the return of favourable conditions In areas of ‘shifting cultivation'
in tropical lands crops may be grown for a few years but later on
with the abandonment of site by man, the original plants and weeds
may re establish and the landscape may resume its original cover
The sequence is also on the same pattern as
of seres in this case
the primary succession
CLIMAX VEGETATION
The final phase of plant succession in the climax which
depicts a mature ecosystem in which the dominant vegetation is in
equilibrium with the environment In a climax community the sys-

tem is self-perpetuating and the biomass acquires maximum maturity
The net community producnon in an annual cycle is large in the
early stages but diminishes in the mature stages The food chams
between different plants and organisms become more and more
complex as the climax is reached Ecologists and biogeographers
regard two types of theories m the attainment of climax vegetation
Although both of them are overlapping and successive but the mam
emphasis is on the factors of causation
Monocllm.-iX theory
The propounder of this theory, Clements (1916) regarded

micro regional climate as the mam determinant of the climax vege-
tation and the theory is therefore, often referred to as the 'climatic
climax’ Those species, which are able to adapt and grow in har-
mony with the specific climate of the region, become dominant and
those that have not done so within a reasonable time are regarded
as ‘sub climax’ On the attainment of the climax condition, an
equilibrium is achieved in the ecosystem and no further change
occurs
Polydlmax Theory
Tansley did not agree with Clements in the totality of the

82 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPII1
offecis of climate on plant successions !n addition to the over-
riding importance of climate, certain other (actors like soil terrain
slope animal interactions and human interferences are also sigm
ficant Climax attained through edaphic factors can thus be

‘cdapluc climax’ in which the soil is decisive factor for the growth of
climax community Areas grazed by animals which eat away most
of the palatable grasses and leave the unpalatables mav show the
dominance of weeds and such areas are called ‘disclimaf or

‘
plagwclmm
In nature due to human activities it is difficult now a davs
to find the dominance of a single species in its original form or a
primaeval vegetation In such cases plant community units inter
grade gradually with each other, reflecting a gradation of environ

ment that is linked by trasitional zones —ecotones’ and transitional
‘
lines ecolmes ’ In these areas, continuous fluctuations of diurnal
seasonal and long-term climate also exercise an overall control on
the vegetation and may change the climax communities over time
Nevertheless, it is possible to identify a climax communily that is
central to the range of variation and is most widespread Usually
it is called ‘climatic climax' for climate is ihe most dominant factor
In all cases
Attainment of total climax vegetation is seldom seen in
nature Repeated disturbances due to climatic changes, droughts

floods, glaciation, aggressive colonizers, plant diseases, amnai inter
ferences etc may interfere with the process of succession and

retard the climax attainment So, many community changes mav
be cyclic or non-successional and are olten repeated again and
again The climax theory in such instances is hypothetical but
nonetheless, biomes of climax vegetation occur in the world and
they will be discussed in Chapter IX
FURTHER READING
1 Cam, S A (1944), Foundations of Plant Geograph),

Harper and Row, New York
2 Clements, F E , and Shelford, V E (1939), Bio ccolog)
John Wiley, New York
HANTS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT 83
3 Cox, C.B. Healey, I N ,

and Moore, P.D. (1976), Biogeo-
grap/iv '
An Ecological and Evolutionary Approach;
Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
4 Dansereau, P (1957), Biogeography . An Ecological Pets-
pectne. Ronald Press, New York.
5 Ellon, C.S (1958), The Ecology of Invasions of Plants and

Animals, Meihuen, London
6 MacArtliur, R H (1972), Geographical Ecology : Patterns
and Distribution of Species; Harper and Row, New York
10
7 Odum, Eugene P (1959), Fundamentals of Ecology
W Saunders, Philadelphia
8 West, RG (1968), Pleistocene Ecology and Biology;

Longman, London
9 Whitteker, Robert H (1970), Communities and Ecosys-
tems, Macmillan, New York
Zeuner, F E (1959), The Pleistocene Period ; Its Climate,
Chronology and Faunal Succession; Hutchinson, London

5
Atmospheric Factors
Influencing the Biota
The Earth is the only planet having an envelop of atmosp-

here which has oxygen, so essential to sustain life The atmosphere
also acts as a ‘filter’ through which the radiant energy of the sun
reaches the earth’s surface As a result it provides an insulating
or thermostatic medium without which variations between day and
night temperatures would be too extreme for the survival of any
plant or animal The atmosphere is also an agency by which water

is circulated through and distributed to the biosphere
The atmosphere is composed of gas molecules of various
gases held together close to the earth's surface bv gravitation The

major gases in the atmosphere are nitrogen (78%) oxygen (21%)
argon (0 9%) and carbon dioxide (0 03%) It also contains trace
amounts of other gases like ozone, methane carbon monoxide,

hydrogen sulphide, oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, hydrocarbons
and various dust particles called 'particulates ’
In addition, water
vapour tn the atmosphere vanes from zero to 4 per cent by volume
Plants depend directly upon oxygen and carbon dioxide Both the
gases, however, maintain a uniform and constant composition in
the free atmospere almost all over the earth. Plant growth is also
modified by nitrogen, which is used by nitrogen-fixing bacteria and

ATMOSPHERIC FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BIOTA 85
by the availability of water in the form of moisture or by means of

rainfall, sleet, dew and various other forms of precipitation
Plants use carbon dioxide gas in the process of carbon

assimilation to produce food for themselves as well as animals,
which totally depend upon plants Quite a large percentage of
carbon dioxide is absorbed by the seas and the oceans, as it is
highly soluble m water Oxygen is needed for respiration both by

plants and animals and so it is the life-sustaining gas
CLIMATE AND CLIMATIC CHANGE
Amongst the climatic aspects the most significant ones

which affect the growth of flora and fauna are temperature, precipit-
ation, humidity or moisture and the winds The sun emitting solar
radiation is responsible for the variations in all these factors which
need to be discussed in detail
SOLAR RADIATION
The most significant factor affecting the biosphere is the

Sun, the only exterior source of energy It controls the climate,
and duration of sun light and the gas exchange bet-
the intensity
ween the atmosphere and the oceans, as well as the productivity of

vegetation, the blooming seasons of plants, and the distribution of
the animals in space and lime
On an average, the sun’s radiation is at 1,350 Watt/m 2 ,
which is called Solar consumt’ This energy reaches the upper

limits of the atmosphere, the protective envelope of our earth
Upon entering the earth’s atmosphere, it diminishes by nearly 2/3
of the cosmic value to about 544 Watt/m 2 This value is dependent
on each Individual location, on certain climatic factors like cloudi-
ness and winds and the suspended particulate matter of dust

particles and moisture It is higher in equatorial and tropical
regions, for the rays of the sun-hght fall directly on these areas It
may be lower in mid latitudes and high-latitudes where the sun-rays

fall slantingly b tropical India the solar radiation may be 740
Watt/m 2 , m central Europe 544 Watt/m 2 and in tundra it may be
even less At ground level it may amount to even less, not exceed-
ing 200 Watt/m 1 Hence a mean value of 220 Watt/m 2 is assumed

for the entire biosphere which is less than 1 per cent of the irradia-
nonal solar energy, but there are significant regional exceptions
The distribution of irradiations! energy vanes on land and

water surfaces The total land area on the earth is 148 9xl0 6 km 2
(29%) and the sea area is 361 lxlQ c km 2 (71%) In the northern
Pig 51 Solar Radiations and Solar Constant

reaching the Earth’s Surface
hemisphere the ratio between land and sea is 39 61, while in the
southern hemisphere it is 19 81 These regional contrasts, along

with astronomical conditions, topography and climate affect the
distribution of solar radiation and consequently the heat budget
Although the earth intercepts only a very tiny fraction of

the total energy emitted bv the sun, it is the solar energu that sust-
ains life on earth Energy emitted fiom the sun m the form of
electromagnetic radiation travels to earth at the speed of light
through the vacuum of space Different forms of electromagneuc
atmospheric factors influencing the biota 87
energy may be disimguished by their wave-lengths and may be

grouped into an ‘ ekctro magnetic spectrum , a modest appreciation of
which is essential to understand
The energy that is radiated from a celestial body varies
with the fourth power of the temperature of the body Thus, if a
body’s temperature doubles, the energy radiated increases by 16

times This explains why ihe sun with a temperature of 5800°C
radiates a tremendously greater amount of energy compared with
*he earth at 15°C It may also be noted that the sun emits relati
vely short-wave radiation whereas the earth emits relatively long

wave radiation Much of the harmful radiation, such as X-rays and
ultraviolet radiation is filtered out by thp upper atmosphere, the

latter being absorbed by the ozone layer of the atmosphere, appro
ximately 15 to 32 km high
It may be noted that the total incoming solar radiation

(5 5 million exajoules) constitutes 99 998 per cent of the energy
supply to the atmosphere This is responsible for fuelling the
hydrologic cycle, generating winds which produce sea waves, erod-
vgand depositing sediment on land and allowing plant growth
through photosynthesis Only a tiny fraction of heat energy (110
exapules) constituting 0 002 per cpnt is received from the earth’s
interior 38 per cent of she incoming solar radiation is reflected
from the atmosphere back into space About 3 6 million exajoules

of energy is available to drive processes at or near the surface of
the earth, such as photosynthesis and about 2 6 million exajoules
of energy is absorbed by (he earih to be radiated back gradually
About 0 96 million exajoules are absorbed by the atmosphere
SOLAR LIGHT AND PLANT GROWTH
Light, which varies in quality, intensity and duration in
various parts of the earth and in different season, is essential for

photosynthesis in the plants Only the visible white light of solar
spectrum is absorbed by chlorophyll Ultra violet light is known to
be harmful to bacteria and is believed to exert a retarding effect on
vegetation development Infra-red radiation is also not used by
plants m photosynthesis Excess of ultra-violet radiation which is
greatest at high altitudes, results in shortening of stems and

ESSENTIALS OF BIOGCOGRAPHY
Fig 5-2 The Spectrum of Sun-Rays

consequently, in ihe flattened, roselte, leaf-form characteristics of
many herbaceous plants.
Light intensity affects the physical condition of the atmos-

phere, since water vapour, clouds, dust and certain gases tend to
decrease, by absorbtion or reflection, the amount of solar light
reaching the earth’s surface. Light intensity decreases in mid and
high latitudes where the sun rays pass through a thicker layer of
atmosphere than in tropical regions. Marked seasonal and diurnal
variations are visible in these latitudes due to the slanting sun rays
in winter. Highest light intensity is in tropical areas, especially
when the weather is dry and hot.
Of the light falling on green leaves, it has been estimated
that, on an average, 20 per cent is reflected, 20 per cent is radiated
as heat, 49 per cent is used in evapo-transpiralion and only about
10 per cent is transmitted through the leaf The exact proportion
isdependent on colour, thickness and anatomy of the leaf. The
conical leaves and needles of coniferous
plants absorb less light
than broad leaves of equatorial
and deciduous trees. A dense
plants
canopy of tree leaves may also cut down the
solar intensity reach-
jug the lower surfaces
where the undergrowth of herbs is sporadic.
'!
has also been observed that only about
50 per cent of light imp-
90 ESSENTIALS OF MOGEOGRAFHY
inging on the surface penetrates to a depth greater than 10 metre*

In sea water the maximum penetration of light may be upto a depth
of 100 metres and so the marine flora is limited to the upper
surface only
For each species ol plant there is a minimum and

maximum intensity of light bevond which the photosvnthetic acit
vity decreases This optimum intensity is called ‘Compensation
point' This point denotes the perceniage of daylight necessary
for photosynthesis to build up plant tissues at a rate greater than
that at which thev are broken down during respiration Thus lower
plants like uni cellular algae and plankion need very little daylighl
while the higher plants need more
Table 5
Light Compensation and Saturation in Plants
Plant riper Compensation Saturation
1 Herbaceous plants
C4 plants 1-3 Over 80
Crop plants (C 3 )
1-2 TO 80
Sun plants 1-2 50-80
Shade Plants 0 2-0 5 5-10
2 Deciduous Trees
Sun leaves l-l 5 25-50
Shade leaves 0 3-0 6 10-15
3 Evergreen trees
Sun Leaves 0 5-1 5 20-50
Shade leaves 0 1-0 3 5-10
4 Mosses 01-2 0 10-20
5 Algae and Plankton - 15-20
(After Bannister, 1976) C3 and C4 refer to tile form in which carbon is fixed in
photosynthesis, in the first ihe ‘pathway’ invokes formation of acids with 3 carbon
molecules and in the latter with 4 )
Depending upon the intensity of light required for growth

plants can be classified into two groups viz hehoph)tes and sew
plntes The former are called sun-loving plants as thev need high
light intensity for optimum growth, while the latter are shade-loving
ATMOSPHERIC FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BIOTA 9!
plants because they need little light intensity. Most of the cereal
crops, large trees and herbaceous plants are heliophytrc, while the
algae, mosses, ferns and various other forms of thallophy tes, bry-
ophytes and ptendophytes are sciophytic In between the two
contrasting types, there exist some plants which can attain optimal
growth both in bright light as well as shade e g blue-bell flowers
iScillamitais) and brackens ( Ptendium aqmhmum)

The light requirments of plants may vary in their life-cycles
A seedling or a young plant having less leaves needs less light than
a tall tree which is mature Seedlings of trees like willow, birch,
poplar and Scot’s pine are heliophytic while those of beech, spruce,
fir, oak, yew, elm and ash are sciophytic More light is required m
the flowering season of plants and trees because of the increased
hotosynlhetic activity at this stage of their life-cycle.
Plant response to the duration of day light is called photo-

pertodism Every plant or tree undergoes variations of daylight every
day It remains without light in ihe night and does its photosy-
nthetic activity tn day The length of daylight varies latitudinally
from a constant 12 hours at the equator to conltnous sunlight

for 24 hours at the poles In mid-latitudes summers have longer
day light period than winters All plants adjust their photoperiodtc
activities according to seasons Due to shortage in the photoper-
iodtc activity in winters the deciduous trees and plants of mid-
latitudes shed their leaves before ihe onset of the winter season
In India such crops like pearl millet, oats, rice, sugarcane, tobacco,
jute and cotton require longer day’ight and are hence grown in the
summer season, while crops like wheat, cabbage cauliflower,
raddish, carrots and mustard need shorter daylight and are so
grown in winters
Based upon the intensity ol solar-radiation and duration of

daylight the various pans of the world can be divided in different
chmauc zones, each zone having ns own characteristic flora
These zones vary from equatorial Climate to arctic in the north,

exhibiting various intermediate types in beiween The eflecis of
nearness io sea, high altitudes, commentary and the periodic sea-
son of rainfall are noticeable tn marine west-coast, mountains,
deserts tropical, wet-drv and mediterranean climates, all of which
have their own peculiar flora
92
1981)
Marsh
After
(Redrawn
Earth.
the
of
Zones
Climatic
4
5
rig
WATER
These vital photosynlhetic processes activated by light can,

however, only take place in the presence of water Most living
tissue is composed of a very high percentage of water, even exce-

eding 90 per cent of the fresh weight of many plants and animals
The protoplasm of many cells dies if their water content drops
below 10 per cent In plants, water is the medium by which
mineral nutrients enter and are translocated to various parts It is
also essential for the maintenance of leaf turgldity without which

carbon assimilation processes cannot operate efficiently
Water circulates over the globe in its various manifestations

rain, snow, ice, sleet, dew, hail etc and forms the water cycle
Evaporation of water from the seas, oceans and inland water-bodies
as also from the soil cover and plants, takes place continuously on
account of solar heat This gaseous state of water in the atmo-
sphere account for the moisture m the air which is measured in
terms of relative humidity Moreover, transpiration of plants also

adds to the humiduy in the air Accumulation of large masses of
water-vapour in the atmosphere leads to the formation of clouds
Smaller suspended particles of water-vapour may form dew frost
and mist on condensation
Fig 5 5 Water Cycle showing replenishments of water

to oceans, soil and subterranean rocks
Terrestrial plants obtain water by way of their root systems

from the soil but some plants like mosses, algae and lichens can
absorb water direct from the air A few epiphytes which grow m
the tropical, moist climate are also capable of absorbing water from
air. The critical values for the water content of leaves which guard
the closure and opening of leaf stomaia in various planis are
different. In xerophytic plants the stomata close during the day
to minimise the evaporation ol water from leaf surfaces and open
in the morning or in the evening when the intensity of heat is less.
CRITICAL VALUES OF WATER CONTENT OF LEAVES
C 20 AO 60 80 100
II
11H
BEECH
1
BIRCH
1
OAK
H 1
1
1
1 M
SPRUCE
1
1 H 1
BLAEBERRY
cowberry
8 1 1
1 1 1 M1 1 1
— -
~LCTHAL VSLVES
H PERCENTAGE
1
TOTAL DRY WEIGHT
Fig 5.6 Generalise Critical Values of Water content of

Leaves in trees of a typical coniferous forest
(After Birch 1965}
When plant tissues are saturated wilh Lvaler. the total dry
weight as percentage of the toial weight is more than 60 per cent
in deciduous trees, evergreen conifers and woody plants of ihe
cold zone In shade herbs and light herbs li may be even higher
than 80 per cent. The process of maintaining critical values of
water content in leaves is regulated by stomata opening In most

of the plants the limit of closure and opening of stomata is very
small, often ranging between 2 to 18 per cent of the moisture loss
but in light herbs it varies from 10 to 30 per cent and so they are
able to survive even severe droughts
EVAPO-TRANSPIHATION
Plants transpire water through their stomata to save them-
selves from heat The transpiration rale may increase during
daylight when heal is intense This may be higher in tropical areas
where sun-rays are perpendicular Ii may increase in summers
both in temperate and tropical regions when the duration of daylight
increases Transpiration differs in each plant or tree depending
upon the leaf cover Large leaves with broad flat surfaces transpire
more water than smaller, conical leaves Thus a maize plant may
transpire 2 4 lures of water a day but an oak tree may transpire as
much as 675 litres
‘Transpiration latios' of plants indicate the ratio of water

transpired to dry matter produced It is the ratio between grams
of water transpired and grams of dry matter produced and depicts
the ‘transpiration cffictenc)’ of a plant For the same species it may
vary according to environmental conditions, Under normal env
ironmental conditions, some of the food-crops have the following
transpiration ratios
Table 5 2
Transpiration Ratios of Selected Plants
Plant Transpiration Ratio
Millets 275
Maize 369
Rapeseed 441
Potatoes 448
Wheat 507
Barley 539
Buckwheat 578
Oats 614
Rye 724
Peas 800
Lucerne 1068
After Penman HL (1963) Vegetation and H)dwhg)
96 ESSENTIALS OT BIOGEOGRAPHS
The loss of uater from the soil and the plants by the com-
bined processes of transpiration and evaporation is called evapo-
transpirauon Transpiration of water from plants depends upon wo
factors viz the avallabilitv of water to the roots system of the plant
Irom soil and the temperature of the atmosphere If the available
uater is less than the uater-loss on account of high temperature

i hen the leaves may wither, the plant growth may become siunied
and on prolonged exposure to drought the plant may die
C W Thornlhwaite has defined drought as a condition in
which the amount of water needed for transpiration and direct evapo-
ration Irom the soil exceeds the available water in the c oil and so the
Water balance of the plant is depleted Low humidity and vigorous

air movements may also accelerate the rate of evapotranspiration
The loss of water during daytime is due to opening of stomatal
pores Conversely, in the night or tn periods of darkness the stom-

ata remain closed and so the accumulation of water tn leaves may
be more
Table 5 3
Percentage of Water-Contents in Selected Plants

At Stomatal Closure
Plants Percentage
of uater
Cross-leaved heath Erica tetrahx )

( 90
Oak (
Qnerais robur) 87
Beech ( Pagus syhetica ) 85
Scot's pine (Pmus sylvestris) 80
Blueberry (Vaccinum myrtillus) 79
Heather ( Calluna uilqaris) 75
Fir (Picea abies) 71
Bug-what Heberry ( V uhgmosm) 63
After Bannister, Peter (1976) Introduclwii to Physiolog-
ical Plai t Ccolog), Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford

TEMPERATURE
Temperature affects plant growth directly as well as indir-

ectly through its effect on relative humidity of the air and the eva-
potranspiration. Each species of plants has oplimum temperature
conditions in which it grows For most of the plants the range of
temperature lies between 0°C to 50”C. The classification of plants
into megatherms, mesotherms. microtherms and hekistotherms, des-

cribed earlier, shows that plants have their own requirments of tem-
perature to flourish and grow
With decrease in temperalure below the minimum necess-

ary for growth, the plants metabolic activities slow down and may
cease completely. Unless the plant is prepared for this contingency
us tissues are liable to cold damage and to dessication. The rate of
water absorbtton mav be retarded to such an extent that it
may not be able to adequately compensate for even a low rate of

transpiration The ability of plants to tolerate low temperatures
varies considerably between spectes, Tropical plants with high ca-
rdinal temperatures may be injured or even killed by temperatures
well above freezing, while conifers of the boreal forests can survive
temperatures of -60°C and the periods when their tissues may be
ftozen solid.
Successful survival of winter cold is dependent basically on

the accumulation and storage of food and on protection
from dessication Annual plants do so in the form of seeds
Herbaceous perennials store food in the form of tubers,
corms, rhizomes and bulbs in which the resting buds are incorporat-
ed. Trees and shrubs form buds, resistant to cold and drought, from
which growth is renewed with the coming of favourable temperature
conditions Leaf-fall tn deciduous trees is the most effective met-

hod to survive the cold season. Lvergreen and coniferous trees
reduce their transpiration tn winter to combat the unfavourable
conditions.
Many plants of temperate regions do not recommence

growth unless they have been subjected to a period of low winter
temperatures. This is called 'Winter stimulation'. Trees and shrubs
otwestern Europe and Britain require a winter temperature of less
than 9°C ior periods varying from 200 to 3000 hours, as
winter
9S ESSENTIALS OF DlOGEOGRAPHt
stimulation In additon, certain plants, particularly the winter

varieties of many cereals, flower sooner if exposed to low lempera
tures afier germination For example winter wheat, if planted m
spring will not flower in the same year Biennial plants as sugar
beet form leaves and tubers in the first year of growth and flower
only in the second vear, after subjection to winter chilling The
artificial cold stimulation of cereals, particularly wheat, as applied
by the Russian scientist Lysenko is called ‘ Yaren isn/ion’ or ‘Verna !
salion' By this technique wheat is being produced on a large scale
m Siberia and Canada
Plants undergo diurnal changes of temperature in day and

night, as also the seasonal changes in summer and winter This
period of temperature fluctuation is known as ‘theri)w-d\ naimsm’
Some plants flower only when the night temperatures are below a
required minimum as the daisy plant flowers do only in the season
when average diurnal lemperatures are from 8-13°C Tomaio

plants flower best when night temperatures are around lO’C and
day temperatures are 20’C Similarly potato plants produce tubers
when the range of temperature is between 10-2 1°C
An optimum growing period for each plant is essential It
is the duration in which the plant germinates and reaches the

flowering stage This period is determined by ‘Phenotogical studies
Such studies involve the recording of dales at which vi'al plant
functions as germination, bud-bursting, flowering, leaf-fall, fruil-
ripenmg and seed dispersal occur in particular species On the
basis of phenological observations the line joining the
same flower-
some wild plan's or the
ing date of line showing the same fruit-
ripemng date can be drawn on maps These lines are known as
isophenes’ which leveal the time-lag in a particular evenl varying
with latitude and altitude Attempts have also been made to demar
cate ‘bioclmattc cones’ on the basis of floral isophenes
For the efficiency of plants in the growing season the

‘quality of heat required varies from place to place It is expressed
in terms o: accumulated temperatures which are expressed
as da)
degrees or heat unitsThese are obtained by summing the mean
dailvtemperatures above the chosen threshold This is also called
temperature summation or the ‘remainder
W(h\ For example, the
ATMOSPHERIC rACIORS INFLUENCING THE BIOTA 99
threshold value of 6°C is common to two places, situated in the
mid latitudes-Aberdeen K
(U and Chicago (USA)
|
But the
remainder index of both the places is different For Aberdeen,

it is 1095 day degrees and for Chicago 2328 day degrees and hence
Chicago has a more efficient growing season for plants
Table 5 4
Comparison of Day-degrees of Aberdeen and Chicago
Place Lot Alt Mean Temperatures (°CJ

Long VO
JFMAMJ JASOND
Aberdeen 57°N 8 3 3 4 6 9 12 14 13 11 8 5 4
2«W
Chicago 42°N 823 -3-2 2 8 14 20 23 23 19 12 5 0
88°W
Mean temperatures may sometimes not reveal ihp true

extremes temperatures to which the plants ate subjected Plants
of
may have to remain in temperatures of over 4(K: in one season

and to nearly freezing point in the other Despite these limitations,
the growing season so defined on the basis ofheat units provides
a useful basis for thebroad and general comparison of actual
or
potential conditions for growth between one
habitat and another
it gives, moreover, a general measure of the thermal
growing
season
Moisture and temperature together affect the

evapotrans-
puation Water deficiency in plants often occurs in all
climates
ranging from humid lo and conditions In tropical countries like
India and Australia, the growing season commences when precipi-
tation is more than one-third ol evaporation Satiiratioii-dejicu
f$D)
is also often measured to assess the evapotranspiration
potential
of the atmosphere It is the quotient or
ratio which is calculated
by dividing annual precipitation
in mm
by the absolute saturation
deficit of the air expressed
in millimetres of mercury (P/SD)
H is useful to evaluate the potential

ewpotrampiratwn of a
Place or region as it takes into account
the precipitation as well as
temperature The American climatologist C W Thomthwaite, who
100 ESSENTIALS OF DIOGEOGRAPm
introduced this concept defined potential evapotranspiration as

that amount of moisture which would be evaporated from the soil
and transpired from vegetation if it were available In drought
conditions, the amount of water needed for potential evapotranspi-

ration exceeds the amount of water available in the soil assuming
that the soil has a capacity to store approximately 10 cm of rainfall
Thornthwaite prepared a moisture index (1M) which can be

related to all the climatic zones of the world and can be used 10
classify world climates as under
fable 5 5
QRjTtXSS"
Moisture Index and Climatic Types of the World
(Thornthwaite)
Moisture Index Climatic r\pc
Less than-40 Arid

-20 to -40 Semi-arid
+20 to -20 Sub humid
More than+20 Humid
Fig 5 7 Comparison of Water Balance of two Cities in Arid Areas

Jodhpur (Rajasthan) and Bellarv (Karnataka!
The moisture index ratios are obtained from the actual

mean monthly rainfall of a place and the amount of water needed
In case of Jodhpur and Bellary it may be seen that (he highest
deficiency of water is in the mon'hs of February to June when
rainfall is far less than the actual amount of water needed. In both
the cases, recharge of water takes place only in the rainy months
of July, August and September, which is too little to meet the
annual water requirements So both the places are arid and have
sparse vegetation
Various other methods had been used in the past to delimit

the climatic zones of ihe world and to establish the typical floral
characteristics in them Koppen (1923) demarcated the boundaries

between dry and tree climates and between steppes and deserts by
the following formulae.
Boundary between dry and nee climates, r=0 44 t-3
Boundary between steppe and desert, in which t
is the mean annual temperature in °F and r is the mean

annual precipitation in inches
However, De Martonne’s method (1928) employs the follo-

wing index to delimit the different vegetational zones of the earlh.
Annual Precipitation (mm)
I
Mean Annual Temperature (°C)+10
In this case true deserts from botanical as well as hydro-

logical point of view are those areas which have an index of
below 5. Ind'ces above 10 correspond to dry steppes, 20-30
correspond to prairies and above 30 correspond lo forest vegeta-
tion
Gaussen’s melhod uses more climatic factors in dellmitting

the vegetational zones e.g temperature, precipitation, number ol
rainy days, atmospheric humidity, mist
and dew. The method
involves more
sophisticated techniques of embrolbermic
diagrams
and xerothermic indices (indices ol hot
weather or drought). Here
the climates are classified as warm warm lemperaie and
temper-
ate, if mean annual temperature is positive
Among these broad
regions, if xerothermic index exceeds 300, ihai
climate is desert and
if it is in the range of 200 lo 300, it is hoi sub desert
102 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRaNIY
Emberger (1955) sugqested ihe dplimilation of bioclimates

by means of ihe plmiometnc quotient (Q defined as i
100
Where P is ihe annual rainfall in mm M is the aveiage of

maximum temperature in the coldest month and m is the average of
minimum temperature in ihe coldest month The values of pluvio
metric quotient below 40 oenote true hot deserts and xerophytic
vegetation; those between 40 to 60 show semi deserts, between

60 to 80 steppes, between 80 to 100 prairies and above 100 the
tree vegetation
In all these methods of biochmatic classification, the two

most significant climatic factors are temperature and precipitation
The deficiency of the latter can be removed by irrigation, but
temperature conditions cannot be modified Therefore, the grow-

ing season of plants is related more to the thermal conditions and
Bio-climatologists often refer to it as ‘thermal growing season ’
A few
ecologists like Klages (1942) distinguish it from the ‘ph)swlogica!
growing season', when not the temperature alone but all other climatic
conditions ate favourable On this basis most of the ecologists
define four types of growing periods of plants
(
t ) Warm — When the mean temperature of all the months
is more than 20°C and there is no risk of frost
(it
)
Cold — When mean monthly temperatures are less than
0°C and frosts are recurrent which are harmful to
plants
(tit) Dry — When the mean monthly precipitation ir milli-
metres is equal to or less than twice the mean monthly

temperature m °C.
(iv) Humid— When the mean monthly precipitation in milli-
metres is more than twice the mean monthly tempera-
ture in °C
The lenq'h of these periods in a year is, however, more

effective in determining 'he physioloqical growing season of plants
and this may be different at various places The relationships
between climate and plants are still more complex and it is even
103
ATMOSPHERIC FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BIOTA
104 ESSENTIALS OT BIOGEOGRAEm
more difficult to determine the precise optimal conditions for

specific plant species Several olher factors, including the soil
conditions, biotic Interference, adaptations by plants and man's

interference play their part in determining the plant growth
WINDS
This climatic factor though not essential for plant growih
exerts a great influence on the form of a plant Strong, dry winds

increase transpiration in plants Dry winds may also evaporate
soil water quickly and thus aflect the water balance of the soil In
areas exposed to a strong wind force, as on high mountains and

open sea coast plants are able to absorb less weter and lose more
water by transpiration So their growih is limned
FURTHER READING
1 Bainbrtdge, R etal (eds ) (1966), Light as an Ecological

Factor, Blackwell Scientific Publication, Oxford
2 Bannister, P (1976), Introduction to Physiological Plant
Ecolog), Blackwell scientific Publications. Oxford
3 Baron, WMM (1967), Physiological Aspects of Water
and Plant Life, Heinemann, London
4 Daubenmire, R F tl974), Plants anil Einiroimiciit,VJ\ley,
New York.
5 Etherington, J R (1975), Etivuonment and Plant Ecolog)
John Wiley, London
6 Elheringlon, J R (1978), Plant Physiological Ecology,

Arnold, London
7 Fogg, GE (1970), The Gronth of Plants, Penguin Books,

Harmondsworlh
8 Kozlowski, T T (1968), Water Deficits and Plant Growth'

atmospheric tactors influencing the biota 105
9 Levitt, J (1972), Responses of Plants to Errtonmcntal

Stresses; Academic Press, New York
10 Suichffe, J (1968), Plants and Water; Edward Arnold,
London
11. Treshaw, M (1970), Environment and Plant Response;

6
Edaphic Factors Influencing

the Biota
Edaphic factors pertain to the effecis of soil upon living
organisms Plants and soils are inter-related Soil is just not an

anchorage and nuinent reservoir for plants, it Is essentially a
product of the plants and dead organic matter which inhabits n
The weathered rock mantle and the plants both contribute to its
formation and are inseparably linked by a continual interchange of

materials Therefore, the study of soil and its properties are
significant in biogeography The scientific study of the influence
of soils on living beings, particularly plants, is called Ldapholog)'
It includes man's use of soil for plant growth specially in agriculture
•Pedology’ is the scientific study of soil genesis and discusses those
factors which affect the formation of soil and the processes
involved therein
SOIL FORMATION
Soil formation is a dynamic process resulting from the

weathering of solid rocks m thousands of years However, some
soils develop from transported materials like river alluvium, wind-
blown sand and glacial debris Peaty and boggy soils develop
from organic materials Soil consists of matter existing in three
EDAPH1C FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BIOTA 107
basic forms viz solid, liquid and gas The solid material consists
of inorganic rock panicles and organic remains of plants and

animals The liquid parts are water and the dissolved salts in it,
and the gaseous parts are the atmospheric gases like oxygen and
nitrogen and other gases which are released by chemical and
biological activities of living organisms living in the soil. Soil ait
contains less oxygen and a much higher percentage of carbon-di-
oxide than does the free afmosphere In the initial stages of soil
formation the rock fragments become smaller and liner The

chemical salts present In it and the atmoshperic gases start reacting
causing chemical alterations and forming the ‘parent material' This

material soon gets mixed with organic remains of dead animals,
dead leaves of plants, animal refuse etc and forms a cover of
humus Thereafter micro-organisms like bacteria start inhabiting

the soil and make it more organic Thus soil formation is related
to three sets of pedogemc factors-geological, climatological, and
biological — the first being passive and the last two active factors
A fertile soil is packed with living organisms The micro-

flora and. mrcrotauna of soil consist of countless numbers of
bacteria, fungi, algae and protozoa such as amoeba along with the
cysts of nematods and flat-worms One gram of soil may contain
as many as 1 million to 4,000 million bacteria, 5,000 to 1 million
fungi, 10,000 lo 50,000 algae spores and a large number ol
protozoans Despite these huge numbers, the microflora

unicelluai
and microfauna constitute only 2-3 per cent of the total organic
material present in the sample In addition to these, the soil also
contains larger animals like earthworms, spiders, termites, snakes,
rats etc and number may exceed a million per hectare ol
their total
land Soil through the bodies of earthworms as worm-

passing
casts, can average 25-50 tons per hectare per annum and so these
animals act in the most dynamic way in soil formation
SOU PROFILE
A soil profile is the vertical section of the soil layer from

the top layer upto the solid, consolidated rocks forming the
bedrock
The depth of the soil cover varies from a few inches,
as
over the precipitious slopes of mountains, to
hundreds of feet as
in the plains A typical soil profile has three main horizons
10 $ ESSENTIALS OT BIOGEOGRAPHS
FiS 61 A Developed Soil Profile showing vanous

layers and hori7on causing percolation and
capillary action of water
A-Honion — This is the top layei of the soil consisting of

fine or coarse grained parent material, mixed with humus In this
horizon, three sub-horizons may be present and recognized The

topmost horizon is called A0 which contains a laoer of the litter of
fresh dead organic material Below it lies the fermented layer —
in which the partly decomposed organic matter lies Below the 'F'
layer lies the humified layer— H in which the original structure of

dead organic material is no longer visible and much material is in a
colloidal state The decomposed litter lying in the Ac horizon is
called the ‘sod humus'
Below the A0 horizon lies the Aj horizon— a transitional

layer or the first layer of the soil proper where the organic
EDAPHIC FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BIOTA 109
material becomes well mixed wuh the parent rock material
This is the organo mineral lauer of the lop soil which can supply
nutrients to plant roots Below ihe Aj horizon, 'here is a compa
ratively thick layer of A: horizon of ihe soil which is called the
'hacked layer In this layer the percolating water has removed
some mineral and organic material to lower levels So there is a
loss of clay, iron and aluminium compounds and a concentration of
quartz and other resistant materials which imparts it the grey
colour account of the loss of organic materials, clay and

On
chemical compounds due 10 percolating water in ihe horizon A—
of the soil, this lauer is called the ‘Zone of Eltiualiori The process
of clay transmission as panicles in suspension is called ‘Lessna/’e
The downward percolation of dissolved chemicals in the form of

solution is called ‘Leaching
B~Hon:on— Ivmg just below the A-houzon the B-horizon

of the soil, receives the suspended and dissolved materials from the
'Zone of Eluvianon tn well developed B-horizons, three distinct
layers of soil can be identified viz Bj B 5 and B 3 The Bj horizon

Is usually an ironpan, formed due to the deposition of some iron
salts and concentration of redeposited clay minerals If well deve
loped, this layer may be very hard and can impede drainage of soil
water and plant rooting B 2 horizon, which lies below Bj consists
of some more minerals like oxides of iron and aluminium, mixed
with day and humus, that have redeposned in this zone alter the
leaching action B 3 horizon consists more of the parent material
of rocks with lesser amounts of humus and chemical compounds
It is a transitional layer between B and C horizons of the soil The
entire B-hotizon is called ihe Zone of Hhnialian where substances
are precipitated from solution of deposited fiorn suspension
C- Horizon— This is usuallv the parent soil material which

may be in the form of a solid tock or drifted alluvial material The
C-horizon may no! always be related to the geological structure of
the area as the transportation of weathered material in the erosion
processes may entirely change it ft is not essential that all the
soil horizons slated above should be present in every soil cover
There may be soils which are devoid of A or B horizons or both
But it is essential here lo noie lhai plant roots can penetrate to the
lowest layers of the soil and bring back into circulation the chemi
cals and water deposited theie
no FSSUMTALS OF MOGIOGRAPHY
SOIL COMPOSITION
Sotls are identified tn respect to their texture, stiuciure

consistence, reaction and colours The percentage or organic
matter present may also affect the composition of soils
Soil Texture
This refers to the relative proportions of ihe various size

groups of individual soil grains in a mass of soil Usually lhev are
classified into 3 groups viz sandv soils which are coarse textured,
loamy soils which are of medium-texture and cfavey soils which are
hne-textured, with several iniermediale forms of their mixtures
different admixtures of clay, silt and sand

(After Pears N 1985)
The size of soil particles in very coarse sand is 2 0-1 0

mm , in coarse sand 1 0-0 5 mm m , medium sand 0 5-0 25 mm ,
in fine sand 0 25 0 10 mm ,in very fine sand 0 10-0 05 mm in
silt 0 05-0 002 mm and in clay below 0 002 r m The size of the
111
EDAPHIC FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BIOTA
drainage the
panicles affects the permeability and hence the
in
soils In very coarse sandy soils, drainage is highest

while m clay
it is the lowest. On the basis of the texture, soils can be classified
in 9 groups as below
Table 6 I
Textural Classes of Soils
Class Per call of soil Fractions

Sand Sill Clay
1 Sand 90 10 —
1 Sandy Loam 85 10 5
3 Sandy clay Loam 65 25 10
4 Loam 40 40 20
5 Silt loam 20 60 20
6 Silty clay Loam 15 55 30
7 Clay Loam 28 37 35
8 Silty day — 90 10
9 Clay 25 30 45
The texture of a soil is a significant aspect of study in

biogeogtaphy for u determines the relative ease with which roots
can penetrate into the soil It affects the nutrient supplying ability
of the soil It influences, loo, the water content, aeration and

temperature, all of which are essential for the living inhabitants of
soil The larger spaces in between the two coarse, grained sand
particles called the •macropores' allow much freer movement of
water, air and roots than the smaller spaces callen •imcropores '
the clay These pore-spaces also alfect the temperature of the
soil
Water, present in the soil and absorbed by plant roots,

occurs in three forms viz hygroscopic, capillary and gravitational
Hygroscopic water exists as thin films, usually of molecular dimen-
sions which adhere by surface tension to the surface of individual
sod particles This 'water ol adhesion' can attract other water
molecules to collect around it by means ol cohesion and It forms a
thicker layer of wafer called capillary water. Both adhesion arid
cohesion are greatest in fine day and least in sand particles. 1 he

capillary water lends to move from wetter to drier areas by the
process known as i apillary action. So in the fields when crops are
not watered for long duration, ihe sub-soil water rises up by
capillary action In clay-loam soil capillary movement of water
upwards does not exceed 75 cm while in coarse sand it Is no mom

than30 cm. Gravitational water is that which flows downwards.
This may be rain water or by artificial methods of irrigation-
Fig. 6.3 Variations in the availability of water in

different soils (After Euckman, 1974).
Plants are able to absorb capillary and gravitation water

easily but the rate of absorbtion of hygroscopic water by plant roots
is too slow to prevent wilting. A soil is said to be at field capacity
when it is holding the maximum amount of capillary water possible
Under these conditions the micropores will be filled with water and
113
edaphic factors influencing the biota
the macropores will be occupied by air Watering, in excess of the

detrimental to plant and may cause alkaline soils
field capacity is
In sandy soils water holding capacity is the lowest It has low values
of held capacity and unavailable water and of the so called hghl-

texlured soil As the heaviness of texture increases through sandy-
loam, silt-loam, clay-loam and clay, the held capacity, the available
water and the unavailable water all increase at a gradual rate At
the same time wilting coelhcient also increases Thereafter, the
retantivUy of water in clay is more than in other types of soils
Soil Structure
Soil structure refers to the aggregation of primary soil
particles into compound particles or clusters of primary particles
which are separated from ad,omtng aggregates by surfaces of weak-

ness An individual natural soil aggregate is called a ‘ped’ Clus-
ters of primary articles formed by digging or ploughing are called
‘clods’ Ruptures ol the soil mass across natural surfaces of weak-
ness are called fragments' and those formed by local concentrations
of chemical compounds iba! vreversibly cement jhe soil grams
together are called ‘concretions'
The four types of primary sot! structures are .
(0 Plat)— When the particles are arranged around a plane,

generally horizontal, as in silly clays and ploughed fields
(n) Prismhke— When the particles are arranged around a
veiltcal line and bounded by relatively flat vertical surfaces
(in) Blocky or polyhydral-Wben the particles are arranged
around a point and bounded by Hat or rounded surfaces
(tv) Spheroidal or Granular— When the particles are arranged
around a point and bounded by curved or very irregular
surfaces that are not accommodated to the adjoining
aggregates These are found in the top-soils of well-weath-
ered and cultivated soils
Soil Consistence
comprises the attributes of soil material that are expre-

It
ssed bv the degree and kind oi cohesion and adhesion

or by the
resistance to deformation or rupture Soil consistence may impart
the following qualities to the soil —
114 ESSENTIALS OF niOCEOCRArilY
(i) Stickiness — It is the quality ol adhesion to other objects an i
is found mostly In wet-clayev soil
(ii) Phisiicti) — Plasticity is the ability to change shape conti-
nuously under the Influence of an applied stress and to
retain the impressed shape on removal of the stress The

quality is most common in wet soils
(in) Loose— When soils are non-coherent and particles cannot

be bound together in moist conditions as in coarse sand
(iv) Friable— When soil material crushes easily under moderate

pressure but coheres when pressed together as in loamv
soils.
(v) Pirm—VJhea soil material crushes only under very strong

pressure as in clay-moist moulds
(vi) Compact— When arrangement of soil particles is verv firm
and closelv packed as in peats.
(vn) Soft— When the soil mass is weakly coherent and fragile
and breaks to powder or individual grams on becoming
dry
(viit) Hard— The soil mass is verv resistant to pressure and can
only be broken with difficulty
(ix) Cemented— Cementation of soil refers to a brittle hard

consistence caused by some cemenung substance other
than clay minerals, such as calcium carbonate, silica,
oxides of iron and aluminium etc Cementation is altered

little, if any, by moistening the soil Kankar Pans' are
cemented soils
bolt Reaction
The minerals dissolved in soil water solution are eleciri
cally charged units or ions The charge may be positive (cations)
or negative (anions) In common salt, NaCI, Na + is cation and CP

is anion The strength by which cations are held by the colloidal
surface of soil particles varies in each tvpe of soil The descend
mg order of tenacity is hydrogen>calcium>magnesium>pota-
S5ium> nitrogen > sodium
The presence of cations in soil mass may alter its chemical

reactions It may become acidic or alkaline, depending upon the
115
An acid a substance which

presence of exchangeable cations is
dissociates to produce hydrogen ions Decomposition of surface
organic material may increase acids in soil The chemicals in the
atmosphere also become dissolved in rainwater and add hydrogen
canons to the soil solution These tend to replace or dislodge
some of the meial or basic canons around the colloidal particle
Displacement of basic cations Is called base exchange The process

causes leaching by percolating waters to lower levels or flushing It
out tn the drainage system
The Cation Exchange Capacity is a common and important

soil reaction It is a measure of cations absorbed on the colloidal
surfaces that are freely exchangeable with cations in the soil water
solution Plants obtain much of their nutrition from exchangeable
cations or bases absorbed on colloidal surfaces Replacement of

these canons by hydrogen tons will mean less availably of nutri-
tion for plant use Therefore, the lesser the number of hydrogen
ions in a soil, the more is its fertility and vice versa
Hence the fertility and chemical reactions of the soil can

be measured in terms of hydrogen tons present, usually called pH
value It Is a measure to express the acidity or alkalinity of the soil,
pH ts defined as the concentraiion of hydrogen tons in a soil solu-
tion expressed in moles/ltter A mole is the molar weight of a

substance m grams pH ts expressed as the logarithm of the reci-
procal of the H-ion concentration A neutral solution has a
hydrogen ton concentration of 10 7 grams in 1 litre o I solution, so
us pH value ts 7 Lower pH values indicate acidity of the soil
while higher ones show alkamlttv as shown in table 6 2
A pH value of above 7 usually indicates the presence of

some free carbonates of calcium, magnesium or both Soils having
pH values higher lhan 8 5 contain significant amounts of exchange-
able sodium The relationship of pH value and plant growth ts
mutual Plants that leave acid-forming litter usually grow better

where the soil is acid Those requiring lots of lime fail to grow on
acid-soils, as for example the beech trees For most crop plants
pH 6 5 is optimum for growth, as most of their required nutrients
are available in this range
Soil acidity influences chemical processes which are impor-

tant for plant nutrition Increased acidity can directly reduce the
116 essentials of biogeograpiu
Table 6.2
pH Values of Common Soil
Type of soil pH Value
Extremely acid Below 4 5
Very strongly acid 4 5-5 0
Strongly acid 5. 1-5.5
Medium acid 5 6-6 0
Slightly acid 6.1-6 5
Neutral 6 6-7 3
Mildly alkaline 7 4-7 8
Moderately alkaline 7 9-S4

Strongly alkaline 8 5-9 0
Very strongly alkaline over 9 0
availability of some soil nutrients like phosphorus and may influ-
ence populations of soil micro-organisms nke nitrogen-fixing
bacteria which are so significant for decomposition and release of

chemicals. This may also inciease the toxic level of soluble
aluminium in the soil High acidities may cause instability in coll-
oidal clay, and organic complexes thus reduce the nutrient status
of soil
Plants themselves are partly responsible for differences in

pH values. Some feed heavily on sodium and return this cation to
the surface Other plants take a heavu intake of calcium and still
others feed very lightly on bases Their decomposition tends to

cause varving acidity in the soil
Soil Colour
Colour is the most obvious and easily determined of -mil
characteristics and is useful for identification, especially when

combined with soil structure Soilsowing their colour to inherit-
ance from the parent material rather than to soil-forming processes

are referred to as 'hthochromtc.' Soils produced from raw peat are
brown and those from peat are black Drainage of water and the
chemical reactions caused therein may also alter the colour of
soils Well-drained soils are brown and the dark clays are blackest
EDAPHIC FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BIOTA J17
in the world. Alkaline Solenetz soils having low organic contents

are also black. The usual common colours o( soils are:—
(i) Red Soils— Usually, unhydrated iron oxide or partly

hydrated iron oxide and manganese dioxide impart red colour to
soils. The red colour usually indicates good drainage and good
aeration. Redness may also be on account of (he parent material
of the rocks. It also indicates that the soils are relatively old and
the soil material has been subjected to inelnse weathering
for a considerable time. As the intensity of weathering
increases with rise in temperature, red-coloured soils are mostly
found near the equator. They also exhibit the leaching
activity of the soil due to heavy rains and percolation of
rain-waier
ii
)
Yellow Soils— The yellow colour in soils is due to the
presence of hydrated iron oxides. Excessive moisture in the soil
and high humidity and cloudiness in the atmosphere add to the
formation of yellow colour So such soils are found in humid
areas.
( iii |
Biomi Soils — This is an intermediate stage betwen red
and yellow. Unhydrated iron oxides (red) while changing to
hydrated iron oxides (yellow) gradually turn brown before accom-
plishing the complete yellow stage. The presence of rich organic
matter in red or yellow soils and the fluctuating water table may
also make them brown
( iv )
Grey Soils — This colour may be assumed due to the
presence of several substances mainly quartz, kaolin, carbonates
of limeand magnesium, gypsum and compounds of ferrous iron
Sometimes the excessive amounts of ferrous iron may make the
soil blue in colour.
( v ) Light Gi ey Soils —
They indicate a very low content of
organic matter and iron, as in the A horizons of podzols or in sands
that consist whollv of quartz
( iv While Soils— These are generally alkaline soils having

a very high content of calcium carbonate, gypsum, carbonates of
magnesium and sodium which get deposited on the lop soil layer
due 10 capillary action of water.
( vii Black S'oiVj — nherited black colour of the soil may be

in the volcanic rocks as m the black soils of Deccan plateau o‘
1 IS ESSENTIALS OF RIOGEOGRAPItY
India Soils having morn than 3 per cent of organic rratlei may
also look black on account of excessive humus Peat soils are aho
black Self mulching clays \Mih only 2-3 per cent organic matter
also look black This mac be on account of .he presence ol ekm
ental carbon, compounds of manganese, magnetite and iron
Soil Gases and Nutrient Cycles
Soils need aeration to supply necessary oxygen to plant
roots and ihe n lcro-cigcrisn-s irhobtung the soil Coatse

grained soils like sand, which have macropoies, remain ccell aerated
while clay-soils are least aerated A total pore space o( mote
than 50 per cent of its volume is needed to allow a free exchange
of gases Microfauna releases carbon dioxide gas which should not
remain in the soil and find its wav in the atmosphere Therefore,
quite often, soils with finer grains have to be dug to allow release
of carbon dioxide and intake ol oxygen which is needed by p'ant
roots and microfauna Similarly, mirogen-lixing bacteria utilize
ihe atmospheric nitrogen to make the soil ferule Aerauon ol soil
is possible only in ihe upper two horizons The C-horizon of ihe

soil always remains poorly aerated
On account of aeration, the minerals present in the soil

are oxidized and important biogeochemical cycles starl functioning
Many important minerals other lhan water, oxygen and carbon

dioxide are taken up by plants as nutrients. The formation
of nutrient minerals, their utilization by plants and release
bv plants alter decay form the singificant components of biogeo-
chemtca! cycles These are called nutrient cycles As an illustration
two nutrient cycles have been discussed below, but several more
exist
iSitiOgen Cycle
Nitrogen is an important gas whose compounds are used m

many ways bu plan's Urea, the chemical fertilizer is rich in
nilrogen sails The circulation of nitrogen between organisms

and the evironment is largely a self regulated system Micro-
organisms like nitrogen-fixing bacteria which occur either as
frf e-living organisms m the soil or in symbiotic association with
Irouminous plants like pea and pulses absorb aimosphenc nilrogen
and suppli it to plant roots
EDApHIC FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BIOTA 119
Pianis use this nitrogen in the manufacture of food which

is eventually utilized by animals Animals excrete out nitrogenous
products like urea which on disintegration form ammonia Anot-
her bacterial cycle starts from animals when they die The
decaved remains of animals are eaten by bacteria and fungi which
m turn make amino-acids These acids are broken down to
ammonia by armnifying bacteria With the release of ammonia
|NH 3 in the soil, the nitrile bacteria existing in the soil change the
)
gas into nitrites Another bacterial form changes nitrites into

nitrates which are used by plants in protein synthesis Nitrates
are also used by marine birds and fishes which start another
chemical cycle Thus nitrogen m us various forms circulates thro-
ugh various plants animals, algea fungi and bacteria It is the chief
constituent of all of which are so vital for the survival of plants and
animals
Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is the mam constituent of bones of all animals

including man It occurs in phosphatic rocks which are ihe mam
reservoirs lo start this cvcle These rocks through the process ol
erosion form dissolved phosphates which in the form of solution
are absorbed by plains a proccess
known as protoplasm synthesis
120 ESSENTIALS OF BtOGEOGRANIY
Plants use the phosphates to build up their own tissues which
are eaten by animals. So, eventually the phosphates reach the
body of antmals
Fig 65 Phosphorus Cycle on the Earth
Animals pass out phosphates through excretion and so

they again reach the soil Plants and animals, when dead, are
eaten up by bacteria. The decayed organisms are used by

phosphatizmg bacteria to feed upon and ultimately the phosphorus
contents reach the soil again in the form of dissolved phosphates,
to be recycled back to plants Marine animals like fishes, prawns,
lobsters and crab also use phosphorus and start another phosphorus
cvcle in the sea. These animals are eaten by man, birds and larger
marine animals through which the cycle continues.
SOIL TYPES
Due to variations in the soil texture, pH values, colour,
structure and consistence, a variety of soils occur in the world.

On the basis of maturity, soils can be classified into 3 broad
groups
121
EDAPH1C FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BIOTA
(1) ZONAL SOILS
Soils which are fully mature and have a well-developed

profile are called Zonal
(2) AZONAL SOILS
These soils are of recent age and are not mature They do
not have a developed soil profile as they have not undergone cli-
matic and biological actions for longer duration
(3) INTRAZONAL SOILS
These soils are half mature and have been formed under
inadequate drainge which produces alkalintv and salt accumulation
Such soils are found in between the main belts of zonal soils and
are hence called intra-zonal
ZONAL SOILS
Zonal soils can be classified mlo iwo groups, viz Pedalfers

and Pedocals The former being non-lime accumulating soils have
an abundance of aluminium and iron compounds while the latter are
lime accumulating soils with an abundance of calcium compounds
h should be useful here to discuss in brief the 10 major classes of
zonal soils and to point out the salient features of each
Tundra Solis
These soils are found in the tundras from which they

lake their name In these regions the cm) is always covered with
snow and ice round the year Due to low temperatures, vegetal
growth is poor and so the soil lacks humus contents In summers
when the snow melts large areas are covered with water and so
water logging occurs which makes the soil illdramed and poorly
aerated So the oxidation process is withheld Under these condi-
tions the top sod is covered with a layer of raw humus beneath
which is a blue-grey layer of day, silt and sand, The blue-grey
colour Is due to insufficient oxidation of ferrous-iron compounds
Podsols
Podsol is a Russian word which means 'ash beneath" So

such soils have ash-grey colour m the A2 horizon. Podsols are
122 ESSENTIALS Of DIOGEOGRAWIV
the characteristic soils of coniferous forest areas, chiefly found in
the mid-latitudes of Europe, Siberian Russia and North America.

