Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 3631e3642

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

A comprehensive method to assess the feasibility of renewable energy

on Algerian dairy farms
T. Nacer a, *, A. Hamidat b, O. Nadjemi a
a
Electronics Department, Technology Faculty, LabSET, University Saad Dahlab Blida1, Route de Soumaa, 09000 Blida, Algeria
b
Centre de Developpement des Energies Renouvelables, CDER, Route de l'Observatoire Bouzareah, 16340 Algiers, Algeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In order to achieve self-sufficiency, increasing national milk production is a priority of the Algerian
Received 24 November 2014 government. This will increase on-farm demand for electricity supplied primarily from fossil fuels, which
Received in revised form contribute to the emissions of greenhouse gases and accelerate climate change. Hence, there is a need for
22 June 2015
promoting the use of renewable energy and low carbon technologies for the sustainable development of
Accepted 23 June 2015
Available online 2 July 2015
agriculture and to reduce environmental load. In this light, this study proposes a simple and compre-
hensive method to assess the feasibility and the impact of replacing the existing conventional systems
with renewable energy. First, we estimate the electricity consumption of modern farms in major dairy
Keywords:
Renewable energy
regions. Then, we identify the optimal system for satisfying farm-related electrical energy needs. The
Feasibility study proposed method called for generalizing a successful experience conducted in a typical farm with the
Algerian cattle farm same characteristics and meteorological conditions to demonstrate the benefits of renewable energy
HOMER utilization. The hybrid optimization model for electric renewable (HOMER) software, developed by the
Techno-economic assessment U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, was used to determine the optimal system configuration in
terms of net present cost, carbon mitigation, and renewable fraction. Renewable system components
characteristics, prices, and electricity tariffs are modeled according to the Algerian market. Detailed
sensitivity analyses of solar and wind resources, economic parameters as well as farm load variation on
the optimal renewable energy system configuration are performed. In addition to the feasibility study
focusing on the production of on-site clean energy to satisfy the load demand, this study investigates the
impact of the introduction of grid-connected green energy on the energy balance of agricultural farms
and the national power grid. We found that on-farm electricity consumption varies from 330 to
566 kWh/cow/year. The simulation results helped to determine the technical feasibility and economic
viability of the proposed systems. We conclude that the proposed systems could improve the reliability
of the utility grid during peak load periods by generating 136 GWh/year while decreasing greenhouse gas
emissions by 80 million tons. This is one of the first studies that provides a clear approach for estimating
electricity demand and determining the optimal renewable energy system for Algerian dairy farms. This
approach is expected to contribute to the promotion of green technologies and sustainable development
of the agriculture sector.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Agriculture constitutes an important sector of the Algerian
economy. On average, it represents 10% of Algeria's GDP. Approxi-
mately 21% of the Algerian population is engaged in the agriculture
sector. National agricultural production accounts for 70% of avail-
able food. Despite this, a large shortage of milk and dairy products
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ213 7 927 077 14.
E-mail address: nasser_tar@yahoo.fr (T. Nacer).
was recorded in recent years (Benaïssa, 2012). Algeria is the largest
dairy consumer in the Maghreb region, with a production of more
than 5 billion liters/year. Currently, domestic production accounts
for less than 60% of nationwide demand, with the balance being
imported. Annual imports of milk and dairy products totalled $1.26
billion in 2013 (Algerian Foreign Trade Statistics, 2013). Enforce-
ment of food safety and the reduction of imports are two of the
main priorities of the national economic and social development
program. Algeria plans to rebuild the dairy sector to limit the effects
of fluctuating milk prices on the worldwide market. The proposed
plan comprises importing heifers and modernizing Algerian farms

