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Appendix 1—Agents and methods of euthanasia by species

Agents and methods of euthanasia by species (refer to Appendix 4 for unacceptable agents and methods.)
Species Acceptable* (refer to Appendix 2 and text for details) Conditionally acceptable† (refer to Appendix 3 and
text for details)
Amphibians Barbiturates, inhalant anesthetics (in appropriate species), CO2, CO, tricaine Penetrating captive bolt, gunshot, stunning and
methane sulfonate (TMS, MS 222), benzocaine hydrochloride, double pithing decapitation, decapitation and pithing
Birds Barbiturates, inhalant anesthetics, CO2, CO, gunshot (free-ranging only) N2, Ar, cervical dislocation, decapitation, thoracic
compression (small, free-ranging only), maceration
(chicks, poults, and pipped eggs only)
Cats Barbiturates, inhalant anesthetics, CO2, CO, potassium chloride in conjunction N2, Ar
with general anesthesia
Dogs Barbiturates, inhalant anesthetics, CO2, CO, potassium chloride in conjunction N2, Ar, penetrating captive bolt, electrocution
with general anesthesia
Fish Barbiturates, inhalant anesthetics, CO2, tricaine methane sulfonate (TMS, MS Decapitation and pithing, stunning and
222), benzocaine hydrochloride, 2-phenoxyethanol decapitation/pithing
Horses Barbiturates, potassium chloride in conjunction with general anesthesia, Chloral hydrate (IV, after sedation), gunshot,
penetrating captive bolt electrocution
Marine mammals Barbiturates, etorphine hydrochloride Gunshot (cetaceans < 4 meters long)
Mink, fox, and other mammals Barbiturates, inhalant anesthetics, CO2 (mink require high concentrations for N2, Ar, electrocution followed by cervical dislocation
produced for fur euthanasia without supplemental agents), CO, potassium chloride in
conjunction with general anesthesia
Nonhuman primates Barbiturates Inhalant anesthetics, CO2, CO, N2, Ar
Rabbits Barbiturates, inhalant anesthetics, CO2, CO, potassium chloride in conjunction N2, Ar, cervical dislocation (< 1 kg), decapitation,
with general anesthesia penetrating captive bolt
Reptiles Barbiturates, inhalant anesthetics (in appropriate species), CO2 (in appropriate Penetrating captive bolt, gunshot, decapitation and
species) pithing, stunning and decapitation
Rodents and other small mammals Barbiturates, inhalant anesthetics, CO2, CO, potassium chloride in conjunction Methoxyflurane, ether, N2, Ar, cervical dislocation (rats <
with general anesthesia, microwave irradiation 200 g), decapitation
Ruminants Barbiturates, potassium chloride in conjunction with general anesthesia, Chloral hydrate (IV, after sedation), gunshot,
penetrating captive bolt electrocution
Swine Barbiturates, CO2, potassium chloride in conjunction with general anesthesia, Inhalant anesthetics, CO, chloral hydrate (IV, after
penetrating captive bolt sedation), gunshot, electrocution, blow to the head (< 3
weeks of age)
Zoo animals Barbiturates, inhalant anesthetics, CO2, CO, potassium chloride in conjunction N2, Ar, penetrating captive bolt, gunshot
with general anesthesia
Free-ranging wildlife Barbiturates IV or IP, inhalant anesthetics, potassium chloride in conjunction CO2, CO, N2, Ar, penetrating captive bolt, gunshot, kill
with general anesthesia traps (scientifically tested)
* Acceptable methods are those that consistently produce a humane death when used as the sole means of euthanasia. †Conditionally acceptable methods are those that by the
nature of the technique or because of greater potential for operator error or safety hazards might not consistently produce humane death or are methods not well documented in the
scientific literature.