In these regions the temperatures are cool and the rainfall and
snowfall does not exceed 50 cm per year.
Fig 6,6 Development of Podsols in Coniferous Forests.
The top soil is covered with a layer of needle-like leaves,

below which lies the black humus This imparts an acidic charac-
ter to it, Podsols are leached soils The leaching is not due to
heavy rainfall but it is on account of the sudden melting of snow
with the onset of the summer season. So strong leaching of bases
is noticeable in the A« horizon which has high silica contents.
Leaching also causes accumulation of colloids and the oxides of

iron andaluminium in the B horizon. So Bj horizon is often
reddish-brown, sometimes having an accumulation of iron pan
123
while the B, horizon is a buif-coioured layer On account of heavy
leaching these soils are unfertile and have limited use in crop culti-
vation They are acidic in character, having low pH values.
Grey-Biown Forest Soils
These soils are found in mid-latitudes where broad-leafed
deciduous trees grow as in western Europe, north China, north-
Fig. 6,7 Development of Grey-Brown Soil in a Deciduous Forest

124 essentials of biogeografht
eastern United States and parts of southern Russia These soils
also suffer from leaching which imparts them grey colour in (he A)
horizon Deciduous trees shed their leaves before the commence
ment of winter [n winters snow falls upon this thick mantle of
dead leaves which undergo a slow process of decomposition to
yield mild humus on the top soil, and also return many bases to the
lower layers of the soil abstracted by plants The A2 horizon is
grey-brown in colour due to slight leaching
These soils are productive and so vast areas have been

deforested for cultivation But due to the deficiency of calcium
salts, liming and manuring are often nepded The B horizon is
darker due to accumulation of salts of iron and aluminium oxides
Prairie Soils
Such soils are found in temperate grasslands called prair

ries and steppes in North America and central parts of Asia In
these parts the climate is moist and cool with snowfall in winters
They have neither lime accumulations nor ferrous accumulations
and are neither acidic nor basic ihe rainfall is high enough to perco
late through ihe soluble salts of calcium carbonate but evaporation
ts not high enough to cause capillary action and upward movement
of salts Here tall grasses grow which provide sufficient liner
whose decay due to rainfall produces high humus Thus these soils
are fertile
Chernozems
They are fertile soils of central Asia, Ukraine and Canadian

prairieswhere the grasses are short and precipitation is little, not
exceeding 53 cm per year Rainfall is mostly In summers and in
winters the ground is covered with snow
which thaws at the onset
of spring Chernozems are black crumby soils The Aj horizon
is of great thickness which is rich m organic matter owing to thick
sod cover at the top layer There ts little leaching in winter but
slight leaching does take place m spring and summer due to melt-
ing snow and rainfall The A 2 horizon rich in lime
is having nodules
o,calcium carbonate which accumulate due to
upward movement
ol waterthrough capillary action in the winter
period of drought
The B horizon is not well differentiated
and contains brown
125
JPAPHIC FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BIOTA
coloured calcium carbonale concretions Because of rich humus

contents and ferule soil and are mamly used to cultivate wheat
Chestnut-brown and Brown soils
Found in senm-arid lands, they are calcareous soils, having

nodules of calcium carbonate in the B horizon, and therefore, they
belong to the pedocal group These soils closelv resemble the
chernozem soils and usually occur on the margins of chernozems
But in the areas of brown soils the rainfall is even less and only
short tussocky grasses grow So there is lack of humus in the soil
Due to lack o
f
humus the colour remains brown They are
unleached soils having rich parent material On account of low
I2G essentials of biogeography
rainfall, lack of humus and general infertility such soils can hardly
be used for agriculture and are best ulilized as pasture
Grey Desert Soils
Occurring in the mid-lantude deseils of Central Asia,

North America and Europe, these soils are typically grev in colour
and may show pale reddish tinge Usually such deserts are sur-
rounded by high mountians or exist in the form of inter-montanne
plateaus e g Colorado and Utah in the Due to lack of USA
rainfall, the vegetation cover is thin and the soils have low humus
contenls Such soils are also called ‘Sierozeins’
In arid areas, evaporation of water far exceeds precipita-

tion So ihe water tends to rise up by capillary action bringing
the underground salts to the top soil layer These soluble salts are
mostly carbonates of calcium, sodium and magnesium which often

impart a grey-white colour Sometimes thick layers of lime depo-
sits may be found deposited on the surface These are called
‘Caltche' The soils are fine-textured, rich in plant nutrients and

hence fertile
Red Desert Soils
In colour, these soils range from pale-reddish grey, through

reddish brown 10 deep red They are found in hoi tropical deserts
where rainfall is less than 50 cm per year Vegelation is sparse

and spasmodic and so there is a general lack of humus in the soil
The alluvial erosion is to a minimum while the aeoltan erosion is
maximum So the soil is coarse-grained, highly permeable and

well-drained
The A horizon is red due to the presence of parent rock

material but the B horizon has a ’Kankar Pan’ of calcareous matter
The calcium salts may sometimes rise up through capillary action,
forming saline surface encrustations They are alkaline soils having

pH values of more ihen 8 They are rich in nitrogen contents and
so productive
Red end Yellou Fores! Soils
These soils are characteristically found in areas of high

temperatures and high rainfall, particularly in sub tropical latitudes
as in south-east China, south-east United States and south-east

Brazil The climatic conditions promote the growth of foresls
and fairly dense ground vegetation causing thick Inter But the
litter is easily decomposed by heavy bacterial growth and so the
humus formation much less On account of high rainfall the
is
leaching action ismore pronounced Most of the alkalies and

colloids are washed down into the B horizon leaving the top
mantle acidic
12S ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPI1Y
The lop soil has a ihick layer of leaf Inter, below which
lies a very thin layer of black humus The Aj horizon is reddish
due to the abundance ol parent materia] and may sometimes be
more than a foot deep The A2 horizon is light buff coloured
because of the presence of many colloids and bases leached out by

the Aj horizon The B horizon is dark coloured, as n is a zone of
accumulation of most of the salts Due to low humus contents,
these soils soon lose fertility when cultivated
Red Tropical Soils
They are also called latosok Their formation is characteri
stically in those areas which have abundant moisture and warm

temperatures, as in the equatorial foresis of Congo, Amazon and
Malaya On account of typical climatic conditions these soils are
deeply weathered and highly leached. They do not show distinct
horizons.
The red soils may be grouped into four sub classes viz
ferrallilic, fernsols, ferruginous soils and vertisols The ferralhtiL
soils are those which have been intensively weathered to great

depths and that are highly leached They are characteristic of
older land surfaces withtn the tropics Pernsols, like the ferrallilic
soils are highly weathered, but their superficial material is conti-
nuously removed by surface erosion and so there is little different-
iation in their horizons Ferruginous soils develop in savanna type

climates and monsoonal climates where there are alternating wet
and dry seasons. They display a better horizon development, the

A-horizon having more humus contents. Vertisols , also called as
‘black clays' are found in depressions of tropical, wet areas,
having a clear dry season in some parts of the year. They are
poorlv-dramed and fine-textured In more dry areas, they display
an accumulation of salt on the top layer due to upward movement

of water through capillary action.
Laterlte
Lateriles are red brick-like soils and the term was first
applied to the hard, red soils found in Madras Now it is applied

to all extremely hard, red tropical soils They occur in areas where
the moist and dry seasons alternate ‘Laterisanon is a process
in which Ihe soils are heavily leached of silica and alkali sails,
leaving behind a concentration of insoluble salts of aluminium

and iron, which are mostlv their sesquioxides This first s'age of
lalerisaiion begins m the wet season But in the dry season the
second stage of the process occurs m which the soil solution is
drawn back up towards the surface by capillary action. Thus the
hydrated oxides of iron and aluminium accumulate, bind together

and harden to form a crust at or near the surface Sometimes the
iron compounds form nodule and concretions in the soil also
Prolonged lalerisaiion may make the soils sterile Laterite soils are
found in coastal parts of peninsular India, West Indies, southern

3 raz 1 and tropical Africa
1NTERAZONAL soils
These soils develop under special circumstances in zonal

soils e g when there is imperfect drainage or the predominance of
parent rock material They are categorized into three main
groups
HydtomorpMc
They have an excess of soil moisture on account of water-

logging as in low-lying areas This may impede water drainage
and cause lack of aeration which may eventually diminish the
bacteriological action m the soil causing accumulation of under
composed organic matter to greater depths In the lower
horizons, ferrous iron may not get oxidized and these horizons may
’
look blue-grey in colour The entire process is called
‘
gleyzotion
which means a gley horizon of undecomposed organic matter
Hydromorphic soils are commonly found in tundras where tempera-
tures are too low to cause any bacterial activity and the summer
melting of snow and ice may cause accumulation of water in dep
ressions Bog soils, peat soils and meadow soils are other forms of
hydromorphic soils
HalomoTphlc
These soils, which have a high soil content, are usually

associated with pedocals e
g chernozems, brown soils and desert
soils These saline soils are found in dry continental interiors as
ro ESSENTIALS Of BIOCEOCRARm
in the Aral-Caspian depression American cordilleras etc Then

have an abundance of 'alts like the chlorides, sulphates and carho
nates of sodium, calcium and magnesium It is estimaied that
40 per cent of the and areas of the world are covered with these
intra-zonal soils These soils have been furlher sub-divided into

three main groups
( i ) Solanclmks They are formed in most arid areas where
evaporation far exceeds precipitation and so on account of the
upward movement of ground water soluble sails of potassium
sodium calcium and magnesium accumulate on the upper layer of
the soil in the form of saline crusts

n ) Solonel: They are also alkaline soils but here the
deposition of soluble salts B horizon instead of the top
is in the
layer of the soil This happens when the solonehaks gel subjected
to a prolonged period of moist climate in which the salts collected at
the top layer are again washed down due to increased rainfall and
the alkalis get collected tn the B horizon
(
ni ) Soloths Also called as solods, these are former saline
soils which have undergone continued improved drainage and
leaching for long periods, leading to the removal of alkali salts even
from the B horizon, thus making them more fertile
Caldmorphlc
These soils have rich lime contents consisting of calcium

carbonate and their formation is affected by the parent material
instead of climatic factors These soils which are also called
“ Calcisok ”, occur in limestone regions where most of the parent
material is calcareous All regions of karst topography in theju orld
have this type of soil Thev are of two types
(
t ) Rendzmas They develop on limestone rocks under
moist conditions, as in southern Poland coastal parts of Yugoslavia,
Greece and Alabama (USA) They are also called "Brown
Earths,” because their A horizon is dark-coloured, friable and rich
in organic contents
(
n )
Terra Rosa They are heavy clayey soils rich in lime
and sesquioxides of iron, aluminium and silicon Thev are formed
in drier climatic conditions, as in the mediterranean climatic
zones
EDATHIC FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BIOTA 131
AZONAL SOILS
They are poorly developed soils having no distinct horizon

development Three types of azonal soils are usually found
Llthosols
Lithosols are typical soils of young nountains which have

high slope-gradients The soils formed are very thin and usually
get washed down due to run off in periods of rainfall They have
a course texture, little organic matter and poor vegetal growth
Rerosols
They are deep soft, unconsolidated deposits of organic

matter in areas of wind blown sands, glacial drifts, glacial outwash
plains and volcanic ash Some of the finest examples of tegosols
are the loess deposits of central Europe, southern Russia, north-
western China, north central United States and Argentina Glacial
tills of Sweden, Norway, Finland and Denmark are also in this
category
Alluvium
Alluvial soils, also called as entisols, are formed by the

erosion and transportation of sand, silt and clay by streams" and
avers The ‘Khartar' and deposits of
•flutigar’ Ganga plains in
India belong to this group These soils may be found in flood
plains, valley bottoms or deltaic regions
MJ1L tKUSlUN
Removal of lop soil cover from anv area by various

means
is called soil erosion The soil, made in thousands
of year is thus
lost and the area loses its fertility
Erosion of soil and ns trans-
portation and deposition
m certain lowlands and depressions has
been going on nature since the earliest times,
in
and has resulted
in the formation of
new landforms But the problem of
soil erosion
)as assumed alarming
proportions in recent years due to
several
actors like deforestation, over grazing and human interference
132 essentials of biogeographv
Soil erosion results primarily from physical causes and

human mismanagement, both the factors, quite often, working
simultaneously. The main physical causes are rainfall, winds and
ice. The main human causes are the ploughing of loose sand or
soils unsuitable for cultivation, over-grazing of pastures by herbi-
vores, over-cropping which exhausts the fertility of soil and
deforestation which loosens the soil particles. Usually, in all such
cases, there is an exposure of the soil cover to the effects of
eroding agents-water, wind and ice Clearance of forests for agri-
culture or felling of trees for fuel and limber exposes the soil mantle
to the vagaries of weather and accelarales erosion. Grasslands
and meadows which have been browsed and over-grazed suffer the
ill-effects of soil erosion. It has been estimated that about 1000

million tons of soil is blown away annually in United States alone.
Global estimates may reach several billion tons.
In India, the problem of soil erosion is most acute on

account of high density of population and cattle It has been esti-
mated that about 3.5 million tonnes of soil per km- is blown away
every year tn the arid parls of Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab
Water erosion is most acute in the mountainous areas and areas of
river catchments where denudation of forests has occurred on an
unprecedented scale
Running water causes high may accela-
soil erosion which
rate in periods of high may occur in the form of
erratic rains. It
‘sheet erosion’ in which both water and wind may remove the entire
sheet of lop soil leaving only hard rocks A second form may be
‘gully erosion' in which the excessive run off of water may cause
formation of small drains which may eventually widen and deepen.

Smaller gullies are called ‘nils' and their process of formation is
called 'rill erosion’. Larger gullies are called ‘ravines’ displaying

accumulation of soil in the form of high and large mounds of sand
and silt as noticeable in the Chambal valley of Rajasthan
SOIL CONSERVATION
Covering the soil with grasses and other forms of vegeta-

tion is the most effective method for conservation of soil Soil
erosion needs to be controlled at every stage and by every means.

Human interference has to be cherked and a proper management
of soil needs to be planned and executed.
EDAPHIC FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BIOTA 13 $
Cultivated lands, in order to sustain their fertility for long

periods, should be given the following treatments
(i) Crop rotation which helps in maintaining an equilibrium

in the nutrient pool of soil
(li) Leguminous crop sowing which helps in the growth of
nitrogen fixing bacteria in the soil and thereby increa-

ses its fertility
(tn| Organic maimnno which increases the humus contents

of the soil and water retentivity
(iv) Chemical manuring which replenishes the chemical

constituents of the soil at a faster rate
(v) Improvement of drainage by ploughing and digging the

soil several times in a year which increases the
aeration
(vt] Green Belt plantation around the fields which acts as a

barrier to soil erosion caused by high speed winds by
reducing their velocity
(vn) Fencing of fields by mud walls or by effective barriers

like tall grasses, euphorbia plants, spiny hedges etc
which do not permit the water to flow out of the
fields and carry away the fertile soil
(vm) Terracing of slopes, if the land is undulated, ploughing

the fields should be done according to contour lines
(ix) Strip-cropping to check the run off and wind erosion

(x) Non culhmtion of loose sands as they loosen further by
ploughing and are subjected to wind and water
erosion
(xi) Controlled grazing of agricultural lands and pastures so

that the more palatable grasses are not finished up by
broswmg animals easily and (hus disturbing the natural
ecosystem
(xn) Controlled irrigation of crops so that excessive mois-
ture in the soil does not cause accumulation of alkaline
salts on the top layer of soil
(mu) Contour irrigation of fields which is done along the

furrows and does not cause flooding and removal of
soil to lower areas
134 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGCOGRAPHY
(xiv) Dry-farming in areas which have insufficienl rainfall
and limited means of irrigation so that conservation
cf atmospheric water takes place in the soil.
(xv) Social forestry by planting such trees as are useful to
the farmers for fuel and limber. These can be used

from time to time and a cyclic order of their use has
to be framed
Af/orestatlon and Pasture Dei/elopm ent
Deforestation has largely occurred in plains and plateaus

where man has occupied vast areas of land for agricultural cultiva-
tion and settlement Leaving the agricultural lands fallow for many
years increases the chances of wind and water erosion, as such
lands are bare of vegetal cover and the soil particles are loose
These lands could either be used as pastures by growing grasses

or by planting perennial trees In both cases the roots of the
foliage will act as binding material for the soil.
Deforestation of high mountains and in the catchment
areas of rivers has greately increased the erosion process in recent
years This has caused silling of dams constructed on major rivers,
and heavy flooding in the lowland areas. Afforestation of these

areas is of utmost importance today
According to conservative estimates, a total of 43 million

hectares of valuable forest land has been lost in India over the last
three decades (1950-80) as a result of indiscriminate felling of trees

for fuel and timber. Human requirements of both fuel and timber
are ever-increasing due to exponential growth of population in the
country Estimates show that out of the 266 million hectares of

potentially productive land in India, 175 million hectares have been
degraded in varying degrees on account of removal of foliage cover.
The problem would worsen further, if the demand for fuelwood
and fodder continues to grow, which it will, given the cuirent rate
of growth of human and cattle population. At the moment the gap
for fuelwood is estimated at 94 million tonnes and that for fodder
at about 160 million tonnes in India.
The national plan to afforest 5 million hectares of land per

year is too small to meet the growing demands. The rate at which
forests are denuded is faster than the rate of afforestation. On
(he other hand in view of the nation’s resources the S million hectare
afforestation plan appears to be overambitious and unrealistic, as

it would require plantation and ma ntenance of about 10 billion
saplings per year To implement the afforestation programmes
effectively, voluntary help of organizations and individuals is
needed “Aerial seeding” of plants in difficult terrains may make

the task easier Afforestation of areas, which are theatres of
extreme activity of wind and water erosion, is to be taken up on a
priority basis This will increase the moisture contents of the soils
as well Trees and shrubs, when once established in an area will
stabltse their population by reseeding, if protected from animals

and men Today deforestation is the most acute problem of the
country and needs to be tackled at all levels
FURTHER READING
1 Brady, NC (1974), The Nature and Propcines of Soils,

McMillan. New York
2 Briggs, D (1977), Soils Butterworlhs, London
3 Bunting, BT (1965), The Geogiaph) of Soil, Hutchinson,
London
4 Cruickshank, J (1972), Soil Geogra/ifij, David and
Charles, London
5 Fitzpatrick E A (1971), Petlologt A S)stematic Appro-
ach to Soil Science, Oliver & Boyd, I dinburgh
6 Foth.HD and Turk LM (1972) Fundamentals of Soil
New York
Science, Wiley,
7 Hudson N (1971) Soil Consenanon, Batsford, London

8 Robinson, G W (1951) Soils, Then Origin, Constitution
and Classification Longman, , London
9 Roriron I H (1969), Ecological Aspects in the Mineral
Nutrition of Plants, Blackwell Scientific Publications
Oxford
10 Russell, EW (1973), Soil Conditions and Plant Grmtth,
Longman, London
7
Anthropogenic Effects
on the Biota
With the advent of man upon this earth, nearly a million
years ago, the interaction between plants, animals and Homo sapiens
started The early man was a hunter of animals and a gatherer of

plant material The human population in these early stages was
very small and had little impact upon natural ecology In
the lower Palaeolithic era of man's evolution, which occurred

about a million years ago, the total human population was about
1 25 million with a density of 0 0b5/km 2 Agricultural activities of
man began to emerge about 10 000 years ago It is estimated that
the human population, at that time, had grown to about 6 million
showing a density of 0 04/km 2 The early man perhaps had his
origin in the heart of Africa who after a long period of evolution

spread out in various directions and occupied various continents
He was a true determimst who depended on natural environment
for most of his needs. But with the growth of human population
human interference with natural ecology increased manifold m the
form of acquiring land for agriculture, burning of wood for fuel and
fire, grazing of domestic animals, and using forest resources and
fossil fuels for industrialization On the other hand man has mier-
played with the population of animals also Right from the stage of
ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON THE BIOTA 137
hunting to the stage ol domestication of animals, he has used the

animals for his benefit for flesh, skin, milk and other edible products.
Consequently some of animal species have become extinct which
formed a useful link in the ecosystem,
IMPACT OF PRE-AGRICULTURAL MAN
It has been established today that the first hotmmds appeared

in Africa around 5 million years ago Being reasonably intelligent
ana having two free hands, they soon evolved a process of dis-
covering iheir environment which culminated in tool-making, the
the distinctive activity of man During these years, the spread of
the humans also took place over various continents through land-
bridges Whereas Australopithecus the first homtntd had been
confined to Africa, Homo erectus the primitive man had spread out
from Europe to Indonesia Owing to lack of clothing for protection
against cold, the Homo c rectus did not spread out beyond 50°N
latitude His dispersal was conhnedto the old world with a popul-
ation density of 0 1 km 2 They were mostly food-gatherers,

leading a harbivore life as of gorillas and so their concentrations
of populations were mostly amidst forests where food was
available
It was perhaps after 75,000 BC when the last Ice-age

began and the cold Arctic conditions clamped down that the
Homo sapiens tound animals as their food When the ice retreated
the hunters followed herds of mammoths; wild buffaloes and other
herbivorous animals right up to the Arctic circle and found it a
habitable place There they discovered the Bering Strait as a land
bridge between Asia and North America Perhaps as early as

25,000 BC and not later than 10,000 BC these hunters penet-
rated into North America via the Bering Strait and within a few
centuries spread across both Americas The other wave of these
pioneer hunters crossed the shallow waters of Indonesian Sea and
reached Australia in the same period
The extension of terrains into northern latitudes and to

Americas and Australia doubled his territory With the retreat of
Ice-age and commencement of better weather conditions, the
human population in 10,000 BC was probably more than double
13S essentials or BIOGEOGRAPHY
of what it had been 100,000 B C With the melting away of the

in
i-p-caps fmallv, the human population over the globe had reached
the 4 million math, which soon started new food-chains In the
ecosystem, Man had discovered by then that allhough there were
only a few plants that he could eat, he could get enough of them
together to see him through the year If he planted them himself
This was the Neolithicage of man which started with humble
beginnings of agriculture and brought forlh an agricultural revo-
lution which could sustain larger popula'ton
The pre-htsioric man, who had lood-gathering, hunting
and fishing as the primary subsistence sources, did not interact with
nature to the stage of over-exploitation Solely dependent upon
natural resources, the Bushmen of kalahart desert even today
derive food from 84 species of plants including ihe mam Mongongo
tree (Riciiwdndroit rautmtnm) which accounts for half the weight of
their vegetable diet Although food-gathering activities, allow little
attention to the conservation of resources, they do noi exhaust all
the available plant food of the area, for the reason that many
species which are quite edible but less attractive areby-passed in the
act of gathering Aboriginal tribes practising, food qalhering, hunting
and fishing today show that primary gathering is common in those

tribes which live in tropical, subtropical and temperate areas while
hunting and fishing is more common in mid— latitudes up to 60 o N as
most of the edible wild animals are available in these areas and the
fishes too show an abundance m lakes, streams and cold seas
Tha pivotal role of herbivore in ihe various stages of Ihe

cultural development of man is paramount The Pleistocene cave-
dwellers of Pyrenees, India and central Asia were almost totally
dependent upon hunting as apparent from their cave paintings
today Even today, the dwellers o' ihe Arctic north are much
dependent upon the flesh, hides and skins of animals for iheir exis-
tence Evidences from a Mesolithic sue in northern England suggesi
that the hunters used to kill oniu the male deer as that would not
lessen the reproductive rale of their prey substantially and will i bus
provide ample prey in future years as well The primitive man was
ihus conscious of the need lo conseive the environment in which
he lived
139
ANTHROPOGENIC EfFECTS ON THE BIOTA
Table 7 1
World Distribution of Primary Subsistence

Sources
Latitudes Primaiy Subsistence Source ( %)

Food Gathering Hunting Fishing
60° and Beyond - 6 2
50 59
— 1 9
.0-i9 4 3 5
30-39 9 -
20-29 7 — 1
10-19 5 - 1
0-9 4 1
-
World 29 11 18
Rearranged from Lee, R B and

,
Devore, I, (cds )
1968 Man the Hauler, Aldme
Press, Chicago
Fire, as an agent to change vegelatton is apparent as it has

been used as an aid to hunting for long The association of man
with fire appears to be of great antiquity stretching back about
700,000 years in the Petralona caves of northern Greece By burn-
mg vegeta'ion the primitive man, perhaps, altered the composition
of vegetal cover in order to encourage disired species selectively
and to eliminate useless ones Later on this manipulative tool oi fire
was used for cooking, warmth and proteciion Observations show

that ground temperatures In grassland fires reach about 100°C,
whereas forest fires are hotter, 150°C being the common tempera-
ture, Surface fires burn off theliuer and above-surface parts of
low-growing plants,
The susceptibility of plants to fires vanes Those which
can survive a fire are called 'pyrophjtes' In some plants, as in
heathers, brackens and perennial grasses, only the upper shoots
hurn and the regenerative parts remain unaffected beneath the soil
Such grasses are burnt even today to stimulate new growth and
remove the old dead parts Sinnfaly, the woody monocotyledons
like palms and palmettoes of mter-tropical regions are well adapted
lo withstand fire injuries The tough barks of core-oak (Quertms
140 ESSENTIALS OF BlOGEOGRATm
subcr) and the Japanese larch (Lam lapioleprs) are fire— resistant and
are used as a fire-break around new plantations Burning of
grasses and trees increases nutrient levels in soil
Such relationships between vegetation, herbivores, cam!

vores and man existed in the past in natural state when the popula-
tion of one species was controlled bv another The impact of man
on natural sites of vegetation was then very little to cause anv dis
order or disequilibrium in the ecosystem Hence in the long historv

of man as a hunter and food-gatherer there was not substantial
change m the vegetation
IMPACT OF DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
The Neolithic age in the history of mankind which began

probably 8000 vears ago. brought forth the agricultural revolution
bv domesticating the useful species of plants and animals It occur
red at many places on the globe and was probably the culmination
of a long period of association of man with particular species of
plants and animals It is now known that as early as 2000 BC dry-
farming in South-west Asia was done and this practice supported
a popu/artcn of 1-2 person/km11 rn this region
It can well be imagined that tl must have taken a long

time for man to have selected useful edible species for himself as
well as for his domesticated animals before he started cultivating
them In early times the distinction between wild, husbanded and
domesticated biota must have been a tenuous one for many centu
ries The preconditions for domestication must have been the
existence of an area of diversity of plants and animals which gave
varied materials with which to experiment
N.I Vavilov (1951) has identified eight geographic centres

of the origin of domesticated plants in the world which are popu-
lar called ‘hearths' Six ot the hearths viz China. Central Asia.
Abyssinia, India, Near-East, andMediterranean were in the old
world and two viz America and Central America were in
South
the new world The paradigm behind this identification was that
the domestication of a particular taxon occurred only once or
twice and thereafter spread by diffusion among other cultural
groups. Let us now consider the various plant species which were
domesticated in the various hearths of the world
anthbopogenic eitects on the biota 14 )
South West Asia— Mediterranean Basin Focus
The distinctive mark of (his area’s contribution to agrl-

cullure is its concentration on seed agriculture, mostly cereals,
pulses, oil crops etc Nonetheless other crops like roots and tubers,
fruits and nuts, vegetables and spices, fibre plants, for agecrops,
drugs and medicinal plants were alsodomesticated. The mam
domesticated plants were probablv as shownb elow
Cereals
Ayena sahyc — Oats in northern, Europe A\ena slmgosa — Fod

der oats in mediterranean region, Hortleum wlgare — Barley as pri-
mary crop in north-eastern parts, Secaleceieale— Rye as secondary
crop in Anatolia, Trtncm aesiniim —Bread wheat m Transcaucasia-
Caspian, Tnlicum nmopheeui — Minor u heat in Soviet Georgia
Pulses
Circcr rOTc/irjwir— Chick-pea in north-eastern parts, Lay-

lh)rws saliuis— Grass-pea
in norih-easiern parts. Lens esculenta—
i-entil as primary crop in the north-east, Pmm
sarmrrn-Garden-pea
in mediterranean region, View Jaba— Broad-bean in
mediterranean
region.
142 essentials of eiogeographt
Oil crops
Brassica campesins— Rapeseed in eastern mediterranean

region, Brassica mgra— Mustard in eastern mediterranean region,
Oka eiiropuea— Olive in mediterranean region, Papaicr somnifcrum —
Poppy in north-eastern pans
Roots and Tubers
Bela uilgaris—Beel in mediterranean region and West

Europe, Brassica rapa -Turnip in mediterranean region, Daiicas
carota— Carrot in mediterranea region, Raphamis salmis— Radish,
wtdespraed in the entire area
Vegetables and Spices
Allium cepa— Onion in mediterranean region, Allium

saliuim— Garlic in mediterranean region, Brassica olcracea— Cabbage
and cauliflower in West Europe, Coriandrum saliuim— Coriander in
north-eastern parts, Cucumis satn us— Cucumber in norlh-eastern

parts. Ctimmum cymmum— Cumin in north-eastern parts, Poemntlum
uilgare— Fennel in mediterranean region, Lactuca saina— Lettuce in
mediterranean region, Trigonella fornirn— Fenugreek in Turkey
Fiults and Nuts
Cor) his spp,— Hazelnuts from Balkans lo Caspian, Cucumis

mclo— Melon in the north-eastern parts, Picks carica— Fig in Turkey.
Iraq and Iran Juglans regia— English walnut from Balkans to
Pakistan, Phoenix dad) Ifera— Date-Palm in the low land steppes of
Near-East, Pisiacca vera— Pistachio in Turkey and Iran, Primus
amygdalus— Almond in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Primus auum— Cherry from
Balkans to Caspian, Primus domestic— P\um from Balkans to eastern
Europe, Pumca granamm— Pomegranate in Transcaucasia and Cas-
pian, P)rtis communis— Pear in Turkey and Iran P)rus malus— Apple
in Balkans-Transcaucasia-Caspian, Pros umfera— Grape in Meduer-
ranean region
fibres
Cannabis semu-Hemp, widespread in entire Eurasia, Limiim

usilaiissimuni— Flax in north-eastern parts
Forage Crops
Agropyron spp —Wheat grasses from Turkey to USSR ,

/Igrosfis
spp, Bentgrasses in Western Europe, Biomus inennis-Smooth broom-

grass (rom Turkey to Central Europe, Dactyls qlomerata— Orchard-
qrass in Europe to mediterranean, Lolmm spp —Ryegrass from
Europe to mediterranean, Medicago satn-a— Alia-alfa in Central Asia
Turkey and Iran, Mehllous j/>/i -S weet clovers, widespread in Europe,
Phalans amndmacea — Reed canarygrass in Europe, Phalans tuberosa-

Harding-grass tn Europe, Pldenm piatense — Timothy grass in
Europe, Sorghum //a/eênse— Johnsongrass in Mediterranean area,
Tnfohum spp .— T ure clovers in Europe
Pig 7 ’ Domestication of edible wheat was done in the

semi-arid zone of Near East
144 ESSENTIALS OE BIOGEOGRAEIIY
Drugs and Medicinal Plants
Alropa belladonna— Belladonna in mediterranean area;
Dicitahs /mr/wrea-— Digitalis in Europe; Papa\cr somntferum-Codeme,

morphine and opium in mediterranean area; Plantago psyllium- Pvsil-
lium in mediterranean area
Domestication in other Focll
At about the same time when domestication of plants was

going on in South-west Asia, this process was also continuing in-
dependently in oiher parts of the world, more especially in South-
east Asia Here plant husbanding was centred on species of rice,
bananas, sugar cane, cotton, potatoes, maize and tomatoes which

were the plants of this area
Maize ( Zea ma)s) was also interbred in Tehuacan, Mexico,

perhaps 7,000 years ago Tomatoes (L) coper wum eseulentum) had
their origin in western South America and their domestication star-
ted in Mexico at about the same time The domestication of rice
(Oryza saina and Oryza g/«6errmifl)had its antiquity in India (4530 BC)
and in China (3280-2750 BC) Rice domestication also started
independently in West Alrica in the upper Niger region around
1500 BC or later
The effects of domestication of plants were manifold. The

changes in gene structure that accompany a long period of dome-
stication led to certain persistent morphological and physiological
alterations in the new
Thus many new species ol plants came
plant.
into existence which were more nutritious to man and animals The
cultivated plants lost their ability to disseminate by themselves and
acquired the tendency to become annuals
In the process of domestication, man selected a few useful
types of plants and weeded out the useless ones. Grasses like
Aegilopi and Lolmm were allowed lo grow in place ol Arena,

Cynodon and Phalaris which were not useful and so weeded out. Le-
gumes like Prosopis were more cared Mcduago and
for than those of
Aslraaglus spp which became
Some plants tnierected with
extinct
domesticated plants and produced new types, as is shown by the
leather-grass (Snpa spp ) of the Taurus and Zagros ranges Dome-
stication of animals also intensified the process of dispersal of use-
ful plants These animals moved from place to place catryingiuih

145
AN1HR0P0GEWC EFFECTS ON THE BIOTA
ihem the seeds of edible plants on outer skin or disseminating them

ihrough the excreta For thousands of years pastoralism went on
which led to the propagation of useful plants in areas which were
not native to them
TVie etteta of ew'.y foci fitwkacrog •g.w.fA <ai 'pJav.Vs'HMA

also noticeable in the abiotic components of the ecosystem. Eradi-
cation ot useless plants to man 2 nd animals led to changes in soil
structure Soil erosion intensified in areas wherever the native vege-
tation was cleared from plains, woodlands, hillsides and uplands,
and became a potential danger Salinification of the soil became

widespread in areas of irrigation
It can be concluded, therefore, that the effects of domesti-

cation led to a series of widespread changes in the ecosystem in the
past Studies in this regard indicate that the Neolithic occupants of

the Near-East convened the oak-pistachio ecosystem of their area
into grasslands Coupled with differences in climates, cultures and

availability of wild biota, differentiations in various types of agri-
culture occurred in various regions By about 500 BC, a number of
distinctive agricultural complexes had established in the world The

basic South west Asian type of agriculture was dependent upon
major cereals wheat and barley and some legumes A number of
vananls of this basic type had evolved in the irrigated areas of Nile,
Indus, Tigris Euphratus and China where cotton, date-palm, flax
and hemp were added to the bas lc subsistence crops But still some
areas in Africa. India, China and South America had shifting agri-
culture— the most primordial forrn of cultivation
IMPACT OF DISCOVERIES OF NEW LANDS
Much o! the biota remained conlined to its native place in
olden limes till man started migrating from one place to another.
The Arab navigators who travelled in the Indian Ocean extensively
brought new plant species from India and the East-Indies But the
maior breakthrough in transplantations occurred only In the fif-
teenth century when the navigators of European countries sailed to
the west and east and discovered new lands. They brought with
them new plants of the old and the new world which could be suc-
cessfully grown m their country At the same time the colonists
m-
noduced the plants of their country to newi lands This human
migration brought forth a rude dispersal of cereals, frmls, edible

crops and fibre-crops in almost every continent and changed the
ecosystem
Potatoes and maize were introduced in Europe after 1500

AD and these plants were brought from the Americas Leguminous
forage crops of lucerne and alfa-alfa were brought from Iran and
introduced in Italy, Germany and Spam
France, tn the beginning of
the sixteenth century and now they are widely cultivated in entire
Europe American crops of manioc and maize were taken to Africa
from Americas in the sixteenth century The Portuguese colonists
brought rice and sweet potatoes from the east to their country and
these crops are now widely grown in Portugal as also in the entire
Europe Asia was also the recipient of American crops such as

potatoes, manioc and groundnuts in the eighteenth century Intro-
duction of rubber, oil-palm, coffee, tobacco and cocoa in Asia took

place m late eighteenth century when the British, French Dutch
and Portuguese colonists brought these plants from Asia Cen'ral
America and South America to their new colonies and established
the system of plantation agriculture
The Americas also absorbed a large number of old world
crops. Timothy Hansen of England took with him ihe lucerne to
North America where it grows widely today and is known as Timo

thv grass The citrus fruits of mediterranean region were hrouoht to
Americas by Spanish and Portuguese colonists In 1718 the Dutch
brought coffee plants from Indonesia to Surinam The Portuguese
brought bananas and sugar cane from Africa to Brazil The dissemi-
nation of biota was not only confined to plants but extended to
domesticated animals also Goats sheep cattle, horses and pigs

u ere part of Columbus's embargo and spread rapidly in the Arne
ncas and the West Indies Every successive wave of migrators from
Europe took more and more species of plants and animals to the
new world and these exotic species form the main vegecullure of
Americas today
The exchange of plants between the old and the new

world was not restricted to cereals and food crops alone Rather
fibres, beverage crops, perfumes and flavours added much to the
ecosystems of each other. Flax, jute, hemp cotton, coffee tea,
cocoa, rubber peppermint, vanilla etc are some of the examples
ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON THE WOT 147
oltho c e plants which have now sprcao in cun continent duo to
migration o! man
Star, mg hom up to 1750 AD til
the carlo fifteenth centurc
the pre-maustrial agrtcultutc, was no me e ImubNitlou
the to ho I
nscovetv of new lands had only provide <1 the mixing and CNhn
polanon ot several species of plants which w, re useful vo man and
animals Agriculture was dependent urtlielu upon pitman wrlnt
energy The human populations which could then he suppoitud by
such cropping systems were verv few. Shifting agllcultuio enn cup
port 40 persons per sq km while Aslan wet rice cultivation tan
sustain 400 per sq km Therefoie, in this cm ol dlw-owilcs the
population did not grow rapidlv and hlgliei densltu was allaltictl
only at certain sites
IMPACT or INDUSTMALIZATION
After 1750 AD the Industrial era tisliuicd In ttlun min

siarted using .machipes lor sgricuiltue trausporj, Infllisliji y pjjjl
vailous other purposes The greatest contribution was of fossil
fuels-coal petroleum and natural gas, having stored Ol gallic enutgv,

which on oxidization provides large quantities of usable energy In
relation to their bulk, in contrast to solar energy wblcli Is leltillvely
diffuse The introduction of machinery Inlo agriculture intuited lln*
replacement of animal energy by power derived from fossil fuels,
The horse and ox were replaced by the tractor curly In the twen-
tieth century, with machine achieving dominance afnr llu<
the
1920s The use of machines is an accepted part of (It Vclopini'nl
today
Mechanization brought about an Intensification of Inml iiso
and cultivation of hitherto marginal lands and In net mote ntilltuf-
luial production This process of development had ft ill l'|> liopncl

upon plants, animals and ecosystems It caused a rapid urowlii of
the human population which Impelled cxplollallon of mori nnlllrnl
resources almost to lhe point of Ihclr extinction, Arens, ollierWIsn
impossible to clear of scrub or to plough wr ri irindr r //fllVnMr t'nl
such intensification of land-use has luid dl'-n' Irons ( (iiiSM|ik nu c,
146 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGHOGRAPHY
migration brought forth a wide dispersal of cereals, fruits, edible
crops and fibre-crops in almost every continent and changed the
ecosystem
Potatoes and maize were introduced in Europe after 1500

AD and these plants were brought from the Americas Leguminous
forage crops of lucerne and alfa-alfa were brought from Iran and
introduced in Italy, Germany and Spain
France, in the beginning of
the sixteenth century and now they are widely cultivated in entire
Europe American crops of manioc and maize were taken to Africa
from Americas in the sixteenth century The Portuguese colonists
brought nee and sweet potatoes from the east to their country and
these crops are now widely grown in Portugal as also in the entire
Europe Asia was also the recipient of American crops such as

potatoes, manioc and groundnuts in the eighteenth century Intro-
duction of rubber oil palm, coffee, tobacco and cocoa in Asia took
place in late eighteenth century when the British, French, Duich
and Portuguese colonists brought these plants from Asia Cen'ral
America and South America to their new colonies and established
the system of plantation agriculture
The Americas also absorbed a large number o! old world

crops Timothy Hansen of England took with him ihe lucerne to
North America where it grows widely ledav and is known as Timo

thy grass The citrus fruits of mediterranean reqion were hrouaht to
Americas by Spanish and Portuguese colonists In 1718 the Dutch
brought coffee plants from Indonesia to Surinam The Portuguese
brought bananas and sugar cane from Africa to Brazil The dissemi
nation of biota was not only confined to plants but extended to
domesticated animals also Goats, sheep cattle, horses and pigs
were part of Columbus’s embargo and spread rapidly in the Arne
ncas and the West Indies Every successive wave of migrators from
Europe took more and more species of plants and animals to the
new world and these exotic species form the main vegeculture of
Americas today
The exchange of plants between the old and the new

world was not reslnc'ed to cereals and food crops alone Rather
fibresbeverage crops, perfumes and flavours added much to Ihe
ecosystems of each other. Flax, jute, hemp cotton, coffee tea,
cocoa, rubber peppermint, vanilla etc are some of the examples
of tho'e plants which have now spread in every continent due lo

migration of man
Starting from the early fifteenth century up to 1750 AD in
the pre-industrial agriculture, there was no mechamzalion The

nscovery of new lands had only provided ihe mixing and extra-
polalion of several species of plants which were useful lo man and
animals Agrieuliure was dependent entirely upon primary solar
energy The human populations which could then be supported by
such cropping systems were very few Shifting agriculture can sup-
port 40 persons per =q km while Asian wet nee cultivation can
sustain 400 per sq km Therefore, in this era of discoveries the
population did not grow rapidly and higher density was attained
only at certain sites
IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALIZATION
After 1750 AD ihe industrial era ushered in when man

started using machines for agrieuliure transport, industries and
various other purposes The greatest contribution was of fossil
fuels-coal petroleum and natural gas, having stored organic energy,
which on oxidization provides large quantities of usable energy in
relation to their bulk, in contrast lo solar energy which is relatively
diffuse The introduction of machinery into agriculture marked the
replacement of animal energy by power derived from fossil fuels
The horse and ox were replaced by the tractor early in the twen-
tieth century, wiih the machine achieving dominance after
the
1920s The use of machines is an accepted part of development
today
Mechamzalion brought about an intensification of land-use

and cultivation of hitherto marginal lands and hence more agricu - 1
production This process of development had a deep

luial
impact
upon plants, animals and ecosystems It caused a rapid growth
of
the human population which impelled exploitation of more natural
resources almost to the point of their extinction
Areas, otherwise
impossible to clear of scrub or to plough were made
cultivable But
such intensification of land-use has had disastrous
consequences,
since some tropical soils when deprived of their litter layer and
broken up atihe surface either erode away very quickly, or turn
mio laterite and infertile soils
Nonetheless, the output of crops and the conservation of

pnergv in the form of food and plant matter increased substantially
with the use of machines In 1880 the net plant productivity was
1 28 kcal/m 2 per day which in 1974 increased to 10 56 kcal/m-
per day showing a ten-fold increase Besides these gams man
has now introduced more species of plants by genetic transfor-
mations Today, at least 3000 species of plants are used for food,
and about 150 of these have entered the world of commerce. The
plants providing maximum sustenance to man in the form of food
today are rice, wheat, potato, sweet potato, cassava beans, soya-
beans, coconut, banana, sorghum and peanuts
The use of fertilizers tn agriculture is at the heart of the

‘Green Revolution’ in Increasing production, especially of wheat
and rice The energy stored in fertilizers is obtained from fossil
fuels, which is transferred to plants The average yparly consump

lion of fertilizers is more than 100 million tons out of which Europe
and North America use almost two-thirds of the Nitroqen-Phos
phorus-Potash fertilizers and about half of the mboqen fertilizers
West Germany, for example, uses more nitrogen fertilizers than the
whole of Africa. Ecological side-effects of fertilizers may be
naturally expected when the whole cvcle is pul to a faster rate
especially when nitrogen and phosphorus are limiting factors in the
natural ecosystem
Another significant factor that has chanoed the present

day ecology is the use of biocides in agriculture The use of
chemicals to kill weeds and pests has eliminated the unwanted
biota on the earth Their use started in 1939 when the organic
chemical DDT (Dichloro-dlphenvl-trichloromelhane) was invented
to kill tvphus carrying fleas Later on several oihpr synthetic
chlorinated hydrocarbons as dieldrin, "aldrm, erdrm hpptaehlor,
toxaphene, tetradlfon etc became the mainstay of chemical pesli
ctdes to be used tn developed agriculture The effects of these
biocides upon plant and animal target populations have generally

been variable Nevertheless, two major advantages have emerged
from their use They have increased the health of human popu
laltons as several diseases have been eradicaied or diminished
Secondly, there has been a greater output of agricultural crops to
feed the growing populations of men and animals Certain side-
effects have, of course, been harmful The biocides enter the
149
ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON THE BIOTA
tissues of plants which when eaten by men enter the body and
impair the physiological functions. Another aspect of biocide
application is the removal of vegetal cover which may lie as residual
matter on the soil surface and hamper the growth of new plants.
The industrial revolution has thus been an accelerator of
allsuch processes which changed the biota at every location on the

globe The extension of the world’s estimated 10 million species
of plants and animals look place from the local to the interconti-
nental scale The relative ease of transport escalated the dispersal
of viable seeds, living plants and live animals over long distances
The motives behind deliberate introductions were diverse : Orna-
ment and pleasure and economic value, are uses to which exotic
fauna and flora have been put All these factors affected the native
ecosystems and brought forth unseen changes in a short span
of time.
Another significant factor which altered the ecology of

some selected spots was the growth of cities and development of
industries. The productivity in such places Is much lower than in
the ecosystems they have replaced or in the food-producing or

forest systems which surround them. Urban areas, encroaching
upon forest land or agricultural land, expel] many species of plants

and animals Some trees, which are permitted to grow, may not be
able to sustain the severe air and water polution which the cities
and their industries generate. Exotic flora in the form ol ornamental

plants, lawns and gardens is introduced. These species may make
the native species extinct
Needless to say that a city is not an ideal environment for

most of the plants Productivity is only marginal and the mainte-
nance of ecosystem is communion with nature because it is
nol in
always intercepted by man Trees may suffer from reduced supplies
ofoxvgen and water in paved over or heavily trodden soils. Park
and garden management may well interrupt nutrient cycles by
removing litter of dry leaves, twigs and branches so that the plants
become short of nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus Atmospheric
cotaminants emanating from tnduslnes may be lethal to some
plants and trees Such stresses of environment may impair the
growth of plants and increase iheir susceptibility to diseases.
HUMAN USES OF PLANTS
To a large extent, the foliage cover of the earth has

changed due 10 the use of plants by men and animals The econo-
men and domesticated animals are manifold
mic uses of plants for
and show the total dependability of Homo sapiens on vegetation
The basic needs of man like, food, clothing and shelter are fulfilled
bv plants, besides a variety of other uses Therefore, man’s pre-
occupation with plants has been going on since the earliest times
and is now greater than ever before
The growth of human population which has now touched

the 5 billion mark has compelled man for a greater use of plants
and search for new avenues to fulfill daily requirements The
extension of the world's agricultural area and the intensification of
agriculture are obvious wa^s to resolve some of the problems of
over-population and food shortage Inspection of the potential
reveals, however, a relatively small area of virgin land suitable for
modern agriculture Constraints of undulating topography, unfertile
soils and lack of terrestrial surface exist, so much so, that only
12 5 per cent of the world’s land is used for agriculture Regional
estimates for the expansion of arable land in some selected areas
of the world are given below
Tabic 7 2
Selected Sub-Regional Totals for Potential

Arable Land in the World
Percentage of Arable Land Potential Arable

lit Sion used Land
1962 19S5 Million % of the
Hect Total area
Central America 64 76 46 19
South America 19 26 524 30
North-West Afnca 100 100 295 6
South Asia 93 96 201 48
South-East Asia 44 57 47 47
Far-East 81 97 4 28
Source FAO Indicative World Plan For Asriculiurc, 1980

It is apparent that barring South America, most of the other

regions have used their arable land (or agriculture so far In North-
West Abica and South Asia arable land has been used to the
maximum, leaving little scope for future expansion Efforts to
harness more land are going on but they need considerable cultural
adiustments such as the resettlement of graziers and nomads as
well as provision of more facilities for irrigation, technical skill,
mechanization and improvisation of soil Irrigation already accounts

for 11 per cent of the world's cultivated land, and two-thirds of the
world's population lives tn the diet-deficient countries which contain
75 per cento! the irrigated land, and thus its importance for the
malnourished is greater than the world statistics imply. All such
expansions are therefore, unlikely to be easy, rapid or cheap
It would now be appropriate to study the uses of plants

for man About 2000 plants have been developed by man for his
use and it is not possible to list all of them here However, some
of the important plants and their uses can be dealt with and these
can be grouped under 10 heads
(i) Human Foodstuffs
Man ts directly dependent upon cereals, pulses, oilseeds,

vegetables, fruits elc for his food Cereals, which form the staple
diet of man in all parls o( the world are grasses that have been
domesticated by man since the Neolithic age They are also used
for making starch and brewing of alcohol, spirits and beer
Perhaps, wheat was the grass to be
first domesticated by man m
the Middle-East region
Today, hundreds of hybrid varieties of
wheat have been produced that are grown in tropical, sub-tropical
and temperate countries Wheat has a high nutritive value and can
be cultivated in a wide variety of climatic conditions
Rice is another grass that can be easily grown in

tropical
and sub-tropical climates having high rainfall
It is grown only on
10 per cent of the world’s land and feeds about 40 per
cent of the
world's population, especially in South Asia.
South-East Asia ihe
Far-East, the Middle-East, southern United Slates, Central
America, tropical South America and parts
of southern Furope
ana Asiatic Russia Rice can be grown on flat plains, m deltaic
areas and even on hill-slopes Due to all these reasons it is
widely grown and forms ihe staple diet of large populations
The oiher cereals widely used by man for food are barley,
oals, rue. maize, emmer, and cmcorn Buckwheat, which is neither
a grass nor a grain, is also used as foodstuff All these cereals

have starchv carbohydrates and have therefore, to be taken up in
large quantities to provide the necessary energy to man

Amongst other starchy foodstuffs ealen bv man, there are
a wide variety of roois and tubers which form staple diet in some
areas of the world They are less nutritious than cereal grains but
are still cultivated owing to climaiic conditions favourable to their

growth. Among them potato is the most prominent, being grown
in almost everu couniru Potatoes, today, have a wide occurrence
from the tropical region of Brazil and India to the cold regions of
Siberia and northern Europe They can be grown in the plains as

well as on hilly-slopes with equal efficiency. Besides heir human
i
consumpuon they are also used for making glucose starch, alcohol
and wines The sweet potato however has a limited occurrence,
being cultivated in Souih Asia. South-East Asia and other tropical
countries
Manioc ( Afamho ' esailcnia), a starchy tuberous plant is
confined to iropicaf regions, chiefly Souih America The dried
tubers of the plant when grounded up into flour are called cassava
which is the staple diet of tropical African and soulh-eastern Asia

The other edible tuber is of Yam ( Dioscorea spp ), which grows in
humid tropics Yams are original natives of South-Easi Asia hut

now their 200 and odd species have also widely scattered In Africa,
Central America and South America The Taro plants [Cofocasta
spp
)
have also starchv tubers They are the staple diets of Polyne-
sians and the aboriginal populations of Africa and South-East
Asia Sugar is an important food for man It is oblained from
sugarcane ( Saccarimun spp ), a type of grass, and from beet {Beta
uilgaris), a type of root Sugarcanes are grown in tropical, moist
areas while sugar-best is an important crop in the temperature areas,
being widely grown in entire Europe, Russia and the United States
Pulses like lentils, greenpea, blackpea, gram, grasspea,

beans, soyabean I G!) cine mu \ )
are imporlam components of man's
diet as they are rich sources of proteins, the most valuable food for
growth and nourishment Today they are among significant crops
cultivated by man.
Vegetables like radish, turnip, carrot, Swedish turnips,
lettuce etc are roots Others are either leaves like spinach,
cabbage, onion and garlic or stems like ginger, or flowers like
cauliflowers and brussels sprouts, or fruits like brtnjals, peas, pump

kins, gourds, cucumbers, or seeds like coriander, cumin, fennels,
lenugreek etc As all of them are rrch m vitamins and salts, they
are widely grown and consumed by man
A variety of fruits are eaten by man for their taste and

nutrition Fruits like apples and pears are called ‘pomes' Some
fruits are called 'stone fruits’ as mangoes, plums, pistachio, apricots,
almonds, walnuts, date-palm etc Others are 'berries' such as
grapes, currants, gooseberries, multerry, blackberry etc Pome-
granates, olives, figs, oranges, Itme etc are mostly grown in the
mediterranean region while bananas, pineapples, papayas, guavas,
water-melons and musk-melons are the fruits of tropical countries
Some plants of the lower group are also used as food

Algae and kelps ate rich sources of proteins and some of their
varieties have been used as food since ancient limes Yeasts are
being used for fermentation arid they are good appetisers Agar
obtained from the red algae of seas is today used for making jellies
and ice cream Research is continuing today to obtain rich protein-

ous food from the sea algae which would meet the future needs of
the growing population.
Beverages like tea, coffee and cocoa are widely used by

man to increase energy The tea plant, a native of China and
Japan is nowadays largely grown Ceylon and Indonesia
in India,
Coffee plant Is probably a native of Arabia and Ethiopia but is now
extensively grown in Brazil, India, Indonesia and South west African
countries Cocoa used in the manufacture of chocolate is grown
tn Liberia, Gold Coast, Nigeria, Venezuela and parts of Central
America Tea-like drinks obtained from other plants in various
countries are also consumed In Argentina and Paraguay, yerba-
mate {Ilex paragtmensia) is grown and used as tea liquour Cassme
is a tree-like plant grown in North America In South American
highlands Yoco plant is grown whose bark is used to prepare a tea-
like beverage Man prepares several other beverages and dunks
in the form of alcohol, mostly from barley, rye, jaggery, grapes and
other fruits
154 ESSENTIALS OF BIOCtOORArilV
A variety of oil seeds are grown to extract vegetable oth
consumed by man Among them, mustard sesamum rapeseed,
safflower, sunflower groundnut, coconut and olive are most slgnt
ficant Coconut is especially grown in tropical, coastal areas while
olive is the chief crop of mediterranean coastlands Other oilseeds

have a wide distribution
(II) Animal Fodder ind Fora ,e
There are a large number of plants which are used as feed-

siuffs for animals These plants may be wild or cultivated Fodder
crops are usually cultivated for domestic animals like cows,
buffaloes sheep, goats carrels etc A few grasses like Cenchrm
ciharis, Cjanodon daclylott Daet)loctemum smdicum, Desmotacfoa
bipmuata, which grow in low -lying areas wildly are used as animal
fodder Some grasses are grown for animals as fodder crops
These are the wheat grasses bentgrass orchard-grass, rye grass
alfalfa, sweet clovers reed canarygrass, hardtng grass, timothy
grass, johnson-grass, clovers etc
Some cereals are also cultivated for animal feed For

example, maize tn the United States ts grown to feed pigs and oats
ISorg/ti/m \ulgare) in India for the milch cattle Some vegetables like
carrots, mangolds, turnips etc are also fed to animals The leaves
of a few trees have nutritious value for animals In the arid areas
of India the leaves of ber {Ziz) pints spp j, Khejrt {Prowpis sptcigera\
babul {Acacia arabica), wlayali babool (
Prosnpn juhflor/i), tamarind
etc are fed to the domestic animals
(III) Fibres and Industrial Raw Materials
A variety of plants have now been evolved to be used as

fibres and raw materials for various industries Important fibres
are cotton and flax which are used to weave cloth in all parts of the
world Jute is used for gunny bags and packing cloth Sun hemp,
grown in India and China and the Manila hemp grown in the
Phillippines are the other varieties of the jute grown Abaca, a plant
of the banana family, has also tough, water-resistant fibres, used as
packing cloth Flenequen and sisal fibres are grown in Central
America The pods of the silk-cotton tree ( Erwdendron anfractuosum)
yield smooth, flossy cotton used m bedding pillows and mats
A large number of grasses and bamboos are used for
making ropes, houses, wooden furrilure, pulp paper and card-

boards Soft wood conifers like pine, fir, willows and ash are used
for making wood pulp which produces synthetic fibres like viscose,
terylene used to weave pollster and woollen

nylon, oi Ion etc ,
cloth The conifers aho yield resins and terpentine which are
widely used for manufacturing paints and plastic Quite a few
plants yield perfumes and deodorants such as roses, mogra, laven-
der grass, lemon-grass ciironella and camphor Iree Tobacco