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.06.101
0959-6526/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
3632 T. Nacer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 3631e3642
to increase local milk production (Agriculture Department, 2012).
However, the plan will have consequences for national energy
consumption, making farming more energy intensive.
Algeria's electricity demand is growing rapidly at an average
annual rate of 9.5% in the last five years. To keep pace with pro-
jected economic growth and demographic development, electricity
production must almost double in the next decade (Be laïda and
Abderrahmani, 2013). In 2013, almost 60 TWh was generated.
Over 99% of that production was based on natural gas, with the
balance originating from diesel plants and renewable energy. The
share of renewable energy in the national energy mix is less than
0.6%. The amounts and share of electricity generation in 2013 from
different sources (Energy, 2014) is summarized in Table 1. With the
growth in electric demand and the rapid depletion of fossil fuels,
the Algerian government has realized the importance of renewable
energy to extend fossil fuels reserves and promote sustainable so-
lutions for combating global climate change, especially greenhouse
gas emissions (Himri et al., 2009). Currently, Algeria anticipates the
substitution of fossil energies with other sources. National energy
and environmental policies reflect the objectives of energy effi-
ciency and renewable energy production. Abundant solar energy
potential and the steady development of renewable energy tech-
nologies, together with decreasing costs, tend to favor the
continued growth of photovoltaic use. The goals of the Algerian
policies are to achieve 37% of total energy use for solar energy and
3% for wind energy use by 2030 (Boudghene Stambouli et al., 2012).
Nerini et al. (2014) proposed techno-economic, environmental,
social, and institutional criteria to assess and identify the best so-
lutions for electrification of the Brazilian Amazon regions. Ac-
cording to the multi criteria analysis index, biomass and PV systems
were the most suitable for application in isolated regions. Although
diesel generator systems registered the lowest scores, these sys-
tems are the most convenient short-term solutions to meet the
governmental program goals. Adaramola et al. (2014) investigated
the possibility of using hybrid energy systems for residential ap-
plications in rural and semi-urban areas of northern Nigeria. A PV/
diesel/battery system was found to be the most sustainable and
cost effective system for improving the living standard of rural
inhabitants in that region. The financial viability of renewable en-
ergy in rural India was studied by Kobayakawa and Kandpal Tara
(2014). Their study identified economically viable systems that
balanced financial viability and affordability. Fabrizio (2011)
investigated the feasibility of a multi-energy system in a hospital
facility under Italian climate. The study found that the solar PV was
more economically convenient than a solar collector plant needing
a back-up gas boiler and hot water storage. Cucchiella et al. (2013)
analyzed the economic and environmental performance of building
integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) systems in Italy. The study identified
Table 1
2013 electricity generation in Algeria by energy source (in bold) and respective
technologies (Energy, 2014).
Type of equipment Production (GWh)
Gas plants 59,333
Of which
Steam turbine 9582
Combined cycle 30,255
Gas turbine 14,829
Hybrid site 924
Auto-production 3742
Diesel 227
Renewables 330
Hydraulic 99
Solar 231
Total 59,890
the actions necessary at the national scale for the installation of PV
systems appropriate to meet the needs of users and also comply
with the limits imposed on CO2 emissions under the Kyoto Protocol.
It identified three scenarios to optimize system production capac-
ity, return on investment, and the static consumption self-
sufficiency. The study determined that the optimal BIPV system
had the potential to mitigate 8.5 tCO2 per installed kWp and
generate a net cash flow of V2.000 per installed kWp. Glassbrook
et al. (2014) assessed the economic feasibility of small wind tur-
bines in Thailand. The study concluded that wind turbine installa-
tion in rural communities had the potential to significantly
decrease Thailand's greenhouse gas emissions and help reduce the
effects of global warming. However, these systems could not be
used as the primary source of electricity production without gov-
ernment incentives.
Many researchers have investigated the use of renewable en-
ergy in agriculture. Bayrakcı and Koçar (2012) investigated the
potential of Turkey's agriculture industry to use different forms of
renewable energy. A similar study was performed by Chel and
Kaushik (2011) to promote the use of renewable energy in India
for sustainable agriculture development. Bardi et al. (2013) exam-
ined the possibility of a transition under which farms switch their
energy use from fossil fuels to renewable electricity in a paradigm
called “turning electricity into food.” The study showed that putting
electricity to work at producing food was possible in several sectors
of the agricultural industry, such as powering agricultural ma-
chinery, producing nitrogen-based fertilizers, and irrigation of
crops. Santafe  et al. (2014) developed an innovative photovoltaic
floating cover for irrigation reservoirs to reduce evaporation of
water and generate renewable electricity. Beckman and Xiarchos
(2013) identified the technical and economic factors influencing
the adoption of renewable energy on farms in California. The
feasibility of using photovoltaic energy in Tennessee's poultry in-
dustry was studied by Bazen and Brown (2009). Recent studies
examined the feasibility of anaerobic digesters in the cattle in-
dustry to produce on-farm electricity and reduce greenhouse gas
emissions from livestock operations. One study concluded that 500
cows were considered to be the minimal herd size to support a
profitable digester (Binkley et al., 2013). In the Algerian context, few
studies have examined on-farm renewable energy use. Hamidat
et al. (2003) analyzed the feasibility of a photovoltaic water
pumping system for crop irrigation in the Algerian Sahara regions.
This work showed the potential of photovoltaic pumping to cover
water needs and its contribution to sustainable development of the
local farming. Nacer et al. (2014) demonstrated the feasibility of a
grid-connected photovoltaic system at Mitidja's farms. However, to
date, no detailed study has been undertaken to evaluate the
optimal renewable energy configuration for sustainable farming in
Algeria.
Farmers play a very particular role in the development of
renewable energy in Algeria. Usually located close to major resi-
dential areas, agriculture, specifically dairy farms, could sustainably
produce their own energy and potentially export green electricity
Share % to the power grid during periods of peak demand and play a sig-
nificant role in reducing environmental pollutants as well as
99.06
lowering farm production costs.
15.99 This study proposed a method to assess the feasibility of
50.52 renewable energy use in the Algerian dairy farming industry. First,
24.76 we estimated the electric power consumption of a typical dairy
1.54
farm. That consumption was considered to be a model of energy use
6.25
0.38 efficiency. The next step was a technical and economic feasibility
0.55 study using specialized software to identify the optimal system
0.16 configuration according to specifications of location. An impact
0.39 analysis was then conducted to evaluate the benefits of introducing
100.00
the optimal system into the dairy farming process with a sensitivity
 T. Nacer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 3631e3642
analysis conducted to analyze the effect of technical and financial
parameters on the optimal system. This will provide an estimate of
dairy farm energy consumption and a forecast of the potential for
renewable energy production. The results will also be of interest to
farmers, investors in the electric energy sector, electricity com-
panies, and governmental institutions.
2. Material and methods
The proposed method provided simple steps to perform on-
farm renewable energy utilization feasibility. The technical and
economic analysis was conducted using the hybrid optimization
model for electric renewable (HOMER) software, developed by the
U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). This software
focuses on energy balance calculation and is a powerful tool for
designing and analyzing both standalone and grid-connected
hybrid power systems. It can analyze a large number of energy
production and storage systems (PV systems, wind turbines, hy-
droelectric, fuel cells, etc.). Based on input parameters (load profile,
resources potential, and technical and economic characteristics of
the system components) the software simulates all possible con-
figurations and displays the results as a list of the feasible systems
ranked in ascending order according to their net present cost (NPC),
or the total cost of installing and operating the system over its life
Fig. 1. Overview of the proposed method for renewable energy feasibility assessment in Algerian dairy farms.
3633
span (Farret and Simoees, 2006). As illustrated in Fig. 1, pre- and
post-HOMER analyses were conducted to provide required input
data to the technical and economic assessment, and identify the
impacts of the optimal renewable energy system. In the pre-
HOMER phase, Algerian farm energy consumption was investi-
gated. In contrast to previous studies of breeding energy con-
sumption (Kythreotou et al., 2012) and internet surveys (Bochu
et al., 2010), the proposed method considers a typical experi-
mental farm on the basis of national livestock statistics and studies
(Section 3). Farming information (such as milking frequency and
grazing periods) were collected by interviewing the personnel
directly involved in farming operations, while data on electricity
consumption and load profiles were obtained from equipment
monitoring. The relationship between herd size and energy de-
mand was found to be different for each region. This was primarily
due to varying climatic conditions; however, it was also related to
breeding practices in each region. Therefore, a typical farm was
reconstituted using the average herd size and characteristics for
each dairy region. The other input data are collected as described in
the case study section (Section 6). The hybrid renewable energy
system was designed using the HOMER analysis, which was fol-
lowed by a simulation-based optimization analysis. It compared a
variety of configurations with different constraints and sensitivities
to create an optimal system design. The decision criteria used for
3634 T. Nacer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 3631e3642

