Notes in Photography

BRIEF HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY
BRIEF HISTORY OF POLICE

PHOTOGRAPHY
PHOGRAPHY- is a combination of the sciences of optics and chemistry. The word “photography”
was coined by Sir John Herschel, who first used the term in 1839, the year the photographic
process became public. The word is derived from the Greek word “photos” and “graphs”.
-the science that studies light and the way it affects and is affected by other things.
-the science that deals with the genesis and propagation of light, the changes that
it undergoes and produces and other phenomena closely associated with it.
Photography was not discovered or invented by any one man; it is the result of
investigations and discovery on the part of several scientists, chemists and others. The discovery
was made more or less accidentally, and a notable example of this was the discovery of light
projection through a pinhole.
This discovery was made when someone happened to go in a room darkened by shutters
placed over the windows. In one of these shutters there happened to be a small hole and the
rays of light striking a tree passing through the pinhole on the wall of the room opposite the
shuttered window bringing the form of the tree and reflected it on the other side of the wall
inside the darkroom. This is the principle of the “pinhole” camera as used today.
Pictures can be made in a camera in which there is a “pinhole” at one end instead of a
lens. The pinhole is a carefully made, perfectly smooth and circular hole, from 1/50 th to 1/100th
of an inch in diameter. The diameter of the hole is determined by comparing the size of the
opening with needles of standard sizes.
ALFRED WATKINS and E.J. WALL had published tables of needles sizes and apertures, a
number 1 needle being 1/22nd of an inch and 16 being 1/94th of an inch in diameter. This can be
determined by placing a number of similar needles in a row, each needle touching the next one
to it, and then counting the number of needles to an inch. The image formed by a pinhole is not
critically sharp; it gives a pleasing softness of definition and this method
Illustrations 1:
Illustrations 2:
of making pictures was much favored by artists seeking just such quality in their pictures. At the
present time, however, there are lenses on the market that are specially designed to give soft
definition very much like that given by a “pinhole” and these have largely superseded the
“pinhole.”
The “pinhole” has no definite plane of focus like a lens, and the definition of the image is
about the same whether the plane surface on which the image falls is close to or farther away
from the “pinhole.” Of course, the angle of view varies according to the distance – at a greater
distance a narrower angle of view is included than when the plane of focus is nearer the
“pinhole.”
The exposure with a pinhole would be approximately one hundred times the exposure
needed when using a lens. Where an ordinary snapshot might be made with an exposure of
1/25th of a second, the pinhole would need an exposure of about 4 seconds.
GIOVANNI BATTISTA DELLA PORTA was the reputed inventor in 1569 of the “camera
obscura.” This invention was the logical outcome of the discovery of the possibility of projecting
an image through a minute hole. The next step was to make the hole larger, and affixing a glass
lens. This made the picture sharper and clearer and it was of course, in natural colors. Camera
obscura later on became a small, light tight room with a doom ceiling. The lens was placed in a
movable box in the center of the dome and the image was reflected downwards by means of a
mirror onto a circular disk.
Camera Obscura means a “dark room”. A darkened enclosure in which images of outside
objects are projected through a small aperture or lens onto a facing surface.
Illustration 3:
The next step in the history of photography was the desire to find means of “fixing” a
picture permanently on paper or on some other support, and this brought about the investigation
of the action of light on various chemicals.
FABRICIUS (as far back as 1556) while he was in search of gold in the mines of Germany,
discovered that “horn silver” ore, a kind of semi-transparent compound of silver and chlorine was
sensitive to light. Adding common salt (sodium chloride) to the substance could be formed to a
solution of silver nitrate. The silver compound was made of white but turns black on exposure to
the sun.
On a summer day in 1827, it took eight hours for Joseph Nicephore Niepce to obtain the
first fixed image. About the same time a fellow Frenchman, Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre was
experimenting to find a way to capture ab image.
Louis-Jacques-Mande Daguerre (Nov. 18, 1787-July 10, 1851) was a French artist and
chemist, recognized for his invention of daguerreotype process of photography. His experiment
led to the collaboration with Niepce which resulted in the creation of Daguerreotype.
Daguerreotype were the forerunners of our modern film. It was made of a copper plate coated
with silver and exposed to iodine vapor before it was exposed to light. To create the image on
the plate, it must be exposed to light for about 15 minutes. The use of it had gained popularity
until it was replaced in the late 1850s by emulsion plates.
Daguerreotype was usually a portrait. Daguerre first exposed silver-coated copper plates
to iodine, obtaining silver iodine. The he exposed them to light at 75 degrees Celsius and finally
fixing the image in salt producing a mirror-like reproduction of the scene. The Daguerreotype was
the polaroid of today.
In 1841 the use of daguerreotype (an early form of photographs of known criminals for
purpose of identification) became well known as a means of identifying criminals.
In 1879 photographs of an injured person in an auto accident was admissible in evidence.

The photograph made on a thin iron plate known as Collodion process.
In 1834, Henry Fox Talbot created permanent (negative) images. He used paper, soaked
in silver chloride and fixed with salt solution. Talbot created positive images by contact printing
onto another sheet of paper.
Talbot, influence by Daguerre’s invention worked on perfecting his own process. In 1839,
he got a key improvement in his work. He copied the formula of John Herschel, the astronomer,
in which sodium thiosulfate can dissolve silver salts. It was used as an effective fixer. Later that
year, Herschel made the first glass negative.
Talbot had invented the calotype process in the year 1840. In this process, Talbot coated
paper sheets with silver chloride to create an intermediate negative image. Unlike a
daguerreotype, a calotype negative could be used to reproduce positive prints, like most
chemical films today.
BRIEF BACKGROUND OF FORENSIC

PHOTOGRAHY
Forensic photography is a part of the process of evidence collection which provides the
investigators with photos of bodies, places or items involved in the crime which sometimes is
referred to as crime scene photography. It is an art producing an accurate reproduction of a
crime scene for the benefit of court. It involves choosing correct lighting, accurate angling of
lenses, and photographing different viewpoints often with the use of scales during the taking the
photograph so that dimension of items is recorded in image.
The earliest photographs of criminals and suspects were crude and rough, and French
photographer Alphonse Bertillion introduced the use of proper lighting, scale and angles to
guarantee reliability of identification. He suggested anthropological studies of profiles and full-
face shots (mug shots) to identify criminals.
Bertillion, influence by Darwinian Theory assumed that criminals physically are

distinguishable from non-criminals through stereo-type looks (skin color, hair color, body type or
more). It also includes taking pictures of the victim’s scars, wound birthmarks, etc., for the
purpose of identification or conviction.
Forensic police photography may also mean a process of taking photographs of suspects,
criminals and the crime scene for purposes of identifying, documenting and convicting
suspects/criminals through legal proceedings. Generally, forensic police photography is applied
to the ff.
A. Forensic Photography Applied to Suspects and Criminals

Photographic documentation of prison inmates date back 1843-44 in Belgium and 1851 in
Denmark which were taken by amateurs, commercial photographers, and even policeman or
prison officials. Photographs range from mug shots, to prisoners in their cells.
By the 1870s, the practice of taking photographs of prisoners spread to many countries
and professional photographers were employed to take portraits of criminals. This was the
beginning that leads to standard mug shots known today. Together with this development, the
art of lighting or angle was employed thus, people saw portraiture being used for something
other than art. Photographing criminals became widespread until the latter part of the 19 th
century.
As the number of criminals zoomed high, so did the number of photographs and
organizing and sorting these photographs became a problem. In response to this problem,
collection of photographs of criminals and suspects were classified according to types of offenses
called the “Rogues Galleries” which was found first in Birmingham, England in the 1850s.
B. Forensic Crime Scene Photography. The other side of forensic

photography is the crime scene photography that involves documenting the scene of the crime,
rather than the criminal. Crime scene photography is the taking of pictures of the scene of the
crime which include the placement of the objects, position of the body, evidences and
fingerprints, the general view of the crime scene with proper measurement and scaling.
With the advent of technology like digital photography, forensic photography continues
to advance also by using infra-red and ultra-violet light used for tracing minute physical
evidences, photographic of fingerprints, tiny blood samples and many other things.
Activity:
Laboratory Exercise#1- Light Projection

Laboratory Exercise#2-The Pinhole Camera
Laboratory Exercise#3-The Camera Obscura
Chapter 2
GENERAL CONCEPTS AND THEORIES OF POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY
OBJECTIVES: At the end of the chapter the students should be able to:
1. Describe and abstract principles that govern the art and science of photography and
forensic photography.
2. Appreciate uses of photography in investigations of criminal and civil cases.
3. Describe and identify other types of photography related to police work.
4. Apply relevant terminologies, uses, objectives and importance of photography to real
and hypothetical issues.
5. Recognize the significance of forensic photography to court cases.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Photography- means “a science or art of obtaining images on a sensitized material by the

action of electromagnetic radiation or rays through the use of a camera and its accessories and
the chemical process involve therein.”
Police Photography- is a science which deals with the study of the principles of
photography and the preparation of photographic device and its application to police work.
Forensic Photography- is the process of photographing and recording crime scene or any
other objects for court presentation.
Photograph- is a reproduction of some scene, object or persons through the means of

photography; a mechanical result of photography.
Police photographer- is one who is tasked to take photographs of crime scene, suspects,
witnesses or any physical evidence found at the crime scene, bring them to the laboratory for
processing, recording and filing.
THEORIES AND CONCEPTS
Investigative and evidence photography has gone through three basic evolutions. The first
one was daguerreotype photography. The second evolution was film photography. The third
evolution is digital photography which we are today.
Photography is all about capturing light on a photographic emulsion or electronic sensor.
The word “photography” was derived from the Greek word “photos” (which means
“light”) and “graphos” (which mean “to write, to draw, or sketch). The common uses of
photography in the early days were portraitures until later on it was used in taking photographs
of suspects and inmates, accident scenes and other crime scenes. Photography later on became
accepted and admissible in court as exhibit in furthering an issue in court. Therefore, its primary
use is recording of events and people. The recorded events and people in the form of a
photograph when used as exhibit in court is termed as forensic photography.
Forensic photography then actually refers photography with legal implications, such as but not
limited to:
- Injuries from an attack/assault

- An accident scene
- Vehicular damage
- Any condition that has or can cause an injury or death
- Etc.
BASIC IMPORTANCE OF CRIME PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Refresh memory
2. Preserve time and event
3. Save money
OBJECTIVES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. To produce a pictorial record of the crime scene.