[Nicotiana tabaciim) and quebracho plants are extensively used in
industries today Tobacco is used for making cigarettes and cigars

almost in every country Quebracho plant yields tannin which is
used in leather industry to soften and shine the hides The wax of
carnuba-palm tree was once used for making gramophone records
but now the material has been replaced by synthetic petroleum
products
(Ivi Build nr Materials
Throughout the history of man plants and trees have been

used as materials for constructing houses in the form of logs of
wood, poles of bamboos, doors, windows, roofing material etc
Even today the populauon uses plant materials to construct
rural
their houses of thatches and wood ft is esnmated that 1700 million

cubic metres of wood is used annually to construct houses More-
over, wood is used to construct railway sleepers, coaches and other
means of transport like tongas and carts In hilly areas where there
is an abundance of trees houses are made of wood in both the
developed and the developing countries
Usually the soft wood of coniferous trees is more strong

durable and easy to work and hence it finds extensive use in cons-
truction work fn India, H is obtained from the Himalayan region
but m all European and Noah American countries it has extensive
growth in forests Coniferous forests have concentration of trees
of similar species and are hence easier to exploit than the tropical
ram forests and the monsoon forests which have mixed species of
trees and hence difficult to exploit for commercial use Therefore
hard-woods are used to make furniture called ‘cabinet 1
woods But
much of this wood is used as fuel
155 FSSEMIALX OF BIOGEOGRAPin
(v) Fossil-Fuels
Plants have formed coat, petroleum and natural gas— the

fossil-fuels which are the mam sources of energy today Charcoal
the burnt wood, has been used In industries and as a domestic fuel
for centuries Various forms of coal such as anthracite, bnumin

ous peat and lignite are used today for commercial purposes in
industries Similarly, petroleum in the form of petrol, octane

kerosene lubricating oil, mobil oil and a thousand other products is
also widely used today
( vl) Mlcro-Orginlsms
Small, microscopic plants like algae, fungi, bacteria and

viruses are mostly saprophytic or parasitic in their mode of living
They eat up dead organic matter and are therefore called scaven-
gers They break up the complex organic material of plant and

animal tissues into simpler ones and are hence called decomposers
The micro-organisms have, therefore, a great role tn harmonizing
the ecosystems for the reason that they mcycle the nutrients and
energy tn higher animals and plants
Some bacteria as those of making yoghurt and the yeast,
used for fe r mentation of alcohols and liquors are very useful to man
The nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in soils and tn th° roots of
leguminous plant are highly useful for impor'ing soil fertility
Today, some species of bacteria are used de-hamng ihe hides of

for
dead animals or for the purification of stllage and sewage matter

They are also used in making synthetic preparations of vitamins
A few bacteria and fungi are pathogenic and cause diseases like
cholera dysentery, typhoid, tuberculosis, ring worm scabies etc

Some strains of viruses cause diseases like small-pox, measles,
chicken-pox, dengue fever, influenza etc These parasitic forms
too have their own role in maintaining the equilibrium in ecosystems
as thpy help tn limiting the populations of various species including
man
(vH) Environmental Uses
Plants are grown in gardens orchards and park for their
aesthetic use Even small houses and cottages have their own small
gardens for giving a pleasant look and embellishment the lands-

cape Therefore many species of plants ate being used today
only for ornamental use A large variety of roses, chrysanthemums

dahlia, zinnia, larkspur daphodiles and other garden flowers are
grown for their aesthetic use Love for nature is inherent tn man
and is found m all societies
(viil) Ecological Uses
Plants have a paramount’place in all ecosystems They

provide food and shelter to all animals Herds of animals reside in
foresls and grasslands, When forests are degraded or felled, the
wildlife retreats and some times even becomes extinct Foresls

have also been the abode of man in the past Without plants,
animals including man cannot survive
Plants, grasses and trees are strong agents of conserving

the soil Their roots anchor into the soil and bind it, thus helping
in soil conservation Sand-binding grasses and sedges are used
today to stabilize the sand-dunes areas of heavy gully erosion and
wind erosion Some grasses are also used 10 desaltze the soils
which are alkaline Tree shelter-bells are grown in passes and
saddles or around the cities to check wind erosion and lesson the
speed of winds Devastating effects of winds are mitigated by
planting windbreaks of trees and bushes around crop-fields lo save
them from the ill-effects of cold and hoi winds, which blow occas-
ionally m some localized areas
{ ix Drugs and Chemicals
Man’s use of plants in the form of drugs goes back to

antiquity Even in the Neolithic age, man had discovered some
plants like opium and poppy to be used as sedatives and pain-
killers, a practice which is followed even today. Modern medicine
uses ihe alkaliod morphine derived from opium, as a sedative The
cocoa plant (Er)lhro\j lone cocoa), which grows wild on the slopes
of the Andes, has for long been used as a stimulant, as even now
The bark of cinchona trees, indigenous to tropical South

America is a useful source of quinine which is used to kill the
malarial parasite Plasmodium, which causes malarial fever in man
1J!>
ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGEAPHY
Chaulmoogra oil is effective for treatment of leporsy Eucalyptus
oil is today used to manufacture various perfumes, as also the
lavender oil Certain drugs like penicillin and streptomyon, which

are miracle drugs used in the manufacture of a wide range of
antibiotics, are prepared from the fungii of the same names

Various species of ,4gflie ( Fam\l\ Amar)!lulaceu ) found in the desert
of Rajasthan, highlands of Mexico and the Puebla desert of Central
America, produce the chemical substance hvcogemn which is now

used as a drug lo produce steroidal hormones for curing ihe state of
antiferttlily in man
Aloe {Famil i Lihaccae), a xerophytic plant having 180

species found in the deserts of India. East>and South Africa prod-
uces a yellowish fluid in its stems that is used in making drugs
The fluid coniains the chemicals a oil barbaloin, resins and emodin
which are now used to cure chronic consiipanon and uterine disor-
ders The bark, fruits, seeds and leaves of Belainies otgjnma

Famil.)
(.
Simarubiaceae )
yield bland-yellou., tasteless oil, having
steroid sapogenms, which are used to cure boils, leucoderma and
other skin diseases
The dried leaflets of Cassia Aiigtisli/oho and C Aculifoha

|/Y»hi/j Legnmtnoseac) constitute the senna of various pharma-
copoeias Senna is valued in medicine for its cathartic properties
and Is especially useful in habitual consignation as it increases
peristaltic movements of the colon The rhizome of Clycyrnca
glabra (Tamth Legunwwscae). comaining glucuronic acid and glyce-
rrhiztc acids has demulcent and expectorant properties and its
powdered liquorice is used effectively m the treatment of gastric

ulcers The plant Is native of mediterranean regions but can grow
in Kashmir and oiher Himalayan regions
The desert herbaceous plant indigenous to Egypt. H)osc)-

aunts nmltcus tFaiml} Solanaceae) has the useful chemical hyoscamine
which provides relief from painful spasmodic conditions ol the
non-striated muscles, and nervous irriiaion Externally, foment-

ations of fresh leaves of this plants and trees of Acacia Senegal,
castor-oil, fenugreek, olive etc, have herbal properties It is not
possible here to provrtde an exhaustive list of all medicinal plants
ol theworld but suffice it to say that thousands of plants that haie
herbal properties are being used in modern medicine as well as in
ayurved, unam and homoeopathic systems of medicine
FURTHER READING
1 Bender, B (1975), farming m pre-lustoiy , John Baker,

London
2 Chopra, A H etal (1960), Medicinal plants of the And
Zones; UNESCO, Paris
3 Cohen MN (1977), Tltc Food Crisis in Pre-history ;
Yale
University press. New Haven
4 Grigg. DB (1974), The Agricuhinal Systems of the
Woild An Evolutionary Appioach, Cambridge University
Press, London
5 Harlan, J R (1975), Crops and Man; Crop Science Soc,
Madison, Wisconsin
6, Issac, E. (1970), Gcogiaphy of Domestication ; Engle-

wood Cliffs—Prentice Hall, New Jersey
7 Kozlowski, T T. and Ahlgren, C E; (eds ) (1974), Fire

and Ecosystems ;Academic Press, London,
8 Lee, R.B; and Devore, 1; (eds) (1968), Man the limiter ,
Aldine Press. Chicago
9 Leeds, A; and Vayda, A P; (eds) (1976) Man, Culture

and Animals, AAAS Publication, Washington DC
10 Sauer, C
0. (1969), Agricultural Origins and Dispersal,
MIT Press, Cambridge (Mass
It Ucko, PJ; and Dimbieby (eds ) (1969),
The Domesti-
cation and Exploitation of Plants and Animals; Duckworth
London
8
Plant Dispersal and

Floristic Regions
Plants disperse and propagate over new areas bp means

oi seeds and d'laspores. Smaller plants like algae, lungt, Sryop’ny'tes
and pteridophytes produce spores which arc carried away by wind

new areas where they germinate in favourable climatic
or water to
The dissemimtles o! higher plants such as anglosperms
conditions.
and gymnosperms are called seeds They may or may not be
enclosed in an outer covering called fruit, but are spread through
various environmental agencies to propagate new plants.
Dispersal, in the most dynamic sense, involves dissemina-

tion of dtsseminuies ol various lypes of new spots and localities and
their successful growth But the establishment of individual species
or their groups is called migration The successful establishmem
of pioneer plant communities in an early stage of ‘perisere' ts
known as ‘cccsis'. These communities may multiply further in the

area, on getting optima] growth conditions, and establish dominant
groups of larger btomes.
In the process of dlssemtnules of seeds and spores,

many of these disseminules die prematurely, or fall on barren
ground or reach the climatically hostile areas ivhere they cannot
germinate to produce new plants. A few fail to survive the
PLANT DISPERSAL AND FLORISTIC REGIONS 161
struggle with stronger competitors and only a Few survive tor the
ultimate success to form new plants which are able to propagate
Further Even these new plants have to adapt to new environmental
conditions and modify their morphological and physiological func-
tions lo establish themselves successfully.
Fruits, seeds and spores are the most commpn reproductive

structures by which plant dispersal lakes place. Bui a few plants
increase their number by vagelalive organs loo, and such a method
is called ‘Vegetative rept otlutUon’ The common grass produces long
underground and covers the lawn in no time. Similarly the
‘nutters'
‘
tubers' of the underground stem of potatoes and sweet potatoes
multiply profusely to form several potatoes from a single plant
The ‘bulbs’ of onions, lilies and garlic are in fact the modified leaves
of tne plants which grow under the soil to multiply further and form
several bulbs. The ‘suckers' of menthol bury underground, develop
fresh roots at every layer of the soil and form new plants. These
methods of colonizing vast areas without the help of reproductive
organs are prevalent in a few plants only; a vast majority of the
plant kingdom produces flowers, seeds and spores to propagate.
In order to have effective and successful dispersal some of the plants
adopt a variety of ways. All grasses can propagate vegetatively
by runners and also produce seeds. Therefore, it is difficult to

eradicate them and these common weeds often grow in the rainy
season and after a rapid growth in short duration complete their

life-cycle to be reborn again in the next favourable season
Plant dispersal usually lakes place by means of five agents
namely, wind, water and ice, animals, man and the mechanical
methods. The mode of their dispersal needs to be dealt with
separately here.
WIND DISPERSAL
Winds are effective agents for the dispersal of seeds and

spores, often to long distances. Such disseminules should be light
and able to float in air without little resislance Strong winds can
carry them to hundreds of miles away while light eddie currents
can move these seeds up and down over a limited area and deposit
them on a small land surface. Wind-dispersal seeds need to be
coated with hatd cuticle in order 10 survive extremes of tempera-
ture and to avoid rotting in more moist weather
162 ESSENTIALS or mOGfOGRAPtn
Various modificalions in the form and size of such seeds

may occur depending upon the environmental conditions Broadlv,
thev map be classified as under
Spores— Spores are usually produced bv lower plants like
bacteria, algae fungi, mosses and ferns They are microscopic in
size and can be carried to thousands of miles in the atmosphere,

Thev are produced inlarge numbers as their chances of regenera-
tion are remote Flying in the atmosphere to long distances the
spores may fail ofien on unfavourable sites and in inhospitable
climate to perish and therefore hardly a few are able to survive
and regenerate into new plants Thus a single individual of pasture

mushroom (
Agaricus cnmpeslris) produces 1800 million spores while
a large specimen of shaggy— mane mushroom (Copnmis comatns)
and puffballs may produce 5500 million spores

Dust Seeds— The seeds of manv plants, especially of the
orchid family are minute and extremely light Thev are sometimes
winged and can be blown away in the same manner as spores
These seeds stick to the branches and leaves of taller trees espe-
cially In tropical-moist regions and grow to form new plants
Plumed Seeds— These seeds have tufts of silky hair at one

end which makes them float in the air They are usually enclosed
in a capsular fruit which on splitting releases ihem gradually, ofmn
one by one The seeds of willow herb (

Epi/nbium and milkweed
( Asclcpias ) are able 10 disperse in this fashion for hundrds of miles
Plumed Fruits— Certain fruits as those of dandhons ( Taraui

cm spp ). avens (Geiim) and cotton-grasses ( Enophorum spp 1
have
feathery frutts or silky hair on them With the help of these appen-
dages thev are able to float In air to long distances Certain grasses
have also plumed fruits which are trapped in air eddies and carried
to several thousands of feet high above the ground On cooling of
these air currents the seeds may be deposited at some other places
Winged Seeds— In these seeds a |hm portion of the seed-

coat forms the wings of the seeds They are liberated from the
fruits and with the help of this dispersal mechanism travel to long
distances The seeds of pines firs, spruces and bigoma are dis-
persed in this wav Generally, all conifers do not have a fruit
covering around lhe seeds and so they adopt the method of air-
dispersal
PLAN r DISPERSAL AND FL0R1STIC REGIONS 163
Winged Fruits — Sometimes the fruit itself may develop

rungs as in the various varieties of maples and birches These
fruits gel detached from the pareni plant by strong winds and are
carried to new places Often the flight is a spinning one. which
though spectacular, is not very efficient in terms of distances
Long haired Seeds and Fruits — These seeds and fruits have
long hair attached to them as in the case of cotton willows (Salix
spp )
and poplars (Poptilus spp In arid regions the seeds of Ak
{Colon opii piocera) are dispersed over several miles in summers
when strong winds blow, as these seeds have long silky hair
attached to them
Tumble Weed t— Certain seeds, which grow on the weeds
and get detached from the parent plants, tend to roll before the
wind or be blown across open country for dispersal These seeds
occur mosily in the grasslands of steppes and prairies or in the
deserts Examp'es include the Russian-thistle ( Salsola pestifer) in
North America pnd C yiRtum sp on the northern border of the

Sahara in Egypt The lichens and mosses of the arctic tundras also
disperse in a similar way with the cold arctic drafts of air

Jactitation — In this process the seeds sling out of the fruits
and fall on the ground at long distances Ths capsules of poppies
having long stalks often open wuh a jerk on ripening and the seeds
are dispersed in the opposite direction sometimes to over ten feet
This tvpe of ‘censer mechanism’ is also noticeable in A rgemone

mt\ictma a common weed found in ihe cultivated lands of India
DISPERSAL BY WATER AND ICE
This mode of dispersal is very common in aquatic plants

Piobably this is ihe earliest form of dispersal of plants as life in the
past ages was mostly aquatic The seeds of such plants should have
ihe ability to float and retain the power of germination They
should not sink or decay in water for long periods nil they find a
suitable subsuatum and environment to grow The mam require-
ments for water dispersal seeds is a sufficient buoyancy and
tmpeimeabiltty
Most of the algal plants live in water and their spores are
dispersed bv water currents Free floating plants such as the
duckweeds or water crowfoots and water hyacinth ( Eicliliorma
164 ESSENTIALS OF BtOGEOGR\t>H\
crassipcs) have dilated leaf stalks which float and carry the
seeds to long distances with drifts They mav become stra-
nded in places which are ideal for further growth and give rise
to new plants Transportation of seeds through the medium of

water mav also be with tv. igs-branches and the whole trees which
get uprooted or dislodged bv floods or snow-meltina These seeds
may lie dormant for sometime till the next favourable season arri-
ves
The main modes of water dispersal may be the sea crrents

rivers, streams, floods and icebergs The sea currents have been
able to disseminate the coconut trees tn almost every island of the
Pacific and Indian Oceans in tropical areas In a similar wav the
seeds of oyster leaf ( Merlensta mantima ) and seabeach sandwort

( Arenana peploides ) get dispersed in water for many miles In mang
rove swamps the plants of Rliizophnra and Aucenim disperse their
seedlings which float widely in water
Rivers and srteams commonly transport fruits, seeds and

various other parts of plants sometimes far from their sources
right up lo the sea In other cases, the seeds may qerminate in
inundated areas The dispersal is, however, limited to the direction

of the river current and along the margins of the banks Examp
les of flowering plants regularly dispersed bv fresh water streams
are many of the pond weeds IPoiammetpn <pp whose ), small fruits
in some instances can float for months on end and the yellow
water-lily ( Nuphar lulea) the pulpy fruit of which floal for a few days
before disintegrating and releasing the seeds which sink and later
germinate In temperate regions mountain sorrel [0\)riadif’)m>

moss campion [Silene acauhs) and various saxifrages disperse thro
ugh the medium of water with ihe melting of snow
Rainwash. floods and lakes also help in the dispersal of

seeds through the medium of water Extensive run offs wiih torr-
ential rain in ihe tropical regions and the spring snow melts in
boreal regions are able to transport seeds to long distances Most

often these seeds are partially corky and have air-containing tissues
which make them float in water In lakes these plants may disp
erse the seeds along the margins in more moist places as in ihe
case of ferns and bryopvhles In cold regions the lakes may be fro-
zen for some part of the year over which the seeds may deposit
plant dispersal and flomstic regions 165
and be taken to other parts of the lake with the drift of the melting
sno.v in summer In Europe and North America most of the vege-
tation consisting of hemlocks, aiders, elms, spruce, pine, poplars
and beech has occupied large areas with the drift of the ice in the
Holocene period Icebergs and ice-floes are also the carriers of
disseminules to large distances Today, huge icebergs flow down
in the arctic and antarctic seas but in the past, especially in the
Pleistocene age when most of the northern hemisphere was cov-
ered with snow and ice they were the mam agents of the trans-
continental dispersal of vegetation Sometimes, the arctic veget
ation may stick to an iceberg in its entireitu and be earned to
other parts to be deposited there
DISPERSAL BY ANIMALS
Animals are mobile and can travel long distances carrying

seeds and fruits with them to new places. Some ot the seeds are
eaten by animals and their undigested parts are disseminated els-
whereinfrom of faecal matter This mode of dispersal is known
as 'endozoic' Most ol the birds eat the sweet and juicy fruits of
peaches, figs, raspberry, plums, guavas and pomegranates and in
the process swallow their seeds which are later excreted elsewhere
In a similar way cows buffaloes, camels, sheep and goats eat the
cereals, pulses and seeds of various grasses wh’ch are later exc-
reted Most of the edible plants have dispersed in this way in
recent years An interesting case in point seems to be furnished
by the subantarctic Macquaire Island, situated approximately 650
km from the nearest land, and supproting thiriyfive known speci-
es of angiosperms It has recently been contended that all of
these could well have been brought m by seabirds since the end of
the Pleistocene glaciation Unidentified seeds, apparently not bel-
onging to any of the local species, have been found on
Macquaire
Island brought by albatrosses, the seeds adhering to their feet
The endozoic transportation of seeds depends upon the

resistance to digestion and also on the period
ol reiention within
the birds body Many types of birds have in iheir excreta no seed
capable of germination but some others
may have as large as 88
per cent of the seeds retained in their
body that are capable of
germination The birds visiting the various islands of the Pacific
166 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPIIY
have been able lo spread similar vegetalion in all ihese islands

ihrough endozoic Iransporialion.
Some of the mammals are also effective disseminators of

plants The fruit bats can transport seeds over vast stretches of
sea in a similar way as the birds Herbaceous plants which are
eaten by herbivorous animals are often disseminated by mammals.

Undigested seeds passed out through their excreta and those uhich
have escaped the effects of gastric and intestinal juices are able 10
germinate more profusely on new lands.
Some of the seeds are dispersed by mammals in an 'eclozmc'

way These seeds gel aitached to the skin, hair, and furry-coats
ol the mamma's, and bv adhering to them are transported 10 long
distances Must of the seeds of grasses and saxifragps are spiny
and adhesive that find their dispersal ihrough mammals. Arboreal
mammals like monkeys also spread ihe seeds both endozoically
and ectozoically
The lower animals like reptiles and fishes which are herb-
ivores spread ihe seeds of aquatic and semi-aquauc plants such as
bog-bean Men)aiillics IrifohaW and pondweeds.
( ) Fishes like perch
and roach retain the seeds of water plants in their viscera for near-
ly ihree days before being passed oui naturally. When ihese fishes
are eaien by such predaiorsas fishing eagles, herons, and pelicans
and after an interval of manv hours either reject anv contained
seeds in pellets or pass them in excreia, often still in a viable cond-
ition, the dispersal of many exouc plants may occur on new lands.
Algae and aquatic fungi are also eaten by fishes and reptiles and
iheir spores are dispersed in various locations of a pond, river or
the sea-coast
Among the lower animals insects are probably the most

significant groups for plant dispersal. Locusts transport the seeds
of various plants by swallowing and passing them in the excreia.
Ants frequently iransport seeds with edible appendages, while flies
and many other insects often carry spores of crypiogamic plants
which adhere to their bodies, especially when the latter are densely
hairy. Various species of bacteria and viruses are also transported

by flies, mosquitoes and insects which are ihe vectors to these
micro-flora.
PLANT DISPERSAL AND FLORISTIC REGIONS 167
DISPERSAL BY MAN
Human interference has been going on, ever since the

advent of man on this planet, tn regard to the dispersal of selected
species of plants A detailed description of all the anthropogenic
activities has been provided in the Chapter VII It would, however,
be essential here to point out that man has developed many horti-
cultural strains of certain plat ts which are restricted to gardens

while there are others which constitute the indigenous flora tn this
process some aliens flourish for a lime and then disappear, while
others, after many years of restriction to one locality, suddenly burst
forth all over the countryside
Man has dispersed a majority of alien plants from Europe

to Australia and New Zealand A varieiy of plants were brought
from North America to Europe In addition to international trans-
port of desirable plants for agricultural, horticultural, forestial,
medicinal and other purposes, weeds are often dispersed unwittingly

with the seeds of vegetables, cereals and garden flowers The
caraway seeds imported by the Danes to Greenland for flavouring
bread have now spread around many of the settlements in this island
Similarly, the vtlayati babool, originally imported from Australia

to Increase vegetation of the Indian Thar, now forms the chief
green cover of this desert
Certain seeds, which are eaten by man along with fruits,
are often passed through the human digestive tract unharmed

Examples of such fruits are the tomatoes, brtnjals, guavas, pome-
granates etc The great differences often observed in the actual
migration of these artificially introduced plants are, however,
probably more due to the adaptability of the species to local envir-
onments than to the dissemination itself Some European weeds
such as shepherd’s-purse [Capsella bw sa-pastons), common chick-
weed [Stellana media] and the little grass {Poa annua] have now
dispersed all over the world, as they were taken out along with host
plants These weeds which were formerly exotic to the new world
have now become native
MECHANICAL DISPERSAL
Certain plants use mechanical methods like propulsion

and ejection of seeds lor dispersal Theie methods are effective
(or short distances In some fungi the spore-producing organs
rupture suddenly and shoot their spores to short distances up to 15

ft These spores mav later be dispersed by air-currents The
bulbils of some club-mosses (Lycopodium spp ) are ejected to about
3 ft The mistletoes and some members of the tropical American
irees of Spurge family [Euphorbmceai), especially ihe sandbox tree
{Mura (repilans) have an explosive mechanism which can throw
their seeds more than 40 feel aw-av The explosion of a Huru fruit
often happens as a regular detonation in the forests of Amazon

The ripe fruits of pansy flowers and Geranium sling their epicarps
to throw out the seeds a lew leel away
In one species ol Aicenlhobium, the tiny bullet-shaped seeds
have been reported to travel over 66 It from a point 8 ft above

the ground A combination of explosion and adhesion
is utilized by squirting cucumber Echalbum clatenum

| )
in which
the frun on ripening breaks from the stalk and throuqh the hole
thus lefi the internal pressure is released by ejecting seeds having
abundant mucilage These seeds fall a few feel away on the ground
and suck to dead leaves and stems to be later on carried away by

wind to distant places The turgor-engendered explosions are
exhibited by certain grasses (
Cardomme spp that have explosive)
pods which when ripe curl outwards on being touched, shooting

out seeds for more than 2 ft
Interesting mechanical dispersal has been noticed in
balsam trees {Impatient spp |

in which the wall of the fruit is made of
three layers, the innermost layer consisting of turgid cells On rip-
ening, the wall of these fruits curls inwards violently shooting out
ihe seeds 20 ft. away In wood-soriels tfe ripe fiuit suddenly splits
lengthwise and shoots out the muclege-covered seeds These act-

ions of ejection and explosion usually take place tn the dry season
when conditions are most favourable for dispersal
BARRIERS TO PLANT DISPERSAL
In spite of various methods used by plants for effective

dispersal, there are certain barriers to dispersal Physiographic
barriers like mountain ranges limit the dispersal ol seeds spread by
winds Depressions and pits also have the same effect in providing
a barrier to the dissemination of seeds and spores which get stuck
PLANT DISPERSAL AND TLORISTlC REGIONS 169
in them In case of water dispersal seeds the physiographic barriers

may be lack of water or ice or ihe change in the salt conditions of
water Fresh water species may hardly be able to survive in
brackish or salty water of the oceans and seas For terrestrial
plants the biggest bamer is the ocean which cannot be crossed

Only a few hardly seeds are able to float on logs of wood in water
and reach different islands and continents
Climatic bamei s are the most significant barriers to the
dispersal of seeds Unfavourable climate for prolonged periods

causes decay of seeds and spores as a result of which they may fail
to germinate Thus the seeds of temperate regions even if brought

by wind or running water to tropical regions will not germinate due
to unsuitable climate Many local winds which are caused by a
combination of physiographic and climatic factors act as barriers as
theyprevenl the proper dispersal of seeds on account of being either
very warm or very cold The various factors of climate like temp
erature humiditv, solar light, humidity and precipitation form the
various vegetational zones Change of climate is an insuperable
banner to plant dispersal and may at times be lethal to certain
seeds and spores
Edapkcfaclois involving physical structure, chemical com-

position, moisture conditions, texture and humus are most significant
for the successful germination of seeds and spores A large num-
ber of seeds fallupon barren rocks or inhospitable soils and do not
qerrmnate Absence of suitable soil for seeds is a big barrier.
Moreover, soils devoid of microfiora and humus are deterrants
(or seed germination
Biotic burners are of various types It is likely that the area

in which the seeds of new plants reach may already be overcrowded
by dominant species existing there, leaving no space for new ones
In such places competition among plants for the same resources is
maximum and the establishment of new ones is difficult unless they

are more hardy The other type of biotic barriers may be animals,
which may graze upon the new tender plants if
chiefly graziers,
they are more palatable On the other hand intensive grazing of the
old existing plants may leave the ground bare for the new seeds to
germinate and to establish their colonies more profusely Man is
a’so a great barrier to the dispersal of plants
The unstable nature
170 ESSENTIALS OF BIOOEOGRAHIV
of pastoralism can be seen from recent events in the Sahel zone of

Africa. Large areas have now been made bare of anv vegetation,
Concentration of nomadic pastorallsts in areas with water and gras,
slands has made all these lands stark of any vegetation. Weeding
out of undesirable and useless vegetation is also always a potent
danger
FLORISTIC REGIONS
An early attempt to demarcate the major plant regions was

made by M I Newbegm in which she classified five major florlstic
regions of the world. But such generalizations are often erroneous

for each kind of plant species has its own particular distribution or
range which is dependent on its history, migrational ability and

adaptability. For if two species with identical habitat and similar
capacities for establishing themselves in new areas begin to mig.
rate ai different times, the earliest starter will be found, at any
particular time, to have extended the farthest. In the meantime new
species may arrive at the same place or the older ones may change
their taxa. A variety of ecads, ecotvpes and dines may thus be pro-
duced presenting a complex vegetaiionaf cover. An Vend’ Is a plant,
form produced within the life-time of an individual in response to a
particular habitat factor. An 'ecotype is a distinct race resulting
from the impress or selective action of a particular environment

and a ‘dine is a geographical or ecological gradient in the phenoty-
pic characters that constitute the physical make-up of that species,
These entities enclose specific boundaries evolving similar patterns

of vegetation.
Therefore, over the globe, one finds continuous interconti-

nental ranges of plant distribution in some cases but in other cases
there may be discontinous distribution or some relic and vicarious
areas of vegetation all of which need to be considered here.
CONTINUOUS INTERCONTINENTAL DISTRIBUTION
Plant-forms that exist in similar climatic and edaphic zones

all over the world and thus form a continuous pattern of distribu-
tion are included in this group. In such cases, interruptions in dis-
tribution pattern may be noticeable when physiographic barriers

like mountains, seas, lakes and rivers exist or when the biotic
PLANT DISPERSAL AND &0RIST1C REGIONS 171
barriers have been aclive to the maximum limit These distribution
patterns are of 4 mam types
Cosmopoli'an-Tkese plant species are distributed all over the

globe under similar conditions of climaieand soil They are the least
exacting in their requirements and tend to be ubiquitous and are

therefore, also called ‘pan-endemics. Thus sea-beach sandwort
(Arena: ta peploides) is found on almost all sea-shores of tropical,
temperate and boreal regions and ts therefore, cosmopolitan. Vari-
ous cultivated plants like wheat, oats and maize also fall in this
group The lower groups of plants, chiefly cryptogams are also

pan-endemic
Circumpclar-These plants are distributed around the north
or south pole, chiefly m the arctic regions Lichens, mosses and
some (lowering plants like Edwatds Eutrema and purple saxifrage
have circumpolar habitats.
Cimim-boreal- They are distributed in the boreal regions of
the northern hermisphere and the austral regions of the southern

hemisphere Some of the common plants extending over a wide
range in boreal and austral regions are poverty grasses (Danthoma),
rtbes, gooseberries and currants
Pantropic— these plant-forms extend practically all over the

tropical and subtropical areas e g palms, rice grasses, cenclints
grasses etc
DISCONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTION
In this distribution, plant communities are separated by

wider gaps This may occur on account of complex topography,
limited range of habitat conditions, differences in micro climates
and soil Fragmented distribution of similar plant communities may
also be due to forest clearings by man, historical wiping out in in-
termediate areas or the polytopic origins of plants themselves The
causal factors of discontinuity rray be varied and so also their
types
A ‘diffused discontinuity when plant communities

is visible
are broken up into small, more
numerous and equal parts It
or less
is called ‘bipartite’ when it is composed
of two separate parts in
the same hemisphere, one of which is extensive and forms the main
part while the other is subordinate may be ‘bipolar’ when
It the
172 ESSENTIALS Of BIOGEOGRAPltt
same plant community is concentrated near the polos o( (he two

hemispheres ‘Altitudinal' discontinuation may be visible when the
floral structure is limned to the same attitudes and similar latitudes
Discontinuous distribution is visible on the globe in the following
ten regions
Arctic-Alpine — These plant species are distributed in the
cold climates of arctic regions and mountain areas Examples are

dwarf-willow {Sain herbacea) and the purple saxifrage (Saxifrapa
opposiljoha )
North Atlantic— These species are distributed in the coastal
parts of the Atlantic in North America and Europe Familiar exam-

ples are bog club mosses and hooded ladies trees ( Spiranthcs roma-
nzoffiana )
North Pacific — They are distributed on the coastlands of
the Pacific in North America, Japan and China The common exa-
mples are torrey pine (Torrcia) and the skunk cabbage [Sjmplocar-
pm foetitlus)
North South American-These species are present both in
North and South America but they lack continuity e g pitcher
plant family (Sarrace niaceae)
Euro Asian— Discontinuous distribution of some species
like Leonticc altaua and Cimiafupa foclula is present in the continents

of both Europe and Asia
Mediterranean— These species are tound on the coastal

lands of Europe, Asia and Africa surrounding the Mediterranean
Sea For example button-woods and plane-trees {Platamis)
Tropical-They are distributed discontinuous^ in the tropi-
cal regions of the old world and South America For example,
Buddleia (Loganiacâe) and members of the familv Vochytaceae
South Pacific — Such plants are distributed in the islands of
South Pacific and also in New Zealand, South America and Austra
lia For example Joiellana
South Atlantic — They are found in South America, Africa

and Madagascar, particularly along the coastal areas For example
milk-weeds (Jjc hptai)
Antarctic — Plants distributed on the coastal temperate parts

ot the Antarctic continent and in the austral regions of South
PLANT DISPERSAL AND PL0RIS1TIC REGIONS 173
America and New Zealand oxur in a discontirmons zone The com

mon example is (he beech tree (Notho fagus)
RELIC AREAS
These areas have the remnans of an earlier flora that have
been left behind when surrounding areas were vacated by the
dominant species They were once very extensive in having certain
dominant species but on account of geographical isolation ihese
species became relict The causa! lactors may be the Pleistocene
glaciation in the norihern Europe and North America or deserti-
fication in the and areas Such plants are found in fossil forms
today For example, water chestnut in Scandinavia and the giant
redwoods in the northern hemisphere are now relict species
Changes tn habitat may also cause the growth of relict

species Today, scotspme (Pimis sylestns) is found only in the
mountains of Europe, as result of secondary colonization A spe-
cies which occupies a relic area throughout its range may be termed
as ‘absolute relic', while (he one of growing in an isolated part of
the tehc ts known as ‘local relic' An 'endemic reftc' is one that is
restricted to a single region, 'Anthropogenic relics’ are also found
in the world where the local indigenous species have been drasti
cally reduced through the activities o! man On the basts ol
causal effects the relic areas can be distinguished into three types
formation relics — They occupy limited areas within the
boundaries of major plant communities that have undergone consi-
derable changes in composition For example, some woodlands
have been burnt or felled by man and so the grasses have now
taken t he place of trees
Geomorpliological relics — The formation of these relic areas

is on account of drastic changes in the ecological conditions In
such areas either the clunale or the soil has changed on account
of local microchmatological or anthropogenic factors For example,
some of the lakes, ponds and the shores of the seas have now
been filled up with and garbage So the original plant cover
silt
has been lost and secondary successions have followed
Climatic relics - Such relic areas originate when climatic

changes occur on a large scale in the last ten thousand years the
world's climate has changed bringing about wet and dry chases in
three successions {07 brief periods Such changes bring about ihe
advance and retreat ot plant communities For example, most of
174 ESSENTIALS OF DIOGEOGRATMIY
the mesolhermic plants advanced into the boreal regions during the
in wet phases
dry phases and retreated to their original sites
VICARIOUS AREAS
These areas have closelv related taxa derived from the

same common ancestor and tend to be mutually exclusive of one
another in naturally occupying separate areas Numerous instances
are afforded by major species that existed before but are now rep-
resented by different minor species and varienes For example, the

European royal fern (Osmunda regalis) is found in Europe and its
American subspecies Osmunda spcciabdts Is found on the coastal

parts of North America. These are true vicariads which have arisen
from a common stock and are now existing as polyploids
Polyploids may grow due to geographical altitudinal ecolo-

gical and seasonal changes For example, the wood and alpine
forget-me-nots (M)osolis syhalica) and (M alpcslris) found In the
mountains and the alpine timothys ( Phletim pratense) have a common

ancestor denoting the effect of altitude in polyploidy The effect
of soil and brackish water in the development of polyploldal forms

is also noticeable in water and wood avensfGewm n<a!c and (7
i irbanum) which grow in salty marshes and the calcium-rich soils of

terrestrial areas, respectively
GOOD’S FLORAL REGIONS
Good in 1953 divided the world into six major floristic
regions and 37 micro regions. The major regions are m close asso-
ciation with the Zoogeographical regions of the world. The major
regions are
I The Boreal, which is similar to the North Temperate

region and includes the Mediterranean lands also
II The Paleotropical region which comprises the oldworld
and consists of three subdivisions viz Africas, Indo-
Malaysian and Polynesian

III Neo-tropical region which embraces most of the Cent-
ral and South America but excludes the southern-most
tip of temperate South America
IV South African region, which embraces the Cape region
and the Kalahari Desert.
PLANT DbPERRAL AND FLORISILIC REGIONS 175
V The Australian region, embracing Australia and Tas-

mania
VI The Antarctic region which includes New Zealand, the
southern tip of South America and the islands in the

Southern Ocean
GOODS FLORISTIC REGIONS
Fig 8 Good's Generalized Floristic Regions.

(For reference see the iext
A detailed description of these regions has been provided

in the zoo-geographical regions of the world The micro floristic
regions are as below ;
1 Arctic and sub-arcuc 2 Euro-Subenan (A )Europe

(B) Asia, 3, Sino-Japanese, 4 West and Central Asiatic, 5 Medi-
terranean, 6 Macronesian, 7 Atlantic North American. (A ) Northern
(B )
Southern, 8 Pacific North American 9. African-lndian
Desert, 10 Sudanse Park Steppe, 11 NE African Highland,
12 West African Rain Forest, 13 East African Steppe, 14 South
African, 15 Madagscar, 16 Ascension and Si Helena, 17 Indian,
18. Continental S E, Asiatic, 19. Malaysian, 20 Hawaiian, 21 New
Caledonia, 21, Melanesia and Micronesia, 23 Polynesia, 24 Cari-
bbean, 25 Venezuela and Guiana 26 Amazon, 27. South Brazilian
28 Andean, 29 Pampas, 30 Juan Fernandez, 31 Cape, 32 North
and East Australian, 33 S W Australian, 34 Central Australian,
35 New Zealand, 36 Patagonian, 37 S Temperate Oceanic Islands
176 ESSENTIALS Or BIOGTOCRAPm
The flouslic regions demarcated by Good have been modi-

fied bv laier biogeographers However, thev are holistic in the
representation of major floral types of the world. The transitional
rone of the mediterranean and desert regions of Asia and African

Sahara has long been questioned to be included in the Palaeo*
tropical region as quite often the plants species are admixturpd
The Austral region, proposed by M I. Newbegin, has been

divided into three major regions viz South African, Australian and
the Antarctica by Good and has long been debated for the dis
continuity of flora in everv part South America and Australia are

the two continents, lying far apart and separated by a vast stretch
of Pacific Ocean and so their floral compositions are different
Similarly, the offshore island of Madagascar had been separated
from the mainland of Africa long back in the history of the earth
and to treat them as homogenous parts of the Palaeotroplcal region
apppars to disregard the distinctive fauna which the Madagascar
has Inspite of these shortcomings, the micro-floral regions of
Good are elaborate enough to depict the floristic characteristics
of each area and are quite reasonable for presenting the floristic
regions of the tvoild
further reading
1 Banks, H P (1970), Evolution and Plants of the Past,

Macmillan; London.
2 Blake, S.F. and Atwood, AC '(1942), Geographical

Guide to the Floras of the World, US Govt. Printing
Office, Washington D C, Pub. No, 401, pp. 1-336
3 Briggs, D and Walters, S.M (1969), Plant Variation and

Etolution, Weidenfeld and Nicholson; London.
4. Good, R D (1953), The Geography of Flattering Plants,
Longmans, London.
5 Polumn, Nicholas (1960), Introdiition to Plant Geography
McCrav Hill, New York.
9
Major Biomes of the

World-Forests
A 'biome' is a major ecological or biotic community of living
plants and animals that occupies an extensive area ‘Biotic
communities' are local associations of interdependent plants and

animals living in an area which is under an equilibrium of ecosy-
stem Biomes, often called physiognomically definable symbiosis,
are an integral part of the major climate and vegetation belts of
our earth Their plant formations include, among others, such

biomes as tropical rain forests, mountain forests, savannas, tundras,
taigas, deserts etc ,
each one of them possessing a specific structure
Clements and Shelford (1939) and Carpenter (1939) defined biome
as 'a plant matrix with the total number of included animals' Today,
only the terrestrial ecosystems ate called biomes, although such
other terms as promices, biochores, regions and formations are also
used by biogeographers and ecologists The term biochore is
usually applied to a geographical environment with a distinctive

plant and and animal life adapted particularly to climatic factors
and each biochore is thus characterized by a major type of
vegetation
One of the most striking aspects of the distribution of
major biomes in the world is that many of the division lines tend to
17S ESSENTIALS OF BlOGEOGRAPm
parallel the lines of latitude, except on the high mountain areas In
high mountains the distribution follows the altitudinal pat'ern as

evident on the Himalayas and the Rockies. The distribution of
biomes is largely dependent on temperature, which in turn is
dependent upon solar radiation and directly associated with latitude
Precipitation patterns and major soil groups of the world if super-

imposed on the biome distribution, also display a striking coinci-
dence o( similarity
TERRESTRIAL BIOMES
The major terrestrial plant formations on the basis of their
general appearance can be classified into three groups— forests

grasslands and deserts
FORESTS
Forests are types of natural vegetation where condi ions

of relief, soil and climate are favourable to the growth of trees
Usually areas having a thick cover of trees are called forests while
those having open formations of trees are known as woodlands
Trees need more sunlight, greater warmth and more moistu-e than
other plant forms However, the requirements of these climatic
conditions vary in various types of forests having different species

of trees
Forests are mainly of 8 types Their estimated area in the
world and the estimated growth are given in Table 9 1
The dominance of lowland equatorial forests is apparent

as is the subordinate status of the rest Possible exceptions are
the summer-green, deciduous forests and mountain conifers The
growth potential in all the forests is not similar as well The lower
range equatorial rain forests have the highest growth potential but
the diversity of species and the inaccessible terrain make them
uneconomical to man By contrast the boreal conifers, having low
growth potential, are of great economic use as they have single
species formations and soft wood
The distribution of various tvpes of forests in different

continents Is given in Table 9 2
MAJOR BIOMES OF THE WORLD-FORESTS 179
Table 9
Estimated Forest Area And Estimated Growth Potential of

Different Forests in the World
Estimated Area Estimated Growth

Formation \Millwn % (
Tonslhajyr ) ( Total %
class hectares) million lonslyr)
1. Equatorial rain- 440 18 35 1540 35
forest lower
range
2 Equatorial rain- 48 2 30 144 3
forest mountain
range
3 Monsoon forests 263 11 1 8 474 11
and humid savanna
4 Dry savanna and 530 21 10 530 12
5 Temperate rain 20 1 72 143 3

forests and laurel
6 Sclerophyllous 177 5 7 10 178 4

forests
7 Mountain 393 16 22 865 19 5
conifers
8 Boreal conifers 605 5 24 0.9 556 12 5
From BaLuzis, E G (1969) Forestry Viewed won Ecosystem
This shows that about one-third of the land area is covered

with forests in lhe world. However regional disparities in their
distribution exist. Soviet Russia, South America, North and Central

America and Africa have about 81 per cent of the world's forests
while Asia, China, Europe and Oceania have a low percentage.
This unequal distribution of foliage cover has caused great imbal-
ances in the ecosystems Areas having less forest covers are
highly populated and densely cultivated Therefore, they are
undergoing further depletion of natural resources and energy
cycles every day and their requirements of fuel, forage and timber
are further degrading the forest wealth.
ISO ESSENTIALS OF 8I0GE0GRAPHY
Tabic 9 2
Distribution of Forestlands in the World
Contmcntjcmmlry Forest lands O'

/t>
( 000 hactares)
Europe 140,000 3
U.SSR, 910,009 13
North and Central America SI 5,000 20
South America 908,000 22 5
Asia 458,000 11.5
China 76,600 20
Africa 639,000 15 5
Oceania 81,000 25
World 40 2S.OOO 100 0
Source : FAO Production Yearbook 25, 1981
GRASSLANDS
Grasslands are found in those areas where the precipitation

is low so as to be unable to support the growth of trees. In thick
forests grasses are unable to grow because of the competition
between various species of taller trees and the canopy-spread which
obstructs the reach of the solar radiations to the ground level.
Extensive grasslands are found in areas where trees and shrubs do
not grow and where the rainfall is mostly in summer or spring.
Grasses are the dominant herbaceous groups of plants

belonging to the family Gramineae They may be annual, biennial
or perennial and propagate either vegelativelv through * rm.ncrs or
by means of seeds which are formed at the end of the growing
season. All grasses have fibrous roots which are able to withhold
soil and minimise soil erosion They are usually classified into two
groups. The first group is of rnr/-forming grasses which arp shorter
in height and form a cushion cover on the land surface They are
found in temperate regions having moderate to low rainfall (25-50
cm ). The other group is of tufted or tussock grasses which grow in
compact clumps and have wide distribution in temperate, tropical,
tundra, mountainous and plateau regions.
MAJOR BIOMES OF THE WORLD— FORESTS 181
Ecologically, grasses can be divided into two mam groups

viz the temperate grasslands and the tropical grasslands The former
group has short grasses as m taigas, tundras, mountain slopes, the
pampas of Argentina, the veldts of South Africa, the steppes of
central Asia and the Canadian prairies They grow in the conti
nental climate having high range of seasonal temperatures, low
rainfall and low humidity

The tropical grasslands have taller grasses The tempera-
tures are high throughout the year and the rainfall is mostly in
summers ranging from 75 to 150 cm. per year They have scattered
trees and shrubs as well The height of the grasses may sometimes
be more than 3 metres Common examples of such grasslands
are the terai region of India, savannas of Sudan, campos of Brazil
and Guyanas, prames of the United States and the grasslands of

Australia Usually these grasses are perennial,
DESERTS
'deserts ate geneiaWo devoid cA vegetation VioSt cAi'ne

vegetation is xerophyttc and scarce There may be drought evading
shrubs or dwarf trees or some ephemeral areas in these areas
General aridity is the mam characteristic of such areas but the
temperatures may be high or low So there are two types of deserts
hot and cold In both the average annual rainfall does not exceed
40 cm and is confined to a few months only Some of the vast
hot deserts are Sahara in Africa, Thar in the Indian subcontinent
Arabia in Asia, Colorado and Arizona in North America, Peruvian
desert m South America, Kalahari in South Africa and the entire
Western Australia All these areas are either covered with a thick
mantle of sand or have rugged plateau-hke terrain
Cold deserts of the would comprise the lands of perpetual

ice and snow, marked with extreme aridity and scanty vegetation
Tundra is a cold desert, devoid of vegetation Laddakh in India,
Tibet, Srnktang, Gobi and Tarim in Central Asia and northern parts
of Canada are the other cold deserts of the world In high latitudes
of the Tundra region, on account of permafrost conditions for most
part of the year, plant life is adapted to severe environmental
stresses In all cases of desert flora, three main characteristics are
noticeable, bceauseof very few species inhabiting the deserts the
1S2 ESSENTIALS or BIOGIOGRAPHY
flora is poor, planis are subject to well-marked seasonal cycles and

the types of adaptations to environment are few
DISTRIBUTION PATTERN
A diagrammatic representation of the distribution of forests,
grasslands and deserts in the northern hemisphere of the world,

which has most of the land areas, shows that from equator to 8°N,
the floral cover mostly comprises the equatorial rain-forests on
account of high temperatures, high rainfall and high humidity throu-

ghout the year. On the eastern margins of the continents from
8°N to 30°N are found the hot-moist, evergreen and deciduous
forests, which are due to periodic monsoonal rains as in India and
China. The central parts of the continents within these latitudes
are covered by savanna grasslands, chiefly of tall grasses as In the
terai region of India, Sudan and the American prairies. These areas
have contlnentality of climate and lower rainfall,
Fig, 9.1 Latitudinal Extensions of Various Vegetational zones.

MAJOR BIOMES OF THE WORLD— FORESTS 183
The western margins of continents between 10° and 30°N

are hot deserts, as they lie on the leeward sides of prevailing winds
From 30°N to 45°N, again three broad regions of natural vegeta
lion can be noticed On the eastern margins of these latitudes lie
the rich deciduous forests, having broad leaves and an yearly

autumnal fall These areas have summer rain with high summer and
low winter temperatures The evergreen, broad-leaved forests,
having sderophyllous vegetation he on the western margins of these
latitudes They are marked by winter rainfall due to shift in the
westerly winds
The coniferous forest belt extends from 50°N to 60°N on

the eastern side but on the west it may extend up to the arctic
circle (66J°N) These are boreal forests ol mid-latitudes, which
are subject to cold temperatures, winter snowfall and very low rams
Quite often on the western margins they are mixed with the deci-
duous forests In beiween the deciduous forests and evergreen

broadleaf forests of 30°N to 45°N and to the south of the coniferous
forest belt, he the steppe grasslands of central Asia They are the
produc’s of extreme continental climate, marked by warm summers
and cold winters along with low precipitation, which is mostly in
winter in the form of snowfall
North of the boreal, coniferous forests lies the tundra zone

where, lor most part of the year lies permanent snow and the
ground is frozen up to a depth of more than 30 cm causing perma-
frost conditions, and providing a very short period of optima!
climate to plant growth North of the tundras lie the areas of perm-
anent ice where no vegetation can survive
The over-ridtng control in the distribution of these biomes

is of climatic conditions, which vary on a global scale m different
latitudes and at different altitudes Correlations beiween mean
annual temperatures and precipitation show some interesting aspects
of distribution patterns
Two major characteristic features of the distrbution pattern

are that the tropical rain forests cover a wide range of precipitation
but are slenothermic,whereas the tropical grasslands can stretch
over a wide variety of temperature conditions but are delimited by
moisture. The deciduous forests grow in median temperature and
rainfall regimes while the boreal forests are limited by low precipua-
1S4 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPHY
lion and low temeprature conditions. In general, the pattern of

distribution suggests that temperature becomes a limiting factor far
more often than precipitation. Nonetheless, the effects of soil and
fig. 9 2 Climatic Conditions of Various Biomes.

MAJOR HOMES OF THE WORLD- FORESTS 185
terrain which exhibit I heir manifestations locally are also para-

mount
TROPICAL RAINFORESTS
These evergreen forests, growing on bosh sides, north and

south, of the equator (8°N-8°S) are found in the lowland areas of
the Congo and the Amazon basin and in archipelagic and pentsular
Southeast Asia (Malaya and Indonesia) with extensions in Latin
America and Madagascar These forests suffered little disturbance
during Pleistocene times and so have been m situ since the Tertiary
They had a long time to evolve efficient mechanisms for the cycl-
ing of nutrients and partition of energy
Climatically theu are distinguished by both high and cons-
tant temperature and humidity, with precipitation of over 200 cm
per year and at least 12 cm in the driest months Due to plenty
of heat and moisture, prolific uninterrupted growth of trees takes
place These forests have rich floristic composition and the total
number of plant species found in them may exceed 1,00,000 In
some parts of Brazil (here are about 300 different species of trees
m2sq km The Malay archipelago alone has some 45,000

species
The trees are typically tall and structured In three layers

This is on account of the competition between various plant spe-
cies to get more solar radiation The highest or emergent layer
consists of tallest trees (45 50 m high) which are scattered but
which project through the lower canopy layer (25-35 m high),
which forms an almost continuous cover, and which absorbs some
70-80 per cent of ihe solar light When there are gaps in this
layer, a normally sparse understorey layer mav develop and become

dense These trees and shrubs have slender stems with narrow,
tapering crowns whose heights vary(6-15 m high)
The entire forest appears to form a continuous canopy,

broken only along the river courses and near the clearings of human
settlements The three layers of trees bloom with leaves and
flowers alternately and so impart an evergreen character to these
forests The first to bloom are the tallest trees which after
flowering fruit-making and seed dispersal shed their leaves to
provide light and air to the middle storey The trees of the middle
m ESSENTIALS OF DIOGFOGRAPIU
Earili
(he
ol
Rtlis
Vcqsiational
Gcnorliêd
3
9
ft'-:
MAJOR 3IOMES OP THE WORLD-FORESTS 187
Fig 9 4 Leaf Shedding Cycle In an Equalorial Forest.
storey In turn start with the process of blooming and (ruit-making

and on completing this cycle shed their leaves in order to provide
light and air to the lowermost storey of trees By the time these
trees complete their process of fruit-making and seed dispersal, the
top storey again starts blooming So the canopy of the forest
always looks green on account of kaf rhythm, but it is irregular as
all the green trees are not of (he same height. There is very little
undergrowth of herbs and annuals due to insufficient light reaching

the ground
The trees themselves typically have buttressed bases lor
mechanical support They have leathery, green leaves which fall
all the year round Tall trees are often inter-twmed with climbers
and lianes, having thick stems, which reach the upper parts of the
trees to get more light There is an abundance of epiphytes,
sticking to the leaves and branches of tall trees, where they get
sufficient moisture of the air and enough solar radiation to survive.
The common epiphytic plants are orchids, ierns and bromeliads

which use oiher plants for support
Saprophytes, living on the dead organic matter, are in
abundance, because of the huge amounts ol trash litter which falls
in the form of dead leaves over ihe ground These are m the form
of a variety ol fungi and orchids Parasitic plants like the pitcher
plant (Nepenthes) and buiterworts are common, as they feed on
insects which are abundantly found in the hot-moist climate.
Lianes, stranglers and woody climbers, enmeshing trees and hang-
ing down m great loops are often found m thick forests Some of
them like Ficus and Clusia are parasites as they strangle and kill
the host tree.