these assessments included equipment setup, energy production,

financial viability, and CO2 emissions. In the post-HOMER phase,
the impacts of the system design on the farm's energy balance were
evaluated. The proposed renewable energy systems will be
installed in each typical farm. Then, the experience will be gener-
alized on surrounding farms through farmers training, renewable
energy assistance by state farming institution and the sensitization
of fossil fuel energy effects on climate change and global warming
which will affect agricultural goods in the first place.

3. Dairy farm typology

The Algerian cattle herd consists of 915,000 dairy cows.

Approximately 80% of the herd is located in the north. Of these, 53%
is in the east, 24% is in the west, and 23% is located in the center of
the country (Nedjraoui, 2006). This distribution reflects climatic
conditions, availability of grazing land, and the traditions of peas-
ants in the population. Based on herd size, livestock building, fod-
dering systems, and milk production, the typical Algerian dairy
farm can be classified into three breeding systems.
Extensive farms: These include local breeds such as Atlas Brown,
Guelmoise, Cheurfa, Se tifienne, and crossbreeds (crossing of local
and imported breeds). They represent more than 80 percent of the
Algerian farms. Herd size is less than eight dairy cows per farm and
Fig. 2. ITELV farms distribution in northern Algeria.
milk production is very low. Generally, extensive farms do not have
milking machines and cows are housed in traditional corrals.
required electric equipment for the farm and to calculate an electric
Modern farms: These are based in the coastal and plains regions
load profile, the most important parameter for on-farm energy
and are strongly oriented to dairying. Cattle include crossbreeds
management. Based on the load profile, an energy use index (EUI)
and imported breeds (Holstein, Friesian) and herd size varies from
was calculated, which allowed farmers to compare their annual
10 to 50 cows with relatively high milk production of more than
electricity consumption (kWh/cow/y) with the typical model farm
3500 l/cow/year. The farm is less than 5 ha in size, including
and determine the energy efficiency of their dairy operations. The
modern livestock buildings that meet breeding standards.
typical model farm was selected according to the following criteria:
Industrial farms: These include more than 50 dairy cows con-
sisting exclusively of imported breeds with large milk yields.
- The farm must have equipment similar to that of surrounding
However, they represent only 0.2% of Algerian dairy farms.
farms.
Average herd size, meteorological conditions, and grazing pe-
- The extent of access to farm energy data and the availability of
riods vary depending on geographic location. These parameters
energy meters.
affect the on-farm electricity consumption and were analyzed in
- The experimental farm must have a strong influence on sur-
detail. Fortunately, some farm typology studies have been con-
rounding farms in order to spread the achieved results.
ducted by Algerian researchers (Mouhous et al., 2012; Bendiab and
Dekhili, 2011; Bouabdellah et al., 2011; Senoussi et al., 2010;
The experimental farms chosen for the case study were those
Bekhouche et al., 2008; Belhadia et al., 2009) and are summa-
selected by the Technical Institute of Breeding Farms (Institut
rized in Table 2. These studies investigated regional farm size,
Technique des Elvages; ITELV). ITELV is a state institution with a
breeds, and pasture resources. However, there is no research that
significant influence on farmers and decision makers. It has 12
examines the energy aspect of dairy farming. This study investi-
affiliated farms distributed throughout Algeria, as shown in Fig. 2.
gated on-farm electricity consumption and identified optimal
Typical dairy farms were considered for the regions that produce
renewable energy systems for each region that could encourage
most of the milk. Electricity consumption was estimated primarily
more sustainable operation of Algerian dairy farms.
on milking and milk cooling systems, livestock feeding, and lighting
In each region, one farm was selected that represented the
and maintenance of the stables. Data on electricity consumption
conditions, including herd size, of surrounding farms in the region.
was obtained by monitoring electrical equipment using dedicated
The selected farm, referred to here as the “experimental” farm,
instruments, electricity power meters, and energy quality
served as the typical model farm and the baseline against which the
analyzers.
analyses would be conducted. This step allowed us to identify

Table 2
Characteristics of dairy farms in the studied regions.

Region Lat Long Modern dairy cow (head) Average herd size (head)