2. To help inn keeping the police officer’s memory in remembering the accurately
as to where the locations of physical evidence are found.
3. To help in securing and obtaining confession, description, depositions and
information relating to the case.
IMPORTANCE OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Small objects found at the crime scene but of great importance may scape the first phase
of examination by the investigators but if the crime scene was photographed, this small
objects may be discovered through the aid of photographs.
2. A good photograph of the crime scene is a permanent record which is always available
especially when needed in court proceedings.
3. Photograph of the crime scene is an aid of the investigator in describing in court some of
the details of the crime scene hey have investigated several months ago.
4. Assist the investigator in using photographic equipment and photographic techniques in
their efforts to solve the crime.
USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Identification. A photograph is used to identify the suspects, victim, or place where crime
was committed, weapons used in the crime, etc.
2. Record. A photograph of a suspect, witness, victim or crime scene serves as a permanent
record.
3. Presentation. Photographs of questioned documents, exhibits of handwritings, firearms
identification, fingerprints/footprints are used as court exhibits. They are presented in
court for the understanding of every party who has interest in the case.
4. Substitution. Evidence which cannot be brought to a court for exhibit b reason of size,
weight, height and permanency of location will be substituted by a photograph.
5. Deciding factor. A good photograph can be deciding factor in conviction or acquittal of
the suspect when no other form of real evidence is available.
PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
A photograph is a mechanical result of photography. To produce a photograph, light

(electromagnetic radiation) is needed. Light radiated or reflected by the subject must reach the
sensitized material (film) in controlled amount. The exclusion of all other lights to be recorded
on the sensitized material inside the light-tight box(camera) is controlled by the lens.
The effect of light on the sensitized material is not visible of any formation of image or
objects. This condition of image or object is known as latent image. The effect could be made
visible when this exposed sensitized material undergoes a chemical process known as
development.
The practice of photography depends upon the sensitiveness of silver compounds to light.
When silver bromide dispersed in a medium such as gelatin is exposed to light, it undergoes a
change as result of which it becomes developable.
When after exposure, it is treated with a solution having reducing properties, termed as
developer, the exposed bromide is reduced to metallic silver, and forms an image corresponding
the intensity of light to which it was exposed. After development the unexposed bromide is
removed by a solvent which does not attack silver but dissolves the bromide, and the picture is
then permanent, and is said to be fixed. The picture thus obtained is a negative, in which the light
parts of the object are the blackest in the picture and the dark parts appear the brightest (inverse
tonal value). It is placed in contact with another piece of sensitive material (photographic paper)
which is exposed to light through the negative (printing/enlargement), and this gives in turn a
positive image after development.
The five elements considered in photography therefore, are:
1. Light or electromagnetic radiation, the source of it may either be natural or artificial

light.
2. Camera- a light-tight box which maybe of different type, size and use.
3. Sensitive materials- materials which are sensitive to light such as films and
photographic paper.
4. Chemical process- a process in photography which involves use of chemicals to
develop and fix latent prints on the film and to develop and fix images onto the
photographic paper. The process also involves time, temperature, concentration of
solutions and degree of agitation.
5. Subject or object- this refers to animate and inanimate things-persons or materials
which shall be subject or object of photography.
Objectively, photography is a combination of the ff tools:

1. Light
2. Camera
3. Lens
4. Film
5. Photographic paper
6. Chemistry
7. Composition
OTHER PHOTOGRAPHY RELATED TO POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY
Photomacrography- is the art or process of photographing objects directly enlarged on

the negative and magnified from 1 to 9x. Photomacrography is very useful in photographing
questioned documents, bullets for comparison, fingerprints.
Photomicrography- is the art or process of photographing minute objects when
magnified by means of a microscope and enlarged from 10x up. Photomicrography is a type of
photography serving purpose in photographing small items of evidence such as strands of hair,
pubic hair, soil or fragments of glass.
Infrared photography- is the art or process or photographing or recording unseen objects

by means of infra-red film and infra-red light. Infrared photography is valuable in photographing
semen in rape cases, blood stains or any photography done at night time.
Ultra-violet ray photography- is the art or process of photographing unseen objects by

the use of ultra-violet light and filters. This type of photography is important in distinguishing
colors or erasures in document.
CHAPTER 3
THE FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHER
OBJECTIVE: At the end of the chapter, students should have internalized and appreciated the
knowledge, traits, qualification and technical skills of a forensic photographer and set these
standards as model of their own goals.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHER
Forensic photographers take photographs using their knowledge of specific forensic

procedures. With photographs used in the courtroom, forensic photographers must make sure
they use the proper lenses so that their photographs will be admissible by a judge in a courtroom.
They must also have the good understanding of human anatomy since they take photographs of
human bodies and try and use of angles that will capture a convincing image. They may work
closely with medical illustrators, police and doctors to prepare presentations for court trails,
lectures or textbooks.
QUALIFICATION AND TECHNICAL SKILLS
With the advent of digital cameras in the market today, many have the opportunity to
take hold of it and take photographs as easy and conveniently as they please, but very few can
be qualified as evidence photographer. To qualify as a forensic photographer one must possess
the ff traits:
1. Technical skills
2. Knowledge in photography
3. Experience
4. Attention to details
5. Photographer’s photographs will stand up in court
To obtain such qualifications, one must begin in acquiring knowledge and technical skills
in the ff areas of photography:
1. Light and lenses

2. Cameras
3. Exposures
4. Films
5. Darkroom utilization
6. Chemical preparations
7. Film and photographic paper development
8. Negatives
9. Enlargement/printing
NATURE OF NETWORK
The crime photographer works 24 hours at the photo office, for call or whenever
photographic assistance is needed. He should be well-equipped with the necessary equipment
and materials, such as camera with wide-angle lens, tripod, flash unit, measuring tool, data
board, pencil and film. Also, he must always ensure the serviceability of his equipment before
responding to cases. While responding to calls, he is responsible in looking after his safety and
security, as well as his equipment, during and after responses.
The crime photographer should classify what crime was committed/ reported to enable
him to determine what photographic equipment and materials to bring to the crime scene.
Right after the operation, the crime photographer should immediately process the
exposed film and print the negative for filling and presentation in court.
The disposition and safe keeping of photographic evidence is the sole responsibility of the
crime photographer. He must place the negatives in the plastic holder and put the same inside a
while mailing envelop with proper identification of the case before filling. The negatives and the
photographs should be kept in the safety steel cabinet when filling and should only be retrieved
upon order of the court, or approved written request of the investigating units.
Physical evidences are examined usually in a crime laboratory, but before these evidences
reach the crime laboratory, all steps must be done with regard to its preservation because
evidences are not presented in court outright, so preservation of its evidentiary value is very
important. In presenting this evidences in court, the integrity of the evidentiary value must be
maintained so that by the time it is presented in court its condition is still the same as it was first
collected at the crime scene. The procedure in evidence collection requires the skillful and
intelligent disposition of the police investigator so that it will not become in conflict with the
photographs taken by the photographer.
Of course, aside from the personal qualities and capabilities of the forensic photographer,
he needs a crime laboratory in which he could process the photographs taken.
Chapter 4
LIGHT AND LENSES
OBJECTIVES: At the end of the chapter the students are expected to have:
1. Gained knowledge and better understanding on the concepts and basic principles of
light, its sources, and primary properties
2. Abstracted the concept of the electromagnetic spectrum
3. Gained ability to recognize and differentiate colors of the spectrum
4. Attained the ability to distinguish objects/mediums which effect speed f light and its
relation to photography
5. Developed critical thinking on how light rays change direction and its application to
police photography
6. Developed awareness on how light rays behave when passing through a lens and
significance in taking photographs
7. Identified and differentiate camera lenses and its proper utilization
8. Recognized the significance of lenses and its relation to light rays when taking
photographs of crime scene
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Lens- lens is an optical unit mounted in the camera which makes possible the formation
of a sharp image.
Light is a form of electromagnetic impulse o the same family as radio, hertzian waves,
heat, infra-red, ultra-violet, x-rays and cosmic rays.
PRINCIPLE OF LIGHT
Light, or visible light, is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength that is visible to the

human eye (about 400-700 nm). En.wekipedia.org/wiki/Light. In the of science, lights are sometimes
used to refer to the entire electromagnetic spectrum.
Three primary properties of light are:
- Intensity, or brightness;
- Frequency or wavelength and;
- Polarization or direction of the wave oscillation
Source of light. Light comes from many sources. Lights for photography can be obtained either
from natural light or artificial light.
A. Natural Light
- Sun
- Flames
- White-hot metals
- Stars (emit radiation within the visible spectrum and are called luminous object. All
other objects called non- luminous objects are visible because the reflect light from
luminous objects)
B. Artificial light – any light which a produce\d human agency\, sch as all forms of
electric light, etc.
- candle light
- fluorescent light
- in candescent lamp
- neon lights
- laser lights
- mercury
Light can exhibit property of both waves and particles. This property is referred to as
wave-particle duality. The study of light, known as optics. Is an important research area in
modern physics.
Light is a radiation. Radiation is the transmission of heart or life especially from one body
to another body. When an atom in a light source is changed physically, it emits a PHOTON
(Electromagnetic radiation) which behaves like a wave, and the same time, like a particle. Light
is a particular type of electromagnetic radiation that can be seen and sensed by the human eye,
but this energy exists at a wide range of wave lengths. The micron is the basic unit for measuring
the wave length of electromagnetic waves. The spectrum of waves is divided into sections based
on wavelength. the shortest waves are gamma rays, which have wave lengths of 10-6 microns or
less. The longest waves are radio waves, which have wave lengths of many kilometers. The range
of visible consists of the narrow portion of the spectrum, from 0-4 microns (blue) to 0.7 microns
(red).
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum of all electromagnetic waves arranged

according to frequency and wavelength. The sun, earth, and other bodies radiate
electromagnetic energy of varying wavelengths. Electromagnetic energy passes through space at
the speed of light in the form of sinusoidal waves.
The wave length is the distance from wave crest to wave crest (see illustration below).
www.mtu.edu/rs/back/spectrum
Illustration 4:
Electromagnetic radiation, in terms of classical theory, flow of energy at the universal

speed of light through free space or through a material/ medium in the form of the electric and
magnetic fields that make up electromagnetic such as radio waves, visible light, and gamma rays.
In such a wave, time-varying electric and magnetic fields are mutually linked with each other at
right angles…www.britannica.com/e/article-9106022/electromagnetic radiation
Measurement of Light (expressed in nanometer ‘nm’)
0 – 30 –x-ray
30 – 400 – ultra-violet
400 – 700 – visible light
700 – 1000nm – infrared light
1000 – up nm – radio light waves
Visible light waves are the only electromagnetic waves we can see. We see these waves
as the colors of the rainbow. Each color has a different wavelength. Red has the longest wave
length and violet is the shortest wavelength. When all he waves are seen together, they are seen
as white light.
When white light shines through a prism, the white light is broken apart into the colors of
the visible light spectrum. Water vapor in the atmosphere can also break apart wavelengths
creating a rainbow.
Illustration 5:
Illustration 6:
Each color in a rainbow correspond to a different wavelength of electromagnetic
spectrum.
Illustration 7:
Basic Principles:
- Light is radiant energy. Other forms of radiant energy are, and each one of differs in
wavelength: Heat rays, X-rays, Radiowaves.
- Radiant energy can be identified by its wavelength and listed on a number line called
the electromagnetic spectrum.
- Light travels through a vacuum and through the air at peed of 186,000 miles per
second, but be slowed by dense mediums such as glass or water.
- The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that affects the sense of light in human
s called the visible spectrum and is limited to radiation of extremely short wavelength.
- Radiation of light are seen as color, the longest of which is seen as “red”, the shortest
seen as “violet”.
- Radiation of light lying adjacent to red bet, outside the visible spectrum is infrared ray.
- When all wavelength of the visible spectrum are radiated by a light source in equal
amounts, the mixture is seen as white light.
- The absence of light is called black.
- Whenever any wavelength of light in present in greater abundance than others, the
resulting light is colored.
- Wavelength of a wave is the distance from peak to an adjacent through in a wave.
- Frequency of a wave is the number of waves per unit of time.
IMPORTANCE OF LIGHT TO PHOTOGRAPHY
Things are seen by our naked eyes when light shines on them. We see things when light rays are
reflected from it into our eyes. We can take a picture when light rays a subject reach our camera
lens. Without light, images may not be recorded in the film of the camera. The recording of light
should be at a desired amount only in order to again quality image in this can be achieved by the
manipulation of the lens aperture.
ACTIVITY:
Laboratory exercise # 4 – The electromagnetic spectrum