1SS ESSFvnusormoGcoGiupin
Leaves of most of the trees are large, ovalshaped vuth un

broken edges to get maximum solar radiation The numoer of
stomata in leaves is verv large which causes profuse cvapo-trans

piration, making the climate moist I eaves are usually smooih
ulth glassy surfaces, surface-runnels and drip points to get rid of
excessive moisture Pollination in flowers is usually through

insects, birds, bats and other animals bu rarely by windr
The soils of these forests are typical laiosals, red in colour,
with a high content of sesqutoxides of iron and aluminium They

have low mineral nutrients due to abundant rainfall, which washes
off the useful plant-nutrients Extensive growth of fungal muco-
rrhizae along the shallow, spreading, root systems of trees helps
in the accumulation of humus The rale of litter fall from the
forest canopy is lltons/hectare/year in the Amazon
high, typically
basin but humus turnover of 1 per cent per day so that

there is a
litter does not accumulate As the mean temperatures are above
30°C, litter is disintegrated faster than it is supplied but in areas
having temperatures between 25°-30 5 C the htter-supplv and its
disintegration are equal Due to the presence of mvcorrhiz! fungi

association in the root system of plants and trees, mineral nutrients
are passed directly from the decaying Inter to he roots of trees t
for uptake Thus loss of minerals to the run-off is minimised

However, the energy-rich litter does sustain a dense population
of bacteria and blue-green algae which are nitrogen fixers and
the'e are essential maimainers of the nitrogen-cycle in the system
So there is an accumulation of high biomass through the circulation
of large quantities of silicon, calcium and potassium
Nitrogen contents are also increased in the soil by lichens
and blue-green algae which grow over the crowns of the trees
Sloths ( Choloepus hoffmanm) and other mammals living in the area
also return the nutrients to the soil by defaecattng Studies in this
regard show that nutrient recycling in these forests is far more than
the other btomes of the world and the accumulation of dry matter is
2200 g/m 2 /vr
Vegetal cover is he. erogenous and it is difficult to evaluate

the dominant species Typical trees of the tropical rainforests are
rubber {He\ea brasthensis), banana (Mma spp and Cocoa )
( Thcobroma
Cocao) Most of the trees have hard wood Common among them
are greensheart (Nectamim Rodiaei], logwood ( Haematoxyhn camps-
clnomm), acapur Voucapuoua amencana), a variety of palms, assai,
|
jacaranda, cinnamon, cedar, jatoba and ipe, topically found in tha
Amazonian forests of Brazil African Congo forests are less rich
in species than the Amazonia In Africa the common trees are
mahogony (Khava), satmwood, silk-cotton tree, oil-palm (Elaeis

gumeensis), rubber (Pmxntmm elastica) and vanetv of palms In
Malaya the vegetation includes a variety of Casuartna trees such as

Eqmsetifoha. r/iu, tjemara resembling the Australian oaks Coconut
palms and screw-pines IPandanus, are also found abundantly
In coastal areas where inundation of tidal water is more

frequent, mangrove plants having stilt roots to give a firm ancho-
rage are most common The mpa-palm (Nipa fruitions) having

long leathery leaves is also found m lagoons and brackish water
esluanes Such plants are adapted to saline water
TROPICAL MONSOON FORESTS
These forests are found in monsoon-tvpe climate which is
marked by a seasonal drought in winter Such forests are found

on the eastern margins of the comments Their typical locations
are in India, the Southeast Asian mainland, Central and South

America (coastal Brazil), Western Africa, North Ausiraha and the
tropical islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans
The total annual rainfall varies between 100 to 250 cm
though m some places it may be even higher than the equatorial
regions (e g , tn Assam and 'he enure north-eastern parts of India)

The precipitation is segregated into pronounced wet and dry
periods and this compels the vegetation to adapt the deciduous
habit of shedding leaves in the drought season Temperatures are
warm throughout the year, with little variation in the intensity of
sunlight and the length of daylight
On account ol wide variations in the rainfall regime in the
various parts of this type of climate, the vegetational response

exhibits wide variations In areas of profuse rain with short dry
season, the forests have luxuriant growth, while in areashaving
less ram and long dry season the forests ate at best open wood-
190 ESSENTIALS 01 niOGTOGRAPilY
lands or even savannas with scattered trees Th» canopv of these
forests may be deciduous but the understorey is evergreen, or there
may be a mosaic of evergreen, deciduous trees according 10 the

water-holding properties of the soils beneath The degree of
defoliation is variable and some irees never suffer from total leaf-
loss Therefore, these forests are also called semi-evergreen or

simi-deciduous
These forests have largely been cleared in India, Burma,

Ceylon and South east Asia due to intensity of population and the
need of more land for agriculture and settlement So pristine
vegetation is less and seco dary successions of grasses and trees
are more There is a wealth of plant species but it is less than that
ill the equatorial forests Most typical representative trees of these
forests are teak [Tec luma gramhs ). sal [Shorea robusta), banyan [Ficus
haigaleiisis), peepal [Ficus rcligiosa), tronwood (X'yha xjlocarpa),
sandalwood [Sanlaliim album) neem (

Azadiracltia wdica ), shlsham
(Dolbergni sissoo), and Gulmohar tAlbizzia iabbek ) Bomboos. a
member of the family grammae, are also found in abundance In
dense forests Hanes are common bu epiphytes are not many as

the moisture during the dry season is far below their needs
The soils in these forests are rarelv latosols But clay-

humus ismore abundant in areas having more than 150 cm of
annual rainfall These soils are able to hold more mineral nutrients
and humus and so are more fertile in spile of the some what more
restrictive environmental conditions, the biomass of these forests is
high, at an average of 205 tons/hectare The accumulation of

litter is highest in autumn, which marks ihe onset of a long dry spe'l
but with the coming of wetter season the disintegration of litter

takes place rapidly adding nutrients lo the soil In the mountainous
tropical monsoon forests of New Guinea the decomposition rale of
litter has been estimated to be about half that of tropical rain
forests
Due to accumulation of a thick cushion of dry dead leaves

on the floor of the forest, these areas are prone to forest fires which
may break oui even on slight friction or ignition The forest floor
is the also covered with dry grasses which soon catch fire Some
of the common grasses found are Aristitla spp, Ccnchnis spp,
Daciylocennun siiiiliaim. Clcusmc comprcssa and Mehmocciwhrus jucque
MAJOR MONIES or THE WORLD-FORESTS 191
moillu which are edible and palatable to livestock and wild herbi-
vores
In west Africa and India, the tropical ram forests often
merge with the monsoon forests gradually, forming ecownes In
west Africa these areas are called dry-evergreen forests They

have a canopy of mainly the deciduous trees but the lower layers
are entirely evergreen In many parts ol New Guinea and Indo
nesia, these forests have a variety of Eucalyptus species showing
Australian affinities
THORNY FORESTS
Tropical areas, having little rainfall and high temperatures,

have thorny forests characteristically found in the semi-arid and
and areas In these areas, the dry season is for a longer period
and the mean annual rainfall does not exceed 50 cm Such areas
have xerophyltc vegetation represented by thorny shrubs and
dwarf trees having small leaves The vegetation is bushier and
more gnarled with tough, leathery leaves and spines These forests
are also called 'Scrublands' and they have little growth ol grasses
which soon become dry after the wet season
These forests are tound in the western and parts of India
and Pakistan, north-eastern parts of Brazil, Natal and Mozambique

(S Africa), norih-east Ceylon, drv zone of Irrawaddy basin in Burma
Korat plateau and the central basin of Thailand and the continental
interior parts of Australia. In north-east Brazil these forests are
known as 'Caatmga', meaning light forests Here the rainfall, although

it ranges between 75 to 150 cm . is highly erratic causing partial
aridity. The long hot-drv season prevails from May lo October
when the temperatures are over 27°C and the solar radiation is
intense causing high evaporation The monsoonal rains are from
December lo April in whirh the amount of fall vanes from year lo
year.
Under these climatic conditions, Caatinga has most of the

shrubs and trees which ate ihornv and succulent The most typi-
cal plants are cacti ( Circus spp ),

nagphani ( Opimtia spp.), Brazilian
boltle-tree [Caiamlhsia aiborea), bromeliads (
Enchohron spectabile )
and thorny trees of Mimosa, which have swollen, succulent

all of
stems to stoie water In moister areas, carnauba [Copermcia car fa a)
192 CSS rNHALS OF BIOGnoORPin-
babassu (Orbtcma spcciosa ) and oiticia (

Liianw ngida) trees occur in
grooves or in woodlands The Gran Chaco region o( Argentina

end Paraguay has also similar tines of vegetation Such t home
forests are also Sound in the coastal pans ol Venezuela Colombia,
some of the We«t Indian Islands, central Cuba western Jamaica and
souih-wesiern Mexico
In Africa, thorni forests exist in ihe eastern horn of Soma-

liland where total xerophvtic conditions exist In Natal and Moza-
mbique, they are in the foim of woodlands having sporadically dis-
tributed microphvllous trees and shrubs of Atana and Euphorbia

amidst large savannas.
In India, thorny forests are mostly found in the semi-arid
parts of the Thar desert and the ram-shadow area of the plateau of
Karna'ak Here the grasses grow profuselv in the rainv season

The most prominent species aie Cenchrus chans Ceitchrits seligcm
Lasmrtts smdicus, Pamcttm antidoiah and Dicliaiillmim anmdaium
which gro v wildlv and are edible to herbivores Amongst the most
hardy grasses which can sustain grazing are Anstidia spp and
Elrnuic compressa
Ai high almudes as in the Aravalhs of Udaipur and Abu,
tropical moist deciduous trees also grow The lop canopy consists
of |amun (Ewpma jambolana), mango (Mangifcra wdica', dhok (Anth
geissus pendiila) Kathha I Acacia caleclm ) and safeda (Boswclha
serrata) The shrub layer consists of ber (Zic pints tntmmuhna),
Bauhwia roemosa, Lantana camara, Cassia tora and Tcphrnsia slrigaw
The senu-arid areas also have trees of tamarind {Tcrmmalta tome-
neem and peepal. Arid and semi-arid areas both have an
ntosa),
abudnance of Khejra Prosopis (

cineraria), babul (Acacia habidantm)
vilayati babul (Prosopis jultflora) and Cappans decidua, all of which
have spines, thorns and small leaves,
The mean annual duration of sunshine in these areas is 9 5

hours with the highest in May (11 5) The short-wave radiation of
solar energy, as at Jodhpur, is highest in May (653 gm cals/cm 2 )
and so that water-loss is highest from April to June in which the

temperatures are highest and the moisture is lowest in both the soil
and the air The vegetation in ihe continental interior of Australia
is almost similar to that in the Indian Thar desert The common

species are mulga Acacia aneura), a rather low-growing tree, 3 to 5
(
metres high that tends to branch near the ground and brigalow
scrub ( Acacia harpophylla found )
in the woodlands and Australian
bottle tree ( Sierculia spp )

Some of these trees have swollen, succu-
lent stems to store water The leaves of these trees are often hairy,
highly dissected and have very small flat surfaces to minimise

evapo transpiration
TEMPERATE SCLEROPHYLl WOODLAND AND SCRUBS
This biome is characteristically found in areas habtrtg

mediterranean type of climate with warm and ramless summers and
the annual rainfall of 50-110 cm which is mostly concentrated in
cool but often frost-free winters They are evergreen, hard-leaf
forest formations lying on the western margins of the continents
between 30° and 45° latitudes both in northern and the southertl
hemispheres During summers these areas are under the slibtrd-
pical highs bringing hot, dry weather, whereas in winters, they are
subjected to the cyclonic rains of the moderate zones of westerly
winds Thus rains come in the season when plants are normally at
rest but in spring, with the rise in temperature, plants take full
advantage of the stored water of winter rainfall and grow

vigorously In summer, air humidity is low and the rate of evapo-
ration is To tide over this unfavourable season, the trees and
high
plants tend to become sclerophyllous, developing broad, hard
leaves with waxy coating to reflect the intense solar heat.
These woodlands, also known as ‘Chaparells’, are found
chiefly in areas bordering the mediterranean sea Spam, Portugal
sou hern parts of France, Italy, coastal parts of Yugoslavia, Albania,
Greece and Turkey are (he mam counmes having these forests In
northern Africa, Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria are the main coun-
tries In the near-easi, Israel, Syria and Lebanon have this type of
Sorest vegetation The other pans having this type of vegetanon,
lie scattered In North America, California, in South America,
Chile, in South Africa, the Cape region and in Australia the parts
around Melbourne and Perth have this type of climate, with minor
variations in tree species
The mam types of vegetanon found m these forests consist

of the broad-leaved, evergreen hardwood trees, coniferous trees and
degenerated woodland and scrub They have thick, spongy bark
194 ESSENTIALS OF BtOGCOGRAPHY
over stems and the stem itself is thick and succulent to store water.
The root system is well developed, penetrating deep into the soil
reaching the water table to ensure water supply in the unfavourable

dry season of the summer
Most of these forests are now degraded due to long occu-

pancy by man. These areas were the cradle of early civilizations
and hence human interference has been maximum. Olive trees are
the most dominant species and their growth determines the limits
of the mediterranean climate. Most of the herbs have bulbous
and tuberous regenerating buds.
Oaks are most abundant. Holm Oak [Qucrcus ilex), cork
oak [Q suber) and kermes oak [Q. Coccifera) are prominent in the
European parts of mediterranean coastlands. In areas of more
intensive summer, such as northern Africa and Palestine, evergreen
oaks tend to be replaced by wild olive ( Olca europaca), locust trep
iCeratonia siliqua), fig (Frew Carica), maslic tree [Phlacia Icniisciis)
and the terebinth (Pistacia terebintlws) The second layer of trees
consists of woody, thorny shrubs of cislus (Cistus spp.). broom

( Genisla spp.) arbutus (
Arbutus unedo). myrtle {Myrtus communis ),
rosemary ( Rosmarinus officinalis), laurel ( Laurel nobilis), heaths lEr'ma
spp.) and gorse {Ulex spp.). Geophytes of various types are also
found as they can withstand the vagaries of climate in a belter wav
The scrub woodlands having these *ypes of shrubs are called by
different names in some European countries In southern France they
‘
are known as 'maquis', in Italy ‘macchia’ in Spain maiiera /’ and in the
limestone areas of Yugoslavia 'garigue The garigue vegetation is
the most degenerated type because limestone regions are unable to
hold any water in the soil and so only sage-bushes, lavender, thyme
and heathers are typical plants. In Asia Minor, these degenerated
scrubs are known ‘
as phrygana '.
Altitudinal differences are most conspicuous in these areas

At higher elevations, as on the mountains of Appenines, Taurus.
Pontus. Atlas and Olympus, coniferous trees are dominant Here
pines, firs, junipers, cypresses and cedars occur at high altitudes
Up to a height of 900 metres, chestnuts and beech are most domi-
nant. At higher elevations silver fir [Abies peclinata and cluster pine
‘Finns pinaster) are common in Italy and southern France. Aleppo pine
(Pinus halcpensis ) occurs in Palestine. It can sustain long periods of
MAJOR BIOMES OF THE WORLD FORESTS 195
drought and desiccating winds Umbrella pine (P pinea) is another
drought resistant variety, which grows at higher elevations
Austrian pine (P Austrica) black pine ( P mgia), northern pine
( p syhestrts) and Pyrennean pine (P pyrenmca) are the other

common varieties of pine which occur in the Alps and the Pyrennes
In Corsica the corsican pine (P /anew) occurs at higher altitudes
In Africa and in the Near-East region, firs, cedars and

cypresses dominate The Morocco fir [Abies morocana) is found on
the Atlas mountains On the Pontic and the Taurus ranges of Asia
Minor, cypress ( Cupressus sempemrms) is the dominant species while
in Lebanon, cedar ( Cedrus hbum) is most extensively found at eleva-
tions which are more than 1,500 metres high.
A study of these sclerophyllous forests in southern France

indicates that these forests consist of 5 strata
(t) Tree stratum — 15 to 18 metres high, closed forest,
dominant tree is Quercus ilex
(n) Shrub stratum— to 5 metres high; having small shrubs

of &u\us setupervtrens. Viburnum tenuis, Ptslacia terebml
Inis Arbutus tmedo and PkUyrea media as dominant
varieties
(m) Lianes-OI any height, dominant varieties are Stmilax

aspera, Limcera tmplexa ,
Chmatts flammula, Loiuccra
etrusca and Hedera lieh\
(iv) Herbaceous plants-Very low in height, this strata covers

not more than 30 per cent of the total area Dominant
forms ar eRuscus aculeatus, Asparagus aculeatus , Euphor-
bia, Cliaractas, Carex dtstachya, Viola scotophylla etc
(v) Moss stratum — Spreading entirely over the ground, this
is a sparsely developed strata but the dominant varie-

ties are Drepamum cupressforme, Scleropodmm porum,
Brachy thectum rutabulum and Ettrynchmn circunnatum
In North America, these woodlands are called

‘
Chaparrals’
which are treeless but have a rich growth of shrubs and a flonsti
caily rich flora Some of the chaparral communities may have
evergreen oaks as the blue oak Quercus doiiglasn), bush oak
(
(Q agrifoha and Q Chrysolepsts) and Q dumosa In America they

have a climatic climax vegetation with human interference in some
196 ESSENTIALS Of BtOGLOGIUPIn
areas In central Chile (30° - 37° S lat )

the sclerophylbus
v oodlands are on the western slopes of the Andes and have
distinct species of oaks of the genus Qmllaja In the Cape
province of south Africa these forests are called -Karroo' They
have climax vegetation of sclerophyllous vegetation but their
extension Is limited to the coastal parts The dominant tree species
are Protect and Lcucadcndron having a ,

rich herbal growth of annuals
and perennials Australia, having been isolated lor long, has
distinct flora from other mediterranean regions Here the domi-
nant tree species are Ettcal) plus About 300 species of this tree
p\ist in this continent, some of them known as tuart. jarrah, and

karri occuring in areas of profuse undergrowth of herbs
DECIDUOUS FORESTS
These forests occur in temperate regions on the eas em

margins of continents and are characterized by moderate climate
Their phytostructure is more diverse than that of the boreal coni-
fersand the trees are characterized by annual leaf shedding at the
beginning of winter The areas of the occurrence of these forests
have been largely inhabited by man and so much of the forest
wealth has been lost These forests are found in central Europe
eastern parts of North America and East Asia parncularlu Japan
and China At present about 30 per cent of the area in central
Europe is covered with these forests but they have degraded too
much in Japan and China due to deforestation activities In North
America the rate of depletion is slow and the forests are found
mostly on the Appalachian mountains
These forests are characteristically found in the soils called
‘brown earths’ that have constant values of clay and iron compounds
These soils are usually of two types-eutrap/rre, having a rich subst-
ratum of calcium and magnesium rocks and ohgotroplnc having a

poor substratum of the salts These soils have a rich humus content
and therefore productivity is far more in these forests than in com-
parable areas of the same latitudes
Deciduous forests grow in climates having marked hot and

cold seasons, with winter temperatures, which fall below the freezing
point The annual precipitation is 75 to 150 cm. Reduction in soil
temperatures reduces the absorbtion of water bu the root system

197
MAJOR UIOMES OF THE WORLD FORESTS
So in winters the physiological activities of plants and

ol plants
trees undergo a period

of dormancy known as philological drought
during winters reduces the transpiration rate of plants
Leaf-loss
to tide over the freezing winters The
and thus the plants are able
therefore be seen as a
deciduous habit of the dominant trees can
the
tvpe of seasonal response to low ambient energy levels and
unavailability of water
Pig 95 Deciduous Forest Profile with an admixture of trees
The physiognomy of the deciduous forests is different from
that of other types of forests Most of the trees are roughly globu-
Branching begins at a
lar or barrel shaped with a rounded crown
fairly low level m the trees and the bole or the unbranched section
of the trnuk is fairly short m comparison to the tree size In
summers the crowns have profuse foliage while in winters they
appear to be bone-dry The biome is dominated by trees 40-50

compared with the
metres high Their leaves are broad and th’n,
leathery and narrow leaves of tropical genera

These forests have a variety of trees and herbs and are
therefore called mixed forests The tallest trees are the oaks
[Quercus spp beeches (Fagus spp elms (Vlinus spp ),
limes lindens
), ),
or basswoods [Tiha spp rultp (Linodendron spp ), Chestnuts

),
198 ESSENTIALS OF DIOGEOGRAPHy
(Casionca spp )
maples (,lrcr spp )
and hickories {Cana spp ), which
form different dominant associations in a variety of area Thee
form a dense canopy of crowns and the amount of light percolating
through them determines the character of the vegetation The leaf-
mosaic density of the individual species of dominant trees also

determines the undergrowth of herbs, does the soil parent materal.
The second tier o vegetation in these forests rfonsists of
shrubs which grow in gaps In the forest canopy. The usual shrub
habitation is of birches ( Bcltila spp.). ash ( Fra xi tints spp.), hazelnuts
(Cor)lus spp )
and members of the family Rosaccae (e g Primus, Rosa.
Rubus). Some of the shrubs are spiny e g. holly aqufohum
(//e.\
)
and may thus protect seedlings of trees from browsing animals

Shrubs exhibit seasonality of flowering and fruit making Some
shrubs are 'pre-serna!' which bloom in early spring before the tall
trees put on a dense foliage cover and slop the solar light horn
reaching them The other types of shrubs are 'aestnal' which can
tolerate freezing cold and can bloom and flower well in the cold
season In Europe, shrubs of the aestival group found are dog's

mercury ( Mercurahs perenms and bracken-fern (Ptendium aqmlmwn)
)
The third layer is usually of mosses, lichens and annual

herbs which depends upon the open land available for their growth
and also upon the nature of the soil English Chalklandsare usually
drv and are therefore devoid of undergrowth Dry sites are usually
inhabited by lichens while wet areas have a dense growth of
mosses The ground is covered with a thick litter of dead leaves

which are sites of diverse flora and fauna. They decompose the
litter fast in summers due to high temperatures and rainfall.
The annual production in these forests is high. Annual
leaf production is 2.7 tons/hectare while that of stems is ] 0 tons,
and of litter and roots is 2 9 tons/heclare. The average biomass
production per hectare of a 120 year old west European deciduous
forest biome has been found to consist of leaves 4 tons, branches
30 tons, trunk 200 tons and undergrowth 1 ton This production
is considerably greater than that of the boreal coniferous forests.
Phylogenetic relationships of various associations differ in
various countries and continents The moss flora of the Appalachian
mountains in North America is composed of 353 species of which
196 (55.3%) also occur in Japan. Western Europe and Japan
exhibit parallels in their vegetation classifications and their ecologi-
cal structures The genenc structure al the species level, however,
is totally different in Europe and Japan Onlv 12 per cent of the

pleridophytes, 1 6 per cent of the gymnosperms and 9 7 per cent of
the angiosperms in Japan occur tn Europe No single tree species
is dominant in the deciduous forests of Japan while in western

Europe, there is nearly always a dominance of oak, beech and
alders
The European formations of these forests, today, extend

between 42° and 61°N and as far as 20°E Most of the areas have
mixed vegelation of coniferous trees as well, as in Poland and south
Russia In France and Spain the dominant tree species are willows,
chestnuts and sycamore Acer (
platanotdes ) Germany has oak-birch
association while the plains of Russia have oak formations mixed
with pine
In North America the entire north easi coast, the high

lands of Appalachians and the mid-plains ol Mississippi along with
the Great Lakes region are covered with these forests Most of the
forest areas are now being used for agriculture and have been
cleared of natural vegetation Nonetheless, these forests are rich
in species They have oaks, hickory, beech, basswood and maples
almost throughout the region Ash and birch formations are also
found widely In New England region and souih of Great Lakes
these forests have mixed species of conifers like white pine (Pimis
slrobus) and hemlock ( Tsiiga canadensis] In the Appalachian region,
oaks, beech maple chestnuts and yellow poplars are dominant
Uees To the west of Appalachians, in the plains of Ohio, Illinois,
Indiana and Michigan, several species of oak, chesmut, sweet gum
( hquidamber spp )
and tulip trees (Lmodendron luhp'fera) dominate
In the south on the Ozark-Ouachila plateau, drought resistani
species like black oak (2 Velutuw), bur oak [Q macrocarpa), red oak
(2 Borealis) and shellback hickory (Cano oiata) are mostly found

Generally these trees have thick bark over their stems and trunks
In east Asia-Japan and north China, native species of

beech (Fagus crenalol birch {Betula ernmnn) and ash (Fraximis
mandslunica) are found Tulip trees are natives ol Norlh America
but hickories are notably absent In Canada, iherp is a narrow belt
of deciduous forests between the boreal
in forest belt and the
prairie grasslands This belt is known as the '\u>oded sleppe because
200 rSSENTlAlS OF BIOGFOCRAPm
it has thp characteristics of both grasslands as well as forests The

looden steppe zone of Canada has peculiar species of r ees like t
balsam poplar (Arym/we balsamifcra) which occurs in wet areas and

aspen [Populus tremuloidet) uhich Is found in drier areas In Asia
also such wooded steppes occur from the Urals to as far east as
about 120“E longitude They have a dominant species of Eurasian
aspen Populus
(
tranitla), Eurasian birch (Belula Verucosa) and steppes
grass specially in areas where the soil has more lime content
In the southern hemisphere, deciduous tree formations are
found only in restricted areas like the lower eastern slopes of
Andes from 43°S to Tierra del Fuego Dominant species are the
beech [Nnlhofagus spp ) which are evergreen In drv areas nite
I Nothofagus amareiica )
is found which is a tall graceful, green tree
often found in sheltered locations In cold areas the nires become

contorted and dwarfish owing to frigid conditions At higher
altitudes ihe common tree is lengue [N pwmlio) which is shorter in
height
CONIFEROUS FORESTS
Having the dominant vegetation of conifers, which have

needle like leaves these forests are called coniferous and form a
continuous belt in the midlatitudes They extend up to 60°N in
Asia and up to 661'N in Europe In the southern hemisphere

their extension is up to 45°S These forests are also found on the
slopes of high mountains ana are called montanne forests Thev
occur in the boreal climates and are hence also called boreal
forests They form a wide circular belt around the cold tundras in
the northern hemisphere and are therefore also known as ‘Taigas’’
The physiognomy ihese forests is dominated by the needle-

of all
leaved evergreen coniferous irees with the genera Picca (spruces),

Pmus (Pines), Abies (firs) and Lam (larches)
Coniferous tree formations are characteristically found in
the climale of long and cold winters with considerable snowfall

forming part of the precipitation of 25 to 100 cm per year Onlv
lour to five monihs have temperatures above 6”C the growing
period of trees Summers are short but the hours of daylight are
long In higher latitudes the sun shines for more than 20 hours
per day in summers, providing sufficient warmth and energy to the
trees for being stored for cold winters In winters the temperatures
MAJOR BlOMES OF THE WORLD-FORESTS 201
fail steeply below the freezing point and the soils are frozen to a
depth of about 2 metres causing permafrost conditions But if the
soils have a thick snow cover then their insulating nature may keep
the soil temperature up to — 7°C which is sufficient to keep the
root system alive
Rigorous climatic conditions marked with prolonged bitter
winters, short-growing season of summers, shortage of moisture

and high speed winds have caused various adaptations in the trees
of these forests Notable adaptations are the needle shaped leaves
with thick cuticles to reduce the water-loss by transpiration, the
thick resinous bark which protects the woody tissues from frost;
the conical shape of ihe trees w.hich helps to slide down the falling
snow and withstand high winds, the development of root system

close to the ground surface which enables the trees to grow in
shallow soils and also helps to procure water from the thawing
snow and ice, the evergreen leaves which start the process of
photosynthesis as soon as the warmer days commence and the

availability of solar-light and the seeding by means of cones, which
cfonoi rorso easily rn snow, tee and wafer.
The growing season of the trees in these forests is below

120 dayswhen the mean daily temperatures are more than 10°C
So these forests have a much less biomass production than the
other forests of the world The Carbon dioxide production
decreases markedly under permanent light or longer duration of
light in summers Therefore, die phytomass production per hectare

decreases from south to north
The average annual yield of phytomass amounts to 5 5

tons of organic matter per hectare in pme forests, out of which 3
tons results from the growth of wood The root system, being less
developed, contnbuies very little to biomass Bui the falling needle-
like leaves in autumn form a cushion of thick litter on the ground
whose decay causes the podzoltc soil formation process in these

areas So different shades of podzolic soils e g iron podzol, humus
podzol, browm-earth podzol, gley podzol etc are found in these
forests Here Inter is decomposed only partially due to low tempera-
tures and limited activity of the ground biota Precipitation,
however, also causes leaching of salts down into the soils and helps
in the podzolization process
202 ESSENTIALS Of BIOGEOGRAPm
In Europe, the coniferous forest belt extends over a

distance of over 7500 km from the Atlantic cost of Norway and
Britain to the North Pacific covering the midlatitudes of Russia
and Siberia In this long bell six main associations exist 1 he first
association called 'Fenno Scandantan’ covers the whole of Norway,

Sweden and Finland Here Scots pine {Pmus siliestris) is the
dominant tree m dry soils and the Norwegian spruce {Picea c\cc!sn )
in the moisler regions The Scots pine tree has blue-green needles
and the berk on younger trees is of organge colour Norwegian

spruce traditionally, called the Chustmas tree has soft, bright green
needles and smooth reddish bark The silver birch IBetula pemltilu)
is also commonly associated with it
The second association of 'Larch Fir Fores 1 '

is commonlv
found in European Russia and to the east of Urals up to Yeneisi
river It grows in comparatively drier conditions The dominant
species are Siberia i fir (Abies sihmen Siberian sp nice ( Picin
Obouita), Siberian larch (

Lam sibtrna), Siberian dwarl pine (Pimn
punvk) and the silver birch
The 'West Siberian Swamp Forest forming the third
associ'atfon in this 6ei'r occurs in fee micfeTe an o’ fewer Ob basin
The Ob river inundates large areas around its banks due to earlv
thawing of snow and ice in its upper valley which is in low latitudes
Therefore, large swamps are formed in which the Sibeuan fir is the
dominant tree The fir trees are found in association with some
deciduous trees like aspen btrch, alders, poplars and willows
mostly concentrated in the wet areas
The ‘East Siberian Forest’ constituting the fourth formation

is found in Siberia east of Yeneisi river extending up to Stanovoi
and Yablonovoi mountains where climate is extremely cold and
dry marked bv severe high speed winds and sufficient snowfall
Here Dahunan larch (Lanx dahmea). Scots pine, Siberian fir and
stone pine (Pmus Ccmbra are the dominant trees, often mixed wuh
deciduous varieties in wet areas
The fifth association called the 'Pacific Forests' occurs

along the Pacific coast of northern Asia, mamlu in the Kamchatka
peninsula and east of the Amur valley These forests are also found
in offshore islands of Hokkaido and Sakhalin Here Dahurain larch,
Siberian fir and stone pine are common trees In wet areas oak,
elm, wild apple, maple, walnut and lime trees, whii.h are deciduous,
are also found
Over the high snow-clad mountains of Eurasia, a sixth for-
n anon occurs known as ‘Temperate Mountain Forest’, as apparent

in the Alps, Caucasus, Khingans. Tien Shan and Balkans The
dominant vegetation is a variety of lirs, pine, spruce and larch
mixed with deciduous trees of birch oak and chestnuts In all the
forest formations of Eurasia the undergrowth of herbs and annuals
is negligible on account of heavy deposition of needle leaves over
the ground and the short growing season of summers
In North America, the boreal forests have more species of

conifers, as the anthropogenic activities started very late, only
three centuries aqo Over this continent the dominant trees vary
from east to vest But the most widespread tree is white spruce
{Picea glauca), sometimes forming single species associations on
streamsides, areas of wtndthrow and burned areas. Soruce occurs
from Atlantic coast up to Pacific and even up to far north in Alaska
and Aleutian islands In north-eastern Canada and New foundland
while spruce is oflen associated with balsam fir {Abies balsamea) on
better-drained soils Jack pine {Punts bcmksiana) trees associated with
black spruce (Ptcea mat tana) are dominant in boggy areas wnh poor
drainage in soils On (he west coast as in British Columbia and
Alaska, the dominant species are lodgepole pine Pmus contorta) (
and alpine fir lAbies lasiocarpa) They are often mixed with deci-
duous trees like aspen ( Populus spp ),
canoe birch Bctula (
papyrifera),
balsam poplar (Populus balsaimfera ) and quaking aspen Populus (
trcmuloides ) The biomass collection in these forests is very small

(26 kg/m 2 | as compared to that in broadleaved (orests (44 kg/m 2 )
The annual litter fall is only about 1-2 per cent of the above-
ground plant biomass
Coniferous forests are totally absent in the southern hemis-

phere But they exhibit markedly high formations on the mountains
ol the norlhern hemisphere such as ihe Himalayas, Rockies, Alps
and the mountains of central Asia On the mountains there is a
decrease In temperature with increasing altitude, an increase in
rainfall and total precipitation with altitude and a greater exposure

to sun Therefore 'montanne forests' show a close resemblance to
boreal forests irrespective of the geographical location

:o4 ESSENTIALS or BIOGCOORAFIIV
Montanne forests have a large variety ol pine fir. spruce

and larch species On the slope; ol the Rockies. In the states ol
Oregon, Washington and British Columbia, the dominant trees are
Douglas fir ( Psciidotsugu tavfoha), Western hemlock ( Tstiga heuro -

phylla), Western cedar (Tlmja phema) and grand fir {Abus grandis)
Due to heavy rainfall in this region, on account of the prevailing
westerlies throughout the year, most of these trees attain heights of
over 50 metres The Douglas fir may grow to about 100 metres
height with thick, rounded trunks, measuring 6 metres in diameter
The giant redwood trees (Sequoia wnperurans) which occur in the
most moist areas of Oregon State (U. S A and on the 'slopes ol )
Sierra Nevada mountains, attain a height of even more than 100

metres and have perhaps the longest life span in all vegetal forms
Sequoia gigantica, the tallest tree in the world has a hie of more
than four thousand years
Associated with these giant conifers of montanne forests

are some smaller conifers like western larch (Larix occideniahs),
ponderosa pine (Punts ponderosa), white pine | P monucola )

and
lodgepole These associations may have an admixture of willows,
poplars alders, elms, chestnuts and ash trees which are deciduous
On the mountains of somewhat lower latitudes as In (he
Himalayas, Dmanc Alps, Carpathians and the southern Rockies

some other conifers, such as the sugar pine (Ptmis lambertma)
vellowpine, lodgepole pine, mountain pine (P mtiQo) and Cembran

pine ( P Cemba ), are dominant species Nonetheless, the spruce
formations dominate as thev are more hardv to withstand cold and
high winds
FURTHER READING
1 Cloudsley-Thomson J L (1975)
,
Terrestrial Cm iron-
meats. Croom-Helm, London
2 Dicastrt, F; and Mooney, H A, (1973), Mediterranean
Tjpc Ecosystem Ecological Studies 7, Sprtnger-Verlag
New York
MAJOR BIOMESOF THE WORLD-FORESTS 205
3 Reichle D E; (ed.)„ (1973) Analysis of Temperate Forest

Ecosystems', Ecological Studies 1; Sprmger-Verlag,
New York
4 Richards, P. W , (1952), TlieTropica\ Rainforest, Cam-
bridge University Press, London.
5. Tamm, C 0; (ed.) , (1976), Man and the Boreal Forest ,
Swedish Natural Sctence, Stockholm
6. Whitmore, T. C., (1975), Tropical Rainforests of the Far-

Oxford University Press, Oxford.,
East;
10
Major Biomes of the

World-Grasslands
TROPICAL GRASSLANDS
These biomes, also called savannas (from Spanish zavana
meaning grassy plain), have grassy fields situaied in the periodically
humid tropics and may be interspersed with trees or shrubs. They

are in fact intermediate biomes between a forest and a true grass-
land, owing to the presence of scattered bushes They are called
'scrub steppe’ or 'Catinga' when they have formations of succulent

trees and shrubs The number of ‘pyrophyies’ (fire-proof trees) is.
however, large in savannas Most of the trees, grasses and their
seeds can tolerate fire hazards in these lands and therefore propa-
gate endlessly. Many seeds of savanna plants tolerate temperatures
of over 100°C without diminishing their germination capacity, in
Australia, the seeds of Acacia dccurrcm, Angophora lanceolaia, Euca-
lyptus qummfera, Hackea acicularis and Casuarma ngitla can

withstand temperatures over llO'C for more than four hours. In
the Llanos of Venezuela, the grass Trachypogon moniufari can
tolerate temperatures up to 135°C.
Tropical grasslands extend between 8° to 30° latitudes on

both sides of the equator, lytng in the central parts of the conti-
MAJOR BIOMES OF THE WORLD-GRASSLANDS 207
nents. The mam characteristic of the climate is the alternating wet

and dry seasons in a Year, though ihe span of these seasons varies
regionally The mean annual temperatures are around 21°C but
mean summer temperatures are very high reaching over 32°C,
Most of the rainfall is in the summei Winters are dry when the
mean temperature is around 18“C The annual rainfall varies from
75 to 150 cm The seasonal rhythm of dry and wet spells is
unfavourable for tree growth Under these climatic constraints
only tall grasses can grow
Tropical savannas are found in Africa, South America and

Australia In Africa they occur more extensively than in any other
continent surrounding the tropical rain forests, m a horse-shcie-
shaped belt The typical savanna grasslands are found in Sudan
Three distinct types of savannas may he noted in Africa-ihe
sa\aima woodland the saianna parkland and scrub-sai annas The
savanna woodlands border the immediate vicinity of equatorial
forests where rainfall is high and almost lor nine months in a year
These savannas extend from Guinea in West Africa through Ghana,
Ivory coast, Nigeria and Uganda in the east, and by swinging
southwards, up to Zaire and Angola Here tall grasses called
‘elephant grass’ (
Pcnmsetum spp )
grow which are about 3 metre
high They are hardy, coarse, stiff and quick-growing grasses

forming vast vistas which are difficult to penetrate The Irees are
u'ually 10 to 15 metres high, having bottle-shaped trunks and
thick umbrella-like canopies The dominant varieties are Acacias
and baobab ( Adansonia digitate), which have thick stems for storing
water The rainfall in these areas is about 150 cm per year,

sufficient for the profuse growth of trees and grasses There is a
distinct season of drvness for 3 months for which the plants have
to store water
The savanna woodlands gradually give way to savanna

parklands which have tall grasses but low trees In these areas,
the drv season may extend to four to five months So tussock
grasses, usually 1-2 metres high, grow forming a continuous cover
on the ground Deciduous tree species of Acacia and Combrelmn
are Sound which may be 10-12 metres high Such parklands are
found most conspicuously in western Tanzania, Zambia and soutb-
easiern Angola where they almost resemble the deciduous forests
20S ESSENTIALS OT BIOGEOGRAPHY
The scrub-savannas are found on the borders of deserts like
Sahara and Kalahari where the dry season months or

is of six
more The annual precipitation does not exceed 75 cm. So the
grasses are short and the area is sometimes referred to as ' Wooded
steppe. The most common grasses are Aristida spp , Cenchrus spp;
Tetrapogon spp. Daclyloelemum spp. and Heteropogon spp.. all
having xerophilous characteristics. Trees are scattered far apart

and often dwarf species of Acacia and baobab, rarely exceeding 5
metres in height, are found.
In South America also, tropical grasslands are extensive

and are called by different names On the Brazilian plateau, they
are called Campos while those in the Ormocco basin (Venezuela)
are called Llanos, the former being confined to the upland areas
while the latter to the low-lying plains and river valleys Campos
are often called dry savannas, as the rainfall is less in these areas
while llanos are the wet savannas having rainfall of more than 75
cm. per years Based upon the vegetal characteristics and the
rainfall regime, the savannas of Brazil in South America can be
classified into five types -ccrradao, campo ccrradao. Campo stijo,
Campo hmpo and pantanal.
The Cctrado savannas have semi-evergreen trees which

are usually 10-13 metres high and have well developed crowns
forming a closed canopy. There is a thick undergrowth of herbs
and shrubs. They are found in the peripheral areas of Brazilian
highlands bordering the Atlantic coast, mainly in the States of
Minas Gerais and Sao Paulo. Here the rainfall regime is high and
the winter droughts are for less than 5 months in a year.
The Campo Cerrado savannas also have tall grasses but
the
interspersed trees are shorter in height, rarely exceeding
7 meires,
and have tangled branching exhibiting scarcity of water
and humi-
Such grasslands are found in areas having lesser
dity.
precipitation
marked with dry winters often exceeding 7 months in a
year.
In Campo stijo grasslands the grasses are
of lower heights
but they form a continuous cover over the ground. Trees
are sparse
and often of lower heights and there is an abundance
of shrub
growth. They grow in areas of prolonged droughts
having markedly
high summer temperatures. The annual precipitation is far below
the needs of plants. The Campo limpo grasslands have short grasses
and are devoid of trees and shrubs Their distribution is disconti-
nuous and they are often found in the central parts of the Brazilian
plateau which have minimal rainfall and high summer temperatures
The pantaml grasslands have reeds and grasses, oflen resembling
boggy characteristics They are found m isolated spots having
abundance of ground or surface water and a thick layer of soil
which is til-drained and impervious

The wet savannas called llanos of Venezuela grow in areas
ol abundant humidity having rich sources o! surface and
ground water, often in the river basins They have the plagtoclt-
max status of grasslands because they have a continuous cover of

grasses interspersed with scattered, isolated trees In Honduras,
this savanna vegetation has even the isolated species of pine
Tropical grasslands extend in Austiaha fromsomh-western

Queensland across the Barkley plateau into north-west Australia.
Over this vast area, they exhibit two mam types of formations-
savartna woodlands and scvanna grasslands, the latter being
treeless and having abundant growth of tussock grasses, The
mean annual rainfall in this region is 38 to 76 cm ,
which occurs in
summers (December-May) The winters are dry but do not show

any appreciable change in temperatures The mean temperatures
in summers are around 30°C
Here the sa\anna Woodlands have extensive growth of
grasses like fawn-coloured Mitchell grass (Astrabla spp). Kangaroo
grass iTIiemeda austiahs) and the reddish Flinders grass (Iseclema
spp) The trees here a thick leaf cover and include most of the
varieties of safeda such as Enialyplus E calophylla and
mangmala,
ironbarks (E melanophloea and E Ciebra) These woodlands occur
in moister areas having rainfall between 75 to 150 cm per year.
The grasses are also taller and may reach a height of 2-3 metres;
the most common variety being the blue-grass. In Asia, tropical
grasslands were destroyed centuries ago owing to human occu-
pance and largescale grazing by livestock The terai forests of
India are remnants of the former grasslands
TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS
Found in the temperate mid-latitudes (30°-45“), these

grasslands ate known as 'prairies' in North America and ‘steppes in
210 ESSENTIALS OF MOGroGR\PltY
Central Asia In the southern hemisphere they occur in Argentina

in South America where they are called ‘pampas while in Australia
and South Africa, they are called y/eiww' and 'i elths respectively.
Temperate grasslands grow in a continental vpe of climate marked t
bv low rainfall and large variations In seasonal temperatures

Usually the annual precipitation ranges between 25 to 75 cm The
summer mean temperature is around 26°C while the winter mean
temperature is only 5°C Marked changes between warm and
cold seasons inhibit the growth of trees and encourage the growth
of short, hardy grasses in these areas
In the steppes of central Asia, as also In other temperate

grasslands, the landscape changes its colour in a cyclic way depic
ting the growth and blooming of certain herbs and grasses on the
one hand and the dying away, of the others on the other hand in
the same season In Transbaikalia— Siberia, the landscape is that
of a blue carpel consisting of Pulsatilla lurczanwovi in the second

half of May, with the melting of snow on the ground In mid June,
white blossoms of Stcllera chraemaejasmc prevail over the region
In July there is a blossom of yellow Tanacewm, presenting the most
colourful phase ol the year Blue blooms of Scabta fiscluri appear

in August fn September the entire vegetation starts fading and
all elevations present a bright red colour due to the dying off ol
Tanacetum leaves With the onset of winter in October the ground
is covered with white snow again to restart the vegptational
rhythm in the next summer
The phyfomass collection on the ground is variable from

one area to another, as also in varying years of precipitation In
the steppes of central Asia the phvtomass collection is only 710

2700 kg/ha in dry years, while in wet years it mav be as high as
4 530-6,250 In meadow steppes it is 2370 kg /ha while in old
feathergrass steppes it is around 4,700
The North American temperate grasslands called
prairies' extend from 54°N (northern Saskachewan and Alberta)

to the Mexican highlands in the ratnshadow area of the western
slopes of the Rocktes South of 30 e N latitude thei change into
the Prompts savannas Prairies also occur in the isolated basins
and mtermontanne plateaus of the Rockies as in Utah, Oregon,

Nevada and Washington Slates These gsraslands form a vast
triangular area in the mid-west of the continent now famous for the
cultivation of wheat
In accordance with their grassstand associations, the prai-

ries can be divided into three zones from east to west
( i )
The Lons Grass Prairie— They are true prairies, having
tah grasses like Andropogen scoparms, Stipa sparlea, Sporobolus herle-
lolepis, Agropyrmn smillm and Koelleria cnstata The tall grasses
like Amhopogen get ardi or big bluestem and (Pamcnm urgalum ) or
switch grass reach a height of about 3 metres These areas get an
annual precipitation of 66 to 82 cm and have a well-moistened
soil These prairies are found from southern Alberta and Saskat-
chewan through North and South Dakota southwards to central
Texas They are potential forest lands
(it) The Mixed Piame-lhê prairies are found in areas

of annual precipitation ranging from 50 to 61 cm which constitute
a wide belt to the west of true prairies The grasses are usually 1
to 1 5 metre high The common varieties are Andropogen scoparms
or little bluestem, Stipa spat tea or needle-grass, Andiopyrum snutlm

or wheat-grass and Koeleua cnslala or June-grass Mixed with
these tall grasses are the dwarf grasses like Buchloe [daclyloides the
buffalo grass and Bouteloua gracilis or blue gram grass Such prairies
are found on the undulating slopes of the Rockies
(m| The Palmtse Prairies— They are found still westwards

in areas of low precipitation, as in parts of Montana, Colorado,
Wyoming, New Mexico and Texas They have short grasses like
Poa spp called the bluegrass and dwarf species of Arislida and
Bonlelona which grow in sporadic tufts and bunches, the heights
never exceeding 0 5 metres These prairies are also found in the
mter-montanne plateaus of Washington Idaho and Oregon where
ihe rainfall is low
Eurasian steppes are the grasslands of southern European

Russia and Kazakhstan Although the steppes resemble the prair-
nes in phylogentc appearance, the genera of most of the grasses
drffer Growing in the extreme climatic conditions of central
Eurasia, marked with heavy snowfall in winters, the steppes, he
south of the coniferous belt Here the tall grasses, about
one metre high, are mostly turfs forming extensive meadows, interr-
212 ESSENTIALS OE BIOGEOGRAPItt
spersed wiih annual flowering herbs So they are called ‘meadow

sicppes' The dominant grass is Pulsatilla tiirczamnow in which
ihe herbs like Stclhm chraemijjsmc, Tanacetttm spp and Scabwsa
ftstlicrt grow
South of the meadow steppes are found the mixed steppes

having an admixture of turf and tussock forming grasses but they
are more xerophytic in character They have dense fibrous roots
to extract the maximum moisture out of the soil The dominant
grasses are Snpa spp Still southwards there are short dwarf gra
sses of fescue {Fesmn sulcata), feathergrass {
Snpa pennata mixed
)
with the herbs of wormwood ( Artemisia marittma) These grasses
grow in areas of still lower precipitation The Eurasian grasslands

exist in the small pockets of the plateau regions of Hungary and
ihe Balkan peninsula They are called 'pus:tas' meaning grassy
plains
In South America, Ihe temperate grasslands cover an ex-

tensive area m Argentina where they are called the pampas North
to south they extend to about 650 km as far west as the Andes
In these grasslands the land is a levelled plain having small ridges
known as 'CuMlas' The area has hoi summers when the mean
temperature is 27°C (November to February) and war- winters
with the mean daily temperature of 15°C(May to August) Mean
annual rainfall is around 150 cm on the coastal areas but it gradu
ally decreases westwards and southwards and consequently
influences the biotic communities of ihe area
The pampa grasslands are of two types vie ihe liunul
pampa and the dr) pampa, the former being mostly confined to
coastal areas around Buenos Aires Bahia Blanca and Monievidpo

A narrow strip of humid pampas is found along ihe river valleys
of La Plata, Parana and Paraguay In pampas ihe grasses are about
1 to 1 5 metre in height with the dominant species of feather grass
and Mchca, which grow in bunches and tussocks The dry

(Stipa)
pampas have short grasses which gradually merge with the

scrub vegetation of the foothills of the Andes These are called
the monte’ grasslands
For the most part, Africa lies in the tropics and hence the
extension of lemperate grasslands is confined only to Ihe highlands
and the south African tip which has a temperate climate These
grasslands, called Veldts, are mixed with trees and shrubs. True
grasslands occur m the Cape Province as far north as the Limpopo
river In the north-east, as tn Transvaal and Natal provinces, they
are mixed with dwarf trees and shrubs and are callpd bush-veldts.
In the plateau areas north of the Orange river, they occur as
treeless patches of dwarf grasses on the sandy soils and are there-
fore called sand veldts. Above 1500 metres height, where droughts
are frequent and the seasonal changes tn temperature varied and
marked, the veldts are of short grasses and are called sweet high
veldts. Elsewhere they are mixed with xerophylic shrubs and
trees, they are known as mixed grass high veldts
The dominant grasses in the veldts are the red grass
( Themada triandra), which is nutritious to the herbivores, and the

Cymbopogon plurmoths As they are most palatable to grazing ani-
mals many grasslands have now been denuded due to pastoralism
and heavy grazing. The oiher co-dominant variety is Tnstaehya
hispida which is less palatable, in dry areas grows the wire grass
(Aristida junelformis ), which is a creeper and is able to sustain xero-
phytic conditions fn higher areas of plateaus and escarpments,
especially to the west of 26°E longitude, the climate is very dry

Here only grasses grow in small patches and the dominance of
tuft
xerophytic shrubs is noticeable

Australia too, for the most part, lies In the tropical zone
and hence temperate grasslands are far less there than on any
other continent The south-eastern part of the continent
comprising the Murray - Darling basin and the highlands
of Victoria and New South Wales, have temperate climate in
which these grasses can grow. These grasslands are called 'malices’
and 'dawns'. In the western parts of the Australian continent, the
rainfall Is poor ranging from 38 to 65 cm. per year. In the moister
areas, the grasses are tussocks comprising Mitchell grasses
[Astrebla spp )
and Flinders grasses [helenm spp). In the drier
areas of the south, the dominant varieties are kangaroo grass
( Htcmeda australis ), wallaby grass (Dantlmm spp ) and corkscrew
grasses [Sltpa spp). All these grasses are highly palatable to brow,
siersand graziers like sheep and goats So most of the original
cover has been lost.
The islands of New Zealand, loo, have extensive tempe-
tate grasslands, especially in the Canterbury Plains of the South
Island Here, over the slopes of the southern Alps
all
and m the
214 ESSENTIALS OT BIOGCOGRAPm
rivfr Valievs, extensive grasslands are found covering an area of
approximately 6.8 million hectares These grasslands have two

dominant varieties of grasses The first is the low-short tussock
steppe, mainly having Fcstuea route Zclandiac and Pon cacpiuua
which are found on the Olago plateau and lowlands of the Canter-
btirv Plains, generally in areas which arc less ihan 600 metres
high The second type is the tall-tussock steppe, having red tussock
grass Dmtlioma raouhi-iubra

(
and snowgrass (Danthoma rarntlu
)
fltni ums) which occur on molsl, high altitudes These grasses have
degraded due to two reasons First, ihese islands do not have anv
carnivores which can lessen the population of herbivorous animals
and so heavy grazing ol grasses by wild herbivores has been con-
tinuing since ancient times, Secondlv, with the occupation ol these
lands by ihe Europeans, sheep, goats, cows and rabbits, which are
graziers, have been introduced on a large scale, This has led to
further depletion of the grasslands in ihese areas.
The grassland ecosystem is most fragile in all areas ol the

world. Since they are the areas of rich fertile soil, most of the
grasslands have today been usurped by man for cultivation The
ecological value of grasslands is very high as the grassland sod
holds high quantities of nutrients and organic matter which helps
to retain moisture during long periods of drought as well as pre-
t ents the erosion which occurs when the turf mat is broken. It Is
rssential, therefore, to retain the original ecological status of grass-
land communities to stop erosion and other maladies which man

ts lacing today.
THE DESERTS
This btome is found in areas where the average precipita-

tion is below 25 cm per year and is often irregular The crucial
factor in determining the desert btome is precipitation as exhibited
by scanty vegetation rather than temperature. The biotic response
is firstly in sparse vegelation so that there is usually more bare
ground than plant cover, and secondly in marked adaptations ol
both plants and animals, which enables them to tide over long
spells of drought or lack of access to free water. Evaporation Is
usually high and the relative humidity is the lowest of all biomes,
which may sometimes be lesser than 20 percent m day hours,
major uiomes of thb worud-qr/issunds 215
forcing (he plants to adapt themselves to lower down their trans-
piration rate The characteristic vegetrtion of the desert is -mo-

phync in which the annuals have a short growing season confined
to the optimal conditions o[ plant growth The perennial trees
and shrubs are hardy and droughl-tolerant with thick barks, small
spiny leaves and a well-developed root system
Deserts may be either in a tropical or a temperate region

The former are called hot deserts and the latter cold deserts Again
they may be arid or semi-arid depending upon the amount of
annual precipitation and evaporation Usually true deserts have
less than 25 cm of annual precipitation while the semi-arid deserts

have 25 to 40 cm of annual rainfall The sami-arid deserts have a
better floral structure than the arid ones, and the number of species
is also large Hot deserts are the results of semi-petmanent high
pressure belts In the tropics from which air is warmed by compres-
sion on descent becoming very hot and dry The Sahara,
Arabia, That, Kalahari, Atacama and the North American Colorado
desert are examples of hot deserts The cold deserts are found in
mid latitudes In Asia, Syria, Persia, Russian Turkestan, Gobi and

Takla Makan are examples of cold deserts In South America
Patagonia is a cold desert Australia is, by far, a dry continent, for
most of its western part is and The cold deserts of central Asia
have formed due to continental climate In which the rainfall is far
less lhan that required by plants The deserts of Nanub, Atacama

and Baja California have formed due lo cold ocean currents which
flow along their coasts and make the inland parts dry
Fig 101 Distribution of Deserts in the world

216 ESSENTIALS Or IUOGtOORAHIV
HOT DESERTS
Africa has the most extensive deserts in the world. The

Sahara, meaning wilderness, stretches from the Atlantic to the Red
Sea and continues further southwards into the eastern horn ol
Africa In the Somalia State Some of the great deserts of the world
are listed in Table No 10.1.
Table 10
Arid Deserts of the World
Bescri Area (A///-)
Sahara (Africa) 9,100,000
Australian Desert 3.400,000

Turkestan Desert (Asia) 1.900,000
Arabian Desert (Asia) 2,600,000
North American Deserts 1,300.000
Thar Desert (Asia) 600,000

Namtb and Kalahari Deserts (Africa) 570,000
Total Area under Deserts 19,470,000
The various types of deserts can be identified on the basis

of predominant substratum. The rocky, stony desert is called
1
the clay desert ‘sebcha' and takyr

'
•hamada', the gravel desert ‘serir’,
and sandy desert with dunes are called ‘erg’ and ‘barchan}’.
Sahara is the biggest desert of the world Quite a large
number of geographers believe that this desert extends eastwards

into Arabia and Thar and forms the Saharan-Sindhtan desert,
including the Sahel zone south of the actual Sahara. In this desert,
vegetation of cushion-plants, bunch-grasses and spiny succulents

is predominant. The sandy and gravelly areas along the dry river
bpds may have large areas of tamarisk ( Tamarix spp.) and jujubes
•
{Zayphus spp.). Potkilodydrous plants, which are capable of drying
and some mosses. In the saline depressions
out, e g. algae, lichens
on the Plateau of Chotts, dwarf halophy tic shrubs of sea lavender,

sea rushes and rice grass are found. In the northern Sahara, where
rainfall is a little more (40 cm.], ihe dry steppe vegetation of alfa.
MAJOR BIOMRS OF THE VJOM.D-GRASSU'ND S 217
acacias, date palm [Phoenix dactyhfeta), dome palm, papyrus
I
C} perns papyrus ) and olive exists
The true deseris of Arabia are called Ruba-el-Khali and
Nefud regions Their vegetation is almost the same as of Sahara
A further extension of the hot desert of Arabia is found in Balu

chistan, Sindh and Rajasthan, having diversified species of plants
of oriental and Ethiopian regions
In the Thar desert of the Indian subcontinent, the domi-

nant species on granite hills are Commiphora muktil, Euphorbia cadu-
cifoha, Gre ma tenax and Zizyphus mtmnmlaria On older alluvial
plains, asm the Lum basin, Salmdora oleoides. Prosopn cmerana,
Capparis decidua, Acacia jacquenwiiiii and Aena persica species are
found in abundance On soils of younger alluvium. Acacia
arabtea, Azaduachla mdica, Picm lelegiosa, P benghalensis Tamarmdus
mdica, Albizzia lebbek and Ztzi pints maurmna. which are tall peren-
nial trees and shrubs, are found Over the sand dunes, the dominant
species are Khejri, babul (Acagia Senegal) and Tecomella mditlata
The common shrubs are ak [catrolopis procero) Leptadema pyroteeft-
mca and Lycmm barbarian Several weeds and grasses are commonly
found e.g Clilons virgala Dicanilnum anmtlawm, Cjnodon daclylon,
Xanthitim sirmnanum etc
The hot deserts of North America are varied Over the