Mitidja 36.40 2.80 13,481 26

Annaba 36.83 7.80 1180 12
Setif 36.18 5.25 11,376 10
Chlef 36.20 1.33 4564 14
Tiaret 35.35 1.47 2027 17
Tizi ouzou 36.71 4.05 5997 15
Ghardaia 32.60 3.70 1267 13
 T. Nacer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 3631e3642
Fig. 3. Global horizontal solar insolation in Algeria.
4. Renewable energy potential
Renewable energy potential in Algeria is predominantly in solar
resources. Algeria is situated in a sunbelt that receives an average of
3000 h of solar insolation per year and up to 3900 h in the high
plains and the Sahara. In most of the territory shown in Fig. 3, the
daily solar insolation on a horizontal surface is approximately
5 kWh/m2 (Boudghene Stambouli et al., 2012). The highest solar
energy potential was observed in the Tamanrasset region of the
southern Sahara, where the total horizontal insolation may reach
7.2 kWh/m2/day.
Like solar energy, wind energy depends on geographic location.
In the north, wind energy potential is characterized by moderate
winds (2e4 m/s) with microclimates around Oran, Annaba, and in
the highlands. In the south, wind speeds average 4 m/s, with ve-
locities exceeding 6 m/s in the Adrar region, as illustrated in Fig. 4
(Chellali et al., 2011).
Fig. 4. Wind resources (m/s) in Algeria at 10 m high.
3635
In addition to potential natural resource availability, the evalu-
ation of renewable energy potential considered the technical and
economic constraints of on-farm renewable energy installation as
well as the legal framework of Algerian laws and regulations. The
government's energy policy and incentives are considered as the
cornerstone of renewable energy promotion. Algeria early realized
the importance of renewable energy and enacted laws and decrees
to develop and regulate a clean electricity market (Algerian Official
gazette). Green electricity incentives were announced in Executive
Decree n 92-04 (2004). The decree titled electricity diversification
costs and premium feed-in tariff up to three times electricity price
is paid to encourage the installation of green energy as well as tax
benefits. Executive Decree n 218-13 (2013) guaranteed the pur-
chase of all privately-produced renewable electricity by the Alger-
ian power utility company Sonelgaz. The most recent ministerial
decree, dated April 23, 2014, established the detailed feed-in tariff
for photovoltaic and wind energy electricity based on location
potential and installation yield (Table 3).
There are no restrictions on the use of cattle farm building roofs
for solar power facilities. However, Algerian law strictly prohibits
the use of agricultural land for other purposes because of its po-
tential effect the country's food security.
5. Feasibility assessments
All renewable energy systems consist of four key components:
1) a PV array and/or wind turbine as generators, 2) a power grid to
deliver electricity to the load and absorb surplus electricity from
the system, 3) batteries to store electric energy, and 4) converters of
direct current to alternating current. The economic model for each
component is defined by its initial capital cost, replacement cost,
and annual operation and maintenance (O&M) cost.
Six different systems (stand-alone PV system, stand-alone wind
system, stand-alone hybrid PV/wind system, grid-connected PV
system, grid-connected wind system, and grid-connected hybrid
PV/wind system) are identified as shown in Fig. 5.
For the design of renewable energy systems, several methods
have been developed (empirical, analytic, and artificial). The
HOMER software provided the best option for modeling and eval-
uating the design of both off-grid and grid-connected power sys-
tems (Lilienthal et al., 2005). HOMER optimization and sensitivity
analysis algorithms were used to evaluate the economic and
technical feasibility of a large number of technology options. To
assess the feasibility of the system, hourly simulation of all possible
configurations was conducted. The technical criterion was consis-
tent with the conditions in Eq. (1). This criterion verified whether
the available energy could satisfy the electric load demand at all
times of the year.
X
Esys > Eload (1)
Next, economic parameters were calculated. The calculation
assessed all costs during the project lifetime, including initial set-
up costs (IC), component replacements within the project life-
time, O&M costs, and the cost of purchasing power from the grid
(PPC). The life cycle cost of the system was represented by the NPC
and calculated according to Eq. (2) (Dalton et al., 2009).
TAC
NPC ¼ (2)
CRF
where TAC is the total annualized cost ($/year), or the sum of the
costs of each system component, and the capital recovery factor CRF
given by Eq. (3).
3636 T. Nacer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 3631e3642

Table 3
Renewable electricity sellback tariffs in Algeria.

PV system productivity (kWh/kW/year) PV feed-in tariff (US$/kWh) Wind system productivity (kWh/kW/year) Wind energy feed-in tariff (US$/kWh)

<1349 0.248 <1674 0.205

1350e1424 0.232 1675e1749 0.196
1425e1499 0.215 1750e1824 0.185
1500e1574 0.197 1825e1899 0.174
1575e1649 0.178 1900e1974 0.162
1650e1724 0.161 1975e2049 0.149
>1725 0.146 2050e2124 0.147

1$ ¼ 81DZD.

Fig. 5. Components for stand-alone (with batteries) and grid connected (without batteries): (a) single wind (b) single photovoltaic, and (c) hybrid PV/wind energy system.

resources, and technical/economic input data used for modeling by

ið1 þ iÞN
CRF ¼
ð1 þ iÞN  1
where N is the number of years and i is the annual interest rate (%).
The cost of energy produced by the system (COE) was also used as
the technical/economic evaluation criterion. COE represents the
unit cost of the energy produced by the system and was calculated
by dividing the TAC by the annual energy produced (ERE) as shown
in Eq. (4).
TAC
COE ¼
ERE
HOMER classified all feasible configurations according to the
criteria cited above. The goal for the optimal system was to satisfy
the load demand with the minimum COE and without exceeding
the available area for installation.
6. Case study
This section presents the results of a case study of the experi-
mental farm in the Mitidja region. It describes the farm's location,
electricity consumption, evaluation of its renewable energy
the HOMER software.
(3)
6.1. Site description
Mitidja is a north Algerian plain situated between 36.4 and
36.9 north latitude and 1.7 and 4.1 east longitude over 1450 km2.
It contains the four cities of Algiers, Blida, Tipaza, and Boumerdes.
The region has a Mediterranean climate and fertile agricultural
lands, making it one of the most important dairy farming areas in
Algeria. The experimental farm is an ITELV facility in Baba-Ali
(Algiers). Baba-Ali is on the central part of the Mitidja plain and,
(4)
therefore, has many of the geographic features of north Algerian
regions.
The experimental farm included a livestock building of 350 m2
that houses 26 dairy cows, a milking parlor for milk production, and
grazing land. The favorable grazing conditions in the Mitidja region
allow the cows to feed on pasture in the spring/summer season and
on corn silage and hay in the autumn/winter.
6.2. Farm electrical load data
Electricity consumption was divided into four primary farming
activities: animal housing, feeding, milking, and milk refrigeration.
 T. Nacer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 3631e3642 3637

Fig. 6. Electrical load profile of the farm for (a) spring/summer and (b) autumn/winter.