Laboratory exercise # 5 – The visible ray of spectrum
Laboratory exercise # 6 – The wavelength of the electromagnetic spectrum
OBJECTS/MEDIUMS WHICH AFFECT

SPEED OF LIGHT
Light travels in the atmosphere in straight direction at a speed of 186.000 miles per
second the speed of light is slowed down when it gets in contact with some objects or mediums.
The following affect speed of light.
1. Transparent objects – objects or mediums merely slow the speed of light but allow it
to fast freely.
Examples: plastic materials, transparent clothes
2. Opaque objects – objects which divert or absorb light, but allow no light to pass
through it.
Examples: metal, stone, wood
Opaque objects either absorb or divert light rays. Absorption of light is the process where
certain materials convert light energy into other form of energy (usually hit or temperature). The
use of black – painted background for example is used by the photographer to “subtract” or
reduce light so that is does not bounce itself around in an undesirable way.
Diversion is the change in the direction of light waves that strike the surface of any subject
that creates reflection either by specular or diffused reflection.
When light rays get in contact with opaque objects, light rays are reflected. Diffused
reflected light occur when light rays get in contact with rough objects/medium and specular
reflected light when it gets in contact with smooth objects or medium. In taking photographs the
subject must face the source of light, so that light will bounce from the subject to the lens of the
camera and will be captured by the use of the shutter.
3. Translucent objects – objects which allow light to pass through them in such a way
that outline of the light source is not clearly visible.
Example: glass, ground glass, oiled paper, water.
HOW THE LIGHT CHANGES DIRECTION
General Principle: Light travels in straight line, but changes the direction of light wave
when it comes in contact with different objects. The change in the direction of light wave may
either be through reflection or refraction.
1. REFLECTION – is a change in the direction of light wave which occurs whenever

light waves comes in contact with the surface of an object/subject but does not
allow the wave to pass through it. Of the three ways in which light rays may change
direction, reflection is the most important to the photographer. In direct reflection,
the light rays will bounce from the smooth surface at the same angle at which they
hit. The actual intensity of the direct reflection will mirror the intensity of the light
source.
THERE ARE TWO WAYS OF HOW LIGHT RAYS ARE REFLECTED:
a) Diffuse Reflected light – when light rays come in contact with rough surfaces. Diffuse
reflection occurs when light from a source is equally reflected in all direction by the
surface onto which it strikes. Diffuse reflections are the same intensity no matter what
angle or direction they are viewed from. A diffuse light source how low contrast
because its rays hit the subject from many different angles.
b) Specular reflected light – when light rays comes in contact with smooth surfaces such
as a mirror, it produces glare. Glare seen on the surface of the body of water is known
as polarized direct reflection.
Illustration 8:
2. Refraction – is the bending redirection of light waves when passing obliquely from
one medium to a medium of different density. Glass have refractive properties and
what are manipulated within photographic lenses in order to focus an image onto
the film (or digital imaging sensor).
Illustration 9:
3. Prism – is a solid for dispersing light; it is a transparent polygonal solid object with
flat faces in usually a triangular cross section, used for separating white light in to
a spectrum of colors, light rays bend twice when passing through a prism.
It is usually a glass with refracting surfaces forming an angle to each other. It changes the
pat of light rays; disperse white light into its component colors.
Illustration 10:
Summarizing, any subject/object will act on light that strike it whether trough refraction,
absorption, reflection, or a combination of all three.
With portrait photography, the light controlled in order to achieve optimum, balanced
exposure.
SIGNIFICANCE OF LENSES TO
PHOTOGRAPHY
A lens is a piece of transparent material with at least one curved surface, which refracts,
or bends light rays coming from an object.
It is simply a piece of glass that has been constructed so that all the light rays which pass
through it are bent toward or away from one point which is determined by the maker of the lens.
Lenses are usually made out of glass or plastic and they have special property which can
give good result. The photographer should choose a type of lens which has good resolution
(property of the lens which refers to resolving power such as retaining fine lines without blurring
one another) to achieve good results of the image. There are only two kinds of lenses common
to photography and this are convex and concave lenses or the combination of it.
When light ray passes through a certain type of lens, the light ray either converge or
diverge so, the photographer should be careful in choosing lens‘ characteristics, one that is able
to converge light rays in order to have a good focus.
Illustration 11:
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT RAYS

WHEN PASSING THROUGH A LENS
Converging rays – there is convergence of light rays when light rays meet at one point
after they pass true a lens. Lenses which cause light rays to converge are usually thick in the
center and thinner at their edges. They are called convex lenses. The point at which light converge
is called the focus.
Illustration 12:
1. Diverging rays – diverging rays are light rays which bend away from a given point. Lenses
which cause light rays to diverge are known as concave lenses. Concave lenses are thin at
the middle and thick around the edges.
Illustration 13:
In taking photographs, the photographer has several types of lenses to choose from depending
upon the condition or situation of the crime scene in which he is supposed to photograph.
TYPES OF CAMERA LENSES
- Wide-angle lens – used when photographing narrow and crowded spaces

- Normal lens – lenses which are commonly used in regular photography
- Telephoto – fixed lenses used in photographing long or far distance
- Zoom lens – lenses which are variable. It can photograph from the shortest to longest
distance
- Macro lens – lenses that larges object and magnify 1 to 9x.
- Micro lens – used to photograph minute objects and magnify and enlarged from 10x
up.
ACTIVITY:
Laboratory Exercise # 7 – How light changes direction
Laboratory Exercise # 8 – Concave and convex lenses
Laboratory Exercise # 9 – Characteristics of light rays When passing
Through a lens
SIGNIFICANCE OF LENSES AND LIGHT RAYS TO PHOTOGRAPH

For any lens, the focus point is not the same for a subject ten (10) feet away as it is for a subject
twenty (20) ft. away. The farther the subject is from the lens, the closer the focus will be to the
lens. Subject more than 600 ft. away from a lens however, will focus at very nearly the same
distance from the lens. Distances of 600 ft. or more are called INFINITY. These conditions are
affected by the FOCAL LENGTH OF THE LENS AND INTENSITY OF LIGHT.
FOCAL LENGTH OF THE LENS- The property of the lens that will focus the subject at infinity at a
certain distance from the lens.
Illustration 14:
The Focal Length of the lens is one foot
Intensity of light which is the strength or quantity of light that reaches the subject implies that
the light source at any given distance from a subject will lighten the subject with an intensity than
the same light source moved twice the distance from the subject. This concept is governed by
the Inverse square law which states that “the intensity of the diffuse light reflected is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between the light source of the subject”.
Understanding behavior of light is prerequisite to understanding how to control the light when
taking photographs. Remember that light can act on any subject that strikes. Its intensity or
brightness, temperature, and contrast are the three important properties that should be given
the utmost concern of the photographer.
Illustration 15:
The Inverse Square Law is the low of optics which states that the intensity of the light falling upon
an object varies inversely as the square of the distance of that object from the source of light.
HOW LENSES AFFECT PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGES?
In Photography, the result of images is affected sometimes by the defect in lens

property (especially in shape) In capturing wavelengths of light known as lens aberration
which is defined as follows:
Lens aberration- is an anomaly of the lens which causes distortion of the image due to
lens curvature (barrel distortion, pincushion) or color (chromatic aberration) at the edges of the
lens. New York institute of photography (1981) defines aberration as an optical distortion of an
image caused by a lens
Some of the lens aberrations are as follows:
Chromatic aberration is used by a lens having a different refractive index for different
refractive index for different wavelengths of light.
Achromatic lens – a lens corrected to bring together the yellow and blue-violet rays so
that not color fringes appear in the final image. Most photographic lenses, except the meniscus
and periscopic lenses are of this type. However, the achromatic lens is more highly corrected for
all colors.
Lens curvature and curved mirrors (optical systems), the deviation of lights rays, cause
images of objects to be blurred.
Parallax – is an apparent displacement of an object when viewed at two different angles

(visual three-dimensional depth is perceived) or when the person looking at the object changes
position).
Astigmatism – a fault of a lens, caused by slight non-uniformity of refraction which

prevents a sharp focus being obtained simultaneously upon both vertical and horizontal lines
(NYI, 1981).
Aspherical lens – a lens in which one surface departs from a true spherical shape. Has
certain advantages in the control of optical aberration, especially in reducing spherical
aberration. The absence of a practical method of mass-production aspherical elements has
retarded the popularity of such lenses.
ACTIVITY:
Laboratory Exercise # 10 – Focal length of a lens

Laboratory Exercise # 11 – Intensity of light (the inverse square law)
Chapter 5
PHOTOGRAPHIC CAMERAS
OBJECTIVES: At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:
1. Appraise the developmental evolution of cameras

2. Identify and differentiate types of camera, its basic parts and function
3. Demonstrate proper handling of a camera both as when taking photographs and in
storing the camera
DEFINITION OF TERM
Camera – a light-tight chamber fitted with a lens aperture and a support for sensitive
material, used for the purpose of making photography; a light-tight box, having an aperture with
a shutter and lens through which the image of an object is focused and recorded on a sensitized
material known a s photographic film, placed behind the focal plane.
EVOLUTION OF CAMERAS
Photographic cameras today, evolved from the accidental discovery of an image formed
by light through a pinhole (projection of light). A simple box bearing a pinhole that captures an
image known as the pinhole camera. Later, a glass was placed on the pinhole of the camera acting
as a lens camera which became known as camera obscura, a device which uses a pinhole lens to
project an image of the scene outside, on to a viewing surface.
Alhazen (ibn Al-haytham), a great authority on optics in the middle edges and lived
around 1000 on the Gregorian calendar, invented the pinhole camera and explained why the
imaged was upside down. Around 1600, della porta reinvented the pinhole camera. Apparently
he was the first European to publish any information on the pinhole camera and is sometimes
incorrectly credited with its invention.
Image form by means of light projection from a pinhole into a darkened room was the
beginning of devising a pinhole camera. The pinhole camera was simply a light-tight box with a
pinhole at the front center of the box. The image formed by the pinhole camera was a bit crude.
Improving the crudeness of image produce by the pinhole camera, Giovanni battista della porta
added a mirror behind the pinhole to effect brightness and clarity and at the same time enlarged
the hole by inserting a telescope, thus, a logical outcome of the pinhole camera was born-the
camera obscura and gained popularity in the 16th century. More than any other form of arts,
photography also requires equipment. The basic piece of equipment for taking photographs is
the camera. Yet, camera alone will not produce a photograph. The camera must be loaded with
a film and requires a photographer manipulate it. The film must be the right side size for the
camera. It must be compatible and the photographer must know how to manipulate the camera.
These three items- camera, film and photographer, working together constitute a system
of photography.
TYPES OF CAMERAS
Camera obscura was the forerunner og photographic cameras today. It was a light-tight
chamber or box with a small hole or lens at one sidefor image formation. It was used by artist as
a copying device.
Camera obscura model underwent many developments, both in its physical appearance
and its functionality. It paved way to manufactures to create cameras of different types and
models until modern technology introduced digital cameras. At present, cameras are of different
types and kinds from which a photographer may choose what is suited for his/her subject or
object. Examples of these are:
1. 110 and ultra miniature cameras(spy cameras)

