EME4363 Electrical Machines– AC Machinery Fundamentals

Chap. 3: AC Machinery Fundamentals

AC Machines

Synchronous Induction
machines machines

Magnetic field Magnetic field

current supplied current supplied by
by separate DC magnetic induction
source in field windings

3.1 A simple loop in a uniform magnetic field

Simplest AC machine - a loop of wire rotating in uniform

magnetic field.

Front view View of coil

AC machines terminology:
Stator = stationary part of machine
Rotor = rotating part of machine

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 EME4363 Electrical Machines– AC Machinery Fundamentals

Voltage induced in the rotating loop

Rotor rotation will induce a voltage in the wire loop.

To determine total voltage induced in loop etot
examine each segment separately using:
  
eind  v  B   l

Segment ab  Wire
 velocity tangential to rotation path
 B points to the right
 
  
v  B points into the page using right hand
rule-thumb (same direction as l)

  
Segment bc  v  B  always perpendicular to l
Since the length l is in the plane of the page, v
x B is perpendicular to l for both portions of the
segment. Therefore the voltage in segment be
will be zero:

Segment cd  Wire
 velocity tangential to rotation path
 B points to the right
 
  
v  B points out of page

  
Segment da  v  B  always perpendicular to l
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 0
Just as in segment bc, v x B is perpendicular to
l. Therefore the voltage in this segment will be
zero too

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Hence, total induced voltage on loop:

etot  eba  ecb  edc  ead

 vBl sin  ab  vBl sin  cd
 etot  2vBl sin 
We know that if the loop is rotating with a constant angular
velocity , then

  t
and the tangential velocity v can be expressed as

v  r
Hence,
etot  2vBl sin t
 2r Bl sin t
 AB sin t
 etot  max sin t
where:
A = area of the loop = 2rl
max = maximum flux through the loop

Generally, the induced voltage in real machines depends on:

 flux in the machine (B or )
 speed of rotation (v or )
 machine constants (l or A)

Torque induced in a current-carrying loop

Assuming that the loop is at an arbitrary angle  to the magnetic

field and a current i is flowing in it.

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Front view View of coil

This will cause torque to be induced on the loop.
Again we will look at each segment separately. The force on
each segment is given by:
 

F i l B  
and from this the torque is calculated as

Segment ab  Current
 is into the page
 B points
 to the right
  
l  B points downwards
  
 F  i l  B 
 ilB
 𝜏𝑎𝑏 = 𝐹𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑏
Hence,
Segment bc  
 l  B points parallel to each other
  
 F  i l  B 
 ilB
Angle between force & r = 0 .
Hence,
𝜏𝑏𝑐 = 𝐹𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑏𝑐 =0

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Segment cd  Current
 is out of the page
 B points
 to the right
  
l  B points upwards
  
 F  il  B   ilB
Hence, 𝜏𝑐𝑑 = 𝐹𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑑 = 𝑟𝑖𝑙𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑑
 
Segment da  
 l  B points parallel to each other
  
 F  i l  B 
 ilB
Angle between force & r = 0 .
Hence,
𝜏𝑑𝑎 = 𝐹𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝑎 = 0

Therefore, total induced torque on loop:

Tind  Tab  Tbc  Tcd  Tda
 rilB sin  ab  rilB sin  cd
 Tind  2rilB sin 
(torque maximum when plane of loop parallel to magnetic
field)

Alternative torque expression:

The current flowing

 in the wire loop will generate a magnetic
flux density Bloop :
 i
Bloop 
G
where G = factor depending on loop geometry.
Hence, since loop area A=2rl, by substituting
 ind  2rliB sin 
 AG  BloopBs sin 
 ind  kBloopBs sin 

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or  
 ind  k Bloop  Bs 
where k = AG/.

Generally, the torque in real machines depends on:

 strength of the rotor magnetic field
 strength of external (stator) magnetic field
 angle between the two fields
 Machine constants

3.2 The rotating magnetic field

Torque – produced to align rotor (loop) magnetic field with

stator magnetic field.

If stator magnetic field is rotated, torque will cause rotor to

‘chase’ the rotating stator magnetic field.

How to create a rotating stator magnetic field?

Use a set of three-phase windings displaced by 120 electrical
around the machine circumference.

Currents have equal magnitude, phase difference = 120  rotating

magnetic field is produced (constant magnitude)

When the following currents flow in the three coils:

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iaa' (t )  I M sin t A
ibb' (t )  I M sin(t  120) A
icc ' (t )  I M sin(t  240) A

Each coil will produce a magnetic field intensity:

H aa ' (t )  H M sin t0 Aturns / m

Hbb ' (t )  H M sin(t  120)120 Aturns / m
H cc' (t )  H M sin(t  240)240 Aturns / m

Notice that the magnitude varies sinusoidal but the direction

is always constant.

The resulting flux densities are then given by:

Baa ' (t )  BM sin t0 T

Bbb ' (t )  BM sin(t  120)120 T
Bcc' (t )  BM sin(t  240)240 T

where BM  H M .