Mexican plateau, the vegetation is that of a semi-desert type Here
bunch grass, sage brush and creosote, shrub are dominant species
in plateaus Cactus, agave, yucca and mesquite grasses are found
in drier parts while greasewood is common in saline pans In the
great basin and over the Colorado plateau creosote bush [Larrea
maxicana), sage brush ( Artmiaa tndenlata), shad scale (Atriplex
coifertifoha), and mesquite (Prosopis spp.) are common Giant
cactu, reaching heights of over 10 metres, are special features of
the desen vegetation m North America The most common among
them are giant saguare (Caritegia giganfca) and prickly pear [Opuntia
spp )
In Sonth America the Peruvian desert extending up to the
northern parts of Chile (6'’S-30 o S) is a true hot desert called
Atacama Various species of cacln and xerophytic shrubs found in
North America are also present here
The Kalahari and Namib deserts of South America extend

along the west coast of the African continent It extends betwet n
218 ESSENTIALS or BIOGTOGRAWn
16"S and 32°S latitudes, occupying much of the States ol Botswana,
Namibia, southern Angola and Zimbabwe The width of the desert

land \ axles from 15 to 130 km The vegetation varies from occa-
sional succulents to Acacia shrubs, bunch grass, karoo thorn bush to
Kalahari snad bush Over the granite hills the dominant vegetation
is kokerboom (Abe dichotoma ), meikboom ( Euphorbia drcgcana) and
Bushman's candle Sariocaulon burmann )
(
The gravel plains are
destitute of vegetation far manv miles The sand-dunes have
sparse growth of wary grasses and lumboa (Wehutschia nnrahihs )
The western part of the Australia is a true desert forming

me second biggest desert in the world On the coastal areas the
average annual rainfall is 38 cm which gradually decreases in the
interior with much of the area receiving less than 25 cm of annual

rain Here the dominant shrubs are of mulga Acacia ancura ), having I
scattered growth of grasses like the porcupine grass (Triodia imsiila

and T irntans )
COLD DESERTS
These deserts exist in mid latitudes and are the deserts of
Iran, Turkestan, Takla Makan and Gobi The cold deserts of Asia
are marked with aridity on account of their locaiion in the interior
of the continent where the ratn-bearing sea winds seldom reach
Takla Makan in the Tarim basin. Karakum in Russian Turkestan
and Gobi in Mongolia and China experience the vagaries of seasons
which affect the vegetal growth in these areas These deserts have
drifting sand with interspersed areas of seasonal streams and drv
ruer beds.
The vegetation consists of artemisia camel sage, lov
thornv bushes, v irv grasses and tussock grasses In the courses
of ephemeral rivers tall trees as those of tamariks and some scrub
vegetation may be noticeable The semi desert areas of these
regions have good pastures which now exist in degraded forms
Altitudinal zonation of vegetation is most marked The higher
mountains of Gobi and Dash i Lut of Iran may have the vegetation
l
o v ild poplars while me lo Hands have a few sparse shrubs
THE TUNDRA
The tundras, often called the cold deserts, are found in the
219
MAJOR BIOMES OF THE WORLD-GRASSLANDS
northern hemisphere, north of the boreal coniferous forest belt

The transition from the boreal to the tundra region appears to coin-
cide with a mean daily temperature of at least 10°C in the warmest
month and a growing season of less than 3 months In Eurasia
and North America the boundary belween the tundra and the
borealforests lies further north in the west where climate is
moderated by warm westerly winds. Greenland and Antarctica ate

ice-caps which remain permanently frozen and are devoid of any
vegetation Therefore, the tundra region is constituted by Alaska,
northern Canada, coastal parts of southern Greenland, northern

half of Scandinavia, northern Siberia and Russia In Scandinavia
it is called ‘laplrnd'
Tundra is a Lappish term meaning ‘marshy plain’ but is
now widely used to connote the undulating treeless plains of the

arctic regions which lie between 60°N and ?5°N latitudes North
of 75° latitude it is a region of permanent ice It is a hostile, barren
land which is known as 'JimrurT in Finland In general, the tundra
lands are all those lands which encircle the Arctic Ocean and lie
beyond the timber-line, characteristically having a poor vegetation
Tundra regions have cool summers and cold winters. The

10°C isotherm of the warmest month marks their northern limit and
the southern limit is formed by the regions of continuous perma-
frost The ground, however, remains frozen except for the few
top centimetres ol soil which thaws in summer Precipitation is
very low, not exceeding 25 cm annually, and most of it is in the

form of snow The summers are short but the growing period for
higher plants is not so short as to inhibit their growth It is made
longer by the long hours of daylight during the summer With the
thawing of snow and ice in summers, the low-lying areas become
water-logged and have luxuriant growth of (lowering herbs The
average productivity of plants and trees is 140 gmjm 2 /year which
is quite low but higher than that in the deserts
In North America, ihe tundra belt stretches from Alaska

through northern Canada to Greenland Between the tundra and
the coniferous forests exists a transitional zone called the ‘land of
sticks, or the ‘sub-arctic zone’, having rich growth of grasses,

sedge-bush, saxifrage, crou-berries and arctic ferns The
ground is covered with a continuous mat of lichens and mosses
220 ESSENTIALS or BIOGEQGRAPm
The sheltered valleys of Alaska have thickets of dv.arf birches

{Uiiuhi nnirn] and creeping arctic willows (Snh.x arciini] Most of
the higher plants are geophvtes which tolerate the freezing cold bv
producing reqenerative buds of tubers, rhizomes and runners. The

mountain areas ore poor in higher plants but they have an abund-
ance of lichens tCfotlma spp ), shrubs of crou'-berry ( Empcratum
nicrum) and arctic heather, associated with woolly-moss {Rliaeomilriwn
larmgmomm) and bog-moss ( Sphagnum spp ).
The Eurasian tundras extend over a much larger area,
starting from Norway in ihe west to the Pacific coast in the east
Thev are 50 to 300 km. wide and have wider extensions In the
east In Asiatic Russia, the boreal forests often extend northwards

In nver-vallevs forming finger-like protrusions of forest-tundra
which in the native language are called 'tmbola*'. They are transi-
tional zones between boreal forests and the tundra proper.
In large river valleys like Ob, Yeneise and Lena, where

most of the land Is boggy and moist, marshy vegetation exists wl'h
a dominance of arctic moss ( Polytnchiim spp ), lichens and seasonal
flowering herbs In sheltered spots, dwaif birches, willows and

Scots pine are found in thickets Over the mountains of Scandi-
navia, cloudberries are the dominant shrubs The entire Asiatic
tundra has a preponderance of reindeer moss Cladonia rangiftrma). (
The woody vegetation consists of marsh andromeda, whortle-berry,

black birch, bilberry and junipers. Yellow-moss and white reindeer-
lichens may be found occurring in patches and such a landscape is
called speckled tundra.
The tundra vegetation is also found in the southern

hemisphere as in the Tlerra del Fuego (South America) and
in the Antarctic offshore Islands like Macquaries, Kerguelen,
Ballenv, South Sandwich islands, etc It exists to some extent
In the Graham Peninsula of the Antarctica and in the South Shet-
land Islands as well. A few herbs are endemic to these areas and
are not found in the northern hemisphere.
major biomes ot the world-grasslands 221
FURTHER REARING
1 Cloudsley-Thomson, J L (1977), Man and the Biology
of Arid Zones, Edward Arnold, London

2 Cole, M M, “Cerado, Caatinga, Panlanal Distribution
and Origin of Savanna Vegetation of Brazil”, Geogra-
phical Journal, Vol 126 pp 168-79

3 Golley, FB and Medina, F (eds), (1975), Tropica!
Ecological Systems, Ecological Studies 11 Spvmger-
Verlag, New York
4 Hills, ES (ed ] (1966), And Lands, Methuen, London
5 Ives, JD and Barry, RG (eds) (1974], Arctic and
Alpine Environment; Methuen, London
6 Rosswall, T and Heal, 0 W (1974), Slnicture and
Function of Tundra Ecosystems, Swedish Natural Science,
Stockholm
7 Weaver, J E (1954), The North American Prairie, John-
son, Lincoln (Nebraska)
11
Nature and Classification

of Animals
The biosphere has a greai variety of animals which inhabit

Jie oceans, below and upon the land surface, in the atmosphere,
in fresh and salt waters of rivers, lakes and ponds and in the orga-
nic bodies More than one million species of animals have been
identified to date and the number is constantly increasing
with new discoveries The animals are not only enormous in num-
ber but they also present a great diversity of forms, structure,
habits and modes of life
AMMAL CHARACTERISTICS
Animals are distinguished from plants in many ways. All
animals, barring a few belonging to the class Parazoa, are motile,

possessing the power of locomotion with which they can move
from one place to another search of food The locomotive power
in
also helps them to defend themselves against enemies and vagaries

of wealher Animals do not have the green chlorophyll and are there-
*
fore, hcterotrophicdepending upon plants for their food They
,
have greater power of irritability or sensation than plants and so

they respond to the external stimuli in a more intelligent way
By virtue of their greater mobility, animals can spread
more rapidly than plants Higher animals like birds can travel
NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS 223
thousands of miles and spread their species in larger areas Mam

mals can also migrate to distant areas and can spread their forms
rapidly Animals do not remain at the mercy of unfavourable weat-
her and easily hide themselves in burrows, hideouts, plant covers and
various other types of shelters Because of the two factors-mobility
and intelligence, they accept the challenges of the 'struggle for
existence’ m a better way than plants As the animals do not have

the imperative need of light to manufacture food, they can live
without light, and certain low r ammals like the worms inhabiting
the human intestines in fact live tn utter darkness
ENVIRONMENTAL ADAPTATIONS
Various lypes of animals live in different environments and

habitats Some are ‘arboteal like monkeys and birds, living on trees
and shrubs, others are ‘terrestrial' like tigers, elephants, buffaloes

and cows living on land Still others prefer to live in the soil like
earthworms, rats snakes, insects and mol°s and they are known as
‘temcolae’ Another type are ‘aquatic’, living in waler, such as fishes,
whales, prawns, shells etc
The various types of creatures inhabiting the different
habitats have developed special morphological and physiological

features to adapt themselves to their environment Thus arboreal
animals like birds have developed feathers and wings to fly in the
air, and apes and monkeys inhabiting the trees can jump, glide and
hop from one branch to another with the help of well-developed
muscles of the hind legs Terrestrial ammals have the immense
power to run fast, to chase their prey as is the case with tigers and
leopards, or to roam over vast areas, without exhaustion, in search
of food as is the case with deer, antelopes and goals A few land
animals residing on mouniams have well-developed hoofs to be
sure footed while negotiating the precipitous slopes and cliffs as
in ponies, llamas and yaks
Terncolous animals, beneath the soil, do no! need

living
light and so their eyes are less developed or they are completely
devoid of eyes as in earthworms Aquatic ammals need a moist
environment or water to live in They either develop gills as in fis-
hes, to breathe in the dissolved oxygen in water or adopt cuticular
tespiralion as in frogs and other aquatic
amphibians Some animals,
224 ESStMTULS or BIOCEOGRAFHI
like crocodiles, tortoises, turtles, beavers aid otters are semi-aqua-

tic and can live on land and in water both These animals occasio-
nally protrude their heads out of water to breathe in the atmos
pherlc air for a few minutes and then again swim in the water (or a
longer time Aquatic birds develop webbed feet and long
legs to swim and wade In water, as In the case of herons, storks,

pelicans etc They have pointed peculiar beaks or spoonbills to
pick up and eat water animals like worms, fishes and insects A
common feature among all aqutcolac animals is that they have
stream-lined bodies, fins or flagellas to swim beneath water
Some animals have special features like camouflaging and
lumirlscence which develops as a defensive mechanism or a method
of searching food and prey
Cimoufloglng
In this form of adaptation, the animal disguises Its form

in such a way that it harmonises with the environment The tiger,
having black stripes and yellow coloured skin, hides itself in the
grasslands and under the shade of trees and bushes in such a way
that it can hardly be located It Is in a way protective colouring
which helps it to escape detection both by its prey as well as ene-
mies The arctic polar bear has a white fur to escape detection
Most of the animals living in cold tundra regions have a white skin
and a thick coat of fur that helps them to harmonise with the sur-
roundings The zebra has stripes and patches ol dark-tan colour to
camouflage in the tall grasses or savannas Some reptiles, like the
lizardsand chamaleons and some of the frogs are also able to make
rapid colour changes according to the compulsions of the environ-
ment Some of the flat fishes which live on the sea-beds have the
rare ability to change their colour and the entire body patterns in a
matter of seconds
Advantageous superficial resemblences to some other

spectes or objects are also exhibited by some animals, This is
known as ‘ nwmer In this process the animals adapt the shapes ol

their body in such a way that it blends with their surroundings,
especially when the creatures are still and virtually indistinguishable
as separate objects Protective shapes are very common among the

injects The grasshopper resembles the green foliage on which it
nature and classification of animals 225
sits Many butterflies have exactly the same pattern of wings as the
flowers on which they sit to extract the nectar, a few others have
leaf shaped wings so that when they sit on a twig they look like a
leaf The various locusts found in deserts are yellow-brown colou-
red resembling the colour of the sand. Mimicry is found in the ani-
mals of the sea as well The sea-horse has long tentacles resembling
the fronds of the sea-weeds in which it lives Desert animals have
protective colourings of the sand colour or of dry bushes Manv
lizards and snakes living in ihe deserts like geckos, vipers and
sand snakes have the colour of the sand
Mimicing is also resorted to for mating, especially among

ihe birds The male birds develop spectacularly beautiful plumage,
in the season of mating to attract ihe females Dancing, by sprea-
ding the plumage and wings, is common m peacocks and pigeons,
as a sign of courtship A few birds tike cuckoos and pheasants
utter peculiar melodious sounds to call the mating partners
Luminescence
This phenomenon is found in some animals in which light

is emitted from their body periodically for some time Fishes have
developed this feature to a remarkable degree
Luminescence is
mostly found in aquatic sea animals because
of the total lack of
light in deeper areas It is most common in coelentrates such as
ctenophores and comb jellies, crustaceans like pra-

|elley-fish.es,
wns and squids and the fishes The phenomenon is

also found, in
some terrestrial animals and insects like the glow-worm
But most
commonly, the aquatic life found below 600 metres depth has
developed ihe property of luminescence to the highest
degree and
to a great complexity
Light production m
all such cases in on account
of phos-
phorus compounds that are present in luminescent
animals The
phenomenon occurs in three different ways It may take
place within
'he cells of the animals when called intracellular luminescence
it ts
,
or
the animal may discharge a luminous scretion when it is called
‘aura cellular luminescence, or the
light is produced by luminous
symbiotic bacteria within the animal
when it is called 'bacterial
luminescence'.
226 tsscntials or nioGioGRu>m
The functions of luminescence In animals are varied h

mav be a defensivempchanism as in some coelentrates like sea-
pens, jelley-flshes, comb-jellies and sea-squirts, as thev emit light
onfv alien they are touched. The fishes emit light to find their path
in deep sea waters where there is total darkness or their lumines-

cence may be for showing their presence to other animals Fire
flies and glow-uorms emit light as mating signal and It is possible

that some fishes also produce light to attract the attention ol the
mating partner
TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS
It would be useful to understand the classification of the

animal kingdom here, as a million species of animals found in the
v odd present a variety of morphological forms, physiological func-
tions and adaplalions to habitat and environment The tavoitomtc
classification is used bv zoologists to classify animals on the basis
of special characteristics of each species and genus Each species
possesses specific morphological, physiological and genetic ehara
cteristics on the basis of which it can be distinguished from others
The foundations of the modern svstem of classification

were by John Ray (1627-1705). an Englishman, who introduerd
laid
the system on the basis of species and genera The Zoological

classification, that is followed today, was given by Ernst Heinrich
Haeckel (1864) and E Ray Lankester (1877) Broadly, the system
divides the entire animal kingdom into various phyla, sub-phyla,

classes, orders, families, genera and species Thus he place of man
l
in this system of classification is given as follows :
Kingdom Anfmalla
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Mammalia
Subclass Euthena
Order Primates
Family Hominmae
Genus Homo
Species Sapiens
The taxonomic classification is helpful in placing the
animals at the right place and to know the order of their evolution
on the earth Broadly, the animals can be grouped in two subgro-
ups viz Protozoa and Metazoa
PROTOZOA
They are small, microscopic, unicellular animals which may
live in a solu ary manner or m colonies The single cell is able to
perform all physiological functions such as food absorbing, loco-
motion and nutrition These animals are mostly aquatic, living in
fresh or marine water but while on land they inhabit moist, terrest-
rial habitats Amoeba pioleus is the common example of such
protozolc animals About 50,000 species of protozoans are
known today
Some protozoic animals are extremely harmful to man,
causing various fatal diseases Tiypansoma gambiense causes slee-
ping sickness, a fatal disease confined to central and west Africa,
particularly occurring near the lakes and rivers of Zaire and Nigeria
The chief vactor which transmits these protozons is the tse tse fly
( Glossma palpahs and G tachmoides) The malarial parasite Plasma

dim has a wide occurrence in tropical moist areas and its four spe-
cies Plasmodium Vi\ ax P falciparum P malauac and P 0\ale are tra-
nsmitted by the various species of the Anopheles mosquito Similarly
Entamoeba lusiol) nca is a protozoa u h.ch causes amoebic dysentery
in man Balantidium coh is the pathogenic parasite found in human
intestines Various other forms of protozoa cause diseases in
other mammals, cattle, monkeys, apes, birds, reptiles and frogs
METAZOA
These are large, multicellular animals, having complex
body structure and the various tissues and organs of the animal
body perform different functions Thus ihere is a physiological
division of labour among variou* cells According to the process
of evolution the metazoans can be broadly divided into two
phyla
INVERTEBRATES
These animals do not have the vertebral column and there-
fore their bodies are not strongThey do not have a developed
nervous system either
22S nssrNtiALS or moGcoGiunn
VERTEBRATES
These animals have the vertebral column, spinal chord and

brain They have a definite shape of the body With the help ol
the vertebral column their bodies can remain erect and s'raight
Thru are higher animals than the invertebrates.
Both the vertebrates and the invertebrates can be divided

Into various phyla and classes Some of the significant ones are
given below
Phylum Portfcrn
These arc the first multicellular animals on the ladder ol
evolution They are called ‘parazoic animals because they are

sessile The body surface is porous The do not have mouth nor
anv diqestive tract They may be cushion-shaped, irregular masses
as in bath sponge (Euspangia) or leaf-like as in Ph)llospongia or cup-
shaped ( Staurocahptus or vase ) like {Sc\pha) Thev form big amor-
phous colonies in the sea water About 10 000 species of this
phylum are known 10 exist
Phylum Coclcntrato
Such animals have a coelentrale (hollow intestinal) body

and a mouth which is encircled by tentacles About 11,000 species
of these animals are found They may be sessile or free swlmminq
solitary or colonial, marine or freshwater e g hydra aureha corals
( Alqomum ) etc Corals have formed big reefs in ihe tropical
oceans The great barrier reef 160 km off the east coast of Aust
ralia is more than 1900 km long Fringe reefs are found near
every island in the Pacific ocean Atolls and lagoons are also for
med by corals
Phylum Platyhelmcnthls
They are flat worms which may be parasitic or freeliving

c g Planaria, Fasciola, Tama etc The parasitic forms living in the
digestive system of man are called ircmalodes and cestoda Fasciola
htpalua Is a trematodc fluke, having a flat leaf like shaDp. inhabiting
the liver of man and causing the liver-rot disease Tama solium, the
pork tape-worm, inhabits the human intestines and is sometimes

more ihan 20 ft long
Phylum Nematheheltninthls
They are also called nemalods or round worms and about
10,000 species are known to exist in the world They have slender
cylindrical round body The worms may be parasitic or free-living,
fresh-water or marine Ascaris himbricotdes and Ancylosloma diiPile-
nales are the most familiar endoparasites inhabiting the large intes-
tines of man
Phylum Molluscs
They are self bodied animals found in freshwater, marine

water and on land They have calcareous covering over their body
as in freshwater mussel, snail, cowrie, sea-hare squids, etc
About 1,20,000 species of these animals are found
Phylum Annelida
They are tinged worms having an elongated body e g

Nereis, whichis usually found on sea shores and the earthworm
(Pheretima) found in the soils of gardens and fields The Indian

cattle leech [Hiiudmana gianidosa), which sucks the blood of animals
and man, is a parasite belonging to this phylum About 7,000 spe-
cies of these worms are found today
Phylum Echlnodermata
Animals o! this phylum have spmy skin as is the case with

starfishes, basket star, sand-dollars, sea-cucumber, sea-lilies,
feather -star, etc Nearly all the animals are marine and some of
them live even in deep seas They have no excretory organs but
have a well-developed endoskeleton About 6,000 species are
known
Phylum Arthropoda
They are joint-footed animals, having segmented bodies

and jointed appendages They have a chitinous covering over
their bodies They may have terrestrial, fresh water or marine
230 ESSENTIALS Or DIOOEOGHAWn
habitat. About 9.00.000 species o( these animals are known and

they form the largest bulk of all animals. Amongst [he invertebra-
tes. they are highly evolved animals having a complete digestive

system, well-developed respiratory, circulatory and excretory
systems.
The fossil inlobiies. which evolved in the Cambrian age
(570 million years ago), belonged to this group. King-crab, crab,

prawn, sea-spiders, shrimps, water-fleas, are aquatic-marine arthro-
pods Scorpions, whip-scorpions, house-spiders, wolf-spider,
house and mosquitoes are commonly found on land and in

fly,
marshy areas Locusts, praying mantis, stick insect, and house-

cricket live in damp warm places. Cenlipedes have poisonous
claws Butterflies and moihs of a variety of shapes also belong

lo the group of Arthropods.
Phylum Homlchordalji
These animals are ihe ancestors of the veriebrates as they

have half developed notochord. Most of them are extinct now and
only 80 species are known The common species are acorn worms
iBalanoglosm which have gill-shts like a fish, a primitive lypeof
nervous system and a developed circulatory and reproductive
systems.
Vcrtcbruta
Vertebrata are mostly terrestrial but the primitive forms

are aquatic or semi-aquatic, living in fresh water, marine-water and
marshy areas Some of the vertebrates like fishes, amphibians and
reptiles are called ‘c old blooded', as their body temperature is not
constant and changes according to the environmental conditions.
Birds and mammals arc called • Harm-blooded as they maintain the
body temperature constantly
Vertebrates can be classified into the following five major

classes :
Class Pisces
All fishes are aquatic, some living in fresh water of rivers,

ponds and lakes and others in the seas. About 20,000 species of
this class are found today Pelagic fishes are sometimrs free-
swimming e g. herrings which swim in shoals in surface walers.
Others are demersal e g pluice, sole and halibuts which live near
the sandy sea-beds in shallow walers. The salmon fish spends part
of its life cycle in the ocean and partly in a river. Fishes like
macronema, angler-fish, aconthonus, deep sea eel and tripod fish

live in deep waters of the ocean. Others like shark, eagle-ray, tuna,
plaice, haddock, cod, mackerel, hake etc. live in shallow seas, not
beyond 25 metres deep.
Fishes have scales over the body and gills for respiration.
They absorb the dissolved oxygen in water with the help of gills.
Some fishes like she lung-fishes have primitive forms of lungs and
can live tn marshy areas, absorbing oxygen partly from water and
partly from air.
Bony fishes occur from the polar seas to the equator, and
from depths of more than 12,000 ft. to shallow waters They live
variously in open waters, sandy, rocky or muddy bottoms, in
crevices of reefs, in saline lays, estuaries, fresh alkaline rivers, lakes
and cave waters, and hot and cold springs. Most fishes migrate
from salt water to fresh water for spawning are called aiiadromns.
Those which migrate from fresh water to salt water for spawning
areknown as ‘caiadi omoud fishes. All fishes have great value for
man as they are rich sources of protewous food, oils and bones.
Shark liver oil, cod liver oil, halibut oil etc, have rich contents of
vitamm A.
Class Amphibia
Amphibians have the unique ability to live in water as well

as on land. They mainly live in fresh water, or damp places but
never in salt water. Frogs are common examples, having a wide
occurrence. One species of frogs is found in cold Arctic tundra,
while tree-frogs are common on the slopes of Sierra Nevada (Cali-
fornia) up to a height of 4,000 metres. Salamanders live in running
waters or tn moist burrows. They are widely distributed in Europe
and North America, eastern Asia and Malaysia. Salamanders are
hzard-like animals having long tails and patchy, coloured sktns.
Newts, the tailed-amphibians of today are found in Europe,
A major group of class amphibia consists of frogs and

toads of various types. The fire-bellied toads Bombinator found
(
)
232 IS5LSTIAIS 0) ntoorooRAi Ih
in the Americas show strong parental care as they carry their eggs
m easculour pouclus underneath the skin The male midwife toad
t-f/i/cs) Citrrtes pggs, laid by the fi males on ns back III! the lorwk
hatch oui The Bufn toad is found up to a height of 3 000 metres
m the Htmaloyas Hyla, the ttee frog is widely distributed in India
China, Americas and Africa li is arboreal In habit, living on trees
and rocks Frogs and toads are tail less amphibians and are there
fore considered to be belter evolved animals than the neats and
salamanders The common frog [Ratio ngriiia) is generally iouno
In swampy areas or in ponds and wells Rlacophorm frog found
in south-east Asia, Japan Madagascar and South Africa has the
peculiar power of flying wilh the help of well-developed webs in
us front and hind feet It is known as flung ftog and can glide to
short distance'
Class Rcptllli
This class includes a wide variety of creeping and crawling

animals such as lizards, snakes, lurtles, tortoises, crocodiles and
alligators Thev are the first vertebrates to have adapted their
bodv for living on land Tliev have a dry scaly body adapted to
away from water
life They have strong limbs for rapid loco-
motion They are egg-laying (Ouparotis) animals showing parental
rare lor the offsprings Reptiles are cold blooded animals and so
their distribution is abundant in tropical and temperate
most
regions and [heir number goes on declining lowards the poles as
they cannot stand freezing cold In u inters, reptiles lead a
dormant life and undergo a period of hibernation, hiding them-
selves in crevices, burrows and other warm places
The three orders of the class repnlia which are most

commonly found today are Laccrlaha, which includes geckos,
iguanas, chomaeleons, and varanus, ophdta, which includes all types
of snakes and serpents and Crocodiha, which includes gavials and
crocodiles The various types of turtles and tortoises found
today are Teitudo, Chrysemys, Chelone, Rachuga and Tn ony r,
the last iwo being most common in Indian rivers and lakes. The
common house lizard [Hatmdaciylus) has a world-wide distribution
Sphcnedtm, a toiled lizard leading a semi-aquaiic hie is commonly

found In New Zealand Gecko and Phrynosoma are new world lizards
Iguana, having spines on its back and a long tail is the most common
lizard in Mexico and central America. The flying lizard (Draco) has
membranous wings and lives on tree tops in the forests of Burma

Moloch lizard has thick spiny scales and is found in the and parts of
Australia Chamaeleon lizard has a world-wide distribution It has
the peculiar characteristic of changing colours in response to the
stimuli of the outer environment. The giant monitor lizard (Vat anus)
is a native of old-world countries and is thought to be poisonous
Snakes are burrowing animals and are called limbless
lizards They have scales on the body. Some of the common forms
are glass-snake (
Opliiosaurus ), Pythons and dhaman which are non-
poisonous The poisonous varieties are rattle snake (
Crotalus ),
vipers, pit-vipers, and cobra (Naja), which are found all over the
world The water -snake lives \n marine and fresh water Crocodiles
and alligators form a class of their own, the latter being disting-
uished by having a long snout They lead an aquatic h'e but are
terrestrial animals as they breath air with lhe help of lungs
Class Avcs
This class includes all types of birds which are easily
recognized by their feathers They are warm- blooded animals in
which the leathers clothe and insulate their body to maintain a

regulated body temperature. They have highly developed sensory
organs like sight, hearing and voice Their forehands are modified
into wings wilh the help of which they can fly and migrate to long
distances
Birds occupy all continents, oceans and islands penetrating

the Arctic beyond 80°N and the Antarctic They live from sea-
level to above timber line on the Everest Albatrosses live in the
open ocean, ducks m marshy places, woodpeckers and parrots on
trees and sparrows on grasses. Most common birds are flamingoes,
vuhures, peacock, pigeons, parrots, owls cuckoos, woodpecker,
house sparrows, etc Birds have peculiai claws and beaks to suit
the environment and the food they eai
in which they live They are
egg-laying animals
Class Mammalia
These are the highest forms of aminals, having mammary

glands through which they feed the young ones These glands in
234 SSEVTIALS or BIOOrOGRAHIl
females produce milk Parental care Is highly developed In them

All mammals have hair on their body or a furry coat to save them
from extremes of temperature and to regulate their constant bodi
temperature Their nervous system and brain are more developed
than those of other animals and so they are able to perform various
activities
Mammals inhabit all sorts of habitats from polar regions

to the tropics and from the seas to dense forests and deserts The
seals and whales are aquatic mammals living in cold seas Porpoises
and dolphins are also mammals which live in temperate waters
Some mammals like bats, apes and monkeys are arboreal Others
are carnivores like tigers, lions, jackals and hyenas Mammals have
been grouped Into three sub-classes
(I) Prototherla
They are egg laying mammals, having mammary glands

u ithout nipples The common examples are duck-billed platypus
{Ormthortynchm) which is found In Tasmania and Australia, ihe
spiny ant-eater, echidna (Tacli)glossus), having a wider occurrence in
the East-Indies and the opposum found only in South America They
are all primitive mammals
(II) Metnlhcrln
These mammals give birth to half-developed babies and c o

after birth the babies are kept in a pouch to feed and nourish
through the mammary glands They are also primitive mammals
found in Australia as a result of long periods of geographic Isold
lion Kangaroos are the common examples of this sub class Nearly
300 species of Kangaroos are found in Australia Such animals are
also called marsupial t
‘
(tit) Eulherln
The mammals of this group give birth to developed babws

In the womb the babies are attached with a placenta and so this
sub class Is also knoun as Placcnlaha All hoofed animals like deer,
antelopes, horses, cows buffaloes etc are eutherian mammals The

other examples are Lorn, an arboreal primate found in Madagascar,
Sri Lanka and India; squirrels, pangolin, the scaly ant-earter found
in the Himalayas porcupine having needle-like long bristles, lions,
panthers and tigers etc Man Homo

( sapiens) also belongs to this
class All these animals have teeth for chewing food Except men
they are all four-legged animals and hence called quadrupeds The
highest evolved animal is man, followed by apes and monkeys, all
ol whom have well-developed brain
FURTHER READING
1 Anderson M S (1971) The Geography of Lnmg Things;

English Universities Press, London
2 Archer, B etal, (1976) Undei standing Biology, Mills and
Boon, London
3 George, W (1962), Animal Geogiaphy, Heinemann,

London
4 Muller, P (1974), Aspect of Zoogeography, Junk, The
Hague
5 Seddon, B (1971), Introduction to Biogeography,
Duckworih London
12
Zoogeographical Regions
of the Old World
A natural region having a similaritv of distribution ol ani

mals Is called a Zoogeographies! region ov zoological region
Today we find that ihe various continents ot some areas ihereof
have a homogeneity of animal life uhich is related to the past stret
ching up to the geological times The present-day distribution ol
launa is related to the process of their evolution and consequent

dispersal uhich has been going on continuously over the earih
ever since life originated over it The distribution pattern of vario-
us animals has been a subject of interest both to the zoologists and
geographers While zoologists have been interested in discovering

the variations ol speciation and their morphological and phvsiolo
gical adaptations the geographers have broadly confined their in
tercst to in establishing relationships of animal distribution to cli
mate conditions, relief features edaphic factors and vegetation

zones All this has largely been based upon the distribution ol
mammals, birds, reptiles and arthropods, uhich are higher forms ol
animals on Ihe ladder ol evolution
It v as Sclater (1857) uho first demarcated 6 primary

zoological regions of ihe uoild after a detailed examination of the
distribution ol birds Sclater’s 6 zoogeographical regions uere

ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPHY 237
j
I
)
The Palaemctic Region — comprising entire Europe,
temperate Asia and northern parts oi Africa bordering
the Mediterranaen sea

(n )
The Ethiopian Region— including entire Africa south of
Sahara, the tropical southern parts of Arabian penin-
suta, the island of Madagascar and the surrounding
tiny islands of Indian ocean
(m) The Indian Region— which comprised the entire Indian
subcontinent south of the Great Himalayas extending

eastwards up to south China and Vietnam and also in
eluding the islands of East indies up to Borneo

and Java
(tv) The Austiahan Region— which included the entire
Australian continent, New Zealand, the Pacific islands

and the islands oi East Indies which he east oi Celebes
and Lombok
(v) The Nearatic Region-\his included the North Ameri-
can continent up to northern Mexico including Green-
land and all other islands lying in the Arctic Ocean
(vi) The Neotropical Region— This comprised the centra!
America and the enure South America along with the
islands ol Carebbean Sea
Fig II Scla'er’s Major Zoogeographtcal Regions of the World

Attempts continued m this direction in later years by
several ecologists Andrew Murray, m 186S, published an illustra
23S 700GrOGR*rillCAI REGIONS OF THE OLD WORLD
led volume on the geographical distribution of mammals shoeing

four zoological regions of the world
1 ) The Palacarctie Rigm— This included the entire area

as given by Sclater bui was e'tendcd further south
into Africa to include the Sahara and Nubia deserts
(ill The Indo-Afntan Rt gion— This broad region comprised

the entire regions of India and Ethiopia which were
separated bv Sclater
(ill) The Australian Region— was the same as given bv

Sclater without any alterations
(iv) Tin American Region — This broad region Inlcuded both

the comments of North America and South America
Later on Professor J Huxley (1868) reasoned out that the

most primary divisions both as regards the distribution of mammals
and birds are into Northern and Southern hemispheres vi7 Arctogea
and Notogca the former embracing the entire continent of Africa

also Thus Asia, Europe, Africa and North America were Included
into the broad primary division Arctogea and South America and
Australia were classed mtoNetogea
Edward Blyth (1871) suggested a new division of the earth
Into primary zoological regions and 26 sub-regions His seven
regions were the following
(
)
The Boreal Region— This region included all the colder
I
parts of (he earth, chiefly the whole of the Palaearctlc and Nearctlc
regions of Sclater along with the whole chain of Andes starling from
Mexico through central America, traversing through Columbia,
Equador, Peru and Chile and terminating in Patagonia
(ii) The Columbian Region— This consisted of the remain-
ing parts of South America which are mostly lowlands and
plateaus
(ai) The Ethiopian Region— It comprised the same parts of

Africa which were included by Sclater but n also included
the valley
of Jordan, the deserts of Arabia the Thar desert of India, the table-
lands and plains of India and the northern half of Ceylon, all of
which have striking similarities
(iv) The Lcn unan Regia —This small region consisted of

ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPHY 239
the island of Madagascar and the adjacent islands of the Indian
Ocean
(
u )
The Austral-Asian fiegton-This included the eastern
pans of India, the Indo China the East Indies, the New Zealand
and the entire continent of Australia
(vi) The Melanasm Region— This included the islands of
the northern Pacific including the Phrlhpinnes and Japan

(vn) The Polynesian Region— It comprised all the islands
of southern Pacific which extend as far west as the coasts of South

America
The regions presented by Blyth were unequal and hardly had

any geographical homogeniety J A Allen.a contemporary of Blyth
therefore, made another attempt to divide the world into 8 major

zoogeographtcal regions In an elaborate paper on “The Birds
of eastern North America-their distribution and migrations”, he
proposed a division of the earth in terms of ‘the law of circum-
polar distribution of life in zones" According to this law he proposed
that all types of animal life is distributed in the form of zones or
belts around the north pole The density of fauna increases as we
travarse towards the equator and again decreases towards the
south pole Thus he envisaged 8 realms of animal life on the
earth
( l ) The Arctic realm extending from north pole to the

arctic circle and offering very few optimal conditions to life
(
n 1 The North Temperate realm of ihe mid-latitudes exten-
ding from the arctic circle to about 40°N latitude
(in) The American Tiopical realm occupying most of the
tropical parts of North Amertca where animal hie is different from
cither parts of the torrid zones of the earth
(iv) The Indo-African Tropical realm which Includes the

tropical regions of India and Africa and there the fauna is almost
identical
(v) The South American Tropical realm which comprises

the warmer parts of rhis continent, lying entirely in the southern
hemisphere
(vi) The Australian realm which comprises most of the tropi-

cal parts of this continent and owing to its island location has
maintained a geographical isolation for long
240 ESSENTIALS OF mOGrOGRAITIT
|vu) The Afittan Timpamc realm comprising the narrow up

of south Africa which has a mild winter. mediterranean type of
climate.
(villi Tire Antarctica realm constituting the ice-covoied

continent uhich harbours hardly any animal and bird life on its
coastal areas
Todav most of the ecologists follow the original regions
which v ere proposed bv Sclatcr, with few minor modifications.

Sclatcr’s 6 zoogeograplncal regions arc of equal size and quite
distinct- He had originally divided thtm on the basis of birds tut

even if we look at them in regard to the distribution of mammals
we find that distinct families of terrestrial mammals exist in each of
them
Table 12 1
Sclatcr s Zoogeographical Regions
Region Mammalian fauna A\m Patina
Genera fecit • Perc- Gen- Pccti- Ptr-
Totmd bar enlagc era liar ren-
Genera found Gi ncra tage
1 Palaearctic 100 35 35 174 57 33
2 Ethiopian 140 90 64 297 179 60
3 Oriental 118 55 46 340 165 48

4 Australian 72 44 61 293 189 64
5 Nearctic 74 24 32 169 52 31
6 Neotropical 130 103 79 683 576 86
After A R Wil lace (1876)
Udvardy (1975) in his paper on "A classification of the
Biogeographical Provinces of the World" distinguished 8 major

*
Biorealms' of the world and subdivided them into numerous regions
The Biorealms viz Palearctic. Nearclic, Afrotropic, Indo-Malavan.
Oceanic, Australian, Antarctic and Neotropic are mostly those
which were given earlier by Muller, except for minor differences in
their areal extensions For example, the southern part of Florida

and the southern tip of the Californian pentsula has been included
ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF THE OLD WORLD 241
in the Neotropical region by Udvardy but in the Palaearctic region

by Muller It is noteworthy that animal realms can be dihneated
by sharp borders only in climatically hostile areas where there are
high mountains, wide inlets of seas, hot deserts, and ice deserts etc
Table 122
The Biorealms of the World
Realm Region Geographical Areas
1 Holarcnc (a) Nearctic North America, Greenland

and the highlands of
Mexico
(b) Palaearctic Eurasia including Iceland,
the Canary Islands, Japan
and Korea, and North
Africa
2 Palaeotropic (a) Ethiopian Africa, south of Sahara
(b) Malagassy Madagascar and offshore
islands
(c) Oriental Indian subcomment, Soulh-
East Asia up to the Wallace
line
3 Australis (a) Australian Australia, New Guinea and

the islands east of the
Wallace Line, New Caledo-
nia, the Solomon Islands
(b) Oceanic New Zealand and tile
islands of Pacific Ocean.

4 Neolropic South America, Central
America and the Caribbean
Islands
5 Archinonc The Antarctic, South-
western parts of South
America and S W New
Zealand
After Paul Muller

(1973)
242 cssentials of niocroGiurm
Bm generally, there are wide transition and Intermixing rones

•
between the realms, called ccoroncs by ecologists and 'transitu
'
,
areas by blogeographers It is however, difficult to classify such
areas in one region or the other because of their overlapping faunal
charncicrlsllcs
TRANSITION AREAS
Broadly, lour transition areas can be recognised In ihe
world which have the overlapping characteristics of the fauna of
two or more biogeographical provinces
(1) Indonesia
The islands of Indonesia spteading over an area of 13

million sq km at the borders of Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean
have an admixture of fauna of Oriental and Australian regions
Although the two regions are separated bv the Wallace Line the
difference Is only minor in regard to the vertebrates The Walk i
Lme extends from the Lesser Sunda Islands Celebes (Sulawesi) and
Lombok in the uest to the Molluccas (Halmahera). Kei and Am
Islands in (he east In the south it is separated by the L)ddkar
Lme from the Australian region
This transitional zone called ‘IVallaeca' has mixed fauna of
Oriental and Australian regions Celebes has complicated fauna

some of the animal types being endemic The island has 13
endemic mammalian genera, 7 of which are rodents which

immigrated here during the Phocence probable from Malaya
The black ape [Cynepitlicctu «i?cr) and the babirusa (Bab)romu
habtrussa) of the pig deer family which are found in Celebes
have Malayan origin This shows that the two regions wen
well connected by land in the Mesozoic times However, there
is no evidence for a Pleistocene land bridge caused by eustadc

fluctuations in sea level between Celebes and the Malayan
peninsula It has been observed that south of the Wallace Lint
marsupials are absent from Wetar and Timor islands, which shows
that tl)p geographic isolation of the Australian continent had
occurred in Ihe distant past
(2) Central America
Central America strelchinq from Mexico in the north lo

Panama in the soulh is regarded by manv btogeographera as a
transition zone between the Nearciic and the Neotropical regions

Rut it is generally agreed that in the low lying tropical rain-forests
of this part the number of mammalian species of South American

origin is astonishingly high Animal groups which are capable of
migrating to distant places, such as mammals and birds obscure the
characteristics of any indigenous fauna of this area
(3) Sahara and South-West Asia
This region lies along the borders of Palaearctic in the

north, Ethiopian in the south and Oriental in the east These
regions are interconnected along the narrow isthmus of Suez
through which the migration of terrestrial animals had taken place
since the earliest times Evidences also exist that there have been
land bridges in the past through the narrow straits of Gibralter
between Morocco and Spain, and so also between Tunisia and

Italy So a host of anomalies of animal distribution are noticeable
in the Sahara, which are on account of animal migrations
A reconstruction of the climatic and vegetaliona! conditions
of the Sahara shows that after the expansion of the central and
plans m this res'on m about 3000 B C the Palaearctic species ol
fauna and flora were pushed northwards to higher elevations in the
Atlas mountains The actual desert fauna of Saharan Africa is also
present m the arid areas of the Indian subcontinent This suggests
•hatthe and conditions in the subcontinent were also set in the
same stage and the migration of animals continued unabated from
Ethiopian to the oriental region or vice-versa through the narrow
isthmus ol Suez Thus, for instance, the mammalian families
Traguhdae, Rhinocerondae, Elephantidae, Hyaemdae, etc the bird
families Nectarmidae, Pycnonotidae and Indicatoridae, the reptile
family Chamaelonitidae, and the amphibian family Rhacophoridae
are present in both the regions The endemic bird species are
very few
(4) Antaiclica
The Antarctica continent, although frozen today, has acted

as a land bridge m the past particularly between the southern tip
of South America and New Zealand Recent discoveries show that
in this '
Old south" most of the terrestrial vertebrates presently
244 nsr.vmis or mocrooR\riiv
SHing have close taxonomic lies with the northern populations

Numaous older plant groups and Invertebrates indicate a dost r
relationship with the southern continents. Thus Plecopterns.
Chlronomlds and even Crustacean families (S)ncnrila) were already

In existence In (he carlo Ternary justifying the land-bridging of
South America to the old south Fossil findings indicate that this
continent was earlier connected to South America and New Zealand

probably In the Eocene
It should now be possible to present a detailed description

and main characteristics of each of the 6 main regions of ihe
world.
THE PALAEARCT1C REGION
The region, probably the largest, has a vast areal extension

comprising all the temperate parts of Asia. Europe and Africa, fi
extends from Iceland and Azores Islands in the wesi to Japan in

the cast The entire continent of Europe, the British Isles, the
Canary islands, all the Islands of the Medlierranean sea, Siberian,

Manchurian and north China parts of Asia, the middle-east, Iraq.
Iran and northern parts of Arabian peninsula are included in it In

Africa, the Allas mountain region and the coasial parts of Algeria.
Libya. Tunisia and Egvpt are included in it The northern boundary
of the Palaearctlc region touches the Arctic ocean and ihe southern
boundary runs along the Tropic of Cancer in Africa and thereafter
follows the mountain chain of Htndukush, Pamirs and Himalayas
turning northwards to the basin of the Yangtse river in the China
The region is very broad covering a distance from vest to

east not far short of half the clrcumlrence of the globe. The zoo-
logical unity of this vast tract is so great that the majority of she
qenera of animals tn countries so far apart as Great Britain and
Japan are identical. Throughout its northern half, which is mostly
a lowland, the faunal types of the Palaearctic region are very
uniform. But in the vast elevated arid regions of central Asia and
over the slopes of snow covered mountains some characteristic
forms of animals occur which are not found elsewhere The
southern parts adjoining the Mediterranean sea are warmer and
have, therefore, some contrasted features. Owing to a luxuriant
OLD WORLD 245
700 GEOQMPHICAL REGIONS OF THE
vegetation m these parts the faunal life is rich with many peculiar
forms
Pig 1 1 Sub-regions of the Palaearclic Region
The Palaearctic region has great diversilies of relief The

foldedmountain chains of southern Europe, central Asia and the
Near-East have always posed formidable barriers to animal move-
ments The Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians and Balkans of Europe
owing to fheir greater heights and snow capped crests have restnc
ted the movements of animals in norih-south direction Similarly
the Tien shan, Kunlun, Nanshan, Altai Pamirs and Sayan moun-
tains of central Asia, enclosing the intermontanne plateaus and
cold deserts of Dzungaria, Gobi, Smkiang and Tsaidam have special
peculiar forms of terrestrial animals owing to the land barriers
The region has a varied climate North of the arctic circle
lies the tundra region where permafrost prevails and the vegetation
isscanty and that too only during summers South of the tundra
zone and over the slopes of mountains lies the broad belt of coni-
ferous forests which abounds in animal life due to temperate climatic
conditions Central Asia is arid and continental in climate having
246 tssiNTiAis 01 moc.iOGK\rm
t xiremes of temperatures, low rainfall and quite often s*wu-b|tz-

z aids. The European par! of this region has a mild climate due tu
•nveral inlets of seas which modi rale the temperatures and provide
ample rainfall The southwestern part surrounding the Mediter-
ranean sea has mediterranean tvpe of climate where winter rains
follow r d by a warm summer are a predominant feature. In the east,
Japan and northern China have monsoon tvpe of climate having

rains soon after summer. But the winter temperatures are consider-
ably low. This pari of Palaearuir region has deciduous, hard-
uood irees which ai some places are mived with conifers
Due to variations in topography, climate and vegetation

ttie r< glon can be Sub-divided into ihe following four sub-regions :
]. Central and Northern European sub-region

2. Mediterranean sub-region
3 Siberian and Norih Aslan sub-region
4 Manchurian, Norih China and Japan sub-region.
In each of the sub-regions fauna Is markedly different,
largely Influenced by vegcianon and foliage covers which are the

basic essentials for the sustenance of animals. They have also
been Influenced bv human habitation, population density and agri-
tuUuial aUWMss all o( wtvlpb aie ttewum lo propagaton of
wild life
CENTRAL AND NORTH EUROPEAN SUB-REGION
This sub-region which may broadly be termed as European

is zoologically and botanically best known on the globe It Is
bounded on the south by the Pyrennees, the Alps, the Balkans, the
Black sea and the Caucasus mountains To the east its boundaries
are limited by the Ural mountains, the Caspian and ihe Irtish Sea
In the West it Includes the British Isles; and the farthest outliers are
the Islands of Iceland. Canaries and Azores. To the north It
merges so gradually into the Arctic zone that no demarcation Is
possible
To a great extent this sub-region is interpenetrated by die

arms of ihe sea like the Baltic. Adriatic, Tyrrhenian. Aegian and the
Black sea which have made the climate most moderate. The
prevalence of westerly winds, bringing warmth and moisture from
ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OR THE OLD WORLD 247
the Atlantic Ocean influenced by the Gulf Stream current, gives it
a climate for the most part that ts genial and free from extremes of
heat and cold No other part of the Palaearctic region enjoys
such a moderate climate as this. Hence there is a luxuriant growth
of foliage and the faunal life is in abundance
The whole of the sub-region is well-watered, having an

abundance of rivers, streams and brooks flowing in every direction.
The lakes are also in large numbers due to the effects of the Pleis-
tocene ice-age. For the most part it consists of levelled plains and
undulating topography of moderate elevation, the chief mountain
ranges being those of Scandmavt3 in the north-west and the exten-
sive Alpine system of central Europe, Both these mountain systems
are of low heights with a small portion of their surface occupied by
permanent snow-fields or by barren uplands These mountains
a'ford perennial supplies of water in rivers and furnish in their
valleys suitable sites for every form of life Most of the northern
and much of the central parts of Europe are covered with vast belts
of coniferous forests, although much of the vegetal cover has now
been denuded on account of population sprawl.
Animal Life
A variety of animals are found in this sub-region which are

found nowhere else. Among mammalia, the two genera wholly
confined to it are the desman (M)ogale), a curious long snouted
insectivorous animal somewhat resembling the water rat in its habits
and the chamois (Rupicapw). Desmans are found on the banks of
streams in French Pyrenees and all the big rivers of southern
Russia. The chamois are found on the Alps and all the high moun-
tains of central Europe
Among other mammals (he most peculiar forms are the
mole rat, found only in eastern Europe, mole, shrew, badger,
hedgehog, weasel, otter, dormouse and hare Larger mammals
are bear, wild bull, fox and wolf which are often secondary
predators Large predators are totally absen! in this sub-region
which may be on account of the smaller population of herbivores.
Avian fauna is altogether migratory and there is not even

a single species of birds wholly confined to this region These
buds go to their winter abodes in the south and return in early
:-ss ESSENTIALS or RIOGlOGIUHh
'umrnrr Some of the common birds are thrushes, warblers

rcrdling. tits, and wagtails
pipits The buntings, snow-buntings,
i ouse sparrows, linnets, magpies and grouses arc also abundant in
populated areas In cold arctic regions some of the common
varieties are rough legged buzzard, snowy owl. raven lark, wagtail,
dipper and v heat-eater Beyond 70"N latitudes two species of

falcons viz ftiho g)rfoko and lulto pi rtgrinit are notably present
Most of the birds of this sub-region are confined to the pine forests
where sufficient food is available
No genera o( reptiles arc peculiar to this sub-region Both

snakes and lizards are comparatively scarce In all Id species of
snakes and 12 species of lizards are found The common snake

is found up to Sweden and northern Russia The viper is found
further north as far as Archangel (Sd^N) and in the Scandinavia up
to 67°N latitude The sand Itzards and blind lizards have the
most northerly range extending into Poland and northern Russia
Amphibians, being more adapted to a northern cold climate, have
acquired a more special development H)la, the tree-frog is most
common in central Europe Abies, a curious load the male of
which carries about the eggs till they are hatched, is found only in
centra! Europe from France to Hungary Most remarkable of a!)
the amphibians is the Proteus , a singular eel like aquatic creature

with small legs, found only In subterranean lakes
Among freshwater fishes two genera of Perch family

ll’craduc) are peculiar to this sub-region They are Pcrcarma which
is found only in river Dneister and Aspro which is confined to the
rivers of central Europe. Other common fishes are stickleback
pike, carp, gudgeon, loach, bleak, bream tench and roach
mediterranean sub-region
This sub-regbn includes all the countries of Europe that

lie south of the Pyrenees, Alps. Balkans and Caucasus mountains
md also the regions of Africa bordering the Medtterrenean Sea
It includes the Atlas ranges of Morocco and even beyond it the
extra-tropical portions of the Sahara, and in the Nile valley as far as
the second cataract. Further east it includes the northern half of
the Arabian penm«ula, the Middle-East, the whole o( Persia, as
ZOOGEOGRAPH1CAL REGIONS OF THE OLD WORLD 249
well as Baluchistan and Afgamstan up to the banks of the aver
Indus
This extensive district of the Palaearctic region is by far the
richest part in faunal life as it enjoys a moderate climate in which

rigours of winter are almost unknown The region is almost wholly
of mountains and plateaus On the west. Spam is mainly an ele-
vated tableland of more than 600 metres height, deeply penetrated
by extensive valleys and rising lofty mountain chains Italy, Cor-

sica, Sardinia and Sicily are all very mountainous and much of the
surlace is covered with forests Further east m Turkey and Greece

mountain ranges are extensive with comparatively small extensions
of levelled plains In Asia the whole country from Smyrna through
Armenia, Iraq and Iran to the farthest borders of Afghanistan is a
vast elevated plateau girdled by mountains Almost all of them are

more than 2000 metres high The only large tract of lowland
is the valley of Tigris and Euphrates, although some lowland south

of the Caucasus and in the valley of Jordan also exist
In North Africa the valley of the Nile and the coastal plains
of Tripoli and Algiers are almost the only exceptions to the more or
less mountainous and plateau like topography of the region Much
o! this area is nou barren, desolate and arid due to the destruction
of original forests Due to ihe abundance of camels, sheep and

goats m this area the woody vegetation and pastures are being
further degraded and destroyed
The region is markedly different from other sub-regions in
regard to us climate The westerly winds brinq winter rainfall and

the summers are dry Much of Spam is barren Italy and Turkey
are more woody and luxurtent But it is perhaps in Asia Minor, on
the low ranges of Taurus, along the shores of the Black Sea and
to the south of the Caucasus range, that this sub-region attains its
maximum luxuriance m vegetation and animal life From the Cas-
pian Sea eastwards extends a region of barren, arid, elevated de-
serts, diversified by a few fertile valleys, in which the characteristic
flora and (auna of the Palaearctic region abound The Hindukush
mountains form the eastern limit beyond which lies the Siberian
sub-region in the north and the Oriental region in the south
250 rssrvnus or nioirontunn
Anlnnf Life
A few groups of mammalia arc peculiar (o llik x ib ’"oqfo'i
fallen -deer Is today found only In South Furope and North Africa
Ctcnodacnlus . a rat-like animal Is found In Tripoli Tire oth r
characteristic genera of mammals found In North Africa are ele-
phant-shrew and a variety of antelopes In South Luropc thi
tvplcal mammals are a genera of civet, hyena and two genera of
porcupines Besides iheê, camels and horses were perhaps once

indigenous In rhe eas'ern parts of this sub region from where line
migrated to Arabia, central Asia and Indio A wild sheep (Om
n tit men) still Inhabits the islands of Corsica Sardinia and the mount-
ains of souih-eas! Spain The Macacui monkeys found here have
Asiatic affinities and belong to the Oriental group
Birds are mostly migratory The common varieties an
larks, starlings, hoopoe kingfishers, pheasants and vultures The
total number of birds species In the Neir Fast is 322, and of these
no less ihan 260 arc European
The climatic conditions of this sub region are more favour-

able to reptt'es and amphibians So some peculiar forms are found
The colubrlne snake is found onlv In South Europe Curious lizard
like snakes exist only in North Africa Close allies of glass-snakt

called lhabsaunis arc found in North Africa Sand-lizards and
water-lizards are commone vervwhere Among fresh water flshr s
Tclltco (cypridontldae) ts found only in alpine pools on the Aths

mountains
SIBERIAN SUB REGION
This is a large region which extends from the Caspian Sin
to the Kamchatka peninsula and Bcrnng Straits rovering a distance
of about 6000 km To (he cast of ihe Caspian Sea and the Ural
mountains the region Isa lowland which continues around the
northern coast becoming narrower as It reaches the East Cape