Because the climate in Mitidja is rather mild, the farm does not use 6.3. Meteorological data
air conditioning. However, good static ventilation is required to
evacuate the cows' emissions. The dairy cows are milked twice a Solar radiation data for the experimental farm was obtained
day. Milk is cooled from 35  C to 4  C in less than 4 h to minimize from the NASA Surface Meteorology and Solar Energy database
the reproduction of bacteria and avoid the contamination of raw (NASA). The 22-year average monthly solar radiation is illustrated
milk. in Fig. 7. The figure shows solar radiation data and solar radiation
To obtain a more accurate load profile, power consumption of clearness index. The total horizontal solar radiation ranged from 2.1
equipment was estimated using the Qualistar® energy quality to 6.8 kWh/m2/day, and the average annual solar radiation was
analyzer. estimated to be 4.51 kWh/m2/day. A clearness index of 0.55 makes
Annual energy consumption for the farm was 8.6 MWh. Daily Mitidja an ideal location for photovoltaic energy production.
energy consumption was 23.6 kWh/day, resulting in a relatively Wind speed data was collected for the 6-year period from 2004
low EUI of 330 kWh/cow/year compared with the international to 2010 at the Algiers meteorological station operated by the Na-
average (Kythreotou et al., 2012). Fig. 6 summarizes the average tional Meteorological Office (Chellali et al., 2011). The average
daily electrical load profiles for typical spring/summer and autumn/ measured wind speed was 1.9 m/s (measured at a height of 10 m),
winter seasons. Both profiles have two peaks at 6 am and 5 pm, with a monthly average variation between 1.4 and 2.5 m/s (Fig. 8).
which correspond to milking and milk cooling operations. These Note that wind speeds in the Mitidja region were generally low.
operations represented more than 60% of the total energy Winter was considered to have the highest wind energy potential,
consumed on the farm. The remaining energy was for lighting followed by spring.
(21%), fodder preparation (15%), and miscellaneous tasks such as
farm cleaning and manure handling (4%). 6.4. HOMER input data

The primary input data for use in HOMER modeling includes

Global Horizontal Radiation hourly mean wind speed, hourly total solar radiation, and load
7 1.0
profile data. Additional data included the technical specifications
6 and cost of photovoltaic modules, wind turbines, converters, and
Da ily Ra dia tion (k Wh/m²/d)

0.8
5 connection to the power grid. The technical and economic details of
Clearness Index

0.6
4
Pow er Curve
3 30
0.4

2 25
Power (kW)

0.2 20
1
15
0 0.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
10
Daily Radiation Clearness Index
5
Fig. 7. Monthly solar radiation in the Mitidja region.
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Wind Speed (m/s)
Wind Resource
2.5
Fig. 9. Power curve for the PGE 20/25 wind turbine.
Wind S pe e d (m/s )

2.0

1.5 Table 4
PV module specifications.
1.0
Technical specifications Financial specifications
0.5
PV module rated power 230 Wp Initial cost $500
0.0 Maximum voltage 29.32 V Replacement cost $350
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Maximum current 7.84 A Maintenance cost $20
Efficiency 13.86% Lifetime 20 years
Fig. 8. Monthly average wind speed (m/s at height of 10 m) in the Mitidja region.
3638 T. Nacer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 3631e3642

Table 5
Wind turbine specifications.

Technical specifications Financial specifications

Rated power 25 kW AC at 9 m/s Initial cost $50,000

cut-in wind speed 3.5 m/s Replacement cost $45,000
Low speed cut-out 1.7 m/s Maintenance cost $2000
High speed cut-out 25 m/s Lifetime 20 years
Hub height 24 m

Table 6
Battery specifications.

Technical specifications Financial specifications

Nominal capacity 1156 Ah (6.94 kWh) Initial cost $1000

Nominal voltage 6V Replacement cost $800
Round trip efficiency 80% Maintenance cost $15
Lifetime throughput 9645 kWh Float lifetime 12 years

the renewable energy system proposed for the experimental farm
at Mitidja are presented below.
The photovoltaic module ALPV230 from the Algerian photo-
voltaic company (ALPV) was used in this study. The rated power of
the module is 230 Wp with 13.9% efficiency. The initial capital cost
of the PV module is $500 with an O&M cost of $20/year. The
working life of the photovoltaic modules was assumed to 20 years,
the same as the total project lifetime.
The wind turbine selected for the simulation was the model
PGE25 manufactured by PGE Energy (Canada). The turbine has a
low cut-in wind speed of 3.5 m/s (Fig. 9) and a rated capacity of
25 kW AC. Tables 4 and 5 summarize the basic technical and
financial characteristics of the PV modules and wind turbine,
respectively.
The battery selected for the simulation was the Surette 6CS25P,
with a nominal capacity of 1156 Ah (Table 6) this battery would be
used to store excess electricity in stand-alone systems. A direct
current DC bus voltage of 48 V was selected, with eight batteries per
string. The capital cost, replacement cost, and O&M cost for the
individual battery were estimated at $1,000, $800, and $15/year,
respectively (Rohit and Bhattacharyya, 2014). The connection be-
tween AC and DC bus was ensured using a bidirectional converter
with a 90% inversion efficiency and 85% rectification efficiency. The
capital and replacement costs of the converter were estimated at
$700 and $500/kW, respectively. The O&M cost was considered to
be negligible, and the lifetime of the inverter was assumed to be 15
years.
Table 7 shows set of all possible system configurations over
which HOMER searched for the optimal system configuration. The
possible values of the decision variables were: 53 quantities of PV
modules, three quantities of wind turbines, five quantities of bat-
teries, and six sizes of converter.
The Algerian utility grid is managed by the national company
Sonelgaz. Electricity tariffs are regulated by the Regulatory Com-
mission for Electricity and Gas. The most common tariff for agri-
cultural farms is the rate E43, which represents a day rate tariff of
$0.044/kWh (6:00 ame10: 30 pm) and a night rate tariff of $0.01/
kWh (10:30 pme6:00 am).
Table 7
HOMER search space comprising all considered system configurations.
PV modules n Wind turbine n Batteries n Converter capacity (kW)
0, 2, 4, …, 104 0, 1, 2 0, 8, 16, 24, 32 0, 5, 8, 10, 15, 20
7. Results and discussion
HOMER performed an hourly time series simulation over one
year for all search space configurations and provided data on the
technically feasible systems. The considered search space for the
studied farm contains thousands of possible configurations ob-
tained from the combination of the components shown in Table 7.
The sell-back electricity price considered for the case study was
$0.178/kWh and $0.205/kWh for photovoltaic and wind energy,
respectively. These values were deduced from Table 3 according to
the renewable energy yield of the Mitidja region (1609 kWh/kW for
photovoltaic and 293 kWh/kW for wind energy).
The grid-only system was simulated and used as a basis of
comparison to evaluate the payback time of designed systems.
Technical constraints were used to limit the minimum renewable
fraction (RF) to 80% with an initial investment less than 10 million
Algerian Dinars ($125,000). Although the peak load of the system
was less than 5 kW, the optimum configuration recommended by
HOMER was found to be the grid-connected photovoltaic system of
70 PV modules (16.1 kW) and 15-kW inverter capacity. This was due
to the particular load profile of the farm. The farm load was served
most the time by the grid as its energy needs are often outside of PV
production periods. In the selected grid connected system, the
amount of conventional electricity purchased from the grid to serve
the load was 6.38 MWh/year. The 16.1-kWp PV system was the
most appropriate configuration to produce the required electricity
to meet the 80% renewable fraction constraint. This configuration
had the lowest NPC of $20,535 with an annualized COE of $0.208/
kWh. The optimal stand-alone photovoltaic system that would
meet the load demand was not found to be economically feasible
(COE $0.942/kWh). The hybrid stand-alone PV/wind/battery sys-
tem (69% PV/31% wind) was also feasible, but its NPC was
approximately seven times greater than the grid-connected PV
system, and its capital cost was $101,600. The results of the opti-
mization analysis are summarized in Table 8.
7.1. System performance
The grid-connected photovoltaic system represented the
optimal renewable energy system for the Mitidja dairy farm
because of its low COE compared with the other configurations. The
rated size of the photovoltaic modules was 16.1 kWp. The total
renewable electricity produced by the system was 25 MWh from
which 21 MWh is sold to the grid annually. The system produced
three times its energy needs. However, more than 70% of electricity
 T. Nacer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 3631e3642 3639