In order to observe the net field rotation, lets examine the flux
densities at specific times:
 t  0  t  90
Baa ' t   0 Baa ' t   0
 
Bbb ' t   BM sin  120120 Bbb ' t   BM sin  30120
 
Bcc ' t   BM sin  240240 Bcc ' t   BM sin  150240

The
 total
 magnetic
 field:
 The
 totalmagnetic
 field:
Bnet  Baa '  Bbb '  Bcc ' Bnet  Baa '  Bbb '  Bcc '
 1.5BM   90  1.5BM 0

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Field magnitude constant, direction changes!

Proof of rotating magnetic field concept

From previous observation, at any time t:

The magnetic field will have same magnitude 1.5BM and

rotates at angular velocity .

To prove this, lets assume the following coordinate system:

x̂ = horizontal unit vector
ŷ = vertical unit vector

The total magnetic flux density in the stator is obtained from

vectorial addition of the three magnetic field components, i.e.
   
Bnet  Baa ' t   Bbb ' t   Bcc ' t 
 BM sin t0  BM sin t  120120  BM sin t  240240

By considering each x and y direction components and applying

trigonometric identities:
𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 (𝑡) = (1.5𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)𝑥̂ − (1.5𝐵𝑀 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡)𝑦̂
Field magnitude = 1.5BM at all times
Direction = counter clockwise with velocity 
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Reversing the direction of magnetic field

rotation
Method: swap the currents flowing in any two
of the three coils.
Prove:
switch phases bb’ and cc’

Hence, the net magnetic flux density:

   
Bnet  Baa ' t   Bbb ' t   Bcc ' t 
 BM sin t0  BM sin t  240240  BM sin t  120120

By considering each x and y direction components and applying

trigonometric identities:
𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 (𝑡) = (1.5𝐵𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)𝑥̂ + (1.5𝐵𝑀 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡)𝑦̂
+ sign denotes changes in rotation direction

Field magnitude = 1.5BM at all times

Direction = clockwise with velocity 

Relationship between electrical frequency and speed of

magnetic field rotation

In the three phase coils considered, the stator is said to be two-

pole and occurs in the following counterclockwise order:

a – c’ – b - a’– c – b’

Poles complete one

mechanical rotation in one
electrical cycle of current.

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Hence, the relation between the electrical and mechanical

components are given by:
e  m
fe  fm
e  m

(a) A simple four-pole stator winding. (b) The resulting stator magnetic poles.
Notice that there are moving poles of alternating polarity every 90° around the
stator surface.

If we repeat the winding pattern twice, we have a four pole

machine:
a – c’ – b - a’– c – b’- a – c’ – b - a’– c – b’

Poles complete 1/2 a mechanical rotation in 1 electrical cycle of

current. Hence, the electrical and mechanical components
related by:
 e  2 m
fe  2 fm
 e  2 m

Therefore, in general, for a P pole stator,

P
e  m
2
P
fe  fm
2
P
e  m
2

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nm
Since f m  , and nm is the mechanical speed of the magnetic
60
field in revolutions per minute, thus
P
fe  nm
120

3.3 Magnetomotive force and flux distribution in AC

machines

In Section 4.2, the following assumptions were made:

 flux produced inside ac machine is in free space
 direction of flux density is perpendicular to plane of coil
(given by right hand rule)

Not true is real AC machines!

Because of ferromagnetic rotor in centre of machine with a
small airgap between the stator and the rotor.

The rotor can be:

(a) cylindrical (nonsalient-pole) Air gap
(b) salient-pole

Only cylindrical rotors are considered in this course.

In the machine,  gap  stator , rotor
Magnetic reluctance is analogous to resistance in electric circuit

Flux density vector B takes shortest possible path across the
air gap.

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To produce sinusoidal voltage in machine

requires

Sinusoidal flux density vector B magnitude

occurs only when


magnetising intensity H (and mmf, F) is sinusoidal along air
gap surface

Cylindrical rotor with

sinusoidally varying
air gap flux density

MMF or H and B as a function of angle in the air gap

How to achieve sinusoidal mmf along airgap?

Distribute the turns of winding that produces mmf

in the slots,
vary number of conductors in each slot in
sinusoidal manner

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Distributed stator
winding designed to
produce a sinusoidally
varying air gap flux
density

The mmf distribution

resulting from the
winding, compared to an
ideal distribution.

The number of conductors in each slot is:

nC  NC cos
where NC = number of conductors at an angle 0.

Increasing number of slots and making them closely spaced

gives a better approximation of sinusoidal distribution of mmf.

In practise, the winding distribution of equation (4.16) is not

possible due to the finite number of slots and integral
number of conductors possible in each slot.

3.4 Induced voltage in AC machines

The rotating field can induce voltages in the three-phase

windings.