AVMA Guidelines on Euthanasia
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Appendix 2—Acceptable agents and methods of euthanasia

Acceptable agents and methods of euthanasia—characteristics and modes of action (refer to text for details)
Agent Classification Mode of action Rapidity Ease of Safety for Species suitability Efficacy and
performance personnel comments
Barbiturates Hypoxia Direct depression Rapid onset of Animal must be Safe except human Most species Highly effective
attributable to of cerebral cortex, anesthesia restrained; abuse potential; when appropriately
depression of vital subcortical personnel must be DEA-controlled administered;
centers structures, and vital skilled to perform substance acceptable IP in
centers; direct IV injection small animals and
depression of heart IV
muscle
Benzocaine Hypoxia Depression of CNS Very rapid, Easily used Safe Fish, amphibians Effective but
hydrochloride attributable to depending on dose expensive
depression of vital
centers
Carbon dioxide Hypoxia Direct depression Moderately rapid Used in closed Minimal hazard Small laboratory Effective, but time
(bottled gas only) attributable to of cerebral cortex, container animals, birds, cats, required may be
depression of vital subcortical small dogs, rabbits, prolonged in
centers structures, and vital mink (high immature and
centers; direct concentrations neonatal animals
depression of heart required), zoo
muscle animals,
amphibians, fish,
some reptiles,
swine
Carbon monoxide Hypoxia Combines with Moderate onset Requires Extremely Most small species Effective;
(bottled gas only) hemoglobin, time, but insidious appropriately hazardous, toxic, including dogs, acceptable only
preventing its so animal is maintained and difficult to cats, rodents, mink, when equipment is
combination with unaware of onset equipment detect chinchillas, birds, properly designed
oxygen reptiles, and operated
amphibians, zoo
animals, rabbits
AVMA Guidelines on Euthanasia
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Agent Classification Mode of action Rapidity Ease of Safety for Species suitability Efficacy and
performance personnel comments
Inhalant anesthetics Hypoxia Direct depression Moderately rapid Easily performed Must be properly Some amphibians, Highly effective
attributable to of cerebral cortex, onset of anesthesia, with closed scavenged or birds, cats, dogs, provided that
depression of vital subcortical excitation may container; can be vented to minimize furbearing animals, subject is
centers structures, and vital develop during administered to exposure to rabbits, some sufficiently
centers induction large animals by personnel reptiles, rodents exposed; either is
means of a mask and other small conditionally
mammals, zoo acceptable
animals, fish, free-
ranging wildlife
Microwave Brain enzyme Direct inactivation Very rapid Requires training Safe Mice, rats Highly effective for
irradiation inactivation of brain enzymes and highly special needs
by rapid heating of specialized
brain equipment
Penetrating captive Physical damage to Direct concussion Rapid Requires skill, Safe Horses, ruminants, Instant loss of
bolt brain of brain tissue adequate restraint, swine consciousness, but
and proper motor activity may
placement of continue
captive bolt
2-Phenoxyethanol Hypoxia Depression of CNS Very rapid, Easily used Safe Fish Effective but
attributable to depending on dose expensive
depression of vital
centers
Potassium chloride Hypoxia Direct depression Rapid Requires training Anesthetics may be Most species Highly effective,
(intracardially or of cerebral cortex, and specialized hazardous with some clonic muscle
intravenously in subcortical equipment for accidental human spasms may be
conjunction with structures, and vital remote injection exposure observed
general anesthesia centers secondary anesthesia, and
only) to cardiac arrest. ability to give IV
injection of
potassium chloride
Tricaine methane Hypoxia Depression of CNS Very rapid, Easily used Safe Fish, amphibians Effective but
sulfonate (TMS, attributable to depending on dose expensive
MS 222) depression of vital
centers
AVMA Guidelines on Euthanasia
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Appendix 3—Conditionally acceptable agents and methods of euthanasia

Conditionally acceptable agents and methods of euthanasia—characteristics and modes of action (refer to text for details)