Beyond this in a E-N E direction rise hills and uplands soon be-
coming loftv mountains, which extend In an unbroken line from the
Hindu Kush through Tien-Shan. Altai and Yablonoi mountains to
the Sianovoi range in north-pastern extremity of Asia South of

thtse ranges the reqton is almost wholly desert Bevond this in
th< south is the vast plateau of Tibet with Kuen-Lun, Karakoram
and the Himalayan snow-capped ranges forming the most extensive
elevated parts of ihe globe The southern most limits of this sub
ZOOGEGGRAFHICAL REGIONS OF THE OLD WORLD 251
region extend as far south as 29°N latitude in ihe high Himalayas
of Sikkim, while the northern limits merge with the Arctic Ocean
The vegetal covering of this vast tract is well contrasted
A broad tract of northern coast, varying from 200 to 500 km and

sometime even 700 km wide, is occupied by the tundras where the
ground is permamently frozen to a great depth and where nothing
grows except mosses and dwarf arctic plants Tundras have their
greatest extension between the two rivers Ob and Yeneisi up to 60°

N latitude, South of the tundras is the vast broad belt of coniferous
forests which also show their luscious growth on high mountains
They are mixed with deciduous forests in the south and in sheltered
valleys The greatest extension of this forest region is north of
Lake Baikal where It is more than 1200 km wide Such forests are
found even on the Hindu Kush ranges which he m the southern
most parts of this region The remainder of the sub-region is an
open steppe with dwarf grasses, mter-spersed with intervening
deserts, of which Gobi and Turkestan between the Aral and Balkash
lakes are the most extensive The former cold des s rt is nearly
1600 km. long 400 to 650 km broad and is almost as arid as the
Sahara of Africa
PiS 12 2 The topographical barriers of the Siberian sub region

252 rsM \riAis or mocrosRArm
This vast tmhorv. with very few exceptions, is exposi ti to

an extreme climn'c that is Inimical to animal |i
(
t> All the la \.| inds.
being situated in the north, have an excessively cold winter The
land is rrnrshv In summers Dae to hostile climate, animal distri-
bution Is restricted only to a few favourable spots. The central and

southern parts of the region are elevated and extremely dry, marked
with >x high range of annual temperatures. The whole country Is
subject to violent storms and snow -blizzards in summer and winter
and the rich vegetation that clothes the steppes in the spring is
soon pitched up and replaced by dustv plains Under these adverse

climatic influences animal life cannot be expected to be abunhnt
Anlmnl Life
Animals are abundant only in the coniferous forest bill;
elsewhere the scanty veqetatlon abhors their production and dis-
tribution Four genera of mammals are absolutely confined to this
sub-region. They are the vak-the hairv bison of Tibet, a peculiar

form of mole and two types of antelopes In central Asia the com-
mon mammalian fauna Is the tartarian antelope, desert rat. burro-
wing mole-tat and musk-deer Farther north the common animals
are the sable, glutton, reindeer, lemmtng-rals. lynx, arctic fox and
polar bear All these animals havp a thick cover nl fur and their
skints highly prized for human wear

In post-PItocene era, hairy rhinoceros and mammoth
elephants existed here Their entire bodies tn the form of fossils
S' ill remain preserved tn some Ice cliffs near the mouths of great
rivers of Siberia In deciduous fo'ests, species of wild cat, brown
hear, wolf, deer and pika abound: while in mount atns wild goats and
sheep of several species live In the plains and deserts, wild hor$p$,
asses, gazelles, two species of antelopes, flying squirrels, ground
squirrels, marmots and camels arc found The most abundant mam-
malia are reindeers in the north, wolves tn the steppes, wild horses,
goats, sheep and antelopes on the mountains and plateaus.
It is quite curious lhat seals (mammalia) are found In Lake

Baikal situated at a height of about 600 metres Seals ate also
found tn northern seas, lakes Aral and Balkhash The presence of
seals In these areas indicates that almost the whole of all northern
Asia was depressed beneath the sea till very recently It is also
ZOOGEOGRAPHIC AL REGIONS OF THE OLD WORLD 253
thought that during the great glacial epoch of Pleistocene, rivers

were dammed by frozen ice which converted much of Siberia into
fresh water lake or a brackish lake where seals grew
Only a few genera of birds are restricted to this sub-region

Starlings, finches, snow partridges sand grouses, warblers and
pheasants are found in Tibet and other mountains The extreme
north Asiatic birds are Alpine ptarmigen, snow bunting, raven,
gyrfalcon and snowy-owl Willow-grouse, lapland bunting, shore
lark, sand-martin and the sea-eagle are found in taigas and tundras
The coniferous forests have an abundance of linnets, cross-bills,
pine grosbeak, waxwing, common magpie, swallow, peregrine fal-
con, rough-legged buzzard and some species of owls Siberian

birds are mostly migratory, coming as far South as the Ghana bird
sanctuary, Bharatpur and to some of the marshes of peninsular
India in winters About 50 per cent of the land birds of Siberia are
identical with those of Europe; the rest are immigrants from Japan
China and Himalayas In view of the nature of the country and the
climate, reptiles and amphibians are very few, as they cannot with-
stand extreme cold Half*, the croiahne snake and some lizards are
common Sunoi snakes reach up to a height of 5000 metres which
is quite unusual
MANCHURIAN NORTH CHINA AND JAPAN SUB-REGION
Having a different climatic regime and so also the flora and

fauna, this sub region forms a group of us own marked by the
monsoonal and deciduous forests Its northern boundary runs along
the Amur river and Khingan mountains, separting it from the Sibe-
rian sub-region The southern boundary runs along the Yangise
riverThis sub-region includes Mongolia, North China, Manchuria
Korean peninsula and all the islands of Japan
The sub-region is very interesting and productive Japan

u volcanic and mountainous wuh a moderate climate
and luxuriant
vegetation Manchuria is hilly with a high range of mountains on the
coast and some desert tracts m the interior, but fairly wooded in
many parts Much of northern China is a vast alluvial plain, backed
by hills overlain by bells of mixed forests The climate ol the entire
region warm
is in summers with mean temperatures around Z8°C
and is moderately cold in winters with mean temperatures ranging
25! ISSlVmiSOl PIOGIOGRXPm
rail iK to VC. Then? Is suffice nt romtall mostk m sumrm rs In
•unKrs, snow-fall accompanied with snow -blizzards. is no! unco-

mmon.
Antmiil Ufa
On account of high vegetal growth a carle tv of anlrri.il
'pcciis arc found here Among mammals some peculiar forms are
'o,,nd. Rlmppilhtcux monkcv Is a pamamnl resident of the high
forests of Moupm in the cold climate This monkcv has a vr re thick
fur. A mole comparable to the Panda of Nepal is found here ll is ns
large as a bear; the bodv is wholly cchlte, retth feet, ears and tip
of the tail black It inhabits the highest forests \\atruiki. a curious
rncoon-llke dog. ranges from Canton to Nortli China, the Amur

river vallev and (he enllre Japan Small hornless deer, are confined
to North China. Musk-deer Is confined to Tibet Umimhus mole Is
found In Japan The region is remarkable rich in Insectivorous

mammals
The region is very rich In birds Manv of them migrate to
the south bevond the Himalayas In winters It has a vanelv of plica-
'ants of which no less than 16 species are found Characteristic

'mailer birds are warblers, ills, finches and grouses. About one-
half of the land birds arc identical to European and Siberian sub-
regions The golden pheasant (Tlmmaka pictu) has a gorgeous
splendour of plumage. The eared pheasam {Oowpnhn minum )
has sober colours Sand grouse iSjrr/iaplcs paradouis) is a curious
bird which lives in the high plains of Northern China
Reptiles are scarce Ordv four lo five species of snakes

and a lizard inhabit this region The genus Hal)s is the most charac-
teristic form of snakes in north China while Calloplus, an Oriental
genus of snakes eMends to Japan Amphibians arc most abundant
but they are all of the European genera Among fresh-water fishes
there are a few peculiar genera. Salmonulae, in Japan and Ctpnwi/ae
tn China are common, representing both the Palaearctlc and Orien-
tal regions
THE ETHIOPIAN REGION
This is one of the best defined of the major zoogcogra-

phical region', cor sisting of tropical and south Africa Tiopica!
ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL regions of the old WORLD 255
Arabian peninsula Madagascar and a few islands of the Indian

ocean like the Mascarene, Mauritius, Rodriguez, Seychelles and
the Comoro islands, and the Si Helena island of the Atlantic ocean
are also included m this region For the most part, the region is an
extensive tract of moderately elevated plateau,

with a hot and moist
climate, characterized by
savanna vegetation, interspersed with
patches of forest Central Africa
has tropical-rain forests while
south Africa ts mostly temperate
the region ts rich in animal life owing to abundance of

natural vegetation Most of Africa remained undisturbed by modem
man till the end of the nineteenth century and so both vegetation
:. s
c raiMJAis oi mocrocRAPiA
«.nmat lotilrf r. -rat'. n tmio original state This region !.a«

t'rd 1 f<-
o peculiar families of mammalia. inducing 7 peculiar nepera o'
apes found nowhere else m ’tie world
The r.-gon !ps b* on subciud* c iro tlie following loir «i,'.
t. glons
1 The East African

2 The Wo«t African
3 1 he Souih African
•S. Madagasca r and Mascurene Is'ands.
THE FAST AFRICAN SUB-REGION
This region includes a!i the open country of tropica! Africa
south of ihe Sahara, as v. oil as the soulhern desert margins of
Kalahari. It is a vast elevated plateau, 1,000 to 4.000 ft. high,
dissected bv the Nile and Niger rivers and their tributaries. It also
includes the highlands of Fthiopia which are over 6.000 ft. high and
ihe high mountains of Kenya and Kilimlnjaro which have peaks

rxceeding 18.000 ft. height. In the west, the portion south of the
Gambia river to about 10° - 12° south latitude is covered with

dense forests with perennial luxuriance of vegetation, forming a
part of the great equatorial belt of forest all round the globe.
These forests continue in the central part ol Africa covering ihe

entire Zaire slate
The climate is warm and humid supporting luxuriant vege-

tation It is generally an open country covered with a vegetation
of high grasses and thorny bushes with scattered trees and isolated
patches of forest in favourable situations The region experiences

mo maxima of temperatures in April and September when the sun
is at its zenith on the equator The coastal parts receive profuse

rainfall, exceeding 250 cm per year, supporting densp forests
Inland areas get lesser rainfall where onlv grasses can grow.
Animat Hie
Some typical African animals are spread over the whole

area. Koodoo [Tragdaphts strepuceros), a handsome antelope is
found over all highlands from Ethiopia to Tanzania. Aardvark, ihe

ZCOGEOORAPH1CAL REGIONS OF THE OLD WORLD 257
earlh pig (Oncteiopus oetlimputis ). an edenlata, is found in (he nor-
th eastern parts Lions, giraffes, zebras, elephants rhinoceros and

hippopotamuses are found in abundance mostly confined to the
Safaan parks of Uganda and Tanzania Elephant shrews gorillas,
spmy rats and insectivorous mammals are also found over the enVve
sub region
Among birds, (he secretary bird or serpent-killer ISerpenta-
mis reptiIo\aius), which has affinities with both ihe birds of prev
and the waders, is the most peculiar. It is common over almost all
the open country of Africa, feeding on the most venomous serpents.

The red-billed promerops [hrisor a yikwrliyncus), a handsome bird
with qlossv plumage and red coral bill is also found Ii is a peculiar
bird allied to the hoopoes and feeds on the msecis which n hunts
for among the branches of trees Shrikes ( H\pocobus ), and (he great
boat billed heron (
Bahemceps are lound | in the upper Nile region
Lizards and snakes are found in abundance but the peculiar

forms like, Xinaialamm and Pythonodipsas types of snakes and
Pistiirus lizard are few There are no peculiar forms of amphibia
and fishes,
WEST AFRICAN SUB-REGION
This may be defined as the equatorial forest sub-region,

since it comprises all that portion of west Africa, from the west
coast inland, over which the great equatorial forests prevail uninte-
rruptedly These commence to the south of the Gambia river and
extend eastwards as far as the sources of the river Nile and the
mountains forming the western boundary of the great lakes of the
African continent. Its southern limits are almost parallel to 11°S
latitude The region has Congo rivei and its tributaries which carry
large amounts of water It has hot-moist climate marked with two
temperature maxima In this forest district many remarkable types
of animals are found Life is mostly arboreal due to dense growth
of forests and darkness beneath the trees
Animal Life
Several very important groups of

mammals are peculiar to
this sub-region The anthropoid apes- the gorilla and the Chimpa-
nzee, lemurs and a variety of monkeys are found Civets, flying
3<s rw'-TiM.'. ot mosiactvPHY
r
q due's art! a 'milt decr-like anion! !l) ire rt-n arc also found 1 i
I >rnc nimbi Among thr bird*;. babblers it's, shrikes and mi y
nsror.g.- forms of the crow famlh arc noticeable. Sun' Irds. Iloior-
peckers finches starlings. barbels, planum eVi rs, ktojflsh ’r“
envied hornbllls griv patrols ground thrushes and oriental paro-
quets arc other common buds which have Oricrilal and Malayan
affinities The moM characteristic forms of fauna! life arc fo ini',
on die river banks u here river-hogs, a handsome Kind of swine,

polio lemurs. Du chailltnn insectivorous animals with the form are'
h ihits of an otter and qonllas a r e most common The Whydali finch,
remarkable for the enormous pl'imes with which the tall o' the male
bird Is decorated during the breeding season and the crested q-een
touraeos are most abundant birds on river sues
The sub-region has 13 genera of snakes, 3 of lizards and 2

of tortoises which are most peculiar Vipers are the most commo
sonkes Amphibians are in large numbers and two peculiar genera
of tree frogs arc found The amphibians and reptiles arc allied to
Neotropical and Oriental forms
SOUTH AFRICAN SUB-REGION
This region is confined to the southern parts of Africa and
the most topical portion of it hardly contains more than the narrot
strip of territory limltpd bv the mountain range which forms the
boundary Cape Province and Natal
of tbe In the north it is botin-
drd by the Kalahari desert and the Limpopo river, while in the east
itextends up io the coasis of Mozambique The sub region has

some of the most peculiar and interesting forms of animal life, shi'e
a large number of animals are similar to ihe rest of Africa
Animal Life
Among mammals, ibe two geneta of golden moles and

elephant shrews are widespread Carnivorous mammals are repre-
s mted by Protch r which are similar to hyenas and wastes Mole-
rats, spiny-rats, earth-pigs and antelopes are other common forms
The avian fauna is represented by thrushes, fk catchers, sun briJj,
shrikes, weaver-birds, larks and wood-pickers The cape-dove
iOtrti) Is confined to south and east African pornons Most of the
birds are no’ dissimilar to those in the entire Ethiopian region There
zoogeographical regions of the old world 25?
are 4 peculiar genera of snakes among which the blind-burrowind
snake is most common. Ten peculiar genera of lizards and four of
amphibia are found. Fishes are mostly of the carp family.
MADAGASCAR SUB-REGION
This is an insular sub region comprising the islands ol
Madagascar, Mauritius, Bourbon, Rodriguez, Seychelles and

Comoro. Madagascar is the biggest of all these islands being 1,600
km. long and 400 km wide and is situated about 400 km to the
east of the mainland It Is a mountainous island, lying approxima-

tely between 13“S to 26°S latitudes and 43°E to 50°E longitudes
The greater part of the interior consists oi open elevated plateaus,
but between these and the coast there Intervene broad belts of
luxuriant tropical forests which in turn have remarkable animal

types
Animal Lite
Madagascar has rich faunal life There is an abundance of

Ws'ska 40> <i\s,fexc.\ fcmWs
mammals are found here but the main animals of the Ethiopian
region like giralles, zebras, lions, elephants etc, are totally absent.
Small carnivorous animals, Ciyptopi ocla, are found. Two species
of bals are present and no less than 15 species of lemurs are also
found. The presence of lemurs in south India and Malaya, which
are sub-regions of the Oriental region, shows the geographical affini-
ties of the two regions in the past Civets of most peculiar forms
are found here These carnivorous animals of the family Viverridae
are today almost confined to Ethiopian and Oriental regions but
they were abundant in Europe also during the Miocene period.
Madagascar is exceedingly rich in birds. No less than 88
genera and 111 species of land birds are found here. The most
common forms are house sparrows, woodpeckers, cokes, honey-
guides, plantain-eaters, mockers, hornbtlls etc. Most of the other
oirds have powerful wings of wide-ranging forms. Generally, they
are of Palaearctic and Oriental origin. One of the largest and the
most peculiar birds is a type of starling (Euryceros premsti ) having
velvety black and rich-brown plumage with pearl-grey bill. Another
peculiar bird is a shrike (Vanga cumrostns), having green-black,
:to rwsmLsof i ircoc.iurin
v mega i -* plunKji erdwhi'o coll in d fen'hi rs A no able t I'd v

!rp< w i i/.tio 'or son what mil rmeduite luw m cuckoo- an!
the roll' rs, liaung copper an on ft a’hcrs abase and ntnrly u'u o
f< vhcrs bt math with a black bill and red feet
Reptiles p'osenl some curious features here and romp va-

tu r I v yvy few African g r oups arc represented Pytho is and vipe'<
of y.vious spcc.es arc found Lirards, mostly geckos of Ori. ntal
g-otips. are found Ameriran iguanas and African tortoises art
also in abundance The other reptiles arc less of Inieri st Mo->t of
hr amphibians are also found
The Mascarenc Islands which surround the main island of

Midignscar have little faunal Health Indigenous mimmnlh,
r \ccpi bats, are absent, although lemurs and civets are found in
Mau'itlus and Bouroon In Sovchelle islands, an Indian sppeies of

bats is found Birds of various forms, chiefly the caterpillar shrtkr s
black parrorts, weaver-birds and wild pigeons, are fourd Reptiles
are scarce and there appear to be no snakes tn Mauritius and

Bourbon Ltrards are fairly well represented and some of the
Australian and Orient il genera are found In these islands Geckos
and chamaleons of various species are notably present Gigantic
land-tortoises, which formerly mhabited most of the Mascnrenc
Islands, now survive only in Aldabra, a small island north of Seych-
elles Amphibia seem to have bepn recorded only frontlu
Seychelles where two genera of tree frogs exist Fre‘h water fishes
do no' present any peculiarity in this sub-region
mr oriental region
This region of the old world is of a compaiutiielv small

o't nt but has a very diversified surface <md is proportional' ly
yerv rich in animal life and vegetation The region includes tin
whole of Indian subcontinent south of the Himalayas, the island

of Cevlon, entire Burma, the peninsulas of Malaya and Indo-chlna,
the islands of East-fndies, the Phtlliplncs and the southern parts of
China The boundaries of the Oriental region merge with the
Pilic'rdic region in thi north and the Ethiopian rf qlon m the east,
towhich it is close ly related The fauna of all the three regions show
cio>e affinities to each other as they are joined by land, and migra-
tion of animals his constantly taken place through mountain pisses
ZOOGCOORAPH1CAL REGIONS OF THE OLD WORLD 261
river channels and narrow land-bridges To the south of the

Oriental region stretches the vast Indian Ocean
The region has a monsoon type of climate found nowhere
else in the world It is marked by extremes of temperatures in its
north, with a copious rainfall in summers The southwest summer

monsoon gives 90 per cent of ram to the entire region while the
Malayan peninsula, the East Indies and Ceylon also get winter rains
from the north-east monsoon. High temperatures and high
rainfall have provided thra region with a luxuriant vegetation which
is the abode of and a means of sustenance for a large variety of
animals.
The desert tract o! north-west India— the Great Thar, inclu-

ded in this region, is a debatable land and shows a close relation-
ship with the Ethiopian region But the fauna of the desert is more
closely allied to India and so most of the biogeographers prefer to
ft?- 12 5 The Oriental Region and Its Sub-regions

:k t.vitsTiAis oi nioGrociRAim
clAf^lk ii with the Oriental legion. T ho gtoai triangular plateau,
xhich forms the prntnsula oflndio. Is tin' poorest portion ol the
ti gion in animal life owing in pari to ns arid climate and In part to
its isolated position There can he little doubt that In the later
Tertiary period it was an island, separated bv an arm ol the s,
which now forms the valleys ol Ganya and Indus
The Himalayan mountain chains, the Vindhyas of south

India and the Arakans ol Burma have luxuriant vrgetatlon on
account of high rainfall Cec Ion and the southern extremitli s ol
peninsular India also have a moister climate and more luxuriant
vegetation This indicates ihe region’s former extensions jomh-
v.ards, uilh a richer and more peculiar fauna, parily Malayan and
partly Mascarene In character.
The entire region has tropical monsoon forests and grass-
lands which abound with varied and peculiar forms of animal life.
Due to an enormous growth of population In this part of the world

much of the area has now been deforested and uilllrcd for agricu-
ltural and human settlements. So wild life has dwindled lo a large
extent Nonetheless, the flora and fauna of ihe region are uniform
throughout with slight variations in accordance with ihe climate and
topography, The region may usefully be divided into the following
lour sub-regions
1 Indian Sub-region
2. Ceylonese Sub-region
3. Indo-Cbmcse Sub-region
4 indo-Malayan Sub-region
INDIAN SUB-REGION
This includes ihe whole of Indian sub-continent except its
southern parts Soul h of the Indian sub-region lies llte Ceylonese

sub-region and ihe dividing line between the two passes through
Stlrangapatnam and most ol the valley of Kavcri river. The della
of Ganga and Brahmaputra mark its eastern limits. Thenoithtrn
boundary passes through ifie Himalayas in Kashmir and the delta ol
Indus in the west. The great desert tract to the east of the Indus
t alley is a transitional zone having faunal affinities lo the Ethiopian
region in the west and the Palaearctic tegion in the norih. Absence
nl any formidable barriers between the Palaearctic, the Ethiopian
and the Oriental regions has made the Thar the crossroads for the
animals to establish close affinities
The climate is absolutely tropical-monsoon ivpe, marked

by extremes of temperatures in higher la'itudes and at great
altitudes The copious rain soon after blistering summers causes

luxuriant vegetal growth On the Himalayan slopes there are
deciduous forests and grasslands below 1500 metres height From
1500 to 2000 metres height there is a zone of mixed forests From
2000 to 3000 metres height these ranges have coniferous forests
which thin out gradually at greater heights The snow-line is
higher than 3000 metres in the east and lower than 2500 metres in
the north and west The central parts of the Indian subcontinent
have altitudinal variations ranging from 300 to 1500 metres which
do not cause any appreciable change in vegetal cover These
parts together with (he south have open deciduous lorests and
savanna grasslands, interspersed at places with degenerated
scrublands Due to extreme pressure of population the animals
have now retreated to higher zones on the mountains where
lorests still exist Elsewhere the fauna has been protected in
reserved forests where grazing and forest cutting have been either
to'ally stopped or limited to a bare minimum
Animal Life
The region is rich in animal Ida About 38 genera of

mammals are commonlv found, out of which 14 are typically
Oriental, 5 have close correspondence with the Eihiopian region
and the rest are found all over the world Predators like tigers
[Pantliera Hgns), Panthers ( Pcmthera pirikis), jungle cais Indian wolf,

caracals jackals and hvena are peculiar animal forms The Indian
one-horned rhino Rhinoceros uwcormsj and the
elephant, the Indian f
hippopotamus are cunous animals found in open forests, thick

grasslands and marshv areas Wild boars wild foxes and mon-
gooses ate commonlv found in scrublands Among the herbivores
a varietv of deer and antelopes are found The sambar, chital,
swamp-deer, hog-deer, barktng-deer, blue-bull or nilgai antelope,
chmkava, black-buck and chausmgha antelopes are some of the
elegant varieties found in central India Rajaslhan and ihe savannas
of northern India Porcupine, wild buffalo and gaur abound in
open fore si 5 and scrubs of centra! India and the peninsula The
rest vruLS or mogiocrh'hy
prim?!! s are represented bv a variety of monkeys and lanqii's

.vnonq which the rhesus monkey [Macacj nmlnrta), the qold« n
f.ir.cttr f/'n t/n in p n,. the capped langur of Assam forests (/Vofam
P’haUis), the ts'llqln langur [Prcslyns johm), tltc common langur
tntellvs ) and bonnet monkey [Metaca rtuliaia) with ns
characteristic hair style and long dragging tail, are found nil over
Indn. Sloth bear is common tn peninsular Indin while Himalayan

I 'ack bear and brown bear are found in the forests of northern
mountains
Among a few specific genera, hangul (Ctru/j cl: p!m
kunglu) a type of red deer found in Kashmir, the broivantli red de, r
(CVnr/r chh eldi ), locally called 'sangat' in Manipur, the Iton-.
(
Panther a tea persica ) found in the Gir forests of Gujarat, the lvn\
found in the desert tracts and the snoa leopard [Panther a wtcia<
found In the higher reaches ol Himalayas are notable. The

Himalayan musk deer [Mosrlun moschifcrus has a widespread range
from Pakistan through Kashmir. Nepal, Bhutan and Burma There
arc about eight species of this deer in this region.
The region has 151 genera of land birds out of which S8
are local and very scarce. There are about 2100 species and sub-
species of birds known to inhabit this region but most of them are
migratory. Quite a large number of birds migrate here from the
Pafaearctfc region of Siberia during winters The common varle.
rtes are spoonbills, herons, cranes, doves, swans, ducks, wrens,
finches, cuckoos, uarblets, kingfishers and magpies. I he black-
necked crane ( Gras tiigncolln) breeds in Ladakh at an altitude of
above 3000 metres. The great Indian bustard [Arihotis mgricep\)
is note confined only to the desert areas Red-spur-fow|
( GoUopenhx spailiira), painted-spur foul [G. Innulato) and whllo-
wmgedwood duck (Cairiita scutalala) are found far and wide.
Quails and partridges are common in scrubs and desert regions
Reptiles of this region belong to various groups viz toriol*
ses and turtles (Chclonia), crocodiles and gharlals (Loniata), lizards
lirnirw) and snakes (Scrpcnics) About 17 famil'es of snakes are
found out of which 16 are widespread throughout the region.
Python, king cobra, cobra, viper, krait, rat snake, grass snake
and water snake are common and have a fairly wide dlstribuiton.
Rock python is found In dense forested areas while the reticulated
python ts restricted to tropical and subtropical forests of eastern
and northeastern India The Indian egg-eating snake is a rare
species found m the Himalayan foothills from Kumaon to Arunachal

Pradesh
Three species of crocodiles are commonly found but they

are on the verge of extinction due to large-scale killings for their
skin in the past The estuarine crocodile (

Crocodylus poivsus) is
lound in estuaries of big rivers and on ihe sea-coasts The marsh

crocodile (Crocod)Ius palnstris) occurs in lakes, swamps and inland
rivers The third species ‘gharial’ (Gaviahs gangeticus) is rare and
extinct It has a unique long snout and attains a length of even 7
metres Turlies tortoises and terrapins are of various types
Marine forms are the trunk turtle [Dermochel)s conacea), green sea
turtle (Clwlomo nydas), loggerhead turtle [Laptdocheyls olnacea) and

sheel turtle (
Eretmochelp mipbncota )
Land turtles inhabiting the
ponds lakes and rivers are smaller. Among lizards 6 families are
represented here, out of which the chameleon has Ethiopian affinity
Five species of monitor lizards viz the common Indian monitor,
the desert monitor, the yellow monitor, the water monitor and the
clouded monitor are common in different parts but have variable
habitats Due to mild winters the distribution of reptiles Is fairly
widespread
Amphibians are in abundance but they do not exhibit any

peculiar characteristics Frogs and toads of different species
are proluse The Himalayan newt or Indian salamander (
Tylotot
riion verrucosus 1 is confined to small pockels in Sikkim, Manipur,
Arunachal Pradesh and Darjeeling The viviparous load INectophryne
ntberadasa) is a rare amphibian confined to the rain-forests of
Malabar coast
CEYLONESE SUB-REGION
The island of Ceylon and the parts of pemsular India

south of Kaverv nv er such as Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu and Kerala have
a geographic homogeneity and, therefore, form a sub-tegion of
their own The peninsula of Dhanuskodi and the Jaffna peninsula
of Ceylon are geologically linked by the Adam’s bndge-a chain of
small islands separating the Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar Here
the sea is shallow and so it is possible that animals have migrated
2(6 rsirNTMU or woomniMritr
in tin rrcent past during the Pleistocene Ice-Age when the lew! o)
va witter 300 metres and be Islands provided a con.

retreated bv l
ttmtous bridge connecting the two fand-masses about 19 km apart.

Numerous animals, today found In iIip Htmalavas, also exist m
Ci Uon and provide onvldence to support this view.
Fig 126 The Cevlonesc Sub -region and its topogra-

phical barriers.
The climate of the region Is equatorial par excellence with

no winter season. Rainfall Is abundant for most parts of the vear
due to tnsjlar location and the activity of both the winter and the
summer monsoon The highlands have, therefore, profuse growth

of tropical vegetation harbouring a rich wealth of arboreal fauna
Animal Life
Mammals are not in large numbers in Ceylon, although they

are m a far greater number on the mainland A variety of monkeys
and langurs consntute the primates Among them the most remark-
able form is Lons a genus oi Lemur monkeys, lound only here
The region has 80 peculiar species of birds including a jungle fowl,
one owl and two hornbills A peculiar genus of flycatchers,
Ochromela, also inhabits the forests of Ceylon Most of the birds
are migratory, flying to the Himalayas, Siberia, Malaya and Africa
in particular seasons
Ceylon has 5 genera and 18 species of reptiles which are

almost confined (o it Lizards of ihe Palaearctic region and those
found in Java are also present here, showing their land affinities in
past geological ages Amphibians are of wide range Most of the
amphibians show their close affinity to ihe Malaya and Java forms.
INDO-CHINESE SUB-REGION
This sub-region extends over iher snowy ranges of Kashmir

m the west and extends upto eastern Tibet and north-west China
in ihe east, for the most pari, following the Himalayan ranges So
it is also known as the Himalayan sub region whose northern
boundaries meet the mountain ranges of Manchuria in the Palaear-
ctic region. The region encompasses whole ol Burma, Thailand,
Vietnam and south China The northern boundaries extend up to
the Yamze river while in the east the Tennassarim river separates it
from the Malayan sub-region The mountain states of Nepal, Bhutan

and Sikkim (India) are also included in this region.
Indo-Chinese sub-region is probably one of the richest of

all sub regions in iaunal hie due to optimal climatic conditions It
is essentially a well clad, forest covered mountainous country

mostly within the tropics The peculiar lorms ol mammals
and birds of this sub-region begin to appear at the very foot of the
Himalayas at a height of 700 10 1600 metres Abundance of rivers,
streams, waterfalls and lakes have made this region most pleasant
for the growth oi wild animals Rainfall too is abundant, giving a
rssrvTwii oi nircrOT.mm
lu»urhnt qro'.iih of deciduous op<?n forests lou Itudcs nnd coni

1
In rth
f.”< .11 higher aliltudes and latitudes
Artm.nl Life
Among a variety of mammalian fauna 11 genpra arc closely

allied to the Malayan region and 3 arc peculiar to It Panda (dr/»OJ
fvngtn i), a beautiful animal with glossv fur of reddish colour, darker
feet and a somewhat cat-like white face Is found In the Himaluns.
It is distinctly allied to bears and more nearly to American racoons
Weasles {Ilehriis rrpalcnw), snow leopard, black bear, brown bear
and musk-deer are found in dense forests Musk-deer whose coudal
gland is highly valued for Its medicinal properties, has a wide range
of distribution up io Chinn.
The Himalayan pheasants (

Ccriornh ratira), Horned irngo-
pons, having spotted red and white feathers, horns of vivid blue and
red colours, are most splendourous of all birds found in this region
About dd genera of birds arc altogether peculiar to it and .16 genera

are closelv allied to the Malayan region Fast-running sandpipers are
commonlv found In river-beds. Among other birds, the most promh
rent are the satyr tragopon the white-crested khnhj, the koklass,
mWon vuHutcs. ravens and lammergiers
The prominent fauna of eastern Himalayas are the goat-
antelopes which are relatives of European chamois Three of It.
species arc most conspicuous They are serow, qoral and lakltl
Serow is a goal-like animal with a black coat, large ears, white

beard and a greyish mane thai is found up to a height of 2000
metres Goral is a smaller goat-antelope living on ruqged qrassy hill
sitesand on rock grounds near coniferous forests It is remarkably'
agile on precipitous cliffs and scree slopes Takins are the

largest of goat-antelopes which feed on grass and prefer to inhabit
the grassy valleys, meadows and forests with a thick undergrowth
Very few genera of reptiles arc peculiar to this sub-region

Pythons and king cobras arc found up to 2.500 metres height In the
Himalayas The .-t/Aer snake occurs up to 3.000 metres and the
AimotfS snake is found up to d, 000 metres height Liaards are

common and are not distinct from most of thf types found else
where in India Amphibians have much less peculiarities. Bufo frog
zoogeographical regions of the old world 269
is found up to 3,000 metres in the Himalayas and tail-less batrachi-
ans are found tn Pegu (Burma)

A few islands are also included in this sub-region They
are Andamans-Nicobars, Hainan and Formosa In the Andman-
Nicobar group mammals are very few A few variety of rats, mice
and a hybrid pig (Parndoxuriu) are the only mammals found here
and they too have been recently introduced by man This shows
that these islands did not have any land connection with the main-
land of Burma or India even in the remote past
INDO-MALAYAN SUB REGION
This sub region is almost wholly insular comprising the

islands of Borneo, Java, Sumatra, the Philippines, all the island
group of Indonesia and the peninsula of Malaya. The island of
Celebes is not included in it The Wallaces line which runs between

Borneo and Celebes and Bali and Lombok islands, forms the bound-
ary line between Indo-Malayan and Australian regions This line
was later on modified by J Huxley and passed m between the

islands of the Philippines and Borneo thereby including the former
group of islands in the Australian region and the latter into the
Oriental Although not regarded as a satisfactory line oi demarca-
tion between the two regions for the reason that Celebes has a rich
fauna of mammals qu te akin to the Oriental region the line was,
still later, modified by Alfred Weber who included the entire island
archipelago of Indonesia into the Oriental region and separated New
Guinea and Papua in the Australian region
Indo-Malayan sub region is more exclusively tropical,
having uniform excessive heat throughoul the year, abundant rain-
fall and a preponderance of equatorial forms of life adapted to this
type of climate It is a region of primeval, virgin forests which are
found most luxuriantly in Borneo even today. Such geographical
conditions also occur in central Africa and equatorial South America
but their animal forms are entirely different Although thousands
of these islands (about 3,000 islands of Indonesia and more than
7,000 islands of the Philippines) are separated from each other by
shallow sea, they have a remarkably high uniformity of fauna and
flora
Geologically, the region is a continental shelf where, in most

of its parts, the sea only 100 to 200 metres deep
is The region
issiMiusm BitKsroCRAMir
(• is Li . n . !evat< d and ‘•ubmerg, c! iwo times In ilu past geologleit

.•in
r
nr*! m times oi emergence l! forrrnd a land-hiJge lor animals
to m'grate from out island ro another The great chain of active
solcenoes In Java, Borneo, Ftimaira and the Philippines rtinnlmj
across the smaller Islands of Krakatoa, Ball and Lombok suggests
mat giolofliea! upheaval aenutns are still going on and the eqttili-
bttum has not yet set in. Esldencesol somow hfil earlier changes
of sen-level are markedly evident in the tertian 1
coal-formations
of Borneo ll Is also evident that during the Pleistocene Ice-Age.
e hen the sea levels receded by about 100 metres, the teglon
formed n land-bridge lor Inter-migration of Australian and Oriental
animals
Animal Life
Among mammals 13 species are In common with the

Himalayan sub-region and 4 species are peculiar to Its own self, ll
is rurlous to find (ha! these islands separated far apart by sea have
tigers, wild pigs, elephants, wild cattle, scaly anleaicr and a variety
of deer which are common In the Indian sub-region. This shows

that In the age of mammals these islands formed a continuous bell
with the Indian peninsula. A peculiar deer-llke animal called mouse

deer chevroiin (
Tragulus jaraittem), noi larger than rabbit Is found
here. Tree shrew, a small insectivorous animal Is found in Borneo.
Flying lemurs and tarsler lemurs arc peculiar animals found In (hick
forests Flying lemurs have a large expansion ol skin connecting

the fore and the hind limbs with the help ol which they are able to
take oil long flights from one tree lo another. Malayan tapir ( Ttipirtt t
nultnis) is another peculiar animal which is also found in tropical parts

ol South America
Owing to abundance of forests the bird fauna is very
numerous As many as 650 species of birds are found here hut
they are almost similar to those of African and Indian origin.
Rhinoceros hornbill Buenos rhinoceros), the most characteristic
| bird
flaps Its wngs so violently that ll can be hpard a mile off. The Argus
pheasant has beautiful ocellaled wings which are so enormously
developed for display that they become almost useless for flight.
During the display of the plumage the bird’s head Is concealed by

the wings and the head Is completely unadorned. Another peculiar
bird I'r dtongo shrike, whose long bare tall feathers with an oar-llkc
web at the end and blue-black glossy plumage, render it a very

attractive object as it Hies after its insect prey The broad-bill,
another peculiar bird, has dull plumage but with a beak more like
that of a boat bill than of a (ruit-eating bird The Gibbon bird swings
and gambols among the topmost branches of forests and is an ecst-
asy to watch
FURTHER READING
1 Btamwell, M (1974), The World Allas of Birds, Mitchell

Bearly Publ. London
2. Cloudsley-Thompson, J L. (1969), The Zoolog) of
Tiopical Africa, Wetdenleld and Nicholson London
3 Darwin, C (1866), The Origin of Spec ter, John Murray;
London
4 lilies, J (1974), lniioducnon lo Zoogeogiaphy Macmillan;
Lcwdao,
5 Kelly, N (1971], Histoiy of Lnwg Things ; Jacaranda
Press; Milton, Queensland (Austr)
6 Lindroth, CH (1957), The Faunal Connections between

Cwopc and America, Wtleu, New York
7 Ptelou, E C (1980), Btogeogiaphy, Wiley, New York
8 Wallace, A R (1876), The Geographical Distribution of
Animals (2 vols|; Harper, New York
13
Zoogeographical Regions of
the New World
THE AUSTRALIAN REGION
This region includes the whole of Oceania lying to the
east and south of Wallace's line It embraces Australia, Tasmania,

New Zealand, New Guinea, and the island aros of micronesia,
melanesia and Polynesia. These islands situated so far apart in the
Pacific ocean have a unique homogeneity of fauna and flora which
is most distinctive suggesting its geographic isolation in the
distant past from all other regions of the earth. Australia is the
largest tract of land in this region, being several times more exten-
sive than all the other islands combined It is here that the greatest
variety of peculiar types of animals has developed. It has a large
portion of its interior so parched up and barren as to be almost
destitute of animal life. The mosi extensive tract of fertile and
well-watered country is on the east and south east, in Victoria and
New South Wales provinces. The west coast is exceedingly dry
and hot. The northern portion is entirely tropical yet it nowhere
presents the luxuriance of vegetation to support fauna Taken
as a whole, Australia is characterized by an arid climale and a
deficiency of water, conditions which have probably long prevailed
ZOOGEOGRAPH1CAL REGIONS OF THE NEW WORLD 273
and under which ils very peculiar fauna and flora have developed.
Only in Tasmania, which is a detached island of Australia, a more
uniform and moister climate prevails but it is too small a tract ol
land to develop its own faunal forms [n the south-east, New

Zealand in some respects has very peculiar animal life
Having a diversity of climate and natural environment the

Australian region can broadly be subdivided into the following
four sub-regions.
1. Austro-Malayan sub-regton
2. Australia-Tasmania sub-region
3 Polynesian sub-region
4. New Zealand sub region
AUSTRO-MALAYAN SUB-REGION
This sub region includes all the islands situated north of

Australia In the tropical zone The great islands of New Guinea is
the central mass of this sub-region. The islands nearby are

separated by a shallow sea. Owing io us being in the vicinity of
the Oriental Region some of the islands of this sub-region have a
mixed fauna of Oriental type. The Moluccas and the eastern
Papuan islands have a mixed Australian and Oriental fauna. Simi-
larly, notable admixtures of animal life are found in the southern
Timor group and the north-eastern Celebes group of islands which
show an affinity with Java and Australian group of animals.
The entire region is of purely equatorial climatic condi-

tions— a uniformly high temperature, excessive moisture and a
thick forest vegetation The islands are mountainous and covered
with dense evergreen forests providing ideal habitat conditions,
h appears that such climatic conditions had existed here ever since
remote geological epochs with iutle change at least since the
beginning of the Cretaceous period. New Guinea, Moluccas and
Solomon islands have typical equatorial climate and flora. The
south-west islands stretching from Timor to Lombok are arid,
having thorny shrubs and eucalyptus trees as in Australia. They
are separated from Australia by a deep sea today but must have
remained untied with it in ihe distant past. Celebes in the far west
ls mountainous, having deep valleys and coastal lowlands. Its
animal life is most puzzling showing affinities with Java, Moluccas,
New Guinea, the Philippines, continental India and even Africa
MARIANAS
Pig IS 1 The Australian Region and its Sub-regions.

ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF THE NEW WORLD 2/5
Animal Life
The sub region is distinguished by the absence of land

mammals and the virtual absence of amphibians This shows that
us land connections were severed with the major continents in the
distant past. Only 4 families of Australian marsupials inhabit the
New Guinea island The Oriental mammals are totally absent.
The tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus imistus |, which is arboreal, is found
here Easi of New Guinea one can trace a progressive decline m
boih the types and the number of mammals The Soloman Islands
have the marsupial cuscus, a phalanger, a crocodile and some bud
species In Moluccas some peculiar forms of the mammals are
found such as apes, clveis, deer, Macacus monkeys and some small
shrews These animals must have migrated here in the Pleistocene
Ice-Age through land bridges
About 350 species of birds are found here which are ex-
tremely peculiar The sub region is rich in various varieties of
parrots, pigeons, kingfishers, paradise birds, honey-suckers and
flycatchers. All the birds are bright coloured with gorgeous plum-
age The twelve-wired paradise bird ( Epimachus albus) has beautiful,
black, velvety plumage and orange-coloured feathers on eilher side
The elegant racquet- tailed king hunter (Tonysiptera galatea) has

and white plumage wuh coral-red bill and long spatulate
vivid blue
tail The Papuan paroqueet (Char mosyria papuensis) is richly

adorned in red and yellow plumage with long slender tail. The
crowned-pigeon {Gourd toronala ) is wholly confined to New Guinea
Among repnles and amphibians there is some inler-mixture

of Australian and Oriental forms Of the 24 genera of snakes
found here 6 are Oriental and 4 Australian Their dispersal lo
these far off islands might have been through floating branches of
trees or on native canoes Amphibians are far less in numbers
and onlv qenera, mosily Australian are found here
AUSTRALIA-TASMANIA SUB-REGION
This sub-region confined lo the mam continent of Austra-

lia and its island Tasmania to the south is markedly distictive in
having few placental mammals and a supra-abundance of marsu-
pials, found nowhere else in the world Much of the northern part
lies in the iropics while Viciona and Tasmania are m temperate

latitudes (36° S- 43° S) The eastern parts are undoubtedly ihe
richest in animat life and comprise pro states, Queensland and
New South Wales The northern parts have Papuan fauna while
the southern and western parts have poorer animal life
Animal Life
The paucity of vertebrate fauna is the most characteristic

feature of this sub-region Some of the most primitive forms of
mammals are found here This shows the geographic isolation of
these animals for a long time which retarded their biological evo
lution Land connections of Australia with other continents of
the old world must have been severed probablv in Tnasstc (250
million years ago) or in Jurassic ages (205 million years ago), when
the first mammals evolved from reptiles
Indigenous species of placental mammalia are very few

The region has 160 species of mammals most of which are marsu
pials It has 3 species of monotrema'a, 102 species of marsupials
and one species ol carmvoralnative dog) Koala the native bear is
found only in eastern parts Some of the marsupials are carni-

vorous Among them the zebra wolves are the largest and most
destructive They are in plenty in Tasmania They are called
native tigers or native hvaenas and are destructive to sheep
Kangaroos are in large numbers and belong to various
species Bandicoots are delicate, little kangaroos The marsupials
are wonderfully developed here existing in different forms and
adapted to different modes of life
They belong to 6 distinct families and 13 genera resembling

wolves marmots weasles, squirrels, flying squirrel' dormice and jer-
boas of the old world The wombat is a root eating marsupial with
large incisor teeth The porcupine ant-ealer and the duck billeo
platypus \Ormthorhymis) are monotremes which lay eags
Among birds some peculiar varieties have developed here

True finches, vultures woodpeckers pheasant', bulbuls, green
bulbuls and barbels are significantly absent The sub region has 9
families of birds that are peculiar viz paradise birds broad tailed
ZOOGEOGRAPH [CAL REGIONS OF THE NEW WORLD 27 1
birds, cockatoo', mound-makers and cassowaries The region ha“

630 species of birds of which 485 are terrestrial The spectacular
lyre-bird (Memira superba) has elegant plumage and unique
tail Their females are unadorned Crested pigeons found

here, have two to three cress on their heads The frog-
mouthed goat-suckers have their peculiar cry and are thus called
‘‘More pork" They do not capiure their prey on the wing like true’
goat-suckers but hunt about the branches of trees at dusk for largd
Insects Eudyptes ts a peculiar bird found here belonging to the pen-
guin family Emu, a flightless bird is, much alike to the ostrich of
America and Africa The mound-builders are veiy especially adap

ted to arid regions They lay a large number of eggs at considera-
ble intervals of time and bury them either in loose hot sand of
ihe sea beaches above the high water mark or in enormous mound?
of leaves, sticks, earth and refuse of all kinds The warmlh of thi»
slightly fermenting mass hatches the eggs When the young bird?
work their way out they take care of themselves and are able to rub
quickly and fly short distances This adaptation is necessaiy for
the parent birds in an arid land where their confinement during loud
periods of incubation would lead to starvation and consequent
death of off springs as well as parents The pigeons who lay their
eggs without any defence have been able to survive here in large
numbers due to the total absence of monkeys, cats, weasles, civets
and other arboreal mammals who are their animals Their greeO
colour conceals them m shrubs and trees and protects them from
being destroyed by birds of prey
Reptiles, although large m number, are less marked IP

peculiarities No single family of snakes is confined to this region
Two-thirds of the snakes are poisonous and belong 10 the old

wolrd Fresh water turtles are found in streams and marshes
POLYNESIAN SUB REGION
The sub-region includes all the islands of the Pacific

Ocean Although the area of the sub-region is so vast and the
number of islands is almost innumerable there is even then a consi-
derable amount of uniformity in its animal hie From the Ladrone
islands on (he west to Marquesas islands on the east, a distance of
more than 8000 km , the same characteristic features of all genera
278 ESSENTIALS OF EIOGEOGRAPHY
of birds prevail The principal groups of islands in this sub-region

are the Sandwich the Marquesas, the Societv, ihe Navigators, the
Friendly, the Fiji, the Mew Caledonia and the New Hebrides In
regard to their geographical location they are classified into three

groups viz Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia The most typical
and peculiar fauna are found in Fiji, 1 onga and Samoa groups of
islands All these islands have either volcanic or coral reel origin,
located far apart in the vast expanses ol the Pacific Ocean where
migration of terrestrial animals from one island to another is diffi-
cult
Animal Life
Except for a variety of bats and mice no other mammals

are found in this sub-region because of the immense depths of the
ocean which cannot be crossed Bird life is in abundance as they

can migrate to long distances Fiji has 41 genera of land birds and
15 genera of aquatic birds Due to tropical climate in mos' of the is-
lands there is a rich growth of foliage and forests which provide
ideal conditions for the growth of avian fauna
Among reptiles, lizards are most common Snakes are

much less common and only 4 genera are represented They dis-
play a close affinity with the Oriental region Amphibians are far
too less but several species of tree frogs (H)!a) are found which are
also common in South America It is assumed that these amphi-
bians have reached these islands on logs of wood or floating trunks
of balsam trees which are common to both the Neotropical region
and these islands
NEW ZEALAND SUB REGION
The most conspicuous part of this sub-region is formed

by the two major islands of New Zealand which are about ] 900km
away from the continent of Australia Several other small islands
of this sub-region are Norfolk, Lord Howe, Kermadec, Chatham,
Auckland and Macquarie, the last two forming a chain
with Antarctica All the islands are separated from each other by
deep oceans often exceeding a depth of 5000 metres New-
Zealand is wholly situated in the warmer portion of the temperate
zone and enjoys an exceptionally mild and equable climate so har-
ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF THE NEW WORLD 279
momous to animal life. Rainfall is copious and (he almosphere is
always laden wuh moisture giving rise to profuse growth of south

temperate forests. The northern island has tropical climate and
the deciduous forests while the souihern island owing to its
location in temperate zone and having higher mountains has coni-

ferous forests The islands of New Zealand are deficient in
mammalian forms, even bird life is poorer. Very lew reptiles,
amphibians and fresh-water fishes exist here

Animal Life
The only mammals positively known as indigenous to New

Zealand are two genera of bats which are peculiar to it Faumcally
they are allied to Australian forms A strange type of rat once in-
habited the forests here but has now become extinct because ihe
natives used it as food Seals the aquatic mammals, abound on the

shores of these islands and they belong to the antartica forms
Bird life is abundant but mostly migratory About 145

species of birds are natives of these islands, of which 88 are waders
and 57 are terrestrial Due to ihe absence of carnivores some of
the native birds have become flightless and heavv Kiwi(/tpier;'\
australis) Is a peculiar flightless bird having no tail and small rudi
mentary wmgs entirely concealed by hair-hke plumage It is
noclurnal, feeding mainly on worms which it extracts from soft

earth by means of us long bill Only 4 species of this bird are
known Kiwis are allied to cassowaries of Australia and live in ihe
same type of habitat Another flightless bird is the rails { Notorms
mnlelli ) which is heavy wilh short wings, quite useless for flight,
having massive feet for walking and running and a red coloured
bill The most remarkable bird is crook-billed plover Anarhuiehiis
|,
frontalis) having its bill bent stdeuays Kakapoe or the owl parrot
is a nocturnal burrowing parrot that feeds on fern shoots, roots,
berries and occasionaly on lizards It climbs the trees but cannot
fly it has an ow] like mottled plumage and a facia] disc
Reptiles are few and almost the entire fauna consists of

lizards which are so adaptable The most extraordinary reptile is
Halteria pnctata, a lizard like animal living in holes This animal is
somewhat intermediate between lizards and crocodiles in appear

ance and also has bird-like chaiaclers in the form of ns ribs Land
snakes are totally absent but sea-snakes of Australian and
Polvne-
'tan origins are found in coastal waters
THE NEARCT1C REGION
Comprising the whole of temperate North America the

Nearctic region extends south as far as ihe Gulf of Mexico and over
the high mountains of Mexico In area it is as vast as the Neotro-
pical region Extending from north to south on us west coast the
region has a continuous mountain chain of the Rockies On the
east coast are the low, dissected ranges of the Appalachians Both
the mountain systems suppiv water to rivers from their snow-
capped peaks to the middle plains which are very ferule and thickly
populated Further, the region has a large number of fresh water
lakes like Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, Onlario, Winnipeg,
Great Slave Lake, Great Bear Lake etc , which are the remnants
of the great ice-age of the Pleistocene The northern limits of the
region merge with the Arctic Ocean, the western limns with the
Pacific Ocean and the eastern limits with ihe Atlantic Ocean giving
it a great insular character
The region possesses every type of climate ranging from

the arctic in the north to the tropical m the south In between lie
the mediterranean, desert, grasslands and the temperate regions

Extensive forests occur over Fne stopes ot the Rockies and the
Appalachians while the vast prairie grasslands are found on the
western margin The region includes a large group of islands

including Greenland in the north, al! of which remain frozen for
most part of the year and do not provide hospitable climate to

animals. Owing lo ihe absence of any mountain range in the north
the cold polar winds enter the southern-most extremes causing

severe winters The winter temperatures are far lower than at
corresponding latitudes in Europe and the isotherms tend lo bend

towatds the south This diminishes ihe available area for supporting
animal life.
The region is broader in ihe north, where the climate is
inhospitable due to severe cold, and narrower in the south The

southern parts have arms of seas penetrating inland like those of
the Gulf of Mexico and Gulf of California On account of the warm
ocean current. Gulf Stream, the eastern coasts remain warmer than
the western Again owing to the position of the Rockies and the
direction of prevalent winds from the west, a latge area, east of the
Rocky mountains lemains and and bate forming a desert The

ZOOGEOGRAPH1CAL REGIONS OF THE NEW WORLD 281
west coast remains under the influence of the westerlies which

bring copious ram on the west slopes of the Rockies harbouring
a rich vegetation This coast has the mediterranean type of climate
with exceedingly high winter rainfall which may exceed 500 cm.
at a few favoured spots. The east coast also gets enough rams,
particularly in summers, but forms a small proportion of the total
area. A notable feature of this region is that it was subjected to
glacial ice in the Pleistocene age especially in the north and over
the high mountains. This mantle of ice which wrapped nearly half
%• 13 2 The Nearctic and its Sub •regions.

the surface of the region exterminated a large number of animals

which previously inhabited it
Looking into its variety of animal forms and their habitat

this region can be further sub divided into 4 sub regions
1 The Western or Californian sub-region
2 The Central or Rocky Sub region
3 The Eastern or Allegheny Sub region
4 The Sub-Arctic or Canadian Sub region
CALIFORNIAN SUB REGION
The sub-region comprising the narrow strip of the United

Stateson the west coast between the Rockies and the Pacihc and
occupying most of California is very luxuriant in vegetation and
animal life This is whose northern boundary touches
a small region
Vancouver Island Columbia province of Canada It
and the British
extends to the head of the Gulf of California in the souih The
region enjoys the mediterranean type of climate in the norih where
winters are mild and the annual rainfall exceeds 500 cm The slopes
of Sierra Nevada and Cascades have an abundance of coniferous
forests In the south the vegetation is sparse gradually thinning
out into scrub lands and and xerophvtes
Animal Life
The region has an admixture of tropical and temperate

fauna Some of the peculiar animals found here are the anzzlv
bear, haploodon and tree porcupines Grizzly bear is commonly
found on the mountain slopes Haploodon is a rat-like animal
allied to beavers and is commonly found in British Columbia
Urotnclms moles are found only in California Peculiar tupes of
otters called Lata\, badgers, and some remarkable forms of skunks
are also found in this region
Birds absolutely peculiar to this region are very few

Crested partridges are found Oregon and California
in The blup
crow is confined to Rocky mountains and Sierra Nevada Large
lizards and snakes are abundant bul tortoises are totally lacking
Amphibians are in far larger numbers as they are most adaptable

Two special genera of salamanders are found here The region is
comparatively poor in fresh water fishes
ROCKY MOUNTAIN SUB-REGION
This extensive district is, for the greater pari, 700 to 2000
metres above m.s ! and is excessively arid Comprising the entire
Rockies and its intermontanne plateaus, the region for its most
part snow-capped and cold. Except
is in the immediate vicinity of
streams and on the slopes of mountains it is almost bare and iree-
less providing little comfort to animal life High altitude topography
coupled with severe climatic conditions have given this region
special zoological features.
Animal Life
Some peculiar species of mammals, which are adapted to

severe cold, are found here. The prong-horned antelope which
has small hollow horns that are shed annually like those of deer,
are found here. musk sheep, mountain sheep
Goat-like antelopes,
and mountain goats are common animals on the Rocky slopes. The
prairie-dog, a rodent, is a peculiar animal of ihe prairies The
pouched rat is another peculiar animal, feeding on roots and having
cheek pouches. Bison is also a typical animal. The region also
has racooons, flying squirrels and jumping mice