2. 126 cameras
3. Viewfinder cameras
4. Box camera(viewfinder)
5. Range finder cameras
6. Single-lens reflex (SLR)
7. Twin-lens reflex(TLR)
8. Digital single-lens cameras
9. Movie cameras
10. Video cameras
11. Instant cameras
Instant Cameras- an instant camera will produce a finished print in 20 seconds to about
4 minutes. The film, after exposure, is passed between two stainless steel rollers inside the
camera. These rapture a chemical pod on the film spread developing agent evenly over the film’s
surface. In the original Polaroid system it was necessary for the user to peel the finished print
from the base material.
Professional Polaroid films, both color black and white, are still developed in this manner.
Beginning in 1972 with the all new model, the SX-70, Polaroid Instant Cameras eject the
developing picture from the camera, and the film reaches its final development in full daylight.
The process is completed in about 4 minutes.
Illustration 16: instamatic camera

For more than several decades the box camera (viewfinder) was the instrument of choice
for the casual amateur photographer. Inexpensive and simple, it was, nevertheless, capable of
excellent result under many conditions. Box cameras were normally fitted with a single-element
lens, a limited range of aperture control and a single-speed leaf shutter.
Spy cameras are small wireless detectors, also known as security hidden cameras. It was
about the size of a package of cigarettes and was not often hidden inside a pack when used by
spies and private-eyes. The Micro 16 took 16 mm film. It had a 90degree viewfinder. The aperture
was controlled through a lever and could be adjusted to bright, dull and color. The plunger on
the top of the camera could be pressed to advance the film and could be made to stay down flat
on the surface. A fil counter was viewable from the back.
Illustration 17: Spy camera
Range finder camera has a viewfinder which like most instamatic cameras are
independent of the main lens of the camera. The viewfinder presents a miniature view of the
subject. Focusing is aided by split-screen rangefinder which is occupied to the main lens. It is an
optical instrument which measures the distance between itself and a given object.
Illustration 18: rangefinder camera
Single-lens reflex (SLR) camera. This type of camera allows the photographer to view a
subject through the main lens of the camera. The image seen through the viewfinder window is
a replica image; when using a standard lens, the image is similar in size and appearance to the
scene before the unaided eye. A good example of a SLR camera is 35mm adjustable camera. This
type of camera is most common in police work and also in classroom instructions.
Illustration 19: 35mmm SLR Camera
Furthermore, a Single-Lens Reflex Camera is a camera equipped with a mirror with which
it is possible to view the subject being photograph through the lens of the camera rather than
through a separate lens or viewfinder.
The range finder and single-lens reflex cameras have the following features:
1. Interchangeable lenses
2. Adjustable focal plane shutters
3. Adjustable diaphragms
4. Motor drive
The optical system for viewing the scene for both camera is comprised of:
A) The main lens

B) A mirror for diverting light away from the film and into the rest of the system
C) A prism for reversing and inverting the image as reflected (upside down and reversed)
from the mirror
D) A focusing screen
E) A viewfinder
The twin-lens Reflex Camera or TLR (21/2 camera using 120 film) is equipped with two
identical optical systems, one of which focuses on the film when the shutter is opened. The other
reflects a similar image up toward the top of the camera and focuses it upside down and reversed
on a ground glass screen.
Because both lenses on a TLR are linked, correct focus on the viewing screen will
guarantee correct focus through the main lens.
Illustration 20: the twin-lens reflex camera

BASIC PARTS OF A 35MM CAMERA
A. Illustration 21-Basic Parts of a 35mm Camera (body)
b. illustration 22: basic parts of a 35mm Camera (inside back)
BASIC FUNCTIONS OF THE BASIC PARTS OF THE CAMERA
1. Lens- the function of lens is to from an image of object taken on the focal plane. It
controls the amount of light needed to form an image.
2. Focusing ring- it is used to make the image form in the focal plane, sharp.
3. F/stop ring- used to adjust or select the correct f/stop for proper exposure.
4. Flash terminals- a terminal connection for synchronize flashing with the shutter
release.
5. Self-timer- used for delayed release of the shutter.
6. Shutter release button- used to trigger or initiate or initiate the opening and closing
of the shutter
7. Film advance lever- used to move the film frame after exposure to place the
unexposed part of the film on the camera format
8. Shutter speed dial- used for selecting the desired shutter speed.
9. Accessory light shoe- akin to flash terminal but usually situated on top of camera
directly attached to the flash cord
10. Film rewind crank- a lever used for rewinding rolled film after completely exposing
the entire or part of the rolled film
11. ASA/ISO dial- a photographic film speed rating standard used to rate the speed
sensitivity of photographic film to light
12. Viewfinder- part of the camera which is used to view the object or subject of
photography.
DIGITAL CAMERA
A digital camera is a camera that takes video or still photographs, or both, digitally by
recording images on a light-sensitive sensor. Not film. Digital cameras have features which are
not found in film-based cameras such as the displaying of an image on the camera screen
immediately after it is recorded. It has also the capacity to take thousands of images on a single
small memory device, the ability to record video with sound, it has the ability to edit, delete
images allowing re-use of the storage. These types of cameras can be incorporated into many
devices such as mobile phones to vehicles.
John Roark, featured an article on forensic photography stating that when digital imaging
is considered for law enforcement, the issue of the admissibility of digital photographic evidence
in court is often raised. He further wrote “the fact that digital photographs are easily altered than
film-based photographs is usually cited.” Some believe that digital photographs are not yet
admissible in court.
As digital imaging becomes more widely used in forensic science, however, there are still
drawbacks to the use of digital imaging within forensic science casework. The drawback is
centered on the quality and authenticity of images, which can be altered with Adobe Photoshop
or any of the enhancement software programs. Other drawbacks are:
1. The amount of time required to take multiple exposures because light sensor has to
read the scene and adjust the f/stop or change the shutter speed.
2. Light sensor has to check the auto focus before it captures the scene
3. Trigger the flash
4. Takes several seconds for a digital camera to perform other processes once the image
has been taken (converting image into digital form, compressing and saving the image
5. Image resolution (traditional camera is far superior in quality and performance
6. Digital cameras don’t have shutter speed fast enough to photograph action.
Conversely, digital imaging has its advantages over traditional film-based photography.
1. Digital makes things very sleek, very convenient, very compact
2. Provides instant gratification, you can view the photo immediately
3. If you didn’t get the shot, you know too soon you did not get so you can make a retake
instantly, as opposed to film, you don’t truly know until you get the photos back from
the processing lab. If you’ve screwed up, it’s too late.
4. Eliminates carrying, changing and processing rolls of film
5. You don’t have to take the film, maintain a chain of custody, bring it to a processing
lab, have them developed and then get the prints back to the police department or
case file.
HANDLING AND CARING THE CAMERA
The camera is a precise optical-mechanical instrument. It should be handled carefully,

kept clean and protected from jolts, dust, moisture and sharp temperature fluctuations. It should
not be removed from its case when it is brought outdoors. Surfaces of the optical parts should
not be touched with fingers or other pointed objects since it may damage their coatings. The
surface coatings of the optical parts must be cleaned with a clean soft cloth or cotton wool wad
slightly moistened with alcohol or ether. Load and unload the camera indoors to protect against
direct sunlight or bright artificial illumination. Always wind shutter as far as it will go.
For amateur photographers, always sling the camera around your neck and hold it against
your chest when not in use to avoid unnecessary swinging of the camera.
ACTIVITIES:
A. Practical TEST
1. Identification of the basic parts of a camera
b. laboratory exercises:
laboratory exercises #12- the 35mm camera (SLR)
laboratory exercises #13- the inside back parts of Camera
laboratory exercises #14- the basic parts and functions of a 35mm Camera
Chapter 6
FILMS
1. Define and describe films and its basic parts

2. Identify and describe common properties of films and the varieties of film emulsions
3. Demonstrate how the film is loaded and unloaded from the camera
4. Demonstrate safety guidelines in handling films
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Film is a sheet of celluloid, used as a base for photographic sensitive material. Another
definition of the term film is “a cellulose tape or plate where silver salts are suspended, capable
of recoding light.
Film development is the chemical treatment process which causes a latent image to
become a visual image.
SIGNIFICANCE OF FILMS
Photographic film is a basic ingredient in the system of photography. Without the film,
light is rendered useless because there is no film to record the light that was allowed to enter the
camera. Photographic film is a chemically reactive material that records a fixed or still image
through the action of light.
It is further described as a sheet of plastic (polyester, nitrocellulose or cellulose acetate)

coated with an emulsion containing light-sensitive silver halide salts bonded by gelatin.
In black-and-white photographic film there is usually one layer of silver salts. When the
exposed grains are developed, the silver salts are converted to metallic silver. Color film uses at
least three layers. Dyes, which absorb to the surface of the silver salts, make the crystals sensitive
to different colors. Typically the blue-sensitive layer is on top, followed by the green and red
layers.
The primary function of film is to record the image focused upon it by the lens of the
camera. The recorded image is known as a latent image because it is not visible on the film.
Exposed film cannot be visually distinguished from the unexposed one. But the film has change
physically during exposure and that change can be made visible if the film is treated chemically
which is known as film development.
When the chemical change has taken place, and the latent print became a negative image,
the film is transformed and is now known as negative. In such condition wherein the latent image
turned to negative image, it is understood that the tonal values of the visual image are the inverse
of the tonal values of the subject, hence negative. Where black becomes white, white becomes
black. Dark objects appear light on the negative and the light objects appear black.
THE BASIC PARTS OF THE FILM

1. Base
2. Emulsion side
3. Film Sprocket
4. Film frame
5. Film leader
Illustration 23:
The Basic Parts of the Film
Emulsion side- films for photography are coated with a number of very thin light-sensitive
emulsion layers consisting of silver salts and/or dyes. When light is allowed to expose the
emulsion active centers combine to form a latent image that must be developed through use of
photographic chemical. This requires exposure of the film in a darkened container to a series of
solutions that must be controlled with respect to temperature, development time and with the
appropriate agitation or missing of the solutions.
Base- bases are cellulose acetate and other acid esters such as triacetate. Cellulose
acetate films are usually called safety bases since they have the advantage of low flammability.
Bases maybe (a) transparent (b) translucent (c) opaque. Safety base film is a comparatively
nonflammable film base that meets the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) requires
for a safety base. Further, NYI (1981) calls base as acetate base and defines it as a transparent
material used for making safety (slow burning) film. Its name is derived from its chemical identity,
as it is a cellulose nitrate, as in the case of flammable film.
Sprocket- perforations/holes found in both edges of the film that is used to engage with
the sprocket tooth of the camera to facilitate the forward movement or winding of the film during
exposure.
Film frame- a film frame is a subdivision of a long strip of film in which each image is
separated from the other. Every time the film advance lever is moved, it is counted as one film
thus separating the images.
Film leader- the fil leader is found at the tip of the rolled film designed to guide the
photographer for easy insertion of the film onto the film take-up spool of the camera.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF FILM
Black and white films are made up of several layers: gelatin anti-halation layer, anti-curl
backing, adhesion promotion layer, film base, adhesion promotion layers, gelatin protective
coating below.
Illustration 24: basic components of film
After understanding the basic parts and components of the film, the photographer must
also be well versed with regards to the film’s properties and types.
PROPERTIES OF THE FILM
Properties of the film are as follows:

1. Speed
2. Emulsion
3. Base
4. Color sensitivity
SPEED- the emulsion speed determines how much light must be used to expose the film
in a given time period. Film emulsions are rated according to their ISO number (International
Standards Organization), which gives an indication of the relative film speed. The ISO number
incorporates both the older ASA (American Standards Association) designation and the
logarithmic DIN (Deutsches Indusrie Norm) speed ratings. The ASA number is directly
proportional to film speed, while the DIN system uses a logarithmic scale (an increase of 3 DIN
degrees represents an increase in film sensitivity by a factor of two). Many exposure meters,
especially in older American cameras, are calibrated according to ASA numbers, while European
cameras use the DIN equivalent. Films in the 50-200 ISO range are commonly used for
photomicrography.
THE EMULSION- the emulsion of the film is the light-sensitive part of the film. It is the
medium through which the physical and chemical changes, from latent to negative image take
place. In an emulsion, grains of silver halides are suspended in a thin layer of gelatin. Silver
halides are sensitive to light. Their characteristics are altered when they are exposed to light. One
of the properties of an emulsion is resolution. Resolution refers to the resolving power of the
emulsion in which it is able to produce images that retain extremely fine lines without blurring
into one another.
When the altered silver halides are treated chemically during development they are
converted into black metallic silver which remains attached to the base of the film. Silver halides
which have not been exposed to light do not form into metallic silver instead are washed away
from the base during the development process.
A minimum amount of light is required to effect the change in the grains of the silver
halides and forms latent image. This minimum amount of light alters only a few of the grains near
the surface of the emulsion and produces a barely perceptible silver deposit upon development.
If less than this minimum amount of light reaches the emulsion, the silver halides are not
affected, and they cannot be change into metallic silver by development.
The photographer has variety of emulsion and bases to choose from. Emulsion vary in:
1. Color sensitivity
2. Speed
3. Graininess
4. Contrast
5. Sharpness and acutance
Color sensitivity. Pure emulsions composed only of silver halides reproduce only: blue,
violet, and visible ultraviolet regions of the visible spectrum, thus, pure emulsions are color
blind. Emulsions are divided into four (4) general types according to the way in which they render
color differences as brightness differences:
a) Monochromatic film- because of its limited color sensitivity, has no use in regular
photography. It is used primarily for copying.
b) Orthochromatic film- are sensitive to the ultraviolet, violet, green and yellow-green
portions of the spectrum. They do not accurately reproduce the relative brightness of
a subject as seen by the eye. Not regularly used in police photography.
c) Panchromatic film- are sensitive to all colors of the visual spectrum.
d) Infrared films- have a band of color sensitivity in the ultra-violet and blue, little or no
sensitivity in the yellow-green portions of the spectrum, and a second band of greatly
increased sensitivity in the visible red and infrared.
Graininess- negative image is composed of grains of metallic silver which adhere to a
transparent base. These grains appear as a continuous deposit, however, when the image is
enlarged, a granular effect becomes apparent. The granular appearance of the enlarged image is
called graininess.
As a general rule, slow emulsions are fine-grained and fast emulsion are coarse-grained.
The tendency of silver grains to clump during development can be reduce by using fine-grain
developer.
Contrast is the degree of difference in tone between the lightest and darkness area in any
photograph.
Sharpness and acutance. The sharpness of a negative refers to the precision with which
a boundary between areas of varied contrast is reproduced. Sharpness shall mean the
“perception of minimum diffusion” in which distinctiveness of objects in a picture is visualized
to be well-defined and clear. Grains of silver halide, because of their crystalline structure, tend
to scatter light when they have absorbed. This scattering called diffusion, can cause nearby silver
halides to be effected by light which has not been focused upon them by the lens of the camera.
Diffusion can also be caused by reflective properties of the film base. Thus, highlights will tend
to encroach upon shadows in a negative image. Maximum sharpness then, depends upon
minimum diffusion.
Acutance on the other hand, is a measure of the tendency of an emulsion to diffuse light.
It refers to the ability of a photographic material to show a sharp line of demarcation between
adjoining areas receiving different exposures. It usually correlates with sharpness. An emulsion
of high acutance will produce a very sharp image; emulsion of lesser acutance will produce
negatives which are less sharp.
Speed. Speed in this context refers to film speed or emulsion speed. Film speed is
determined by the degree of sensitivity of an emulsion to light which is known as light sensitivity.
A measurement of an emulsion’s ability to produce a certain density under controlled exposure
condition.
Emulsion are rated as “slow and fast”

a) “slow” emulsion because they need more light in order to yield an acceptable image
b) “fast” are relatively faster emulsions
Exposure Index or ASA (American Standard Association), ISO (International Standard

Org.), DIN (Deutche’ Industrie’ Norm’) German Industrial Standard or JSA (Japanese
Standard Asso.), assigned numerical rating to each emulsion that is manufactured. The
Exposure Index of an emulsion is determined to calculate the amount of light needed to
produce acceptable image.
Index Exposure Ratings
1000 ASA/DIN 300 ASA/DIN 125 ASA/DIN 25 ASA/DIN

500 ASA/DIN 250 ASA/DIN 100 ASA/DIN
THE BASE- bases are cellulose acetate and other acids esters such as triacetate. Cellulose
acetate films are usually called safety bases since they have the advantage of low flammability.
Bases maybe (a) transparent, (b) translucent, (c) opaque. Generally, films are made on
transparent baes whether they are used as negatives or as positives, as in the case of motion
pictures, color transparencies, and lantern slides.
COLOR SENSITIVITY- color sensitivity is the color tones in the emulsion of the film which
represents the color of the subject of which such representation of colors as shades of gray is
acceptable.
The final image obtained from black and white negative emulsions consists of a series of
gray tones varying in brightness, and ranging from light to dark gray. These tones represent the
color of the subject different emulsions represent subject color with varying degrees of
acceptability. The extent to which this
representation of colors as shades of gray is acceptable is called the color sensitivity of the film.
HOW TO LOAD THE CAMERA WITH A FILM

- Hold the camera firmly on top of the table
- Open the back case of the camera by pushing the film rewind button then pull the
rewind crank
- Pull the film leader from the film cartridge and insert the film onto the film pick up
spool
- Make sure that the film sprocket is engaged into the film sprocket tooth of the picked
up spool of the camera
- Move forward the film advance lever slowly to check film is clipped well in the film
pick up spool
- Close the back case, pressing it tightly to make the lock latch.
- Move forward the film by advancing the advance lever, cock and fire the shutter.
When cocking the shutter for the second time the frame counter should be set at “1”
- Now you are ready to shoot
UNLOADING CAMERA WITH FILM
When the exposure counter shows figure 36, the film should be rewound back into the
cassette and the camera unloaded. To do this:
1) Press film rewind button on the camera bottom

2) Flip open films rewind crank and rotate it in the arrow direction till the film leader
leaves the take up spool
3) Try to rotate the crank smoothly, without ‘jerks and not too fast to avoid traces of
static electricity film
4) Pull film rewind knob all the way out;
5) Open the back of the camera. Remove the cassette, holding the film rewind knob.
6) Keep the exposed fil by wrapping it with black-colored material, if it is not developed
immediately.
ACTIVITY:
A. PRACTICAL EXERCISES
7). How to load and unload the camera with a film (with the use of a long strip of
negative, practice loading and unloading the camera with film)
B. LABORATORY EXERCISE:
Laboratory Exercise #15- Basic Parts of the Film
Laboratory Exercise #16- Basic Components of the Film
Chapter 7
TECHNIQUES IN CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY
OBJECTIVE: At the end of the chapter, students are expected to perform proper techniques in
taking photographs of different crime cases, including recording, sketching, measuring and the
proper use of photographic equipment.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Close-up photograph is a picture (still or motion) made of the subject at such a distance
that only head and shoulders or other separate parts of the body are shown (NYI, 1981)
• Mug shot is a photographic shot of a suspect/witness from head to elbow level taken in
various views – front whole body, front, right and left side view, right and left side quarter view
from head to elbow.
• Crime scene is a location where an illegal act took place and the area from which most of
the physical evidence is gathered or retrieved by trained law enforcement personnel. It also
means a location wherein evidence of crime may be located but not necessarily the location the
crime took place
TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES

The cardinal rule in crime scene investigation states that the ‘crime scene should not be
touched, altered, or removed unless it is sketched, measured and photographed’. Sketching,
measuring and photographing, all of these acts must be reflected on the photographic log and
photographic sketch indicating position of the camera, weather condition, type of lens, film,
camera, aperture and shutter speed that had been used.
The ideal view of the subject/object to be photographed depends upon the type of crime
committed. Each case of crime demands different requirements of how it should be
photographed but definitely a close-up photograph is often required, especially on object
attacked, weapon used or tools, significant clues such as fingerprints, blood stain, footprints, skid
marks, broken glass, wounds or any other physical evidence.
As a general rule in crime scene photography, photograph the entire scene or the general
view of the scene to include nearby surroundings, the address of the crime scene, case number,
time and date and initial of the of the photographer, which should be affixed in his records. An
overlapping photograph or shots of the immediate scene, at least in four different angles must
be performed. Photograph the body showing the exact location, direction where it tends.
Ideally, the following techniques are notable to some specific crime enumerated below
• Mug shot – “Mug Shot” is taken from suspect/witness of crime and the following
equipment are required:
1. Height indicator
2. Four sets flood lamps
3. Title board
4. Flash unit
5. Letter sets
Illustration 25: Mug shot
The proper procedure when taking a mug

shot is to attach the camera to the tripod facing the plain white background with the flood lamps
one on each side at approximately 45 degrees angle to light the subject. Two flood lamps are
similarly set at each side at the back of the subject to eliminate or to remove the shadow. The
subject is placed at the background barefooted without eyeglasses and holding at breast level
the title board with corresponding name, and other data. The front whole body, front, right and
left view, right and left side quarter view from head to elbow.
 Suicide photographs – A suicide case should be photographed as though it was a