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The induced voltage in a coil on a two-pole stator

Figure above shows a rotating rotor with a sinusoidally

distributed magnetic field in the centre of a stationary coil.
Assumptions:

 air gap flux density vector magnitude, Bgap varies
sinusoidally with mechanical angle

 direction of Bgap always radially outward
The magnitude of the air gap flux density vector at a point
around the rotor is given by:

Bgap  BM cos
where  = angle measured from the direction of peak rotor flux
density.

Since the rotor is rotating within the stator at an angular velocity


m, then Bgap around the stator is:

Bgap  BM cos( m t   )

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The voltage induced in a moving coil inside a stationary field

is   
eind  v  B   l
where:

v = velocity of the wire relative to the magnetic field (from rotor moving)

B = magnetic flux density vector

l = length of conductor in the magnetic field

However, we have a stationary coil in a moving field. Hence,

we must be in a frame where magnetic field appears to be
stationary, i.e.

“If we sit on the magnetic fields so that the field appears to be

stationary, the sides of the coil will appear to go by at an
apparent velocity of VNET  stator coil in reality aren’t
moving, the magnetic field is from rotor”
The total voltage induced in the coil will be the sum of voltages
induced in each of the four sides.

Segment ab   = 180˚
 B directed radially outward
 
  
v  B points out of page
  
eba  v  B   l
 vBl
 vBM cos m t  180l

Negative sign voltage is built up with a

polarity opposite to the assumed polarity

 
 v  B  is perpendicular
Segment bc 
to l
  
e  v  B  l  0
cb

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Segment cd   = 0˚
 B directed radially outward
 
  
v  B points out of page
  
edc  v  B   l
 vBl
 vBM cosmt l

 
Segment da  
 v  B always perpendicular to l
  
ead  v  B   l  0

Hence, total induced voltage on the coil:

etot  eba  edc

  vBM l cosmt  180  vBM l cosmt
 etot  2vBM l cosmt
Since v  rm , therefore

eind  2vBM l cosmt  2rm BM l cosmt

Finally, the flux passing through the coil is given by

  2rlBM
Hence, the induced voltage can be expressed as

eind   cost

Note: m  e   since it is a two-pole stator.

Or if the stator coil has NC turns, then the total induced voltage
of the coil is
etot  N C [ cos t ]

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Remember: This derivation goes through the induced voltage

in the stator when there is a rotating magnetic field produced
by the rotor.

Induced voltage in a three-phase set of coils

If now we have three coils each having NC turns placed around

the rotor magnetic field,

Voltages induced in each coil will have same magnitude but

having a phase difference of 120˚.
The resulting voltages in each of the coil are:

eaa ' (t )  NC cost V

ebb' (t )  NC cost  120 V

ecc' (t )  NC cost  240 V

Hence,
a three-phase set generates a uniform magnetic
of currents flowing field produced in the stator
in the stator
generates a 3 phase voltage in the
a uniform rotating
magnetic field stator windings
produced by the rotor

Referring back to the induced voltage derived earlier…

Maximum induced voltage achieved when
sin (…) = 1
Hence, the peak voltage in any phase of the three-phase stator
is: since   2f .
Finally, the rms voltage at any phase of the three-phase stator:
Emax  NC  2NCf

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Note: this is the induced voltage at each phase, as for the line-
line voltage values, it will depend upon how the stator
windings are connected, whether as Y or .

3.5 Induced torque in an AC machine

Figure below shows a simplified ac machine with a single coil

of wire mounted on the rotor.

The stator flux density

distribution:

BS    BS sin 

The torque produced in the rotor is obtained by analysing the

force and torque on each of the two conductors separately:
Induced force Torque on conductor

 ind ,1  r  F 
   
F  i l  B 
Conductor 1  rF sin 90
 ilBS sin 
 ind ,1  rilB
(direction as shown)
 
    ind , 2  r  F 
F  i l  B 
Conductor 2  rF sin 90
 ilBS sin 
 ind , 2  rilB
(direction as shown)

Therefore, the total torque on the loop:

  2rilB sin 

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However, there are two known facts:

1. Current i flowing in the rotor produces a magnetic field

on its own.

Direction of field: right hand rule (thumb)


Magnitude of its magnetising intensity: H R  Ci


2. Angle between the peak stator flux density BS and peak

rotor magnetising intensity H R is .
Furthermore,
  180  
sin   sin(180   )  sin 

By combining these two facts, the torque on the loop can be

expressed as

 ind  KH R BS sin 
  ind  K ( H R BS )
where K = constant dependent on machine construction.
Since BR  H R ,
 ind  K ( BS x BS ) where k = K/.

The net magnetic field density will be the vector summation

of the rotor and stator fields (assuming no saturation):
  
Bnet  BR  BS
Hence, an equivalent expression for the induced torque is
    
 ind  kBR  BS  kBR  B net  BR 
obtained:

The magnitude
 
of this expression is:
 ind  k ( BR  Bnet )
 
 ind  k ( BR  Bnet ) sin 
 
where  = angle between BR and Bnet .
This develops a qualitative understanding of the torque in ac
machines.
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