Table 8
Results of the optimization analysis.

RF System configuration System components details Economic parameters

PV (kWp) Wind (n ) Batteries (n ) Converter (kW) IC ($) NPC ($) COE ($/kWh)

0% e e e e 0 3115 0.032

80% 16.1 e e 15 45,500 20,535 0.208

Stand alone 16.56 24 8 65,600 93,058 0.942

10.12 1 24 8 101,600 146,186 1.480

used by the load was purchased from the grid. The photovoltaic that is powered essentially by fossil-fuel-generating plants. The
system provided only 2.23 MWh to the farm because of its load optimal system decreased the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2),
profile that presented peaks outside of the sunny time period of the sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions by about
day as shown (Fig. 10). The amount of excess electricity lost from 9 tons, 40 kg, and 20 kg, respectively.
the system was very low at 0.33 kWh/year, which means that the
inverter was correctly sized and all photovoltaic energy was
7.2. Sensitivity analysis
transmitted.
The initial capital cost of the optimal system was $45,500, of
7.2.1. Effect of solar and wind resources
which the PV modules represented about 77% and the inverter 23%.
The availability of wind and solar resources were the most
The cost of the utility grid connection was considered negligible
influential factors affecting the optimal configuration as well as the
because of the high electrical service coverage. Throughout its life
amount of energy produced by the system. As shown in Fig. 11, the
cycle, the total NPC of the optimal grid-connected PV system was
optimal system for lower levels of both solar and wind resources
estimated to be $20,535 while producing about 466 MWh. This
was the grid-connected hybrid PV/wind system with one wind
resulted in a COE of $0.208/kWh. The revenue derived from selling
turbine and PV capacity from 4.6 to 21.2 kWp. The COE for that
back renewable electricity to the grid had a significant impact on
system varied from $0.27 to $1.03 per kWh. The grid-connected
the farm's energy bill. Under the optimal system, the power com-
photovoltaic system was found to be the optimal option for re-
pany repaid $41,000 to the farm over the project life cycle.
gions with global solar irradiance greater than 3.5 kWh/m2/day and
Another advantage of the grid-connected photovoltaic system
wind speeds less than 2.8 m/s. Otherwise, the grid-connected wind
was the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions produced by a grid
system was the most viable configuration, offering a 98% renewable

12
Grid Purchases
Grid Sales
9
Power (kW)

0
0 6 12 18 24
June 19
Fig. 10. Daily energy flow of the optimal system.

Fig. 11. System sensitivity to variations in renewable resources.