Bird forms, both resident and migrant, are pecuhai in
severe winters a large proprotion ol avian life migrates southwards

to pass winters in the West Indies or Mexico or even as lar south as
Venezuela. Wrens, finches, grouses and arctic woodpeckers are
numerous Thrushes, finches, tyrant-shrikes and American part
ridges are winter migrants Among reptiles a large number of
snakes and lizards inhabit ihis region Amphibians are far less in
number due to cold climate. Fresh-water fishes occur only in ihe
Colorado river and contain many peculiar forms of fishes of the
family Cyprindae.
ALLEGHENY SUB-REGION
This is a notable sub-region of eastern United States exten-
ding across the Mississippi plains and the more fertile plains of
prairies up to ihe Atlantic coast. Southwards the boundary bends
towards the coast near the Colorado nve r and Rio Grande. In the
north the boundary is almost parallel to the political boundary bet-

ween Canada and the Untied States Lakes Huron and Ontaro
and the peninsula of Nova Scotia are included in this sub-region
zoogeographical regions of the new world 285
Originally this was a well-wooded country clothed with varied and

luxuriant vegetation that has now been occupied by human settle-
ments and agriculture farmlands
For the most part it is an undulating country having the

Appalachians rising from 1200 to 1800 metres The climate is
uarm tropical m the south and temperate in the north but extremes
of weather are common To the west across the Mississippi the
country is more open but gradually becomes drier and more and
Extremes of climate are most marked To the south in Georgia,
Louisiana and Florida a sub-tropical climate prevails and the win-
ter is almost unknown To the north in Michigan and New England
Stales winters are severe with frequent snow blizzards and streams
and lakes frozen for several months
Animal Lite
Almost all the nearctic forms like American badgers

racoons, pouched rats, beaver-rats, jumping mice, tree porcupines
etc are present here There only one
is peculiar genus of
mammals viz the star nosed mole [Cond\!ura) The bird popula
non is essentially migratory flying to north in summers and to
south in winters The Appalachians and the Allegheny plateau have
the richest bird life due to thick forest cover The passenger
pigeons, nearctic parrots and grouses are found in southern parts
while wood-warblers, cuckoos, alpine-larks, goat-suckers, nee birds
and turkeys are abundant in the north
The region is rich in reptiles and the snakes exist as far

north as Nova Scotia The peculiar forms are water snakes and
rattle-snakes Lizards and fresh-water tortoises are in abundance
An eel-like creature (Amplnuma) with four rudimentary feet is a pe
culiar type of amphibia found here Fresh-water fishes, similar to
those m the old world, are most common in Great Lakes and all the
rivers Salmons and the fishes of the family Cyprmdae abound in
almost all the streams and rivulets
CANADIAN SUB-REGION
This is the biggest of all !he sub-regions covering the whole

o Canada, North Arctic Islands, Alaska and Greenland In the
nQ rth passes into the circum-polar zone sharing
it
its boundaries
with the Palaearctic Toagrealer extent it is an extensive coni-

ferous forest covered area and where these forests cease in the
north barren ice-covered wastes extend up to the north pole The
region is extremely cold for the common animals to inhabit There-
fore, some peculiar types of animals exist here
Animal Life
The region possesses several arctic forms of mammals such

as gluttonj lemming, reindeer and elk which are acclamatised to
extreme cold conditions and rarely enter the southern warmer sub-
regions The polar bear and arctic fox are also peculiar forms
Musk-sheep is found in the Arctic tundra and Greenland Skunk,
an animal of the weasel family, is found here It is a nocturnal
animal marked with conspicuous patches and bands of white and
gray fur It has a terrible power of ejecting offensive liquid, the
odourof which is intolerable This acts as a defensive mechanism
to save itself from other animals and thus enables n to be seen at
night and thus warn larger animals not to attack it Elks re-
sembling reindeers and bisons are amply found in frozen lands
feeding on lichens and mosses The Canadian region has very few
resident birds The great majority of migrants are American birds
About 200 species of birds are regular migrants to Canada tn the

breeding season and nearly half of them are land-birds Arctic
larks and eagles are quite common
Reptiles are very few owing to freezing cold North of the
arctic circle not even a single species of snakes exists Further
north there are only amphibia represented by toads, frogs and sala-
manders Most of the groups of fresh water fishes of the Nearcttc
region are represented here in lakes and rivers Perch, salmon and
pike families are quite common
THE NEOTROPICAL REGION
This region comprising not only the entire continent of

South America bat also tropical North America, the Greater Antilles
and the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean Sea can be compared in
its extent to the Ethiopian Region It possesses a grand mountain
range-Andes, stretching from north to south, rivalling the Himalayas
in altitude and far surpassing them in extent, running almost through
ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF THE NEW WROLD 287
80° latitudes The region offers a variety of topographical condi-
tions ranging from high mountain slopes to lofty plateaus, deep
valleys, marshy lowlands and coastal plains A small proportion of

its surface is occupied by deserts While most of its area lies in
the tropical zone, the region has the advantage of Us southward
prolongation far into the temperate zone, which has aided the
growth of peculiar alpine forms of life
Owing to the lofty mountain ranges situated along its
western margin the motsture-laden trade winds of the Atlantic,
coming from a south easterly direction, have a free access to the

interior which causes high rainfall A sufficient proportion of this
moisture reaches the higher slopes of the Andes which are thickly
wooded Condensation of clouds on high altitudes of the Ande9
gives rise (o innumerable streams which cut deep ravines and carry
down such vast amounts of sediment that they have formed the
vast plains of the Amazon, Parana Paiaguay and Ormocco rivers
The tropical western part of the region is a hot desert

which is a ram shadow area of the ‘trades' and lies beyond the zone
of ‘westerlies' But the western coastal plains lying in the temperate
zone enjov the mediterranean climate having winter rains and low
extremes of temperature The extreme south tapering towards
Antarctica beyond 45°S latitude is snow laden with a thin cover of
vegetation Much of the portion of Norih America that lies within
the tropics closelv resembles the tropical zone of South America
and is therefore, Included in this region The Antilles are invari-
ably hot and moist and show a close alliance with the South Arne
rican faunal forms
This vast region can be divided into the following 4 sub-

regions, each of which has a distinctive fauna
1 Chilian or South-Temperate Sub-Region

2 Brazilian or Tropical South American Sub-Region.
3 Mexican or Tropical North American Sub-Region
4 Antillian or the Caribbean Sub-Region
CHILIAN SUB REGION
Except for the Peruvian hot desert, this sub-region is
mostly confined lo the temperate parts of South America, encom-

2S8 essentials of biogeqgraphy
passing the States of Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, Bolivia

and Peru, In the south it commences with the damp coniferous
Fig. 13.4 The Neotropical and its Sub-regions
forests of Tierra del Fuego and continues up to the west coast of

Chile To the east, there are the barren plains of Patagonia gradu-
ZOODEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF THE NEW WORLD 289
ally changing towards (he north into more fertile, but still treeless,
pampas of La Plata To the west of Parana river It extends

northwards over the Gran Chaco desert, a ram-shadow area in the
looihills of the Andes, up to the great forests near St Cruz deia
Sierra Girdling the high plateau of Bolivia the sub-region conti-
nues still further north along the ‘paramos' or alpine pastures up to
5°S latitude Beyond this the Andes are very narrow without
parallel ranges and intermontanne plateaus The climate also

becomes warm and moist
The entire region is covered with coniferous forests at high

altitudes or with cold steppe grasslands in lowlands and foothill
zones The western part, limited by the Pacific Ocean is under
the influence of the westerlies for a longer duration of the year and
gets abundant rainfall at high altitudes, bringing about a luxuriant
growth of conifers The southern most parts are extremely cold
and are made still more cold by the cold West Wind Drift ocean
current, thus providing much less optimal conditions for the growth
of flora and fauna The vast plains of Argentina have ideal climatic
conditions for the development of animal life and so also the lower
slopes of the Andes
Animal Life
In spite of cold climate the sub region is rich in mammalian

fauna and presents some of the peculiar forms found nowhere else
in the world One of the most peculiar mammals is Chinchilla

which inhabits the high Andes of Chile and Peru up lo 9°S
latitude at heights of 3000 to 4000 metres It is a hare like animal
with a thick coat of fur Several species of Vicuna of the camel
tribe, are found Alpacas and Llamas, resembling the dwarf oxen
and used as beasts of burden inhabit the Andes of Peru and Chile
Their furry skin is highly prized for making cloihes Guanco, an
animal similar to Alpacas is found further south in the plains of
Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego The spectacled bear a peculiar
animal of the Chilean Andes, is allied with the Malayan bear They
are found up to 48°S latitude in cold regions Two genera of
Armadillos are peculiar to La Plata plains and the highlands of
Bolivia Otario, one of the 'eared seals’ is confined to the cold
coasts of Patagonia
Birds of three famil es viz sheath bills, plovers and plan!

cutlers are confined to this sub region The plant cutter
(Phyllotoma rara) has sober plumage and is allied to chatterers
Plover-bird ( Thmocorus orbigniamis) whose habits are like those of
quails and partridges, is found in the Andes Rheas, American
osiriches, are found in the plains of Pampas and Patagonia
Among reptiles the snakes do not go far south due to
extreme cold but are numerous in La Plata and Bahia Blanca
Lizards are far more abundant Tortoises appear to be scarce and
ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF THE NEW WORLD 291
hardly a few species are represented here Among amphibians
only frogs ana loads are found even up to the far south and present
some external relations with Australian and the Palaearctic
varieties Among fresh water fishes perches are common and they
are allied to the Javan varieties
BRAZILIAN SUB-REGION
This is the most extensive district of all the sub-regions of
ihe Neotropical region For the most part it consists of open

plains, savanna grasslands and lowlands associated with tropical
evergreen forests The central mass consists of the great forest
plains of Amazonia extending from Paranaiba (42°W long )

on the
west coast of Brazil to Zamora (79° W long 4°S lat ) in the province
of Loja high up in the Andes on the west-a distance Df more than
4000 km Its greatest extent from north to south is from the
mouths of the Onnocco river to the eastern slopes of the Andes near
La Paz in Bolivia and a little north of St Cruz dela Sierra (18"S lat ),
a distance of about 3040 km
P'S, 1$ 6 Topographical features of the Brazilian sub-region

The entire sub-region gets a copious rainfall throughout

ihe year with a summer maxima Owing to its location near the
equator the temperatures are always high High temperatures and
high humidity make the climate most ideal for the rapid growth of
trees and foliage cover Within this area lie the continuous forests
of Amazon with an unbroken canopy interspersed with vast stret
ches of open grasslands like llanos in Venezuela and campos in
Brazil The llanos are partly flooded in the rainy season, causing
marshy-lands, but much of the interior including the Macdalena
valley is a dense forest On the north east coast of Brazil is a tract
of open country which continues up to a considerable disiance
over the Brazilian Highlands where the rain does not fall for years
together and only scrubs, which can sustain xerophytic conditions,
grow But south of Cape Rogue the coastal forests of Brazil
commence, extending to30°S latitude clothing all the valleys and
hill slopes, and even penetrating the great valley of Parana far into
the interior To the south west the wooded country reappears m
Paraguay and extends in patches to the west till it almost touches
the southern extensions of the Amazonian forests
The interior of Brazil is a great island-plateau covered wnh

scrublands over a greater part, called the campos But a sizable
part of this scrubland is a well-wooded forest Mato Grosso, Minas
Gerais and Sao Paulo have foresl lands due to their greater heights
The southern boundaries of this sub region extend up to the
great desert of Gran Chaco, extending between 25 S to 30"S I>
latitudes
Animal Life
The sub-region is most remarkable in having some of the

distinctive species of mammalia, so peculiar to the Neotropical
region The howling monkey is a most noisy peculiar animal
Capybara, the largest known rodent the large ant-eaters spring
rats, armadillos and two peculiar forms of opposums are found
here Opposums have prehensile tails The collared anteater is
one most handsome animals found here

of the it has silverv linings
of black and white hair Sloths have peculiar black spots on their
back Many sloths have a fur of green colour which conceals them
from their enemies like the eagles
ZOOGIOGXMHlCAL REGIONS OF THE NEW WORLD 293
Due to the abundance of forests, grasslands and scrubs
bird Me is very rich About 500 genera of birds are found here,
a large numberthem wholly confined to this sub region. Some

of
genera resemble the Mexican and the Chilean types The umbrella
bird ICepkhpienis ornnfus) as large as a crow of glossy blue-black
colour, has wonderful crest, which when expanded, completely

overshadows its head like an umbrella It is also adorned with a
long tassel of plumes hanging from us breast which is formed by a
slender lleshy tube clothed wrth broad feathers
Another peculiar bird is the curassow which is allied to the
pheasants of the old world It has a yellow caruncular swelling at
the base of Us bill About a dozen species of curassows are found

here Some tall cranes called trumpeteers found in the Amazon
valley are elegant birds with silky plumage They are often caged
in houses and tamed The curl crested toucans found amidst
forests has its crest composed of small black and shining barbless
plumes resembling curled whalebone The general plumage is green
above and yellow and red beneath The little whiskered hummers
tu hill-necked coquettes are the most beautiful bumming birds
found in thickets with green tipped plumes springing from each
side of the throat and with beautiful crests Sugar birds, plant-
cutters, manaktns, thrushes, tree-creepers, puff-birds, jackamas,
todies, motmots, oil-birds, sun-bitterns and horned screamers are
also found in abundance
About 25 genera of snakes among them boa, pythons and

Mattes are found here Several species of alligators, crocodiles and
tortoises abound In the rivers and large streams Some of the
Amazon river turtles [Podocnemys rival in size the largest species of
l
true marine turtles and are good as food Tree frogs [Hyla), and
snakes like amphibia \Caenhadae) are also common. Nearly all
species of fresh-water fishes belonging to the Perch and Carp

families are found here
The distribution of animals leads one to infer that the

uqhlauds Brazil and Guyana are very ancient lands of stable,
%d blocks dating back to a period long anterior to the elevation
0 me Andean ranges These ancient plateaus were formerly
wands separated
by arms of the sea After the rise of the Andes
in the Cretaceous (135 million years ago) and in the Eocene ages
(66 million years ago) these seas were filled up with debris and the
plains of Amazon, Parana and Orinoco rivers were formed It was
after this fusion of land that the animal hie of these three distinct
lands intermixed and adapted itself to new forms of living
fig 13.7 Ancient lands of Guyana and Brazil— separated by

arms of sea before Cretaceous times.
MEXICAN SUB-REGION
Also called tropical North America or Central America,

this sub-region is of a comparatively small extent consisting of the
i) regular neck of land, 3,000 km. long, which connects North and
South America The whole area is mountainous covered with

ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL regions or THE new world 295
extensions of the Rockies having narrow coastal plains on either

side. Mexico is an extensive tableland 2,000 to 3.000 metres high
having a margin of lowland 70 to 1 60 km. broad on the shores of
the Caribbean sea but on the Pacific side the coastal plains are
absent. Here the high mountains and the volcanic fertile soil have
produced a luxuriant forest growth to support a varied fauna On
the cordilleras temperate forms of trees occur while on the lowlands
the tropical forms predominate The increase in tropical fauna and
flora is markedly noticeable as one goes towards the south.
Pis. 13.8 The Mexican Subregion showing area of

Subsidence in Eocene tunes.
Animal Life '
Mammals of all Neotropical forms exist here but peculiar

forms are very few. From Panama to Guatemala a peculiar form
of tapir is found. Pouched rats are widely found in Mexico, Cosla
Rica, Honduras and Trinided. Some genera of opposums, armi-
dillo, artleatevs, weasles and tree porcupines are also found, and
ihey are more allied to the Nearctic forms. Sorex is found from
Guatemala to Costa Rica
More than 600 species of birds are known to inhabit this

region but a large number of them are migrants from North
America Umbrella bird, bell bird, and humming bird, which are the
typical Neotropical forms, are also found The region is rich in rep-
lies. Some of the North American forms of snakes such as boa and
elaps are commonly found Lizards are much more specially deve-
loped and no less than 26 distinct species occur here Tortoises are
found in the streams and marshes of Mexico and Guatemala Amp-
hibtans are mostly tail-less Some of peculiar varieties of tree-frogs,
.oads and green frogs exist in the Yucatan peninsula. The streams
abound in rich faunal life of fishes and no less than 106 species of
fresh-water fishes are known to exist
The appearance of numerous South American forms of

Edentata (toothless mammals e g armadillos) in temperate North
America, together with the occurrence of a considerable number of
identical species of sea fishes on the two sides of the Isthmus of
Central America indicate that the union of North and South Ame-
rica is comparatively a recent event in the history of the earth It
is thought that during Mtocene (23 5 million years ago) and

Pliocene (5 million years ago) these two comments were separated
by a wide arm of the sea The low country of Nicaragua was pro-
bably submerged beneath the sea leaving the highlands of Mexico
and Guatemala still united with the North American continent This
is clearly indicated by the many Neatcuc forms which do not go
bpyond Nicaragua 01 these the turkey (Meleagns) is a sinking
example
Paleontological evidences indicate that during the Miocene
period there was not that marked diversity of climate between
North and South America which prevails now Equally substantial
evidences exists to indicate that the shores of the Arctic Ocean had
a luxuriant vegetation in those times and that the entire country
south of the great lakes of North America was almost tropical At
an early Tertiary period, the faunal differences between the Nearctic
and the Neotropical regions were probably more radical than they
are now At that time South America was not a continent but a
group of islands of stable rigid masses which were chiefly inhabited
by edentata It is further speculated that in those times North
America abounded in ungulata and carnivora, and perhaps formed
a part of the world continent Pangea
In Eocene and Miocene times the two continents, North
and South America, fused together and separated apart more than
ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS'OF THE NEW WORLD 297
once on account of the upheavals of the earth This gave entrance

to the ancestral types of monkeys into south America and some-
what later to the animals of the family of camels and deer The
Mexican sub region, which acted as the cross-roads between the
two 'ontments, has therefore a composite character of launal life
THE ANTILLEAN SUB REGION
The island groups spreading over the Caribbean Sea south

of Florida up to the.north of Guyana and forming an unbroken chain
uniting the North and South America are included in this region
Broadly, they are divided into two groups, the Greater Antilles inclu-
ding the large islands of Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica and Puerto Rico, and
the Lesser Antilles extending from San Juan to Trinidad man are
like fashion In this group lie the smaller islands popularly known as
St Thomas, Leeward, Barbados, Windward, Grenada and Trini-
dad To the north of Cuba and Ham are the Bahamas, an exten-
sivegroup of coral reefs and islands 1,100 km long but having a
poor animal life
THE ANTILLEAN SUB-REGION

'/NASSAU
H) -V
OR
V* »T
I
HOHAS
l£E WARD
ÎSLANDS
c BaRBA COS
C? A WIND WARD
MINICAN fi Y ISLAND
HA Tl (LEPUBLcC
aMaic*
LESSER ANTILLES#
tp NIOAO
Fig IS 9 The Antilles extending into the Caribbean Sea

have diverse fauna
All the larger islands and most of the smaller ones, except
those of coral formation, are volcanic, rocky and rugged The
mountain chains rise to aboui 2,500 metres m Haiti, Jamaica and
Cuba Their slopes are covered with thick forests Throughout
29 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPHT
the year the temperatures are high and the rainfall is ample to invi-
gorate the growth of vegetation The soil, derived from volcanic,

granitic and lin estone rocks, is exceedingly fertile Most of the isla
nds of the Lesser Antilles group are volcanic, harbouring a thick
mantle of foliage, but Barbados and Antigua are low islands of Terti-
ary formation In between these islands and the mainland there
is a vast stretch of sea ranging from 200 to 800 metres deep
The Greater Antilles have an area equal to that of Great
Britain, yet the fauna is exceedingly poor and less varied The
Lesser Antilles are too small to promote any luxuriant growth of
faunal forms In spile of their location between the two major

zoogeographical regions (the Nearctic and the Neotropical), the ani-
mal life in all these islands differs widely from both This is consi-
dered to be a long term effect of geographic isolation and it is pro
sumed that they had remained separated from mainland of America

for long and that the Caribbean Sea has acted as a barrier to the
migration of terrestrial animals
Animal Life
Mammals ate very few The eatwe groups of moakeyS,

carntvora and eaentata are altogether absent Insecuvore mammals
like Solendon are present They are of the size of a cat having long
shrew like snout, long claws and bare rat like tail Agonta [Solendon
cubanus), a peculiar tnsectivore is found in Cuba Rodents are in
abundance and belong to South American groups Rat like animal*

called ‘huttias’ (Capromys forttmeri ) are allied to those found in South
America They live in forests and climb the trees, easily eating all
kinds of vegetable foods
Birds are a little more abundant and varied About 203

species af birds are found in the sub-region, but hardly a few are
indigenous The todies are numerous They are insecnvorous and
beautifully coloured birds, having a plumage of green above and
white beneath Another peculiar bird is the white breasted tragon
( Pnomteles re»wwm)whtch is confined to Cuba alone Most of the
birds are of Nearctic origin, flying to North America in summers
and inhabiting these islands in winters for roosttng The destruc
tion of forests, increase of population and the utilization of land f 0(
700GEOGRAPH1CAL REGIONS OF THE NEW WORLD 299
agricultural farming have decreased the avian life to a large extent

now Snakes and lizards are found in all the islands, the latter
being more numerous Tropical tree-frogs and fresh water fishes
of Neotropical origin are commonly found
FURTHER READING
1 Andrewartha, HG and Birch, L C (1954), The Distri-
bution and Abundance of Animals , University of Chicago

Press, Chicago.
2 Burton, M (ed ) (1970) World of Wildlife (8 Vols )
Orbis Publ„ London

3 Colbert, E H (1974), Wandering Lands and Animals,
Hutchinson, London
4 Elton, CS (1966), The Pattern of Animal Communities,
Methuen. London
5 Hubbs, C S (ed ) (1958), Zoogeography, American
Assoc Adv Sci. Publ ,
New York.
6 Huxley,! (1974), Evolution Allen and Unwin, London.
7 Mathews, L H. (ed )
(1970), The Living World of Animals,
Readers Digest, London.
8 Moreau, R E (1966), The Bird-Fauna of Africa and Its
Islands, Academic Press, London

9 Seddon, B (1971), Introduction to Biogeogiaphy, Duck-
worth, London
10 Simpson, G G. (1969), The Geography of Evolution,
Capricorn Books, New York.
11 Tinbergen, N (1975), The Animal and Its World (2 vols.),
Allen and Unwin, London
14
Animal Dispersal and

Migration
All animals are capable of locomolion and multiplication.

With the help of these two qualities, animals have been able to
disperse in vast areas, migrate to new lands and establish colonies
in areas of their choice. If a single pair of animals were placed in
an unoccupied continent with abundance of food and no enemies,
they might fully stock it in a very short time. But as animals rarely
have an unoccupied country to breed in and as the food in any one
location is strictly limited, their natural tendency is to roam in
every direction in search of fresh pastures and new hunting

grounds. While migrating to other lands they meet with many obsta-
cles. Thus land animals may have to cross rocks and mountains,
marshes and rivers, narrow straits or wider arms of the sea or
suffer from vagaries of climate. The sea animals, although they

have a long continuous habitat of sea waters, mav yet suffer from
obstacles presented in the form of different salinity of water,
differences in temperature, or the flow of water in tides, currents
and sea waves. Therefore each species of animal has a different

mode of dispersal and a varying method of adaptation to climate,
food and shelter,

ANIMAT- DISPERSAL AMD MIGRATION 301
Dispersal of Mammals
Mammals, presenting the highest evolutionary form ol life
today, have the greatest ability to roam over the whole continents
and are hardly stopped by any physical obstacles The elephant

it almost equally at home on plains and mountains, forests and
grasslands The fossils of giant elephants called ‘mammoths' have
been found m the ice-clad plains of Siberia and in the caves

of Malta, both having a different dimate and terrain than their
present habitat The tiger is another animal with great powers of

dispersal It crosses rivers and sometimes even swims across
narrow straits of the sea It can endure the severe co'd of North
China as well as the heat of South India and Bengal But today it
is confined only to the grasslands of India m sheltered habitats

The rhinoceros, the lion, and many of the ruminants have equal
powers of dispersal, «o that wherever there is land and sufficient
food there are no limits to their possible range
Certain other groups are more limited in their migrations
Apes, lemurs and monkeys are strictly adapted to arboreal life and
can never migrate beyond the forest vegetation Squirrels, opos-
sums, sloth bears, and arboreal cats are strictly the animals ol forests
Similarly, camels, zebras, giraffes and antelopes cannot exist in a
forest habitation and are strictly limited to the open grasslands or
semi arid vegetation
There are other animals which are confined to mountains

and cannot extend their range into forests Goats and sheep are
the most striking group of this kind inhabiting the highest moun-
tains of the globe The ibex, the moufion and the yak are found
on the highest parts of the mountains of Europe and Tibet Rivers
ate equally necessary for the existence of others such as the beaver,
otter, capybara and water-mole To such animals mountain ranges
or deserts ate absolutely impassable barriers
The most important needs for mammalian distribution are
therefore the habitable area, the terrain conditions, the availability

of food
and the climate It is easy to find that in spite of many
barriers, some species of mammals have been able lo migrate to
other continents vast expanses of water,
and islands, crossing the
through icefloes and driftwood In the arctic and antarctic regions
icebergs originate in glaciers which descend into the sea ofien
bearing masses of graval, vegetation and animals These icebergs

might ofien carry with them some arctic or antarctic mammals A
more effectual and widespread agent is the driftwood in the form of
uprooted trees and rafts which can be seen drifting for hundreds of
miles from the mouths of the Ganga, Amazon, Mississippi, Congo
Orimcco and most of the major rivers On the logs many animals
likemonkeys, tiger-cats and squirrels keep floating from one island
to another and from one land-mass to another
Among the mammals two large groups, viz bats ( Cluroptera )
which fly and whales, dolphins seals and porpoises (Cetacea) which
swim, have the exceptional quality of dispersal. The former are
capable of traversing vast expanses of seas since the two North

American species either regularly or occasionally visit the Bermudas,
a distance of 1000 km from the mainland The oceanic mammals
of the family cetacea seem to have no barrier except temperature,
the polar species being unable to cross the equator, while the tropi-
cal forms are equally unfitted for the cold polar waters The
amphibian, seals and walruses seem to be capable of making long
sea journeys, some of the species being found on islands a ihousand
kilometres apart, but none of the arctic are identical with the
antarctic species
Parriers to Dispersal
In spite of various means of dispersal adopted by the mam-

fnals, their dispersal is confined to the major zoogeographical regions
^mentioned in the previous chapters A variety of factors determine
their dispersal and various barriers limit their distribution Some of
them are climate, terrain and water bodies
£]Jmatic Barriers
Ornate and the accompanying vegetation act as the great-

est barrier to the dispersal of land mammals Apes and monkeys
appear to be limited by climate since they inhabit almost all the
tropical regions but do not range more than 30° north and south of
the equator. These animals are exclusively fruit-eaters and so
their distribution depends as much on vegetation as on temperature.
animal dispersal and migration 303
Strikingly different are the Himalayan monkeys (

Semnopithecus
sclnsiacetis) which are found even at a height of 11,000 ft. leaping
among fir-trees loaded with snow-wreaths.
Some arctic animals are bounded by the 0°C isotherm,

such as the (iolar bear and the walrus which cannot live far beyond
the limits of the frozen ocean Elephants and rhinoceroses are
today the true inhabitants of tropical climates but earlier in the
post-tertiary times they roamed over the whole of the northern
continents even up to the the Arctic Circle A few animals, like a

tiger, can adapt to various forms of climate The tiger, once consi-
dered to be a purely tropical animal, inhabits permanently the
cold plains of Manchuria arid the Amur, a country of an almost
arctic winter climate.
Teiraln Barriers
Hills and mountains are barriers to the animals of marshy

lands and plains and vice versa The difference of vegetation and
of insect life, together wiih the change of environment, often
checks migration if it is attempted Thus the flat plains of the
Gangs are effectual barners to the Himalayan launa in reaching
the mountains of central India and the southern peninsula, In the
great Amazonian plains many species of monkeys and quadrupeds

are found on one side of the river and aie unable to cross n to
reach its other bank In the lower pan of the Rio Negro, two
monkey species Jacclms bicolour and Biacluurus couxtoti are found
on the north bank ol the river but never on the south bank where
a red-whiskered monkey (Ptllteaa) alone is found, A few animals
like camels and sheep have heir hooves adapted to the sandy areas
t
and they are unable to walk over mountainous terrains
Sea-arm Barriers
Very few mammals can swim any considerable extent of a

sea, allhough many can swim short distances well The jaguars of
South America and the bears and bisons of North America can
swim considerable distances in sireams. Wild pigs can swim
distances of 30-40 kilometres and reach the shores many miles
away. Therefore, these animals show a wider distribution on the
304 essentials of biogeografhy
globe Squirrels, rats and lemmings often migrate from Scandinavia

inbands of ihousands and pass over lakes and rivers, bui they
generally perish in the salt-water of seas In spite of the immense
power of swimming in most of the mammals, vast expanses of seas
are effective barriers to them They cannot undertake inter-
continental journeys swimming thousands of kilometres at one
stretch Wide arms of seas like gulfs and bays are effectual barriers
to their migration
Dispersal of Birds
Birds, on account of having the wings to fly for rapid

dispersal even to far o'f places, are thought to be ubiquitous,
although this is not always true Many species of birds are almost
as strictly limited by barriers as the mammalia The different
groups of avian fauna offer remarkable contrasts in the extent of
their range some being the most cosmopolite of the higher animals,
while others are absolutely confined to single spots on the earth’s
surface The petrels and the sea gulls are among the greatest
wanderers but most of the species ate confined to the arctic and
antarctic sea Sandpipers and plovers are also migratory birds
Great numbers of them breed in the arctic regions and migrate as
far as India, Chile, Australia and Brazil In striking contrast to these
wide ranges we find many of the smaller perching birds like pigeons,
parrots and sparrows confined to small islands of a few square
miles in extent or to single valleys or mountains
There is yet ano'her group of birds which possess no

power of flight, such as the ostrich, cassowary, apteryx, kiwi and
penguin They are exactly in the same position as the mammalia

as regards their dispersal A very large number of short winged
birds, such as wrens, pittas and toucans, are perhaps worse off, for
thev can fly very few miles at a time Some birds like titlarks,
cuckoos, warblers and rails sit on the ocean vessels and cross
large oceans
Barriers to Dispersal
Sea-arms and wide oceans are absolute barriers to the
passage of most birds from one continent to another Many birds
die in trans continental flights and are carried away by storms and
high-speed gales. Birds living tn thickets and forests or which
feed near the ground are restricted in their range by the extent oi
the forests they inhabit or their feeding places. Many species are
also bounded by mountain ranges whenever they rise above the
woody region
The supply of food and the kind of vegetation, soil and
climate best suited to a bird's habitats are the most potent causes
which mark out the exact limits of the range of each species. To
this must be added the prevalence of ememles of either the parent
birds, the eggs or ihe young. Pigeons abound most in those areas
of Amazonia and the Malay archipelago where monkeys do not

occur. The flightless birds like kiwis, ostriches, and emus are
found only in those parts of New Zealand, Australia and South
Africa where the carnivorous animals do not exist. Some birds are
confined to swampy areas and grasslands where they can find
insects and seeds to feed upon
Bird Migration
The term migration is applied to the periodical or irregular

movements of al! most regulated in birds. There are
animals but is
about 8000 known and named species of birds which are migratory
Despite all dangers of storms, droughts, inhospitable weather and
the fear of man millions of birds undertake biannual journeys that
span the whole continents and oceans In the land-masses of the
northern hemisphere, (he arrival of summer produces a superabun-
dance of food and long daylight hours to seek it-a critical factor for
birds whose young may eat many times their own weight during
the time they are in the nest The northern latitudes thus support
a huge temporary breeding population of birds which must migrate
south in winter. When breeding is over in summer and the young
ones are reared, glandular changes within the body, probably
triggered by the lengthening nights of the approaching winter,
stimulate ‘migratory mslmct'm these birds. Bui ihe actual momenl
°f departure is
influenced by the local weather conditions and the
physical readiness of the birds themselves
Before migrating, it is essential for the birds to have a large
store of energy in the form of internal fats, for they may not
tod suitable food way along their long flights. Some
on the
species may even double their body weight and stay on the wing
306 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGECCRAPHT
lor at least 90 hours or mote Observations indicate that wheat-

eaters, only a little larger than house-sparrows, fly direct from
Greenland 10 the north coast of Spain, an over-water flight of
3200 km. The black-poll warbler, smaller than the house-sparrow,
may fly direct from the east Atlantic coast of the United States to
Venezuela Others from Alaska cross the Bering Strait and lake
the trans-Asian journey to reach their ancestral winter homes in
Africa. Migratory birds of Europe go southward to the Mediterra-

nean and Africa It has been noticed that the males ofien leave
before the females and both before the voung birds, which in consi-
derable numbers migrate later and alone.
In India, several species of birds of the Palaearctic region

arrive before the onset of winter every year. The Keoladeo
National Park, Bharatpur is one of the finest n°sting grounds of
north Asian birds which spend their winters here About 353
species of birds belonging to 56 families visit this park every year,
which spreads over an area of 29 sq.km. It is one of the best
known heronries of the world where over 10,000 nests of egrets,
dartars, grey herons, storks and cormorants hatch about 30,000
chicks every year Saras cranes, the world’s tallest flight birds,
pheasants, bronze-winged jackanas and Siberian cranes nest on
water weeds and construct floating nests for lavtng eggs An

unlimited number of pintails, teals, pigeons, weaver birds and grey-
leg geese spend their winters in ihe marshes of this park The
Siberian cranes, which are rare now, can also be seen here
More than any species, the swallow is symbolic of this
incredible and complicated migratory instinct of birds Swallows

breed in Europe, Asia and Norih Afn a. and flying by day and
feeding on the wing, thev show a preference for short sea crossings,
such as the Strait of Gibraltar, passing south round the edge of

Sahara Of all the migrant birds, none travels farther than the
arctic tern After a short breeding season in higher latitudes of the
northern hemisphere, where long hours of summer daylight give
ample time for feeding on the abundant supply of fish, some North
American arctic terns cross the North Atlantic lo reach the nor-
thern coasts of Africa. The arctic terns of Russia, England and

Wales have sometimes been recovered in Australia too These
birds may travel about 35,000 km a year
AMMAL DISFTRSM AMD MIGRATION 307
The speed of migratory flights is fantastic in some birds

The Manx-shearwater flies from Wales to the North American east
coast, crossing the 4600 km span of the Atlantic in about 12 days

wiihout stopping anywhere These birds also go to Brazil after
covering a distance of 8000 km from Britain in about 18 days

The shearwater family is a long-distance migrant The Great
shearwater, which breeds on the lonely island of Tristan da Cunha
in the south Atlantic, travels north up the western Atlantic to reach
the waters oft Greenland Its cousin, the Sooty shearwater, known
to sailors as the mutton bird, also migrates northwards up to
Japan from its breeding areas in the Falkland Islands and in the
small islands oil Cape Horn, Tasmania and New Zealand
The winter quarters of all migratory birds are nearer the

equator The willow-warbler, a song bird, is so small that three
barely weigh an ounce, but it undertakes the immense journey from
England to East Africa The instinct to migrate brings together m
huge flocks birds that are normally solitary It rs thought that the
wandering of albatross, with a wing spin of 12 feet, keeps soaring
across the southern oceans and iheir islands and circumnavigates
the world several times between the breeding seasons Most
migrations take place below 5000 feet but there are records of
really small birds travelling as high as 21,000 ft. Migratory birds
use the sun and the stars as aids to navigation. They have pheno-
menal accuracy for direction temperature and weather conditio is
and are able to visit the same winter sites year alter year
Dispersal of Reptiles and Amphibia
Reptiles and amphibians are cold-blooded animals and so

their dispersal is controlled by temperature conditions Marine
reptiles like turtles and sea-snakes can traverse long distances in
seas and are, therefore, found m the coastal waters of all continents
Fresh-water reptiles such as crocodiles, gavials and tortoises are
more confined to Iheir native lands as they cannot traverse long
distances These animals are mostly found In the old world
Snakes are very sensitive to climate, becoming more

scarce m temperate and cold climates and entirely ceasing at 62°N
latitude They also do not ascend lofty mountains, ceasing at 6000
ft elevation in the Alps and the Himalayas Most ol the snakes
inhabit deserts and burrow under the soil to get an optimum tempe-
rature Others are adapted to swamps and for a life in forests
Pythons are more conspicuous m thick forests where they hang

down the tree branches to prey upon the passing animals The
king-cobra is also a nature of woodlands and grasslands Snakes
swim rivers easily, but apparently have no means of passing the
sea, as they are very rarely found on oceanic islands
Lizards are also essentially tropical, but they have disper-

sed somewhat farther north than snakes, and can ascend higher
on the mountains, reaching 10,000 ft in the Himalayas They
adopt some means of crossing the oceans, as they are found to
inhabit many islands where there are neither snakes nor any
mammalia. If is probable that they had travelled to these islands
either at a mature stage on the branches and logs of floating wood

or in the egg stage lying in the ice-floes
The amphibia are much less sensitive to cold lhan tf e true
reptiles and they accordingly extend farther north up to the tundras
Frogs are found in abundance in the arctic region Their semi
aquatic life also gives them They hive

facilities for dispersal
adapted to Sometimes aquatic birds

hot as well as cold climates
and waders also carry the eggs of amphibians in their feet and
wings from one pond to another or from one stream to another
Deserts and oceans are the most effectual barriers to their

dispersal The salt-water of oceans is fatal to them, as also to
their eggs, but their distribution is fairly widespread in almost all
the zoogeographical regions It appears that the tran'-shipment
of such common species, as found in all continents, has taken place

wood or through icebergs Deserts
either through floating logs of
have most commonly various forms of salamanders, toads and frogs
which show special adaptations to xertc climate
Dispersal of Fishes
The fact that the same species of freshwater fishes often
inhabit distinct river systems and different continents proves that
they have some means of dispersal over land Alexander Von

Humboldt many fishes from subterranean streams are
relates that
sometimes thrown up by volcanic explosions and they land in

streams far apart Another mode of dispersal may be transfer
from one river basin to another by hurricanes, typhoons and

whirlwinds
A still distinct mode may be the dispersal of eggs which are
carried away by aquatic birds in their webs and wings It has been
found that geese and ducks during their migrations feed on the
eggs of fishes and that some of these pass through their bodies
with their vitality unimpaired Even water beetles flying from one
pond to another might occasionally carry with them some of the
smaller eggs of fishes It is also probable that fishes disperse

when streams change their courses or cause floods
Sea fishes have unlimited means of dispersal but tempera

ture, salinity and the oceanic currents prove big barriers Fishes
like cod, herrtngs and salmons can only live in cold waters while a
variety ol other fishes prefer to live in warm waters Depth of
water is the greatest barrier as the availability of food decreases
with the increasing depth Thus fishes of the Gulf of Mexico
inhabiting the shallow water', cannot cross over to the Allantic
because the ocean is very deep Many sea fishes migrate to a
limited extent for spawning in favourable situations Herrings the
inhabitants of deep sea, come in shoals in the breeding season, while
salmons quit the northern cold seas and enter the rivers, mounting
upwards to the clear cold water near their sources to deposit
their eggs
But most of the fresh water fish genera are unable to mig
rate even to short distances because land mass is a big barrier to
them Africa and Souih America possess almost completely
different genera of freshwater fishes and onlv those like Anus
which are anadromous are shared in common The headwaters of

the Rhine and the Danube are separated by only a few kilometres
and yet the fish fauna is different in both of them Sticklebacks
and eels are found m the Danube while they are absent m the
Rhine Both the rivers have different species of salmons and
sturgeons too
For most of the fishes, waterfalls, cascades and rapids are

barriers and so the fishes inhabiting one part of a river may be
different from those inhabiting the other part of it Even strong
swimmers like salmons are unable to negotiate upwards on a water-
310 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPHV
fall and so they are no found I in Lake Constance front which the
Rhine water make a sharp fall
It would now be useful lo present the various theories pre-

valent today in regard to the methods of dispersal
Theory of Continental Drift
Alfred Wegener (1915) postulated the theory of continental
drift which unearthed some decisive facts regarding the spread of

animals in Wagener, on (he basis of fossil
various continents
records and rock evidences, reassembled all the continents of the
world for the late Carboniferous aqe and substantiated their joining
with palaeo-climauc evidences available at that time He proposed

the name pangea
• ’
for this world continent He postulated further
that on account of gravitational attraction exerted by the earth’s
equatorial bulge, the various continents drifted away from their
moorings— the flight from the poles and a general drift towards
the west These dramatic happenings continued through Eocene
up to early Pleistocene till the present shape of the continents
were formed
Wegener’s hypothesis suggests a former land connection

between Africa and South America The Atlantic Ocean had
grown tn the upper Cretaceous period The disintegration of East
Gondwana, which started towards the end of the Palaeozoic period
and the movement in a westerly direction of West Gondwana
resulting from it had a decisive effect on the formation of the
Atlantic Ocean Gondwana was a Palaeozoic continent in the
southern hemisphere, encompassing South America, Africa, Mada-
gascar, Australia and India and was torn apart by continental drift
It is not surprising therefore, that numerous Mesozoic

animal and plant species eg Glossoplerts and the Mesosnums group
of animals, are commonly found in all the Gondwana lands The
northern primitive continent Laurasia comprising North America,
Greenland, Scandinavia and Siberia has also a common fossil
record of animals and plants Thus Mesozoic reptiles have a

common history of evoluation in these lands It has now been
studied that reptiles like Chelonians, Mesosauria, Eosuchia, Rhyn
chocephaha and Ornithischia underwent a common development tn
Gondwana land and the reptiles like Sauropterygta and Therapsida

had their origin in Laurasia The segregation of reptiles over

different continents occurred at a later stage, probably in the
Eocene times
It is also clear now that the Permo-Carboniferous age was
an ice-age upon the earth But it had us large scale effects on
South Africa, India, Australia, South America and Antarctica
These glaciated lands of the late Carboniferous now occupy consi-
derable areas on both sides of the equator Due to the large glacial
ice deposited on land it is assumed that the sea level went down
much lower than the present one. and this must have provided
ample land-bridges for animals to traverse into other continents
Land bridges have provided most useful locations for the various
animals and plants to migrate to other lands Therefore the role of
land-bridges is outlined below
Land Bridges
Sclaterand Ihring have claimed that Lemuna was a Greta*
ceous or Eocene land bridge between Madagascar and India This

explains the similarity of the distribution of lemurs m both these
lands Schuchert and Ibnng (1972) imagined a land budge— the
Schacliert Land during the Cretaceous period, connecting Norih and
South America, through which the land animals migrated from north
la south Similarly Buffon had earlier proposed a land bridge bei
tveen Asia and North America across the Behring Strait through
which men and animals migrated from the old world to the new
world. We may now look into the land connections which are
supposed to have existed and the existence of which has been

supported ever by the more recent palaeontological, geological and
tnogeographic fmdmgs
(IJ Beilngfo
The Behring Straits, which are over 16 km wide and which

separate the Asian and the North American comments, are sup-
posed to have had land connections several times in the pasl,
chiefly m the Tertiary and Pleistocene periods Successive marine
and land deposits on the Behtmg-Chukchi platform containing
Sequoia and other taxa show that land connections via this strait
existed repeatedly during
the early Tertiary At the beginning of
the Quarternary,
however, Asia and North America were separated
312 essentials of biogeography
bu marine flooding Because of a lowering of the sea level during

the cold periods of Pleistocene, these straits again had a land
bridge Pollen analytical studies and carbon daring of this area
show that the Benngia land bridge was formed in all the four glacial
periods of the Pleistocene age and during the warm inter-glacial
periods it was flooded repeatedly ll is supposed that by the
beginning of the Holocene, when man had migrated to ihe
Americas, the Beringia land bridge had closed finally.
Fossil studies m this regard indicate that the Malayan tapir
migrated through the Beringia via China and Siberia to Alaska and
then further south lo Brazil traversing all the way through the west
coast of Canada, the United Slates and Mexico Today, we find a
close resemblance between the South American and Malayan tapirs.
It is also indicated in the studies that ihe Arabian camel crossed
ihe plains of Siberia during the inter glacial periods and reached
Alaska and then further south up to the west coast of Canada
(ll) Tyrrhenian Land Bridge
This land bridge is presumed to have existed between

Italy, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and North Africa during the penulti
mate glaciation It is indicated that in this part of the Mediterranean

there were several smaller land bridges, joining the African conti-
nent with the mainland of Europe via the islands of the Mediterra-
nean The one that existed between Corsica, Sardinia, Balearics
and Spain is called the Balearics Bridge Another one lhat existed
between Corsica, Sardinia and Provence is called the Pro\ence

Budge. A thrid one between Africa, Corsica and Sardinia is called
the G ah ta Bridge
The homogeneity of fauna in the entire Mediterranean

zoogeographical region indicates the possibility of the existence of
these land bridges which must have provided the routes of migra-
tion for the exchange of animals between North Africa and South
Europe Thai such a slate of things existed at a comparaively
recent period is almost certain, not only because a considerable
number of identical species of mammalia inhabit the opposite
shares of the Mediterranean, but also because numerous remains of
three species of elephants have been found in caves in Malta-now
a small rocky island in which it would be impossible for such
animals to live even if they could reach it The remains of hippo-

potamus have also been found at Gibralter, and of many other

animals of African types in Greece, all indicating means of commu-
Europe
mcation between South Europe and Africa which no longer exist
The fossil forms of the Pliocene deposits of Europe show the pre-
sence of numerous large carnivora and ungulates, which are now
almost wholly tropical For a long succession of ages, various
forms of monkeys, hyenas, lions, horses, hippopotamuses, rhino-
ceroses, elephants, deer and antelopes formed a rich and varied
fauna m South Europe
The existence of the Tyrrhenian land bridge in the pre-
Pltocene seems to be extraordinary and incredible at the first sight
because the Mediterranean is a deep sea The eastern basin of the
Mediterranean is about 4 000 metres and the western basin about
3 300 metres deep But a further examination reveals that a
comparatively shallow sea or submerged bank encloses Malta and
Sicily and that on the opposite coast a similar bank stretches out
from the coast of narrow channel the greatest
Tripoli leaving a
depth of which a broad plateau,
is 450 meters Here, therefore, is
having an elevation of about 450-500 metres, which would convert

mto a wide extent of
land connecting Italy with Africa, while the
same elevation would
also connect Morocco with Spam leaving two
extensive lakes to represent what is now the Mediterranean Sea
So the existence
of the Tyrrhenian land bridge, which afforded free
314 essentials of BIOGEOGRAPHY
communication for land animals between Europe and North Africa

cannot be denied
(til) Archhelenls
This land bridge Is supposed to have existed in the Meso'

zoic age and connected the eastern part of the South America
with South-West Africa via Tristan da Cunha Various fossil form?
of Mesozoic fauna in both the lands have strong similarities suggest
ting the probable existence of this land bridge These similarities
are most notable in clawed toads, platannas, millipedes, cichilids,

ostracods and numerous parasitic forms But these similarities may
also he on account of common world island pangea out of which the
various continents drifted apart Some more details are yet needed
to establish the existence of this land bridge which is not yet
clear
(lv) Archatlantls
Ihering (1927) assumed the existence of this land bridge id

the Cretaceous age The extensions were perhaps between Span'
Florida, connecting all the islands of the North Atlantic, inclu-
and
ding the Azores, the Canaries, the Cape Verde Islands and the
Antilles The occurence of sea-cows on both sides of the Atlantic
is Said to be the most potent evidence

for ihe existence of such 0
land bridge in the past But in any case, they are unknown as
of
fossils in the pre-Pleistocene deposits and so the existence
evidence
Archalantis can hardly be accepted without any further
(v) Canaries Bridge
A Canaries bridge has been claimed recently on the basis

of geological, palaeontological and phylogenetic relationships bet-
But
ween the eastern Canary Islands and the West African tableland
genera
Canaries have no indigenous fauna of mammalia, and only 50
of land birds are found in them and they too are of European chara-
cter Two European species of bats are also found in these island?
Taking all these singular facts demonstrating the total absence of truly
a
indigenous mammalia and reptiles from these islands, the theory of
land connection between Canaries and the mainland of Africa
is
untenable. Ins possible that the separation of the eastern Cana-

ries from Africa occurred through a rift and that a short land
connection existed possibly in the lower Pliocene
(vi) Archiplata
According to Ihering (1927), a land bridge existed during

the Cretaceous period between Ncrih and South America which
also joined the South Pacific land bridge A faunal exchange took
place during ihe Ternary between the two Americas. But as the
studies indicate, the Nearctic fauna have few relations with the
Neotropical. A number of peculiar forms ol mammalia exist in the
former. Badgers, skunks, pouched rats and musk sheep are the re-
markable forms that are not found in the Neotropical. The distribu-
tion of animals in the Neotropical zoogeographical region suggests
that Ihe highlands of Guyana and Brazil are very ancient lands, dating
back 10 a period long before ihe elevation of the Andean range.
The ancient plateaus of Guyana and Brazil were formerly islands
separated by the arms of a sea
(util ArcMsulua
This land bridge represents an assumed Cretaceous

island in ihe region of Venezuela and the Guyanas to which mention
has been made earlier in connection with the Archiplata land bridge
The distribution of numerous species ol monotype genera, e.g. the
parakeet, ihe cotingid and ihe tyrant flycatcher, provide ample

evidence for the existence of this island It is also indicated that
the recent shifts in the rainforests to these lands has also influenced
the present distribution pattern of the fauna.
(vilt) Archinotls
li is postulated that in the Cretaceous and in the early

Tertiary times, a land bridge existed in the southern hemisphere
connecting the southern part of South America with New Zealand
and Australia via Antarctica and the South Pacific Islands. This
land connection meaningfully explains ihe close correlation bet-
ween many animal groups distributed on both sides of the South
Pacific Thus we find lhat the southern beech {Nothcfagus) is found
abundantly in all the southern hemisphere Similarly fresh-water

crabs, stone-flies, land-snails and snake-necked turtles are found
in South America. Australia and New Zealand
Fig. 14 2 The Possible Migratory Route of Land Animals bet-
ween South America and New Zealand.
New Zealand along with its outlier islands of Norfolk,
Chatham and Lord Howe’s island presents a special case These

islands show us the former maximum extent of the land-area in
which some of the peculiar forms of flightless birds developed If
we include the Auckland and the Macquarne Islands to the south,

we shall have a territory of not much less extent than Australia
That some such land existed in ancient times as allowed the deve-
lopment and specialization of so many peculiar forms of birds can

hardly be denied. Its extension southwards, perhaps considerably
beyond the Macquenes, would bring it within the range of floating
ice during the cold epoch and within the easy reach of the Antar-
ctic continent during the warm periods. And thus it would make
possible an interchange of animal species with South America.
Also this forms one of the characteristic features ot the natural his-
tory of New Zealand. '

It is also assumed that these land connections existed in a
lentacular fashion spreading out in various directions, especially of
an early southern continental period when New Zealand, Australia,
South Africa and South America were united This union must
have existed before mammalia existed in any one of these coun-
tries So, these connections could provide only the interchange of
birds, reptiles, fishes and insects in these parts and some of the
faunal species had a common ancestral base
Fig 14 3 Postulation of a Possible South Continent
It was probably far back in the Cainozoic period that

some portion of the Australian region was m actual connection
with the northern comments In this period it became stocked
wnh marsupials in their ancestral forms But thereafter ihe land
connections broke down and the higher mammals could not enter
here The marine and Eocene periods
fossils of the Cretaceous
show their close affinity to those of Europe Numerous Miocene

plant bpds have also been found in the Victoria province of Austra-
lia, containing abundance of dicot plants which resemble the
Asiatic fauna
|ix) Austro-Malayan
As the faunal distribution indicates, the Malaya peninsula

has remained the crossroads of Orien‘al, Palaearctic and Austra-
lian fauna in the past geological ages The large group of Indo-
nesian islands of which Java and Sumaira are the largest, is ancho
red in the shallow sea connecting these islands with Australia It
is possible that in the Pleistocene ice-age these shallow seas dried

up providing a migratory route between the mainland of Asia and
Australia for the land animals The typical Malayan fauna is essen-
tially an equatorial one and must have been elaborated in an exten-
sive equatorial area in ancient times This ancient land must have
certainly extended northward over the shallow sea as far as the
island of Pa'awan, the Paracels shoal and even Hainan To the east it
may at one time have included the Celebes and the Philippines To
the south it was limited by the deep sea beyond Java It included all
Sumatra and the ft'icobar islands and there is every reason to assume
that it stretched out also to the west so as to include the Adam's peak
of Ceylon, the Maidive islands and the Cocos islands All this wou'd
form an extensive area as large as South America and well calcu-
lated to develop a luxuriant fauna which spread out to the Oriental
and Australian zoogeographical regions

In geological times, as evidences prove it, the western half
of this area submerged, leaving only a fragment in Ceylon This
event diminished the number of animals and perhaps extinguished
some peculiar types Fragmentation of this vast Malayan land sepa-

raied out Celebes, Borneo, the Philippines and the Sunda islands in
succession one alter another leaving the fauna upon them to evo-
lve in its own way These geological events explain the inter-
mixture of the Oriental, and the Australian fauna

Palaearctic
which occurred probably before the Himalayan orogeny Later on
Australia remained isolated for long and its animals could not mix
with those of other regions A long period ol geographic isolation
has thus made them primitive and most peculiar, so that lhey are
found no where else m the world.
Besides these natural processes of animal dispersal and

migration, anthropogenic factors have also greatly altered the
fauna of various continents The primitive hunters killed most ol
the edible forms of animal life like the saiga antelopes and wild
horses of Central Asia Some of the animal forms like cows buffa-
loes, sheep, qoats, pigs, etc were domesticated forhuman bene-

fit We find, therefore, that much of the original fauna has now
been altered and it is difficult to ascertain the indigenous forms in
anv region
FURTHER READING
1 Brigs. J C (1974). Marine Zoogeography. McGraw

Hill, New York
2 Brodkorb, P '(1971), Ongui and Evolution of Birds; Aca-
demic Press; London
3 Bull, P C and Whitaker, A H, (1975), The Amphibians,

Reptiles, Birds and Mammals, Junk, The Hague
4 Hetlprtn, A (1977), The Geographical and Geological

Distribution of Animals Kegan Paul, London
5 Hopkms DM (1967), TheBelu ing Land Bridge, Stan-

ford Umv Press, Stanford.
6 Van Den Bosch, R, Messenger. P S (1973), Biological

Control, Intertext Pub, New York
15
The Aquatic Fauna
About 71 per cent of the earth’s surface is covered with

water-bodies which harbour a rich wealth of aquatic life Nearlv
361 million sq km of the earth's surface having 1230 million km 3
of water Is covered with oceans This constitutes about 97.2 per
cert of ihe total water present on the earth About 1200 Vjtfi of
water is present tn the rivers and streams, constituting 0 0001 per

cent of the total volume of water on the earth and 123,000 km 2
of water is in the lakes covering 855,000 km 2 of the earth’s surface
and constituting 0 009 per cent of the water. A large volume of

water, some 28 6 million km 3 is tn the form of snow and ice (2 15%).
,
covering 28 2 km 2 of the earth's surface Thus water is abundantly

present, although all forms of water are not potable nor habitable
to living organisms. Aquatic life inhabits only certain parts of marine
and fresh water. Life originated in water, perhaps in the vast warm
seas, and even today, much of the life is concentrated in the seas
and rivers, although a greater part lies in the shallow waters confi-
ned to a depth of 125 metres About 160,000 species of animals are
known to exist in waters today
Life in the Sea
In the sea, as on land, life depends largely on plants The

THt AQUATIC FAUNA 321
plants of the ocean are almost as productive, acre for acre, as the
plants on land. The pastures of the sea are countless myriads of
free floating, microscopic plants known as phytoplankton These

are the food of minuie animals called zooplankton which are preyed
upon by larger animal species, which themselves provide food for
sull larger animals in the aquatic ecosysiem Life in the sea depends
largely on the productivity of microscopic chlorophyll-bearing
organisms called diatoms, blue-green algae and various flagellates,
forming parts of the plankton They manufacture food in
sunlight which Is able to penetrate the sea waters up to a depth of

about 300 ft This is called the productive zone of the sea where
animals are also m abundance to feed upon the plants Below

this, animal life decreases Thus life in the sea exists m three
zones
Pig IS 1 Biological Zone of the Sea
(l| Productive Zone
This is the 'euphotic zone’ in which photosynthesis can

occur This zone extending up to 125 metres in depth is the richest
part of ocean in animal and plant life. The various plankters found
in this zone are sea-gosseberry or combjelly, and Calanus fwm-
orchcus, which is the main food of herring fishes; Tomopierts, a
polychaete worm, an arrow worm, Obeha, Pteropod the sea-
Sagitta, ,
butterfly, Euplmsta, a shrimp like crustacean, Krill, the food of

whales, Zoeo, the larvae minute sea-plants and
of crabs, diatoms, the
the eggs of fishes
Various types of fishes are found in this zone. They feed

upon phytoplankton
and zooplankton which are abundant in this
322 ESSENTIALS OF EIOGEOGRAPHY
portion of the sea Some of the main types of fishes are buiierffy
fish, surgeon fish, sea horse, conger eel
dragonet, red gurnard,
jewel fish, red mullet, anchovy, haddock, pilchard, sprat, bill, herring
mackerel and cod Sea snakes and Portuguese Man O’war are
other prominent forms of life Larger fishes which inhabit this zone
are hake, porbeagle shark, plaice, sahfm longfin tuna, eagle’s ray
and flying fish.
(21 Middle Zone
Beneath the sunlit 300 ft layer, the midwater animal life
becomes more and more sparse as the depth increases This is the
•twilight zone between 300 to 3000 It deep from which the aquatic
animals frequently migrate up to the surface waters each day where
their food is most abundant Luminous crustaceans, squids and
several fishes are among such migrators Fishes like coelacanths, rat-
tails, mailed cheeked gurnards etc often come to the surface
waters to get food
However, a large number of fish species remain in deep

dark waters Some of the non-migralory fishes are Pelagollmria
Gonostoma elongatum, Gigantactis macronemo Acanthonus Photostomias
gueritei, tripod tish and deep sea eel Perhaps the most remarkable
adaptation to life m the depths is shown by certain kinds ol deep-
sea angler fish Their reproduction depends on a chance meeting

of the sexes in the sunless depths, after which the female carries
the much smaller male permanently with her and he becomes a
parasite on his partner Scarlet deep sea prawns are also found at
these depths
(3) Deep-sea zone
Life is very scarce in this zone which extends for 3600 metres
downwards On the deep ocean floor, where total darkness prevails,
such animals as deep sea cucumbers, deep sea prawn, ethusa elhu-
raid worm, bassoqiga, etc are found Scarcity of food is always the
limiting factor here
Marine Mammals
Besides fishes, crustaceans and other invertebrates men-

the aquatic fauna 323
Honed already, a large number of mammals live in seas. These are

whales {Cetaceans), dolphins, seals and sea-lions (Pinnipeds), sea-
cows (
Simians ) and marine otters (
Mustehdae ). Whales are
mammals which have been an important food and economic reso-
urce 10 man since the sixieenih century. Biologically, whales are of
iwo types: the baleen whales and the toothed whales. Of a large
variety ol whales found today, only the sperm whale, measur-
ing absut 25 metres long, ts the toothed whale. The other types
called fin-back whale, humpback whale, killer whale, and blue
whale are baleen whales. Most of the whales are less than 10
metres long but the blue whale is over 35 metres long and the
finback whale is about 30 metres m length. They are the largest
mammals found on the earth today All typps of whales live mostly
in cold walers.
Seals are flippered marine animals, having evolved from

land carnivores. True seals, tur seals, sea-lions and walruses are
the main forms which have been specially important to native
peoples of North America, providing food, oil and skins. The
crabeater seals are found in Antarctica. Sea-cows and dugongs are
docile sea herbivores of warm coastal walers, feeding on large
aquatic plants The Caribbean manatee sea-cow is found in the
coastal rivers of Florida and has been over-exploited for meat, oil
and hides Sea-otters live near shores m depths of 40 metres or

less They lack the layer of fat under their skin and have a thick
coat of fur to keep them warm To maintain their high metabolic
rate, sea otters need to eat more and eat 20 to 30 per cent of their
body weight per day.
Marine Biological Resources
Biological resources are not uniformly distributed over the

whole ocean area. The open oceans are the least productive and
are in fact biological ol the
deserts, largely because of the small size
autotrophic zone in relation to the heterotrophic zone in which
the cycling of
nutrients takes place. The primary productivity in the
various parts of oceans is as below :
The coastal 20 nes and upwellmg areas have highest pii-

mary productivity
because of their proximity to the sources of
romera] nutrition. among
Similarly tidal estuaries and mudflats are
324 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPHV
Table 15.1
Primary Productivity in Oceans
Zones Area NPP dry mailer Total

Mean
(106 km2| (S/m 2 /yr) (106|/yr)
Open ocean 332 125 41.5

Upwellmg zones 04 500 0.2
Continental shelf 26 6 360 96

Algae beds, reefs 06 2500 I 6
Estuaries 1.4 1500 2 1
Total averages 361 155 55 0
Source : After Whittaker and Likens 1975
the most productive ecosystems in the world Corals and algae

beds are also efficient primary producers as they recycle phos
phorus and other mineral nutrients between the plant and animal
components of the coral colony most rapidly.
Fig 15 2 Animals of the Various Trophic Levels m Sea.