homicide, but the photographer should not assume that it is one or the other.
1. Suicide by shooting
 Photograph both the entrance and exit wounds. Place identification alongside
each wound as well as ruler for measuring.
 Entrance wound is always larger than the diameter of the bullet
 Hair surrounding the entrance wound and the skin burned to a reddish or grayish
brown color
 If shot is fired from range or less than eight inches, a smeary black residue maybe
evident
 If possible, photograph close ups of the clothing, infrared photograph will record
a better image
Illustration 26: Close-up gunshot
2. Suicide by hanging – strangulation by hanging is the most common form of suicide.
 Photograph the subject at a distance from four views showing the full body
 Then move in close and shown the knot, bruise marks and the discoloration of the
body.
Illustration 27: Suicide by Hanging
 Sex Offenses – The crime of rape may be taken as typical of this class of offense.
Photograph indications of victim’s efforts to resist, such as bruises or black and blue
marks. Additional shots should be made of especial features, such as:
a) Foot and tire impressions
b) Broken branches
c) Buttons of clothing or other personal property
d) Used matches or booklets of matches
e) Disturbances of rocks, foliage and other natural features
f) Displacements of other objects
Photograph of the suspect – The suspect’s body may show evidence of the physical struggles,
such as scratches or bruises. Foreign hairs, pollen granules or fibers maybe discovered by the
physician. The garments may contain weeds, seeds or soil. If crime took place indoor, materials
peculiar to the premises may be found in the suspect’s person or clothing. When photographing
evidence, include a data sheet and a ruler.
2. Photographing the victim – photograph evidence of resistance of the criminal act (sex
offenses), marks and discoloration of the body, conditions of affected parts and presence of
foreign hairs, fibers, biological stains.
• Burglary – photograph the following:

a) The exterior of the building in which burglary occurred
b) The point of entry and close-up shot to show forcible entry
c) The point of exit should be photographed
d) Rooms in the house or building which is disturbed
e) Take shots of all furniture or articles which show evidence of being ransacked
f) Photograph what has been left by the burglar such as hat, gloves, scarf, cigarette butts
and the scene
g) Physical evidences such as fingerprints, footprints, the prints, crepe sole prints, heel prints
and tool marks
a) If merchandise stolen is recovered, it should be photographed
Illustration 28: Burglary
 Arson – in arson cases, it is always recommended to use colored films in taking

photographs because of its importance in determining the origin of fire. Origin of fire can
be distinguished through the color of smoke and vapor: white smoke, black smoke,
reddish brown or yellow smoke, and the color of flame.
 Shoot the entire operation of the fire as it progresses
 Always use color film
 Use flood lights to produce the effect of “painting with light” or photo flash illumination
known as “bouncing flash”
 For black and white pictures of the fire and explosion scenes, use fast panchromatic film.
Illustration 29: Arson
 Homicide Cases – In homicide cases, photograph the victim from four different sides: top
view, close-up shot of the face, wounds (with and without scale) and any identifying
marks, and after removal of the body with white outline to indicate place where the victim
was lying. Summarily, the following must be done
 View of the room with ingress and egress to the room
 Evidence of struggle
 Cigarette butts, bloodstains, broken glass
 Various views of the body, including close-up shots of wounds and bruise marks
 Weapon and the place which it has been taken
1. Photographing the corpse

 Several pictures of the conditions at the time of discovery including the environment of
the corpse must be taken from various photographic directions
 General condition of the corpse, if as being deformed as a whole
 If indoors, the corpse is covered with a quilt or something, photograph in order to show
procedures of inspection
 When photographing to show the damage part, clearly
Illustration 30: Photographing the corpse
 Autopsic photography
 If the corpse is anatomized, picture must be taken of its front and rear view
in the nude
 With respect to important external and internal findings from the corpse,
photograph so as to clearly reveal the conditions in detail
Illustration 31: Autopsic Photography
H. Traffic Accident Photography – Its requires quickness. Avoid photographing unnecessary
surroundings. In taking photograph, “see through the driver’s eye”. Angles to take shots should
be taken from the four pints of the compass and twenty five feet. Close-up shots are needed.
Order of photographs must be established from the photographer’s notes.
What to photograph:
 All vehicles in their original positions

 Victims
 Debris
 License plate of vehicles
 Skid mark and tire marks, patches of oil or water
 Marks in soil of soft beam when vehicles has gone of the road
 Texture of road
 Vicinity of the accident scene
Illustration 32: Traffic Accident Photography
Chapter 8
EXPOSURES
1. Describe the various terminologies related to film exposure and apply to methods and
procedures of film exposures
2. Perform film exposure preparations
3. Identify and evaluate various factors affecting exposures of film
4. Manipulate combinations of intensity of light, lens aperture and shutter speed for proper
exposures of the film
5. Demonstrate simple exposure methods in crime scene photography
6. Perform actual crime scene photography
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Exposure – is making a photographic record by exposing sensitive material to light action,
the quantity of light allowed to act is expressed in terms of the length of time the action is allowed
to continue with effective lens aperture used.
It can also be defined as, the amount of light that you allow to reach the film by controlling
the variables of the aperture and shutter speed. Exposure is letting enough light into the camera
to expose the film.
Filters – a sheet of coloured material that is placed before the camera lens, which absorbs
certain colours and allows other to pass through.
Light meter – measure light quickly, accurately and conveniently in any photographic
situation and help to determine the appropriate aperture and shutter speed combination.
Diaphragm – the mechanical device which allows the photographer to adjust the
aperture. (The diaphragm is an integral part of the lens system). /n optics, a diaphragm is a thin
opaque structure with an opening (aperture) at its centre. The role of the diaphragm is to stop
the passage of light, except for the light passing through the aperture. Thus it is also called a stop
(an aperture stop, if it limits the brightness of light reaching the focal plane, or a field stop or flare
stop for other uses of diaphragms in lenses). The diaphragm is placed in the light path of a lens
or objective, and the size of the aperture regulates the amount of light that passes through the
lens. The centre of the diaphragm’s aperture coincides with the optical axis of the lens system.
The “F”/Stop System – is a relationship between the diameter of the lens opening or
aperture and the focal length of the lens. The “F” indicates the speed of the lens, or the amount
of light the lens through in proportion to its focal length.
The diaphragm of the camera or camera lens is graduated into measurements of the
intensity of light which it will let pass through the lens. The measurements called “f/stop” are
standardized and are usually printed or engraved on the lens barrel as follows:
1.2, 2.2, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32.
An f/stop with a larger number lets in less light than one of a smaller number. Principle:
“The smaller the number, the greater the opening; the greater the number, the smaller the
opening.”
• Shutter Speed (Exposure time) – an adjusted or controlled time set and is measured in
seconds, and once released, it will stay open indefinitely or for a little as 1/1000th of a second in
between these extremes, a various fractions of second, for example:
• 1/15th of a second
Subject Distance – the distance from the camera to the subject.
Focal Distance – distance on any object upon which the lens is focused
Focal Plane – the plane in which sharp focus lies. Focal plane for anywhere are many depending
upon the distance of the object focused upon. It is usually regarded as the surface of the film or
plate
Focal Length – distance from the optical center of the lens to its focal point. Strictly, focal length
is assumed to be the distance between the ground glass or film and the lens aperture when the
lens is focused at infinity distance.
Depth of Field – the distance from the closest clear object in a photograph to the farthest clear
object; the nearest and farthest distance apparently in sharp focus on a given object being
photographed.
Intensity of Light – the strength or quantity of light where it reaches the subject from the light
source.
Blur – is the lack of distinction in definition caused by having a multiplicity of images,
caused by movement of the camera or subject, or, in tripod work, vibration during exposure. It
is also caused sometimes by lack of critical focus.
Definition – the fidelity with which a lens forms an image of the fine detail, such a sharp,
clean cut, with definite lines and area of boundaries.
Distortion – refers to an image in which individual proportions do not correspond to the
proportions of the original. For example, straight lines reproduced as curves ones.
Over-exposure – refers to film exposure with too great light action resulting from a long
period of exposure with too large lens opening.
Under-exposure – refers to insufficient light action during exposure, too high shutter
speed, too small lens aperture or a combination of the factors.
THE CONCEPT OF EXPOSURES

We expose film to light so that image of the object or subject will be recorded in the
sensitized material through the manipulation of lens aperture and shutter speed. Exposure
determines how much light gets to the film. The amount of light allowed to get inside the camera
to reach the sensitized material (film) is controlled by the lens aperture and shutter speed. The
combination of the two is necessary to capture the proper quantity of light. Certain accessories
and specialized photography may be utilized to improve exposure to include filters and devices
such as extension tubes used for macro photography. The amount of light is allowed to reach the
sensitized material is significant in producing good quality of image of the object/subject.
When the amount of light needed to capture the image is too great, exposure time was too long
and a too large lens aperture, the resultant would be over-exposure. When it is vice-versa, if is
said to be, under-exposure.
Combining Control of Intensity of Light and Time. The aperture and shutter speed work together
to provide the film with an accurate amount of light which shutter speed and aperture the
photographer chooses depends upon:
1. The amount of available light
2. The depth of field required by the subject matter of the photograph
Film respond to light quickly or slowly, depending upon their ASA/ISO rating. A film that reacts
quickly to light will require far less light for a good exposure than will a relatively slow film.
Therefore the photographer will keep his aperture smaller and his exposure shorter. When
photographer uses film that reacts slowly (slow emulsion) to right, should keep his aperture
larger and his exposure longer. He must also know the speed of the film he is using and become
familiar with the properties of the film in relation to various light sources.
When shooting outdoors in daylight, the photographer can divide the intensity of light into five
categories:
• Bright sunlight
• Hazy sunlight
• Cloudy bright
• Cloudy dull
• Cloudy dark
A light source will have a high contrast if its rays hit the subject at approximately the same angle
or direction. A light source’s contrast is basically determined by the size and intensity of the light
source and its distance from the subject. The photographer should be able to combine intensity
of light with the lens aperture and shutter seed in order to produce fine negatives.
To sum up what was discussed above, the photographer must always bear in mind that there are
six (6) factors affecting the process of film exposure, and these are:
1. ASA/ISO/DIN/JSA Rating
2. Lighting Condition
3. Lens Opening (Aperture)
4. Shutter Speed
5. Colour of the Subject
6. Filter
NOTE:
• Incorrect exposure resulting in imperfect negatives can be corrected in the darkroom
faulty focusing cannot.
• The most important thing a photographer can do is to focus correctly on his subject by
snapping the shutter.
FILM EXPOSURE PREPARATION