3640
Levelized Cost of Energy vs. Interest Rate
0.24
Leveliz ed Cost of Energy ($/kWh)
0.20
0.16
0.12
0.08
0.04
2 3
Fig. 12. Sensitivity of the NPC and COE to variations in the project interest rate.
energy factor with a negative COE. This meant that the money
reimbursed by the project during the system life cycle would
exceed the original project cost.
7.2.2. Effect of interest rate
The HOMER simulation assumed that all prices escalate at the
same rate over the project life cycle. Based on that assumption,
inflation was factored out of the analysis simply by using the real
interest rate rather than the nominal interest rate when discount-
ing future cash flows to the present. The nominal interest rate
varied from one financial institution to another. Algeria govern-
ment funding helps farmers to borrow money at reduced rates and
introduce renewable energy on their farms. However, the average
long-term rate of inflation could not be estimated with reliable
accuracy. Variations in the NPC and the COE based on the interest
rate are shown in Fig. 12. It was determined that the COE was five
times less with an interest rate of 2% versus a rate of 6%.
7.2.3. Effect of load variation
Energy load demand was one of the most important factors in
the feasibility analysis. Assuming that the farm EUI was fixed, the
farm load data would change with the size of the farm. Therefore,
the optimal system that meets the required renewable energy
factor limit would be identified. The optimal system for the farm
with 21 dairy cows was determined to be a grid-connected
photovoltaic system with 56 modules and an 8 kW inverter. The
optimal system for a farm with 29 cows would be composed of 104
photovoltaic modules and a 15-kW inverter. Using the Mitidja re-
gion's meteorological data, Fig. 13 shows the optimal system
configuration based on variations in the energy load profile.
7.3. Impacts of renewable energy system utilization
Renewable energy systems have a significant impact on the
economic and environmental balance of a dairy farm. Such systems
make the farm a producer of electricity that provide surplus energy
to the grid. The optimal system for the Mitidja farm has the po-
tential to supply 21 MWh to the grid annually, generating an in-
come of $41,000 over the system life cycle. The total energy
provided to the grid by the Mitidja region's farms could reach
10.5 GWh per year. This is equivalent to the electrical needs of more
than 2000 households.
A feasibility study was conducted for six other typical north
Algerian dairy farms. The results of the studies for those farms are
summarized in Table 9. The studies offer the opportunity to assess
and judge the technical and economic feasibility of renewable en-
ergy systems on dairy farms in most regions of Algeria. As shown in
Table 9, the introduction of such systems is feasible in all Algerian
regions due to the high potential for renewable energy, particularly
T. Nacer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 3631e3642
22,000
Levelized Cost of Energy
Total Net Present Cost
20,000
Total Net Present Cost ($)
Fixed
18,000 Min. Ren. Fraction = 80 %
16,000
14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
4 5 6
Interest Rate (%)
from solar resources. The optimal system for the Annaba and Chlef
farms was the grid-connected photovoltaic system of 11.5 kWp
with an 8-kW inverter. The optimal grid connected PV system for
the Tizi-Ouzou region was 11.96 kWp with an 8-kW inverter. The
Annaba's farm consumption was 5.6 MWh/year with a EUI of
470 kWh/cow/year and average consumption of 94 Wh/l of pro-
duced milk. The Chlef dairy farm's yearly consumption was
6.3 MWh with a EUI of 450 kWh/cow/year and average consump-
tion of 89 Wh/l of milk. The Tizi-Ouzou region had a smaller EUI of
420 kWh/cow/year and average consumption of 84 Wh/l. The po-
tential for solar energy was almost the same for the four north
Algerian regions of Mitidja, Annaba, Chlef, and Tizi-Ouzou with
4.51, 4.48, 4.65, and 4.55 kWh/m2/day, respectively. However, the
system yield varied from 1590 kWh/kWp for Annaba to 1657 kWh/
kWp for the Chlef region. The resulting sell-back price for the Chlef
region was $0.161/kWh. In contrast, the sell-back price in the other
three regions was $0.178/kWh for. The power returned to the grid
from the photovoltaic systems ranged from 14.6 MWh/year for the
Annaba farm up to 21 MWh/year for the Mitidja farm. The EUI
ranged from an average of 811 kWh/cow/year for Mitidja to
1221 kWh/cow/year for the Annaba region. For all of the north
Algerian regions, the amount of electricity returned to the grid
would reach 23 GWh/year.
For the farms in the highlands regions, the grid-connected wind
energy system was determined to be the best configuration
because of the relatively high average wind speeds of 3.38 and
3.28 m/s at a height of 10 m for the Setif and Tiaret farms,
respectively. Average energy use at highland farms was 566 kWh/
cow/year (94 Wh/l of milk) for Setif and 375 kWh/cow/year
(75 Wh/l of milk) for Tiaret. The Setif farms consumed more energy
Fig. 13. Sensitivity of the system configuration to variations in farm energy load.
 T. Nacer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 3631e3642 3641

Table 9
Results of technical and economic analyses for all studied regions.

Region Mitidja Setif Annaba Chlef Tiaret Tiziouzou Ghardaia

Solar data (kWh/m2/day) 4.51 4.62 4.48 4.65 4.93 4.55 5.43
Wind data (m/s) 1.99 3.38 2.29 2.86 3.28 1.62 3.39
Farm load (kWh/y) 8614 5660 6023 6278 6388 6314 6241
Optimal system GCPV GC Wind GCPV GCPV GC Wind GCPV GC Hybrid (PV/Wind)
PV/wind/converter (kW) 16.1/0/15 0/50/0 11.5/0/8 11.5/0/8 0/50/0 11.96/0/8 5.98/50/5
R Fraction (%) 80 97 80 80 96 80 86% wind/11% pv
Solar yield (kWh/kW) 1612 1645 1590 1657 1761 1624 1937
Wind yield (kWh/kW) 290 1727 531 1108 1534 110 1665
IC ($) 45,500 100,000 30,600 30,600 100,000 31,600 116,500
CoE ($/kWh) 0.208 0.625 0.192 0.161 0.352 0.186 0.419
Payback time (years) 19.5 8.0 19.4 18.9 8.95 19.3 9.0
Injected electricity (kWh/y) 21,088 83,295 14,653 15,062 73,444 15,275 95,925
Mitigated CO2 (ton/lifetime) 9290 51,000 6393 6583 44,444 6673 59,058