THE /QUAT3C FAUNA 325
Much of the primary productivity of oceans is used by

fishes, molluscs, prawns, crabs, etc which are harvested by man
Oceans have organisms of various trophic levels Most of the
fishes and molluscs form the first trophic level as they consume the
phytoplanktons However, a great number of desired species of
iishes such as haddocks, cods, herrings, flounders, sardines and

baleen whales belong to the third trophic level Some strongly
demanded species like halibuts, tunas, salmons, large cods, seals
sword fishes, spermwhales, etc are yet farther along the food chain
At each stage there is competition for the production from taxa
which are not important resource species for man such as sharks
dogfish and seabirds
Fish productivity in the various parts of the sea is variable

depending upon the primary productivity and availability of food
From 1938 to 1970, the world’s production of fishes increased
from 23 million tons to 70 million tons In 19’6 world fish land-
ings were 73 5 million tons showing a slight rise over the previous
vears It would be difficult to raise it further as most of the fishing
grounds have been over-exploited and the chances of further
harvests ate dwindling
Fishing is done in almost ali countries of the world today

with most of the island countries and maritime nations in the fore
front According to the catch si?,e in million tons, the rank order
of the five highest fishing Japan Soviet
countries is (10,619),
Russia (10,133),
China (6,880), Peru (4,343), and Norway (3,435)
However, the regional consumption of fishes vanes The world s
average per capita consumption of fish is 10 3 kg per year. Marked
variations m various countries and regions are given in Table 15 2
H ijor Flshin Grounds
The major fishing grounds of the world are in those coastal

areaswhere the warm and cold oceanic currents meet producing
enormous amounts of
plankton are the feed of the fishes of
which
the fust
trophic level Other fishes and predators of the second and
third trophic levels come there to feed upon the animals of the
irst lr ophic level Lagoons, upwellmg areas, shallow coastal
waters, bays
and gulfs are also rich in fish life as they have hiqh
quantities of
nutrients and an abundance of sunlight Some of the
important fishing
areas are
326 ESSENTIALS or BIOGEOGRAPHY
Table 15 2
Regional Consumption of Fish
Country/ Region Consumption Country! Region Consumption

(kg/cap/yr) (kg/cap/yr)
Japan 53 7 Oceania 10 7
South Africa 21 3 Sub-Saharan Africa 82

North-West Europ e 20 5 Asia (excluding Japan
and China) 73
Southern Europe 172 China 69
North America 145 Eastern Europe 6 1
USSR 13 i Latin America 60

EEC 12.1 Near-East 32
World average— 10 3
Source . FAO— World Plan for Agriculture, 1986
(i) East Coast of Japan Here the warm kuro-shio and the
cold Oya-shio ocean currents meet. The important
fish types found here are pilchards sardines and cods
(n) North Sea Popularly known as the Dogger Banks, this
sea is surrounded by Norway, Great Britain and Ire-
land, which are the major fishing countries of the
MAJOR FISHING GROUNDS OF THE WORLD
Fig 15 3 Location of Fishing Grounds along the Coastal Areas.

the aquatic fauna 327
world. Here the warm North Atlantic Drift and the

cold Arctic currents meet. The major harvest is of
hakes, herrings, sardines, cods and tunny fishes Cods
are trawled as far north as 75° latitude along the
coasts of Iceland and Greenland
(m) Grand Banks : Located near New Foundland and on

the eastern coast of the United States and Canada,
Grand Banks are rich fishing grounds where the cold
Labrador current and the warm Gulf Stream meet
The harvest is of salmons, herrings, cods, mackerels
and pilchards.
(iv) Penman Coast : Along the west coast of South

America, near Peru and Chile, the cold Peruvian
oceanic current flows A rich harvest of anchovies,
pilchards and hakes is obtained from ihese waters
(v) Californian Coast The west coast of North America

•
has rich fish life owing to the confluence of the warm

North Pacific Drift and the cold Californian ocean
current The main types of fishes trawled here are-
cods, pilchards hakes, tunas, bomtos, mullets and
mackerels
(vs) Australian Coast . The coasts of southern Australia are

washed by the cold west Australian and the warm east
Australian current Here pilchards, sprats and hakes
are the mam variety of fishes found.
(vn) Antarctica Coast •

The icy coasts of Antarctica have
for long been the major fishing grounds Here Antar-
ctic fishes are trawled They are also famous for
whaling.
(vni) U'lwimg Grounds The whale catches occur in areas of
dense patches of krill which are the (eed of sperm

whales The krill ( Euphausia supcrba ), a shrimp-like
crustacean, is one of the most productive animals in
the oceans. They feed on small algae, and thus grow

rapidly in the nutrient-rich water of the southern
oceans So the major whaling grounds are all along
the coasts of Antarctica along the 60°S latitude
32S essentials of biogeography
Whales are also caught near the coasts of Chile, Brazil
Soulh African Republic, Malagassji, south east Auslra

lia and New. Zealand Sperm whales are most migra-
tory and eat mainly squids found at depths of 1,500 It
or more These whales are caught near Sargasso Sea
m the Atlantic or in the equatorial waters of the Pact
fic and Indian Oceans
Fig 15 4 Whaling Grounds in Cold and Temperate Water' of Seas
There has been a substantial decrease in the fish catches

in recent years The world catch of major commercial fishery
species groups in 1970 was 49 million ions which in 1975 stood at
45 7 million tons The failure of world’s fisheries continues today

even in those areas which have the most conscientious and active
management A variety of reasons have been assigned to it
Firstly, it is assumed that a fish slock grows according to the logis

tic growth curve, leading to over fishing But for a population
growing according to the logistic curve, the maximum rate of growth
occurs when the population is exactly one half its carrying capacity
So in this case, the strategy should be to harvest enough fish every
year to bring the population to one-half its carrying capacuy This
point on the logistic growth curve where the maximum growth raie
is obtained is known as the Maximum Sustainable Yield' (MSYl

which is rarely achieved owing to over-fishing
ihe aquatic
fauna 329
Fig 15 5 Maximum Sustainable Yeild of Fishes.
It should therefore, be known, in every fishing area what

the maximum carrying capacity and the present population of
fishes are. Both these conditions can hardly be precisely ascertai-
ned and therefore, the concepts of maximum sustainable yield and
carrying capacity cannot be taken exactly and literally Hence in
order to avoid the pitfalls of this approach, a second method, known

as the 'Optimal Suslamable Yield’, is followed It is usually defined
as the population size that ts 10 per cent larger than the population
size that provided the maximum yield It is a sort of cushion agai-
nst errors in estimating the carrying capacity During the last 200
years, with the development of modern mechanized trawlers, one
fishery alter another has been developed and has crashed due to
lack of knowledge about fish reproduction rates and the carrying
capacities of various fishing grounds
The fishing of Peruvian anchovies was, once, the largest

commercial fishery In 1970 about 12 3 million tons of anchovies
were caught from 1972, the
Peruvian coasts but two years later, in
total catch was only 1 8 million tons, barely 15 per cent of the 1970
catch This happened due to overfishing which was below the
maximum sustainable yeild Similarly, the catches of Atlantic
level
herrings,
Norwegian cods, Atlantic haddocks, Atlantic menhadens
and Pacific
sardines have been ghastly declining in recent years.
The potential for extending fisheries notv depends on three

sources, viz , the untapped species, the cropping of
utilization of
hitherto unattractive areas, and the development of
more novel
methods of culture and harvesting, the last one having attracted ihe
greatest attention recently in the name of ‘aquaculture True aqua-
culture involves genetic manipulation of the chosen species by
keeping them keptive throughout their breeding cycle
Quite optimistically, the world’s fisheries may provide

greater yields in future by better management and aquaculture but
the effects of pollutants in oceans due to oil spdls, waste water of
rivers and other chemicals are most markedly felt now Aquacul.
ture techniques may increase fish harvests 10 times in future but
such areas are limited and largescale pelagic fishing cannot be re-
placed by this method Of prime importance is the protection of
the oceans as living systems and against pollution and excessive
exploitation
FISHERIES IN INDIA
The augmentation of fish production both m marine and

inland sectors is of great significance in India where people are
malnourished due to protein deficiency Allhough significant pro
gress has been made in ihe country 10 step up fish production the e
is much left to be desired to promote fish production on scientific
basis through extension, education training and provision of inpuls
Intensive marine surveys are required to assess the pelagic fish
resources and to ensure their optimum exploitation through a judi
cinus mix of traditional country boats, operators of mechanized

boats and deep sea fishing vessels
Today the overall production of fish in the country is four
times more then what it was in 1950 as shown in Table 15 3
Marine Fishing
India has a 7517 km long coastline along which fishing is
the main occupation About I 8 million people are engaged in this
occupation, living in 2,447 villages There has been a considerable

progress in mechanization in the fishing industry in recent years
In 1980, about 1,61,000 mechanized boats were in operation aga
inst 2,161 in 1961 The commerical deep-sea fleet now comprises
FAUNA 331
THE AQUATIC
Table-15 3
Production of Fish in India
Year PioducUon (in thousand tons)
Marine Inland Total
1951 534 218 752
1961 684 277 961
1971 1,162 690 1,852
1981 1,445 999 2,444
1982 1,444 891 2,335
1983 1,519 987 2,506
1984 1,777 1.082 2,859
1985 1,692 1,118 2,810
Source A N Agrawal, India— Economic Information Year Book 1987-88
55 purchased vessels and another 50 vessels are operated on char-

ter basts in collaboration v,ith foreign countries
The construction of fishing harbours at major ports of

Cochin, Roychowk and Vtshakhapatnam was completed in 1980
In Madras, the fishing harbour was completed m 1985 In addition,
about 70 small and self contained harbours all along the sea coast
were completed in 1980 All these harbours can provide berthing
facilities for 9,000 mechanized boats and 150 deep sea fishing
vessels
As a result of the declaration ol an exclusive economic

zone of 360 km off the coastline of the country,
during the 6th
Five Year Plan (1990 85) the marine fish catch was greatly augme-
nted Consequerlly, it
reached an all-time high o'f 1 77 million tons
in 1984 The number of deep-sea fishing vessels has also now
been increased to 350
In the 7th plan (1986-90), an addition of 350 more deep-
sea fishing
vessels and 25,000 mechanized boais
is envisaged and
t at wi]|
augment the total marine catch to 2 2 million tons The
number of small fishing
harbours also be raised to 140
will Medium
size harbours for berthing the boats and mechanized vessels have
already been developed in Tuticonn, Vizhmgam Karwar Dhanura
and Port Blair Big harbours at Malpe and Honnavar have been
completed Smaller ports have been developed at Mallipatnam,
Kodikkarai, Veraval, Mangrol, Porbundar, Ratnagin, Kakinada,
Nizamapatnam, Bavnapadu, Kasargode and Mangalore Training
formarine fishing is being given at the Central Institute of Fisheries
and Nautical Engineering, Cochin and its one unit at Madras
Brackish water fish-farming has been introduced to harvest

prawns for expor Training facilities for prawn-culture are available
at the Central Institute of Fisheries Mandapam Fishing corpora-
tions and cooperative federations have been established in all
littoral states for production of fish seeds, reservoir development,

processing and marketing of fishes for internal consumption and
for exports
Inland Fishlnj
India has a large number of lakes, dam reservoirs, ponds,
tanks, swamps and estuarine areas where inland fishing can be

promoted In spite of these vast surface water areas, fish culture
has not been done intensively to achieve the optimum potentials
The rearing of fish seeds and their availability at the proppr time,
education and training to fish farmers are the prime requisites
Despite these constraints, the total inland fishing catch was at an
all time high of 1 2 million tons in 1985 Inland fishery projects
have been established in West Bengal, Bihar, Utlar Pradesh and
Orissa
In the 7th Five Year Plan (1986 90), it is proposed to increase
the inland fish catch to 1 8 million tons. To attain this target scientific
fish-rearing centres have been spread over the surface water of 03

million hectares and the fish seed produclion has been raised to
12 x 10 12 per year A system of Fish Farmers Development Agency
(FFDA) has been introduced in all the Slates to popularise intensive
fish-farming m rice f.elds, tanks and ponds Water areas, owned
bv village panchayats, are also leased by the State Governments to
individuals to encourage fish production
Today the country exports fishes of about Rs 506 million

per year and the exports are increasing by 536 million each year
THE AQUATIC FAUNA 333
Infrastructures for cold storage, tinning and packing have also been
provided at major centres But one of the major difficulties in the
promotion of marine fishing is that the fish catch m the warm waters
of Indian sea is largely assorted 1 here may be over a hundred diffe-
rent species of fishes in a single haul They have to be manually

separated out before marketing and some of the species may be
either non edible or just too small to be used as food
FURTHER READING
1 Agrawal, A N, Verma, H 0, and Gupta R C (1987),

India Economic Information Year Book 1986 87, Natio-
nal Publishing House, New Delhi
2 Bell, F W, (1978), Food From the Sea The Economics

and Politics of Ocean Fisheries, Weslview Preas, Boulder,
Colorado
3 Cushing D H, (1975), Fisheries Resources of the Sea and
their Management, Oxford Umv Press, London
4 Marx, W. (1967), The Frail Ocean, Sierra Club, New
York
5 Ricker, W, (1969) Food From the Sea, National
Assoc Science, pp 87-108

6 Seventh Five Year Plan (1986), Govt of India, Publica-
tions Division, New Delhi
16
Wildlife : Management and

Conservation
All over the world today there is a growing concern for the
protection of wild life which is fast disappearing due to man’s trium-
phant technological civilization resulting in large-scale clearance
of forests to provide land for crops and for seltlements, industries
and transport networks There has been a progressive deterioration

of our planetary environment, which now demands a most careful!
look at the way man uses his habitat and adopts conservation
policies Wildlife constitutes all those animals which live in a
‘i uldscape’ - an area dominated by natural and semi-natural vegeta-
tion,rock outcrops, rivers, glaciers, swamps and marine waves
These areas of wilderness are the natural habitats of wild life and
they need a careful management to maintain small communities of
plants and animals which establish their own ecosystem in them
Besides aesthetic, spiritual and ethical considerations 10 protect
the wtldscapes, it is now being recognised that they are essential

10 maintain the stability of the biosphere
\
Significance of Wildlife Conservation
The concern for wildlife is, however, the concern for man
himself Plants, animals and men are so closely inter— linked that
WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION 335
disturbance m one gives rise to imbalance in the others The

decreasing populations of wildlife signify a degradation of the
environment The various trophic levels of the transfer of energy
and nutrients found in plants and animals are disturbed, if any one
of the links is broken In this intricate web of relationships one
lorm of hie is dependent upon the other for Us existence and thus
it helps to keep a check on their numbers through the food chain
Nature maintains the vast diversity of animals and plants in a com-
plex organization in which the various life processes of production
and consumption of food and the disposal of waste are maintained

in well-balanced ecological cycles If these cycles are disturbed
then the effects are far reaching Thus the indiscriminate killing of
tigers and lions may lead to an increase in the number of deer and
antelopes Similarly, the killing of hoofed animals may cause an
immense growth of grasslands
Cruses ol Depletion of Wildlife
The extinction of plants and animals is a biological reality

Throughout the geological past no species has been able to exist
and survive for a few million years Some species evolved into
better varieties to survive in the changing conditions of environ-
ment Success in evolution can be determined in terms of survival
and failure by exuncnon About 36 million species of plants and
animals which existed in the geological pasl have become extinct

today and can only be known through Fossils
Another factor which has been the cause of recent extinc-

tions is the pressure of human population on land Demographic
and technological expansion have made heavy demands on land
and have wantonly destroyed wildlife and i s natural habitat
Deforestation of vast areas has greatly depleted the population of
wild animals Some of the animals like deer, antelopes tigers
and lions have been killed for trophies and their valuable
skins The fur sea! and blue whale have been killed lor their liver
oil flesh, teeth and bones Musk deer found on the Himalayan
slopes are supposed to have musk m their viscera and owing to us
medicinal properties have been killed recklessly in the past Rhino-
ceros are being killed for their valuable horns The Gangetic
crocodiles and gavials in India are at a point of near extinction It
has been reported

that the population of tiger in India which was
over 40 thousand about 80 years ago has now been reduced 10

only 1800 The Asiatic lion is today confined only to the Gir
forest of Gujarat and some parts of Sudan and Uganda
The protection of environment is, therefore, of utmost

importance to save wildlife Mass movements like the ‘Chipko
Moxemern' against felling of trees and the Silent valley controversy
are some of the reflections of social consiousness in this regard
Nonetheless the governments of all countries have been promulga
ling legislations to save wildlife and wilderness almost everywhere
on this planet A few legislations enacted in India may be mentioned
here
Legislative Measures for Protection
In India, a few legislative measures have been enacted

to conserve the existing wildlife and to provide facilities for
educanon and training for the people to save wildlife from

extinction
(1) Wildlife Protection Act J972
This Act provides compreherstve legal protection for
the wildlife and endangered species of fauna in India The Act

has been adopted by all States and Union Territories Under this
Act the State governments are empowered to daclare any area a

sanctuary or a national park for the purpose of protecting, propo-
gating and developing wildlife therein In India today there are 23
national parks extending over an ara of 6 417 sq km and 202
sanctuaries comprising 69,292 sq km Thus about 2 3% of the
total geographical area of the country or about 19 per cent of the
reserve forest area is under national parks and sanctuaries Some
of these parks have been created specifically to protect the rare
and endangered species The Tiger Project was undertaken in the

yea' 1976 to save the tiger population o f the country Similar
projects are those o f gavials, rhinoceros, lions and deer
(2) Forest and Wildlife in Concurrent List
The 42nd ammendmen! of the Constitution of India enacted
in 1976 included a concurrent fist of wild animals and birds to
control their preservation and protection The amendment empo-

WILDLIFE : MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION 337
wets the centra 1

government to acquire the property of any citizen
of India if it is needed to save wildlife and thd endangered species
(3) Convention on International Trade In Endangered Species ot Wild Fauna

and Flora
Commonly known as CITES programme, this convention

is now being followed all over the world to save wildlife ft is an
Acl lo regulate the commercial exploitation of endangeied species
which are usually killed for economic gains. India became a
member of the convention tn 1976 The convention bans the
illegal trade of furs, skins, hair, rails, teeth, etc of endangered
species The list of species varies from country to country and ts
now being followed everywhere in the world
(4) Man and Biosphere Programme
Commonly known as MAB, the concept of bnsphere

reserves was evolved by the UNESCO in the beginning ot the
present decade. The programme envisages conscious and delibe-
rate protection of areas of wilderness in their prtmeaval form The
dtusphere reserves ate to be kept as unused finds Wilderness ts
conceived to be untouched by man and must involve the develop-

ment of natural ecosystems to safeguard the genetic diversity of
species on which the continuing process of evolution depends
These reserves are supposed to conserve the gene pool resources
of flora and fauna in various countries.
WILDLIFE IN INDIA
India has a rich heritage of wildlife The region forms the

greater part of the Oriental region of animals It has 350 species
of mammals and 1,200 species of birds of its own which aie nowhere
else found m the world To conserve wild animals the various
States of india have confined wildlife into national parks and
sanctuaries The state-wise break up shows that nearly all the States
have demarcated some areas for the preservation of wildlife today.
Andhra Pradesh, having 14 wildlife sanctuaries, has reserved
orote than
12 per cent of the forest area for sanctuaries, Pakhal,
hturnagram, Pocharm, Kawal, Kolleru, Neelapatm and Kinuersam
are some of the famous sanctuaries where tigers, panthers, gaurs
sambhars, cheetals and black bucks have been preserved Croco-

diles are being reared in Manjira and Nagarjun Sagar Snsailam
sanctuaries today. Corinage and Pulical sanctuaries harbour some
of the rare birds like flamingoes, pelicans, ducks, storks, cranes and
herons.
Table 161
National Parks and Sanctuaries in India
State No of No of
National Parks Sanctuaries
\
I Andhra Pradesh — - 14
2. Andaman & Nicobar — 4
3 Arunachal Pradesh — 4
4. Assam I 6
5. Bihar — 13
6 Goa, Daman and Div — 3
7 Gujarat 3 5
8. Haryana — 2
9. Jammu and Kashmir — 4
10. Himachal Pradesh — 26
II Karnataka 3 13
12. Kerala 1 6
13. Madhya Pradesh 3 22
14 Maharashtra 4 10
15. Manipur 1
—
16. Meghalaya — 1
17. Mizoram — 1
18. Nagaland — 2
19. Orissa — 18
20 Punjab — 4
21. Rajasthan 3 10
22 Sikkim 1
—
23. Tamil Nadu 1 2
24 Uttar Pradesh 2 1?
25 West Bengal — 12
26. Chandigarh — 1
13 ~202
WlLDLlfE : MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION 339
The Andamans have 4 sanciuanes where some local

species of birds and mammals are protected Arunachal Pradesh
has Namdafa. Lalt, ftanagar and Pakkut sanctuaries where
elephants, wild buffaloes, tigers, leopards hog deer, barking deer,
sloth bears, etc are protected mammals Namdafa is the only
sanctuary in India where snow leopards are found These
sanciuanes also have a variely of repules like pythons, king cobras
and monuor lizards Assam has one national park and 6
sanctuaries The Kaziranga national park has the rare variety of
one horned rhinoceros, wild buffaloes, elephants, gaurs, leopards,

tigers, civets and a variety of deer Here hoolock apes are also
found
Bihar has a large number of sanctuaries mostly located in

Hazanbagh, Singhbhum, Champaran, Dhanbad, Monghyr and
Rohtas districts Most of them have tigers, leopards, wild boars
and a variety of deer Amongst the three sanctuaries of Goa,
Mollatn is the largest having mouse deer, flying squirrels, anteaters,
slender lorises and barking deer as she rare animal forms Gujarat,
having three national parks and five sanctuaries, is endowed with
Asiatic lions, striped hyenas, wild boars and four-horned antelopes
Wild asses are found in the Rann of Hutch and the Nalsarovar
sanctuary has rare water birds Haryana is poor in wildlife having
onlv two sanctuaries, and they too of migratory birds
Jammu and Kashmir has the famous Dachigam sanctuary,
besides the three others Here hangul deei is found which is a
cousin of the European red deer It is estimated that only 347
hanguls are left in the sanctuary now Resloralion of their natural
habitat is now being done on the rocky slopes of Zaskar ranges by
growing savannas (n this State the famous bird chakor is also
found in the Shankaracharya sanctuary Himachal Pradesh has 26
sanctuaries, the most famous bting Govind Sagar In all these
sanctuaries panthers, musk deer, black bears. Hying foxes and
civets are found
Karnataka has a rich variety of wildlife in a large number
of sanciuanes and parks, because of its plateau-like terrain and
savanna vegetation Bandipur, Bannarghata and Nagerhale are the
three mam parks which are homes of elephants, tigers, gaurs, slolh
hears,panthers and wild-dogs A number of deer species like
sambhar, chilal and barking deer are also found. Kerala too has
the same variety of wildlife as Karnataka because of its close

vicinity and the same type of habitat Here wild animals are found
in one national park, viz Ersvikulam and six other sanctuaries
Lion-lailed macaques, Malabar squirrels and imperial pigeons are

main peculiar animals besides others
Madhya Pradesh has a labyrinth of mountains and plateaus
covered with deciduous forests and so the wildlife is most
that are
abundant The State has 3 parks and 22 sanctuaries out of which

Kanha Bandhavcarh and Shivpuri parks are most famous As
elsewhere in India, the most prominent animal forms are tigers,
panthers, sloth bears, hyenas eaurs and the various species of deer
and antelopes Crocodiles are found in the Chambal river
Maharashtra too has the same forms of wildlife found in 4 parks

and 10 sanctuaries The four mam parks are Tadoba, Panch,
Nauegaon and Borivilh
Manipur is endowed with the peculiar species of brown

antelered deer (Cenus eldi eldt ), a rare endangered species of deer
which is protected in the Keibul Lamjao park Meghalaya is devoid
of any wildlife Mizoram and Nagaland have some rare forms
Both the Stales have one sanctuary each in which clouded-
leopards, panlhers pangolins, king cobras and pythons are found
The other animals like tigers, elephants, gaurs and deer are the
same as found ehewhcre Orissa, having 18 sanctuaries, has some
of the rare forms of amma s like gavials and estuarine crocodiles
The Chilka Lake Sanrtuarv is richlv endowed with rare birds like
cranes, ibises, eqrets, flamingoes, coimorants and pelicans The
other sanctuaries have nearly the same animals as found elsewhere
in India Punjab is compaiaHvelv poor in wildlife as much of the
land has been used for agriculture Its 3 sanctuaries are very small,
located in Patiala and Ferozopur districts and mostly having
migratory birds
Rajasthan has a rich weallh of fauna, now confined to its
three parks and ten sanctuaries Ranlhambhor, Sariska and Darra

(Kota) have tigers and deer Ghana park is famous for birds,
chiefly Siberian cranes, storks, spoon bills, quails, cools, herons

teals and terns which are the rate varieties of northern Siberia and
nest in the park in winters. The Desert National Park of Jaisalmer-
Barmer is the biggest of all parks in India and noted for the occur-
rence of the Great Indian Bustard The doit closed area consisting
WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION 341
of cluster of 23 Btshnot villages near Jodhpur is for the protection
of black-buck deer
Sikkim, in its one park-Khangchendzena, has snow

leopards, clouded leopards, marbled cats, blue sheep, gorals, red
pandas, takins, musk deer, green pigeons, etc which are rare animal
forms found nowhere else in India Tamil Nadu, in its one park
and seven sanctuaries, has some rare animals such as long-tailed
macaques and wild dogs besides the other usual forms of tigers,
elephants, bears and sambhars Uttar Pradesh is notably rich in
wildlife The Corbett National Park and Dudwa (Lakhimpur Khert)
have rich wildlife of tigers, elephants, porcupines, sloth bears

antelopes, deer, red jungle fowls and crocodiles A variety of birds
also inhabit these parks and 12 other sanctuaries The Chambal

Sanctuary is noted for its gharial breeding project Wildlife in West
Bengal is limited lo the 24 parganas— the deltaic region of the
Ganga comprising Jalpaigurt, Darjeeling and Nadia districts
Besides other animals, rhinoceros and Royal Bengal tiger are the
two most notable animal forms found here The Gangetic dolphins,
estuarine crocodiles and mouse deer are also found in the delta
area Chandigarh, the centrally administered city of India, has only
one sanctuary and that too has a few migratory birds
WILDLIEE MANAGEMENT
Due to the dwindling of wildlife on the earth it has now

become essential to preserve u with utmost care The object of
concern may range from a single species living in very restricted
areas to a set of complex ecosystems covering large tracts like
mountains, lakes, rivers and oceans In all cases the aim of

management is to keep a viable population of a particular taxon and
habitat protection, where the whole is more important and fluctua
tions m the populations of component species or in the features of

the inanimate environment considered detrimental In
are not
India, national parks cover systems of management for many
diverse purposes, all the way from wilderness to intensive outdoor
recreations Sanctuaries are generally smaller areas of wildlife
where permission given to the cattle of
for limited grazing is
neighbouring villages
The management of wildlife may, therefore, be of various

types Some of the practices are as below
Species Preservation
This involves the protection of a particular species of wild

animals on regional or at times on a global scale For example the
black-buck is a protected species in the Bishnoi community of
Rajasthan and herds of these deer roam about in the villages o!
this caste without any tear The tiger is the national animal of
India and is protected all over the country The endangered species
of Siberian crane is protected all over ihe world to save it from
extinction, as only a few individuals hardly exceeding 300 are left
on the earth In the north east, Kaziranga National Park of India,

the Great Indian Rhinoceros is the protecied species The manage
ment of such reserves is usually limited because of mstitui ional and
financial constraints
Protection of Assemblages
Rather more common are reserves to protect an assemb-

lage of species These merge imperceptibly wnh those m which
a whole habitat or set of habitats is preserved In the various
national parks of India, a large number of rare species are

protected Quite often, they are interdependent on each other In
the tiger projects of the country, various herbivores like antelopes,

chttals, chtnkaras, deer and sambhars are preserved as their
population is essential for predatory ngers and panthers
Habitat Preservation
Preservation of natural habitats is most essential for wild-
life management Reserves which are large and diverse enough to

protect whole sets o f ecosystems thought to be typical of ihe area
may be designated national parks The Everglade National Park in
Florida (USA) and the Yellowstone National Park, Oregon (USA)

are some of the largest natural habitats of the world, inhabiting a
large variety of wildlife On a still larger scale aie some of the
national parks and game reserves of eastern, central and southern

Africa in such countries as the Republic of South Africa, Tanzania,
Zambia, Uganda and Kenya Here the desire to ensure survival of
the fauna especially of large mammals like giraffes, elephants,
zebras and lions, is reinforced by two strong economic considera

tions. t e ,
tourism and game It has been the experience here that
WILDLIFE • MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION 343
controlled harvesting of wild animals ensures their preservation by

beeping the population restricted.
In India, inmost care is taken lo preserve natural habitats in
all national parks. No exouc species of plants or animals is allowed

10 be brought in or to be grown for the fear of causing unknown
diseases among wild animals. The entire landscapes have been
brought under legislative or regulatory protection keeping in view
the concept of total wilderness These measures are taken to
embrace wildlife protection for scenic preservation
In spite of all these mangement measures, extinction is the

ul'imate fate of all species The purpose of wildlife management is
to decrease the rate of extinction which has unfortunately increased
in the present century on account of demographic pressure, indis-
criminate hunting and poaching for valuable hides, skins and other
materials
FURTHER READING
1 Dasmann, R (1981). Wildlife Biology, John Wiley; New

York
2 Ehrenfeld, DW (1972), Consenwg L'fe on Etirtlr,
Oxford University Press; New York

3 Ehlrich PR and Ehlrich, A (1981), Extinction : The
Causes and Consequences of the Disappearance of Species,
Random House; New York
4 Holt, SJ; and Talbot, LM (1978), jVcu Principles For
The Conservation of Wild Living teoiirces; The Wild-
life Society; Washington. DC
5 Nelson, J G; Needham, R D and Mann. D L (eds
(1971), International Experience null National Parks and
Related Reserves ; Wiley; New York
6. Saharia, V B (1982), Wildlife m India; Natraj Publishers;

Dehradun.
Index
Absolute relic area, 173 Anlmal-Taxonomic classification, 216

Absorb! ion rate-water, 42 Annelida, 229
Accumulated temperatures, 98 Annuals, 41
Acidophlle plants, 68 Anopheles, 41
Aeration-soil, 118 Antarctica, 243
African temperate realm, 240 —realm, 240
Agar, 153 —region, 175
Agave, 158 —species, 172
Albatross, 165, 307
Anthropogenic factors, 70
Alfa-Alfa, 146, 154 —relics, 173
Algae, 37, 153 Antillean subregion, 297-299
Allegheny subregion, 284*285 Aquaculture, 330
Allerods, 30 Aquatic animals, 223
Allogenic Influences, 77 Arable land, 150*451
Aloe, 158 Arboreal animals, 223
Alternation of generation, 39 Archinotlc biorealm, 241

Altitudinal discontinuation, 172 Arctic-alpine species, 172
Altitudinal zonatlon-plants, 63 —realm, 239
American region 238 Arctogea, 238
'
American tropical realm 239 Arthropoda, 229
Amoeba, 107, 227 Ash soil, 122
Amphibia, 231 Atlantic period, 31
Anadiomous fishes, 231 Atlantis, 12

Angaraland, 22 Atmospheric composition, 84
Angiosperms, 40 —factors, 84404
Animal characteristics, 222 AustTal-Asian region, 239
Animal dispersal, 300 Australis biorealm, 241
Animal forage, fodder, 154 Austral region, 175476
346 ESSENTIALS OF BlOGEOGRAPHV
Australian realm, 239 Brazilian subregion, 291-294

-region, 237-238. 241-272 Brown soils, 125
Australo pithecug, 25, 28 Brvophvtes, 38
Austro-Malayan land brrdge,3l8 Bulbils, 168
—subregion, 273-275 Bulbs, 97, 161
—Tasmania subregion, 275 Calclcole plants, 68
Autoecology, ]0 Calcifuge— 68 ,
Autotrophs, 35 Californian subregion 282-283

Aves, 233 Campo-cerradosavannas, 208
Azonaf cods, 121

—Jimpo— , 209
— sujo— , 2C8
Bacteria— aminlfylng 119 Campos, 208
—nitrogen bxrng, 118 Camouflaging, 224
Bakeries land bridge, 312 Canadian subregion, 285-286
Balantidium coll, 227 Canaries land bridge, 314
Base exchange-soils, 115 Capillary water, 111
Berlngta, 311 Capsular fruit, 162
Beverages, 153 Cardinal temperature-plants, 45
Biennials, 41 Cassava, 152
Bigoma, 152 Cass me, 153
Biochores, 77 Catadromous fishes, 231
Biocides, 148 Catmga, 206
Bioclimatic zones, 98 Cation exchange, 115
Bio geochemical cycles, 118 Celebes Is, 273

Biogeographicdl provinces, 240 C emented sod, 114
Biogeography-de/m/tion, 1 Censer mechanism, 163
—history, 10-15 Central America, 242

—relations, 9-10 —European subregion, 246-248
—scope, 6-9 Cerrado savannas, 208
Biomes, 177 Cestodes, 228

— 'Terrestrial, 178-205 Ceylonese subregion, 265-267
Biorealms, 240-241 Chamaephytes, 47
Biosphere, 2-4 Chernozems 124
Brot'c communities, 177 Chestnut-brown sod, 125
—factors of soil, 68 Chipko movement, 336
—formations, 177 Cinchona, 157
—provinces, 177 Crrcurn— boreal species, 171
—region, 177 —polar species, 171
Bipolar species-pfenfs, 171 CITES programme, 337
Bird migration, 305-307 City ecosystem, 149
Black soils, 124 Climatic barriers, 302
BJochy soi) struclure, 113 —climax, 82
Boreal period, 30 —factors, 65
—region, 238 —relics, 173

INDEX 347
Climax community, 76 Disclimar > 82
—vegetation, 81 Discontinuous distribution-plants, 171
Cline, 170 Discoveries-New lands, 145
Clods, 113 Dispersal by animals 165-1&6
Clovers, 154 —ice, water, 163-165

Club-mosses, 168 —man, 167
Coal-age, 20 —of amphibia, 308
Cocoa, 153 —birds, 304
Coelentrata, 228 —fishes, 308-309

Coffee, 153 —mammals, 301-304
Cold-blooded animals, 230 — reptiles. 307
Columbian subregion, 238 Dissemlnules, 160
Commensalism, 70 Disturbance factor, 52
Compact soil, 114 Diversity difference, 72
Companion plants, 69 —indices, 73

Competition-mler specific, 80 Donau glacial period, 28
—mlra specific, 80 Downs, 210, 213
Compensation point, 66 , 90 Driftwood, 302
Competitors, 52 Drug plants, 157
Concretions, soil, 113 Dust seeds, 162
Coniferous forests, 2C0-204
Early life-evolution, 17
Continuous distribution, 170
EasM/rican subregion, 256
Continental drift theory, 310
Ecad, 170
Corals, 228
Ecesis, 160
Conns, 97
Echmodermata, 229
Cosmopolitan species, 171
Ecociunate, 40
Crocodilia. 232
Ecoltnes, 71 82
Cromencan interglacial period, 28 Ecological animal geography, 5
Cryptogams, 36
—niche, 73
Cryptophytlc plants, 48
Ecology, 9
Cuchillas, 212
Ecotones, 82, 242
Dandelions, 162 Ecotope, 73
Danserau, P ,14
Ecotype, 1/0
Darlington, p J, 5,15
Ectozoic, 166
Darwin, Charles, 5, 13 Edaphic climax, 82
Day degrees 98 —factors, 68, 106
Deep sea zone, 322
Edaphology, 106
De Martonne climate zones, 101 Eemian interglacial period, 28
Deserts, 181-182
Effective precipitation, 41
Desslcehon, 97
Electromagnetic spectrum, 87-88
Diffused continuity-plants,
171 Emberger’s bjochmales, 102
Dtmesirodon, 20
Endemic relics, 173
Dinosaurs, 20 21,
Endozoic, 165
345
essentials of biogeography
Environmental adaptations, 223 Grime’s model, 51-55
Epiphytes, 48 Gunz glacial period, 28

Ethiopian region, 237-238, 241-254 Gymnosperms, 39
Euro-Asian species, 172
Halorcorphlc soils, 68
Euthena, 234
HaJoseres, 80
Evapo-tra aspiration, 95
Halophytes. 42, 68
Exc/usives-plants, 76 Heat units, 98
Faithful specfes-ptonfs, 76 Hekistotherms, 46
Fishes, 230 Hellophytes, 66, 90

Fishenes-India, 330-333 Nemicryptophvtes, 47
Flandrian age, 30 Heterotrophfc, 222

Flora distribution, 182-185 Holarctic region, 241
Flonstic composition, 74 Homo erectus, 25
—constancy, 76 Homo heidelbergensis, 28
— 76
Homo neanderthelensis, 28
fidelity,
Homo sapiens 29,150
—survey, 55-61
Human migration effects 145-146
Flowers-btgamous, 37
—population effects, 151
— monogamous, V —use of plants, 150
Forests, 178-180
Hura fruits, 168
formation relics, 173
Hydrophytes, 42, 49
Fossil fuels, 147, 156 Hydroseres, 80
Fruit bats, 166
Hygroscopic water 111
Fundamental niche, 73
Hvpsithermal period, 31
Fungi, 37 Hyla 232,
Galfta land bnrfap, 312 Ice-age, 26, 311
Gausspn's method, 101 — effects 29-’2

Geoqraphic isolation 242, 2^2-276, 9°8
Icebergs, 165, 302, 308
318 Icefloes, 165, 301, 308
Genotypes, 5 Indian subregion, 237, 267-265
Geomorphological relics, 173 Indo-Afncan region, 238
Geophytes, 48 — Iropica!realm, 239
Glacial age, 26 — Chinese subregion, 267-269
—man 28
— Malayan subregion 269-271
Glossopterls, 20, 22, 310 242
Indonesia.
Gondwanaland, 22, 310
Infra-red radiation 87
Good’s Florlstic regions, 174-176
Inhibition, 69
Gravitational water, 111 227
Invertebrates,
Grasslands, 380 Jsophenes, 98
—temperate, 711
— tropical, 206 Juniperus, 30
Jactication, 163
Great interglacial period, 28
Grey-brown soli, 123-124 Koppen’s climatic zones 101
Grey-desert soil, 126 Kangaroos, 234, 276

INDEX 349
Krakatoa Is, 77-80, 270 Mab programme, 337

Keoladeo patk, 306 Macquaire Is, 165
Macropoies, 111
Landbrldges, 242-244, 270, 311-318
Madagascar subregion 259-260
—Atchatlantis, 314
Major fishing grounds, 325-328
— Archheiensis, 314
Malagassy region, 241
— Arclnplata, 315
Majlees, 213
—Archiquma,315
Mammalia, 233
— Arc no! 315-318
hi is,
Mammoths, 25, 301

Lale boreal period, 30
Manchurian subregion, 253-254
Laurasta, 22 310
Leaching, 109
Maquis grasslands, 33
Lequminous plants, 146 Marine biological resources, 323
Lemmings, 304 Marine mammals, 322
Lemurian region, 238, 311 Marsupials, 234

Lessivage, 109
Maximum sustainable yeild, 328
Lichens, 38 Mechanical dispersal, 167
Life in Cainozoic, 23 Mediterranean species. 172
—Cambrian. 17 —subregion, 248-250
—Carboniferous, 20 Megatherms, 46
—Cretaceous, 22 Melanesian subregion, 239
—devonian. 18 Mesophytes, 43
—eocene, 23
Mesotherms 46
—holocene, 28 Metatheria, 234
—jurrasic, 22 Metazoa. 227
—mesozoic, 21 Maxtcan subregion 294-297
—mlocene, 25 Mtcrcfauna, 107, 118
— oligocene, 23 Microflora, 37, 107
—ordovlclan 18 Micropores 111
—palaeozoic 17 Micro-organisms, 156
—permtan, 20 Microtherms, 46
—pleistocene, 26 Middle-zone sea, 322
—pliocene, 25 Mimicry, 224
—precambrian, 17 Mindel glacial period, 28
—Silurian, 18 Moisture effects, 67, 99

— Iria55ic, 21 Moisture index, 100
Light compensation, plants, MolaT w. eight 115

90 ,
~
—Intensity effects, 89 Mole, 115
Lithochromic soil, 116 Molluscs, 229

Lnhoseres, 80 Monocltmax theory, 81
Little ice-age, 31 Monte grasslands, 212
Llanos, 203 Mutualism, 70
Long haired seeds, 163
National parks, 338
Luminescence, 225 Nearctic region, 237, 280-286
Lyddekkar line, 242 NamathihelmenthiS, 22‘ /
Neotropical biorealm, 241 Phytoplankton, 321

-region, 237, 241, 286 Phyto-sociology, 71
Neutralism, 68 Pisces, 230
New Zealand region, 278-279 PJacentiha, 234
Nitrogen cycle, 118 Plagioclimax, 82
North Atlantic species, 172 Plant abundance, 56
—American species, 172 — density, 57
—temperate realm, 239 —dominance, 59
Norwich interglacial period 28 —fidelity, 58
Notogea, 238 — frequency, 57
Nutrient cycles, 118 —sociability, 56
Oceanic region, 241 —vitality, 56
fishes, 329 —associations, 74

Optimal yeild
Oriental region, 241, 260-271 — climatic classification 41
Overpopulation constraints, 150 —pcologica!-, 40

Oviparous, 232 —taxonomic-, 35
—communities, 71, 73, 76
Palaearctic region, 237, 244-254
Palaentology, 11
—dispersal, 160
—barriers, 168-170
Pafeotropic biorealm, 241
—domestication, 143-145
Palnyology. 30
—ecological uses, 157
Pampas, 210j 212
—environmental uses, 156
Panendemic species, 171
—formations, 74
Pangea, 7, 310
ftmfropc specks, 171
— preferents, 76
—society, 73
Parasitism 70
—succession, 76
Farazoic animals, 225
Plasticity, soil. 114
Pastoralism, 145
Platyhelmenthes, 228
Pcdalfers, 121
Plumed fruits, seeds, 162
Pedocals, 121
Podsols 121-123
Pedology 106
Polyclimax theory, 81
Peds, 113
Polynesian region, 239, 277
Perennials, 41
Polyploids. 174
Perisere 160
Ponfera, 228
Phanerogams, 39
Prairies, 210-211
Phanerophytes, 46
-soil, 124
Phenology, 98
Phosphorus cycle, 119 Pre-boreal period 30
Photoperiod, 66, 90 Pre-ciimax community, 80
Photosynthesrs, 90-92 Primary succession, 76-80
pH value, 116 Productive zone, sea, 321
Physiographic factors, 62 Protocooperation, 70
Physiological drought. 65 Protothena, 234

—growing season, 102 Protozoa, 227
Phytogeography, 4 Provence land bridge, 312
351
INDEX
Pterldophytes, 39 —gases, 118

—horizon, 109
Pus 2ta$, 212
Pyrophytes, 206
—humus, 108
—profile, 107-109
Quaternary glacial period. 27
1
07
—reaction, 114
Quotient pluvlometric,
—tension, 111
Raunkfaer’s classification, 46 —texture, 110
Realized niche, 73
—types, 120
Red desert soli, 126 Solar constant, 85
Relic areas, 173 —radiation 85
Remainder index, 98 South African region, 258
Reptilta, 232 —American tropical, 239
Rhizolds, 38 —Atlantic species, 172
Rhizomes, 97 —Pacific 172
Rhizophores, 42 —West Asia, 243
Riss glacial period, 28 Steppes, 210, 212
Rocky mountain region, 284 Stomata effects, 94
Rudeial plants, 53 Stranger plants, 76
Runners, 161 Stress tolerators, 52
Sahara, 242 Sub atlannc period, 31
Sallnlficatlon, 145 —boreal — , 31
Sanctuaries, 338 —climax, 81
Saprophytes, 49 Stickers, 161
Saturation deficit, 99 Sunlight effects, 66
Savannas, 207-209 Temperate torests, 193
Sclophytes, 66, 90 Temperature effects, 65
Sclerophyllous, 44 —influence, 97
—woodlands, 193 —summation, 98
Sea-arm barriers, 303 Terricolae, 223
Secondary succession, 76, 80 Thallophytes, 37
Sere, 76 Thermal growing season, 102
Selective plants, 76 Thermodynamism, 98
Shifting agriculture, 145 147 —periodicity, 66
Siberian region, 250-253 Therophytes, 48
Smithu$en*plant formations, 74
Thornthwaite, C. W , 96
Specific zero 65
Transition areas, 242
Spermatophytes, 39
Transpiration efficiency 95
Spores, 162 —ratios, 95
Sod acidity, 115 Trematods, 228
—composition, 110 Tnlobitps, 18, 230
—consistence, 113 Tiophophyles, 43
—colour, 116
Tropical monsoon forests, 18*
—erosion, 145 —rainforests, 185
-formation, 106 T topical species, 172
Tumbleweeds, 163 Wildlife depletion, 335

-India, 337-341
Tundre 218
—management, 341
—sols, 121
—protection, 336
Turgor explosion, 168
Twilight zone, 322 Wildscape, 334
Tyrrhenian land bridge, 312 Wind dispersal, 161

—effects, 67, 104
Ultra-violet rays 87
Winged fruits, 163
Vant Hoff’s law, 45 Winter stimulation, 97
Vegetative reproduction, 161 Wooded steppes, 208

Veldts, 210, 213 Wurm glacial period, 27
Vernalisation 98
Xerophytes, 43
Vertebrates. 228 Xero thermic index, 101
Vertical zonatton, plants, 63 X-rays, 87
Vicarjads, 174
Yarovisation, 98
Vicarious areas 174
Yellow forest soil, 126
Wallaces. 242
Zonal soils, 121
Wallace Ime, 241, 269, 272
Zone of eluwat/on, 109
Warm blooded animals, 230
—illuviation, 109
Water adhesion, 111 Zoogeographical region, 236
—balance, 96
Zoogeography, 5
—cycle, 93 Zooides, 5
Weischellian ice, 29 Zoological regions, 236
West African region, 257 —Sclater, 237, 240
Whales, 323 Zooplankton ,321

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ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPHY

First Published In 1988 by

Mrs. Shashi Jain

Aavishkar Publishers’ Distributors

Anuj Printers, Mahaveer Park Lane

In recent years the study of Biogeography, often blending

pursuing such courses My reasons for writing it spring from the

experience of several years of teaching this subject in the University

scope and spatial coverage or too strident m the use of scientific

While attempting to cover a wide field of interdisciplinary

knowledge, one encounters two major problems Firstly, some

Various people have helped in the production of the book,

1 Biogeography Scope and Development

2 Life in the Past Ages

Era, Mesozoic Era, Cainozoic Era

Taxonomic Classification Ecological

Climatic, Raunkiaer’s, Grime’s Classification

Physiographic, Climatic, Edaphic,

Industrialization. Human Uses of Plants.

9. Major Biomes of the World-Forests

10 Major Biomes of the World-Grasslands

11. Nature and Classification of Animals

12 Zoogeographical Regions of the Old World

13 Zoogeographical Regions of the New World

14. Animal Dispersal and Migration

15. The Aquatic Fauna

Biogeography is the geography of organic life, the study

Geography itself has been variously defined as the study of',

areal distributions, spatial patterns, locational analysis, man-earth

The basic material for biogeographlc investigations consists

Biosphere, the organic world, is that part of the earth which

Pig. 11 Biosphere and the various other zones of

The most readily visible part of the biosphere consists of

Any study of biosphere involves the study of the habits and

Biosphere is not just a collection of living organisms,

Domestication of animals and plants and the resulting activities of

ranching, pastoralism, livestock-rearing, agriculture, deforestation

the main stem of biogeography lies in the studu of plants and

Since biogeographv ts concerned u it/i the study of pfants

It is the geography of plants, mainly concerned with the

Today phytogeographtcai studies are concerned utih the

the plant Nonetheless, a large bulk of non-vascular plants and

Throughout the long history of biotic life on the earth there

slow process of evolution A palaeontological history of the various

Another branch of biogeography is the sludy of animal

The study of distributional aspects of animals and their

xities thatemerge out of these inter-relationships make the zoogeo-

Human intervention in animal life has often been a field of

and vanishing species of animals which have been hunted by man

of the endangered species are handicapped by a low reproductive

SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES

Biogeography, in its broadest sense, attempts to understand

• To examine, by means of experimental analysis, the

• To analyse the spatial and temporal affinities between

cies by accident, mutation or evolution.

• To evaluate the ecological potential of the area for a

viour towards enviroment, reproductive rate, adaptations to envir-

• To measure the impact of anthropogenic factors which

• To explore the historical reasons of the patterns of

It will be pertinent here to point out that the cause-effect

The study of the responses of plants and animals to their

by P ants m a multitude of morphological and physiological modi-

live in burrows and have a thick cover of