The scene of the crime photographer, when responding to emergency cases must be able
to immediately classify the crime so that he can prepare the needed instruments/ material for
that particular crime, otherwise he might be bringing things immaterial to or which are not
needed in the crime scene. The usual necessary instruments/materials brought to the crime
scene are the following:
1. Camera
2. Film
3. Measuring device (tape, measure, ruler)
4. Tripod
5. Chalk/ pencil, notebook, sketching pad
6. Flash units
PROPER HANDLING OF CAMERA DURING EPOSURE
• Stand erect with apart at normal distance
• Grasp the camera firmly at the side with you right hand and place it on top of the left
palm with your right hand still holding it except for the point finger which is set ready to press
the shutter release button
• Curl your other left three fingers to make a grip of the camera while the point and thumb
fingers are free and extended (to rotate the focusing ring)
• Clip both elbow besides your body
• Check that no fingers in covering the viewfinder and the optical lens
• Focus the lens, forward the film advance lever with right thumb, hold your breath and
press the shutter release with the right point finger
SIMPLE EXPOSURE METHOD FOR THE POLICE
1. Take note of the light conditions in relation to “f” and “ss”
2. Set the aperture at f/16 (sunny). This will ensure good depth of field
3. Set the shutter at a speed closest to that of the ASA rating of the film being used
4. Aim the camera lens at the object to be photographed and locking through the viewfinder
determine its limits. Horizontal or vertical position of the camera must be carefully noted to
prevent distorted picture. Be sure the camera lens is not covered by your fingers
5. Focus the lens. Having prepared the camera for shooting, hold your breath while pressing
the release button to avoid unnecessary movement of the camera or use tripod to hold the
camera in place
6. After pressing the release button, advance the advance lever to set the next film frame in
the camera format
7. Record film frame number for every exposure, ASA rating, f/stop, ss, nature of the case,
date, time
ACTIVITY:
LABORATORY EXERCISE:
• Laboratory Exercise # 17 – Film Exposure Preparation
• Laboratory Exercise # 18 – Film Exposure
PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES:
• How to focus the lens
• Proper Handling of Camera during Exposures
• Crime Scene Photography
Chapter 9
THE DARKROOM
1. Recognizing and identifying the basic components of the darkroom
2. Value the proper utilization of darkroom equipment and apparatus
3. Describe the basic functions of darkroom equipment and apparatus
DEFINITION OF TERM
Darkroom is a photographic laboratory from which all actinic light (radiation which causes
chemical effect) may be excluded when necessary.
The term “dark room” means (literal meaning) a room which is dark and in which light-
sensitive material may be handled without fear of accidental exposures.
USES OF DARKROOM
The processing of film and the enlargement of negatives can only be done in a properly
equipped darkroom.
A darkroom is a work place, made dark to allow photographers to use light-sensitive
materials (1) to develop film and photographic paper to make photographic prints. The darkroom
does not have to be completely dark when making black and white prints because most black
and white print papers are sensitive only to blue light or to blue and green light, so, the safelights
used are red or amber-coloured lights. It enables the photographer to work with the safelights
on so he/she can see what he/she doing without exposing the paper. A low-intensity orange or
yellow light can also be used.
Another use of darkroom is (2) for loading film in the camera and unloading film from the
camera, development spools, or film holders. Whenever a darkroom is not available to the
photographer, a changing bag, which is a small bag with sleeved arm holes designed to be
completely light-proof can be used.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF A DARKROOM

1. The room – size of the darkroom is dependent on the size of the police department. In
bigger police department, it must have:
• 1 small room for film developing
• 1 room for enlarging printing
• 1 room for finishing processes
2. Work areas – bench-top height; bench width; underneath should be drawers or
combinations of both; bench-tops should be chemically inert, watertight, resistant to abrasions.
3. Storage – wall shelves or overhead cupboards above the benches provide convenient
storage space.
4. Plumbing – an adequate and reliable supply of reasonably pure, clean water should be
provided. Processing sinks should preferably be of stainless steel.
5. Electrical outlet and lighting – all electrical circuits should be designed for 30 ampere
loads. The lighting should be separate from the equipment circuit in order to prevent safety lights
and room lights from being extinguished when equipment overloads interrupt the supply.
6. Ventilation – by using exhaust fans. Clean fresh air should be pumped into the darkroom.
BASIC DARK ROOM EQUIPMENT
• Flash accessory – used to augment lighting condition to subjects being photographed
• Safe lights – safelights are enclosed light sources equipped with a filter. The function of
the safelight is to transmit a maximum amount of light which is of a colour that will not damage
sensitized materials.
• Trays – used for washing negatives, photographs, container for chemical solutions during
printing.
• Tanks (film developing tanks) used to hold developing reels together with the exposed
film during developing process
• Mechanical washer – to wash prints in a continuous and changing water bath
• Timers – used to set time during film development process and negative printing
• Print dryers – used to dry processed photographs
• Enlargers – equipment used to permeate image in the negative to the photographic
papers. It can print negative from 35mm size up to 6x7 size; equipment with an electronic timer
and scaled easel.
• Tripod – used to hold the camera firmly to avoid camera shake during operation especially
when using shutter speed lower than 1/60th sec.
• Clothesline clips – used to clip photographs to dry
• Tongs – used to pick and hold materials/things soaked in chemicals
• Easel board – used to guide the photographer with regards to position and size of image
being printed. It further supports the enlarging paper which keeps the paper surface flat and at
the same time marks a border around the paper.
ACTIVITIES
LARORATORY EXERCISE:
Laboratory Exercise # 19 – Basic Darkroom Equipment (Except enlarger)
PRACTICAL TEST
• Identifying and recognizing darkroom equipment and apparatus
• Identifying basic components of a darkroom
Chapter 10
FILM DEVELOPMENT
1. Identify and describe functions of the basic equipment/tools and appraise its relevance
to film development process
2. Enhance critical thinking and practical skills in the preparation of chemicals and materials
needed in film development
3. Enhance practical ability in extracting film from the film spool and transfer the same to
the film development reel
4. Perform the film development process
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Film development – A process whereby photographic film is treated after photographic
exposure to produce the desired negative or positive image. The process transforms the latent
image into a visible image and make it permanent or fixed.
Film developer – It is a chemical agent or solution (in Kodak developer, D-76 is used)
which causes development to take place.
Stop bath – An acid bath which instantly checks the process of development.
Fixer – A solution used for removing the residual sensitive silver from a developed film,
thereby rendering the image permanently.
Over-development – refers to development at too long a time at too high temperature,
resulting in excessive contrast and density.
Under-development – means insufficient development due to either solution is too weak
or overworked; too low temperature, insufficient agitation, thus resulting in a thin negative
lacking contrast
THE CONCEPT OF FILM DEVELOPMENT

After the camera work is done, getting to the final picture is generally a two-step process:
1. Production of the negative from the exposed film
2. Production of the positive, or print, from the negative
Both operations require a darkroom. Its equipment need not be elaborate, but the room must
be truly dark for handling today’s film, which are often sensitive to light and are usually
panchromatic, which means they are sensitive to all colours of light.
The development, stop, fixing, and clearing must be done under darkroom conditions or in light-
tight developing tanks, and film must be handled in complete darkness. The rigors of
temperature, duration, and agitation are usually dependent upon the film being used.
BASIC EQUIPMENT/TOOLS IN FILM DEVELOPMENT

• Developing tank
• Trays for washing negatives
• Graduated cylinder for measuring liquids
• Bottles for storing solutions
• Safelight
• A times
• A thermometer
WHAT ARE NEEDED TO DEVELOP A FILM?

1. Film developer (combination of Metol and hydroquinone, alkali such as borax, sodium
carbonate or sodium metaborate).
2. Stop bath (weak acid solution, acetic acid or a solution commonly known as vinegar).
3. Fixing agent (or neutralizer). Sodium or thiosulphate (hypo) is the main ingredient,
dissolving the unexposed silver halides.
CHEMICAL PREPARATION
1. Dilute 150 ml. D-76 developer (stock solution) using 1:1 ratio of proportion (Working
solution: 200 ml. solution + 200 ml. water)
2. Prepare 300 ml. Acetic Acid (glacial acid 39% acid content) Stop bath, dilution ratio. Dilute
100 ml. (Working solution: 28% stock solution + 1,000 ml. water)
3. Prepare 300 ml. Acid Fixing Solution: (Stock solution: 100/300), (Working solution: 1:3 =
1 ml. fixer, 3 ml. water)
FILM DEVELOPMENT PREPARATION
1. Prepare your working place. Have tank and solutions properly placed for immediate
action. (Developer, Stop bath, Fixer and Hypo)
2. In complete darkness, pry off the flat end of the 35mm cassette with a bottle opener. The
end of the film is connected to the spindle with masking tape and must be cut.
3. Push the spindle on which the film is wound out of the cassette. Discard the cassette.
With a scissor, cut off the leader so that the film is squared. Pull the film off the spindle so that it
rolls up in your hand. Discard the spindle.
4. Load the film onto the reel. When completed, place it inside the developing tank.
PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM DEVELOPING PROCESS:
TANK DEVELOPING (Kodak D-76 Developer)
1. Once the film is in the tank, pour the developer into the tank and develop for about 7-8
minutes at 75 degrees Fahrenheit temperature with agitation at 1 minute interval until the
remainder of the development time. You can turn the white light and the rest of the work can be
done with the lights on. After completing the prescribed time in the developer, empty the
developer back into the bottle.
2. Pour in the stop bath. Bath the film for 1 minute with agitation at 20 seconds interval.
Discard the stop bath after 1 minute and then pour in the fixing solution.
3. Fix the film inside the developing tank for about 3-4 minutes with interval of agitation
every 30 seconds. After the fixing time, discard the fixer into the storage bottle.
4. Pour water into the tank and agitate every 30 seconds for about 2 minutes. Pour out
water.
5. Take the lid off the tank. Take out the negative from the developing tank and transfer it
into a tray and wash the film under running water for 30 minutes
6. After 30 minutes, rinse, hang it, and
7. Let it dry
In order to remember the operational sequence in film development, the following “ING”
CARDINALS IN FILM DEVELOPMENT must be followed:
1. Developing
2. Washing/Rinsing
3. Stop bathing
4. Fixing
5. Washing/Rinsing
6. Drying
3 FACTORS WHICH AFFECT FILM DEVELOPMENT:
1. Temperature
2. Time
3. Agitation
Control of these 3 factors guarantee a predicted result by developing film for a known time at a
fixed temperature with controlled agitation, otherwise, the result of the negative may either be
under-developed or over-developed.
Temperature. The ideal temperature for most standard developers is 68 degree
Fahrenheit or 20 degree centigrade. It is best to develop at the recommended temperature,
however, if the time factor is altered in an inverse relationship, that is, “the lower the
temperature, the longer the development time” can still be possible. Ideally, all solutions in black-
and-white processing, including the final rinse wash water, should be kept near the same
temperature as the developer.
Time. The time factor is variable depending primarily upon the particular film-developer
combination involved. There is no such thing as a correct developing time for all workers under
all circumstances.
If negatives consistently emerge with too much contrast, cut the development time about 25%;
if they are consistently too soft, boost the development time about 25%. The longer the
development time, the more silver is formed and the blacker the image. Contrast, or the
difference between highlights and shadows, also increases with time, but only up to that point
where chemical fog level begins to overtake the increase in the highlight density; then flatness
or low contrast results.
Agitation. Careful and consistent agitation is as important as time and temperature. Fresh
development must be worked into the emulsion layer while the exhausted develop and by-
products of the development reaction are washed out and away from the surface of the film.
Agitation also keeps the solutions uniform so that steaks on the negative caused by exhausted
solution flowing across the solution do not occur.
ACTIVITIES:
LABORATORY EXERCISE
• Laboratory Exercise # 20 – Basic Equipment/tools in Film Development
• Laboratory Exercise # 21 – Chemical Preparation
• Laboratory Exercise # 22 – Film Development Process
PRACTICAL EXERCISE
• How to Extract film from the film spool
• Loading the film reel with a film
• Film developing
Chapter 11
NEGATIVES
OBJECTIVE: At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:
1. Value and recognize the nature and sensitiveness of negatives to abrasion, or corrosion,
and
2. Understand its relevance to film enlargement/printing.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Negative – refers to a strip of celluloid material which is the by-product of a chemically
processed film in which tonal value of colour are inversed.
Negative image – conversion of latent image recorded in a film when chemically treated
during film development.
NATURE OF NEGARIVES
After the film was chemically treated through film development, the latent image that
was formed during exposures of the film now becomes a negative image. It means further that
when the film was developed, it is a long strip of small negative images. These negative images
are the master images from which all other copies will be made, and they are treated with care
and handled with extreme caution not to scratch will fingernails, pointed or abrasive objects that
can destroy the image. It must be touched and handed only at its edges
A negative images is a tonal inversion of a positive image, which light areas appear dark
and vice versa. A negative colour image is additionally colour reversed, with red areas appearing
cyan, greens appearing magenta and blue appearing yellow. The chemicals involved react when
exposed to light, and during developing these exposed chemicals are retained and become
opaque while the unexposed chemicals are wasted away.
The difference in the densities of various areas in the negative is known as contrast. The
dense portion of the negative is referred to as a highlight. The photograph obtained a contrast in
colour when the subject has the lightest and darkest areas.
A negative is the opposite of positive or normal. In a photographic negative, black and
whites are reversed.
Chapter 12
ENLARGEMENT/PRINTING
OBJECTIVE: At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:
1. Identify and describe the basic parts of the enlarger and understand the basic functions
of each parts
2. Gain experience in the manipulation and operation of the photographic enlarger
3. Apply practical skills in the methods are techniques of photographic enlargement/printing
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Enlarger is a projector for making enlargement positives by means of projection printing
also, sometimes called as projection printer or enlarging camera.
Printing – an enlargement made by projecting a negative image upon a sensitive paper.
It further means, the making of positives from negatives by exposing paper or other sensitive
material to light which is masked by a negative, (NYI, 1981).
Enlarging means the process of making enlarged positive from small negatives, usually
done by direct projection.
THE CONCEPT OF ENLARGING/PRINTING