than other farms in the region. This was due primarily to relatively grid of 136 GWh/year and help to mitigate pollutant emissions from
high milk production (6000 l/cow/year versus an average of 5000 l/ conventional power plants by 80 million tons of CO2 over the
cow/year in the other regions studied) and energy consumption for project lifetime.
animas housing and feeding during the winter season. The elec-
tricity sell-back price varied from $0.196/kWh for Setif (1727 kWh/
8. Conclusions
kW yield) to $0.205/kWh for Tiaret (1534 kWh/kW yield). The
optimal system consisted of two 25 kW wind turbines for the two
This study proposed a method to assess the technical and eco-
regions with total annual return to the grid of 83 MWh and
nomic feasibility of renewable energy use on Algerian dairy farms.
73 MWh for Setif and Tiaret, respectively. Although they had a
The methodology called for selection of typical dairy farms to
relatively high initial investment, the grid-connected wind energy
represent regional electric loads and renewable resource charac-
systems had the overall best payback time with 8 years and less
teristics. On-farm electricity consumption was found to average
than 9 years for Setif and Tiaret, respectively. These regions had a
between 330 kWh/cow/year and 566 kWh/cow/year. The results
negative cost of electricity, which meant that the farmer would
obtained highlight the potential for grid-connected renewable
receive a yearly income from the Sonelgaz utility greater than the
energy systems for farms in all regions of northern Algeria.
total annualized system cost (initial investment/year, O&M/year,
The study addressed impacts of renewable resources, variations
replacement/year, and salvage/year). The difference between rev-
in load profiles, and the technical and economic performance of
enue and the levelized yearly system cost (TAC) resulted in a COE of
each alternative system. We concluded that the optimal grid-
consumed electricity of $0.625/kWh for Setif and $0.352/kWh
connected system could meet farm energy needs and return to
for the Tiaret region. This parameter (COE) provided a method for
the grid more than twice the usually purchased electricity.
comparing the designed systems based on their cost per consumed
In line with the national policy target, i.e., to contribute 40% of
kWh. If revenue from selling electricity to the grid was greater than
the electricity production from green energy by 2030, renewable
the levelized total system cost, then the COE would be a negative.
energy sources would be adopted by agriculture farms progres-
Otherwise, the COE would be positive.
sively. This study demonstrates the technical and economic feasi-
For the Ghardaia dairy farm, the optimal system was determined
bility of the use of renewable energies in dairy farms. This method
to be the hybrid grid-connected PV/wind system with 5.98 kWp PV,
was successfully applied in seven typical farms of the most
two 25-kW wind turbines, and a 5-kW inverter. This was attrib-
important dairy region. The successful experience in these typical
utable to the region's significant potential on both solar and wind
farms will be a strong stimulus for the development of clean energy
resources (5.43 kWh/m2/day and 3.39 m/s, respectively). Farm
production in each region. Overall, the proposed method is appli-
consumption was estimated at 6.2 MWh/year with an average of
cable for both existing and projected dairy farms in Algeria and all
480 kWh/cow/year (106 Wh/l of milk). The ratio of electricity
countries with lack of data on energy use in agriculture. An
consumption per liter of milk value was the largest among the
experimental farm will be selected to model the electrical needs of
studied regions because of hot summer seasons and the relatively
the regional farms and to serve as a pilot project for the utilization
low milk production (4500 l/year). The proposed system's initial
of renewable energy systems. The optimal system could be
cost was $116,500. The system's electricity production mix was 86%
installed in existing or new livestock buildings by local companies.
from wind energy, 11% from photovoltaic energy, and 3% from the
The new Algerian energy policy privatized the energy sector and
grid. The annual electricity returned to the grid was 96 MWh with
allows small energy producers to connect their systems to the
an average of 7 MWh/cow/year. This, in turn, resulted in a negative
utility grid. Sonelgaz has an obligation to purchase all the on-farm
COE of $0.419/kWh with a payback time of 9 years.
produced electricity with a premium feed-in tariff. The proposed
By comparing the results, we concluded that the range of con-
systems could be more sustainable and profitable by increasing
sumption from 330 kWh/cow/year for the Mitidja region to
herd size and milk production. This will make the farms more en-
566 kWh/cow/year for the Setif region. Furthermore, electricity
ergy efficient and provide more electricity to the grid.
consumption for milk production varied from 66 Wh/l for Mitidja to
The contribution of this method is threefold: First, it provides
106 Wh/l for Ghardaia. This was due primarily to climatic condi-
data of electricity consumption of typical dairy farms of each
tions, milk production yield, and herd size. By increasing milk
Algerian region. Second, it determines the optimal renewable en-
production to international standards and increasing herd size, the
ergy system configuration according to resource availability and
proposed system proved to be more sustainable and economically
local market specification. Third, it forecasts the impact of the
viable for Algerian dairy farms.
introduction of grid-connected system on the energy balance of
The cumulative contribution of these experimental farms to all
farms and the entire national power grid. The impacts of renewable
farms in the studied regions can provide a return to the Algerian
energy adoption on the energy balance of the farm as well as on the
3642 T. Nacer et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 3631e3642
national power grid are investigated. We found that the introduc-
tion of the designed systems could provide a sizeable backup of
136 GWh/year to the Algerian grid and help mitigate pollutant
emissions from conventional power plants by 80 million tons of
CO2 over the project lifetime. The findings of this study underscore
the potential of dairy farms to help alleviate the nation's electricity
overload in some periods and to contribute to cleaner electricity
generation while increasing the milk production.
The study concluded that grid-connected photovoltaic systems
were best suited for farms in northern coastal regions. On the other
hand, a grid-connected wind energy system was determined to be
more appropriate for highland farms. However, a hybrid grid-
connected PV/wind system was determined to be the optimal
configuration for the Ghardaia region, which has exceptional po-
tential for renewable energy.
The primary objective of this study was to develop a method
that allows farmers with limited scientific background to benefit
from the renewable energy studies conducted for the experimental
farms of the ITELV institute. Moreover, because of the significant
potential for renewable resource uses, the optimal grid-connected
systems proposed in this study could contribute to the national
plan of renewable energy intensification and reduce the depen-
dence on fossil fuel that cause greenhouse gas emissions and global
warming. Finally, to our knowledge, this is the first study that
provides a clear approach for estimating electricity demand and
determining the optimal renewable energy system for Algerian
dairy farms. It will contribute to the promotion of green technol-
ogies and sustainable development of the agriculture sector. Future
studies will address the amount of pollutants and greenhouse gas
emissions in Algerian dairy farms and methods to reduce ammonia
and methane emissions from dairy cattle.
Acknowledgments
This study was performed in collaboration with the Algerian
Technical Breeding Institute according to the convention n 630/
DG/2012. The authors would like to thank Dr. Nadjemi H, Dr. Sakhri
L, and Mr. Atif M. E. for their helpful assistance in dairy farms data
collection.
The authors would like to thank Barbara F. for her support
during the development of this study.
The authors would like to thank Enago (www.enago.com) for
the English language review.
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