The final process in making a photograph is called printing or, more often enlarging. When
the photographer makes a print, he is making a negative of a negative, through creating a
positive. There are 2 methods for making a positive image:
1. Contact printing – the process of exposing the photographic paper in contact with the
negative
2. Enlarging – the process of exposing the photographic paper by light projection
In both methods, light passes through the negative and exposes a sheet of photographic paper.
The dense, dark areas in the negative allow little light to pass through; less dense areas permit
more light to reach the paper.
An enlargement is the result of projecting a negative image through a lens onto the photographic
paper through the use of an enlarger.
The basic principle that should be observed in using the enlarger when printing is: The greater
the distance between the planes, the larger the image; the shorter the distance, the smaller the
image. Changes in negative to lens distance are smaller but proportionate to changes in lens-to
easel distance.
THE ENLARGER
The enlarger is essentially a camera in reverse; it projects rather than receives an image. Every
enlarger has a:
1. Lamp house with a light source
2. Reflector
3. Piece of diffusing glass or set of lenses for obtaining even illumination over the negative
4. Negative carrier or holder
5. A lens with diaphragm – produces an opening of circular shape and constantly increasing
or diminishing size. Used to control the amount of light passing through the lens
6. Focusing lens – a device for focusing the lens
7. Bellows – the folding body extension of a camera or enlarger, usually made of cloth or
leather over a stiffening frame. It is so called as bellows because in contrast in folds.
All these components are suspended above a printing easel in such a way that the planes of the
negative, the lens, and the easel are parallel and the distances between these planes maybe
changed.
The light source for an enlarger is usually an opal incandescent lamp which is located with a lamp
house and is constructed with a reflector that directs light down towards the negative carrier.
These are 2 types of enlargers:
1. The condenser type enlarger which is an enlarger having a condensing lens system and
giving more detail and contrast in the image.
2. The diffusion type enlarger, which is an enlarger having a diffusing lens system, giving less
detail in the image and having a softening effect, or reduced contrast.
ILLUSTRATION OF ENLARGER AND ITS BASIC PARTS:
PAPER DEVELOPING
(TRAY DEVELOPING)
Kodak Dektol Developer
Chemical preparation
1. Dilute 200 ml. Dektol developer at 1:2 ratio of proportion and pour into developing tray;
2. Dilute 10 ml. Acetic Acid with 400 ml. water, then pour into developing tray;
3. Prepare Acid fixer using stock solution as working solution. 400 ml. is enough
Procedure
1. Develop exposed photo-paper for not more than 2 minutes
2. Place developed paper in stop bath for 10 seconds;
3. Transfer photo-paper into fixing bath and fix for 3-5 minutes
4. After fixing, wash photographs in running water for 20-30 minutes,
5. Then hang and let it dry
The “ING” Cardinal is Photographic Paper Developing:
1. Developing
2. Stop bathing
3. Fixing
4. Washing/Rinsing
5. Drying
HOW TO USE THE ENLARGER WHEN MAKING AN ENLARGEMENT
1. Check that the darkroom is fully prepared. Solutions should be on their trays and the
desired photographic paper is placed beside the easel, safely covered, safelight should be turned
on. Turn off the general illumination.
2. Select a negative.
3. Insert the negative in the negative carrier with the emulsion side, down.
4. Turn on the enlarger lamp so that the image will appear on the enlarging easel. Open lens
aperture to its maximum aperture by turning aperture ring for easy focusing. Move the easel
around until the desired portion of the image is on the mash opening.
5. Set the paper corner guide on the easel to form the border width and length for the print
size needed.
6. Loosen clamping knob and move enlarger head to decide picture size on easel then
tighten the knob.
7. Raise or lower the enlarging lens by pushing 2 buttons for rough focusing then turn
focusing ring for the sharpest image.
8. Adjust lens opening properly. Close the aperture of the lens to f8 for a dense negative or
f11 for a thin negative and be sure that the lens is clean.
9. Switch off the enlarger lamp, then place the enlarging paper on easel, now ready to print.
10. Turn on the enlarger’s light and expose the negative to light for 12-15 seconds (time
exposure is not constant).
11. Develop, stop bath, and fix.
12. After all the printing data has been obtained, make all prints be washed with running
water for about 30-45 minutes.
13. Hang and let it dry.
ACTIVITIES:
LABORATORY EXERCISE:
• Laboratory Exercise # 23 – The Enlarger
• Laboratory Exercise # 24 – Chemical Preparation
• Laboratory Exercise # 25 – Procedures for Photographic Paper Developing
PRACTICAL EXERCISE:
• How to use the darkroom when printing
• Identifying Basic Parts of the Enlarger
• How to Use the Enlarger
• Enlargement/Printing
Chapter 13
PREPARATION OF PHOTOGRAPHS FOR COURT EXHIBIT
OBJECTIVE: At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:

1. Describe and actualize the methods in the preparation of photographic evidence and
recognize its importance to legal, and
2. Recognize its importance to legal and ethical issues involved.
Preparation of photographs for court exhibit is the next step to be done after enlargement. It
includes entries of data as notations in the photograph such as the time the photograph was
taken, the initial of the photographer, the photographic equipment used, the lens aperture and
speed, film used, the case number, etc. the preparation of photographs provide litigators with a
variety of demonstrative evidence with an option that allow them to understand in simple detail
a document or event that is vital to the judge and court’s understanding of the facts in a case.
Photographs for court exhibits vary depending on what case is being heard. That exhibit may be
photographs of questioned documents, radiological enlargements, pathological slides, human
anatomy, comparison of bullets, fingerprint, foot prints or tire prints, etc. in trial preparation and
case review, review of cases through scene and autopsy photographs and reports, are necessary
for conviction and post conviction appeals.
ENLARGEMENT
Existing documents must be photographed and enlarged before use as exhibit in court. It should
bear proper notations and arrows to illustrate what is being presented for the clear
understanding of those who have interest in the case. The enlarged photograph paves way for
interaction between witness or attorney which allow more effective connection with the court
in presenting strategy in the case.
EXPERT’S TESTIMONY
The presentation of photographic evidence in court requires the expert testimony of a qualified
expert for depositions and court testimony. He testifies on facts and renders an opinion only
insofar as scientific theory is concern. This is what every forensic scientist should be. He is
committed to the facts and scientific opinion and not to jeopardize the other party by creating
controversy coming from his opinion.

Notes in Photography

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BRIEF HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY

BRIEF HISTORY OF POLICE

In 1879 photographs of an injured person in an auto accident was admissible in evidence.

BRIEF BACKGROUND OF FORENSIC

Bertillion, influence by Darwinian Theory assumed that criminals physically are

A. Forensic Photography Applied to Suspects and Criminals

B. Forensic Crime Scene Photography. The other side of forensic

Laboratory Exercise#1- Light Projection

GENERAL CONCEPTS AND THEORIES OF POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY

Photography- means “a science or art of obtaining images on a sensitized material by the

Photograph- is a reproduction of some scene, object or persons through the means of

THEORIES AND CONCEPTS

- Injuries from an attack/assault

BASIC IMPORTANCE OF CRIME PHOTOGRAPHY

1. To produce a pictorial record of the crime scene.

IMPORTANCE OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

A photograph is a mechanical result of photography. To produce a photograph, light

The five elements considered in photography therefore, are:

1. Light or electromagnetic radiation, the source of it may either be natural or artificial

Objectively, photography is a combination of the ff tools:

OTHER PHOTOGRAPHY RELATED TO POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY

Photomacrography- is the art or process of photographing objects directly enlarged on

Infrared photography- is the art or process or photographing or recording unseen objects

Ultra-violet ray photography- is the art or process of photographing unseen objects by

THE FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHER

Forensic photographers take photographs using their knowledge of specific forensic

QUALIFICATION AND TECHNICAL SKILLS

1. Light and lenses

LIGHT AND LENSES

Light, or visible light, is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength that is visible to the

Three primary properties of light are:

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum of all electromagnetic waves arranged

Electromagnetic radiation, in terms of classical theory, flow of energy at the universal

Measurement of Light (expressed in nanometer ‘nm’)

Laboratory exercise # 4 – The electromagnetic spectrum

OBJECTS/MEDIUMS WHICH AFFECT

Examples: plastic materials, transparent clothes

Examples: metal, stone, wood

Example: glass, ground glass, oiled paper, water.

HOW THE LIGHT CHANGES DIRECTION

1. REFLECTION – is a change in the direction of light wave which occurs whenever

THERE ARE TWO WAYS OF HOW LIGHT RAYS ARE REFLECTED:

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT RAYS

TYPES OF CAMERA LENSES

- Wide-angle lens – used when photographing narrow and crowded spaces

SIGNIFICANCE OF LENSES AND LIGHT RAYS TO PHOTOGRAPH

The Focal Length of the lens is one foot

HOW LENSES AFFECT PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGES?

In Photography, the result of images is affected sometimes by the defect in lens

Some of the lens aberrations are as follows:

Parallax – is an apparent displacement of an object when viewed at two different angles

Astigmatism – a fault of a lens, caused by slight non-uniformity of refraction which

Laboratory Exercise # 10 – Focal length of a lens

1. Appraise the developmental evolution of cameras

1. 110 and ultra miniature cameras(spy cameras)

Illustration 16: instamatic camera

Illustration 17: Spy camera

Illustration 18: rangefinder camera

Illustration 19: 35mmm SLR Camera

A) The main lens

Illustration 20: the twin-lens reflex camera

b. illustration 22: basic parts of a 35mm Camera (inside back)