Agent Classification Mode of action Rapidity Ease of Safety for Species suitability Efficacy and
performance personnel comments
Blow to the head Physical damage to Direct concussion Rapid Requires skill, Safe Young pigs <3 Must be properly
brain of brain tissue adequate restraint, weeks old applied to be
and appropriate humane and
force effective
Carbon dioxide Hypoxia due to Direct depression Moderately rapid Used in closed Minimal hazard Nonhuman Effective, but time
(bottled gas only) depression of vital of cerebral cortex, container primates, free- required may be
centers subcortical ranging wildlife prolonged in
structures and vital immature and
centers; direct neonatal animals
depression of heart
muscle
Carbon monoxide Hypoxia Combines with Moderate onset Requires Extremely Nonhuman Effective;
(bottled gas only) hemoglobin, time, but insidious appropriately hazardous, toxic, primates, free- acceptable only
preventing its so animal is maintained and difficult to ranging wildlife when equipment is
combination with unaware of onset equipment detect properly designed
oxygen and operated
Cervical dislocation Hypoxia due to Direct depression Moderately rapid Requires training Safe Poultry, birds, Irreversible; violent
disruption of vital of brain and skill laboratory mice, muscle contractions
centers rats (< 200 g), can occur after
rabbits (< 1 kg) cervical dislocation
Chloral hydrate Hypoxia from Direct depression Rapid Personnel must be Safe Horses, ruminants, Animals should be
depression of of brain skilled to perform swine sedated prior to
respiratory center IV injection administration
Decapitation Hypoxia due to Direct depression Rapid Requires training Guillotine poses Laboratory rodents; Irreversible; violent
disruption of vital of brain and skill potential employee small rabbits; birds; muscle contraction
centers injury hazard some fish, can occur after
amphibians, and decapitation
reptiles (latter 3
with pithing)
Electrocution Hypoxia Direct depression Can be rapid Not easily Hazardous to Used primarily in Violent muscle
of brain and cardiac performed in all personnel sheep, swine, foxes, contractions occur
fibrillation instances mink (with cervical at same time as loss
dislocation), of consciousness
ruminants, animals
> 5 kg
Gunshot Hypoxia due to Direct concussion Rapid Requires skill and May be dangerous Large domestic and Instant loss of
disruption of vital of brain tissue appropriate firearm zoo animals, consciousness, but
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centers reptiles, motor activity may

amphibians, continue
wildlife, cetaceans
(< 4 meters long)
Inhalant anesthetics Hypoxia due to Direct depression Moderately rapid Easily performed Must be properly Nonhuman Highly effective
disruption of vital of cerebral cortex, onset of anesthesia; with closed scavenged or primates, swine; provided that
centers subcortical excitation may container; can be vented to minimize ether is subject is
structures, and vital develop during administered to exposure to conditionally sufficiently exposed
centers induction large animals by personnel; ether has acceptable for
means of a mask explosive potential rodents and small
and exposure to mammals;
ether may be methoxyflurane is
stressful conditionally
acceptable for
rodents and small
mammals
Nitrogen, argon Hypoxia Reduces partial Rapid Used in closed Safe if used with Cats, small dogs, Effective except in
pressure of oxygen chamber with rapid ventilation birds, rodents, young and
available to blood filling rabbits, other small neonates; an
species, mink, zoo effective agent, but
animals, nonhuman other methods are
primates, free- preferable
ranging wildlife
Penetrating captive Physical damage to Direct concussion Rapid Requires skill, Safe Dogs, rabbits, zoo Instant loss of
bolt brain of brain tissue adequate restraint animals, reptiles, consciousness but
and proper amphibians, free- motor activity may
placement of ranging wildlife continue
captive bolt
Pithing Hypoxia due to Trauma of brain Rapid Easily performed Safe Some ectotherms Effective, but death
disruption of vital and spinal cord but requires skill not immediate
centers, physical tissue unless brain and
damage to brain spinal cord are
pithed
Thoracic Hypoxia and Physical Moderately rapid Requires training Safe Small-to medium- Apparently
compression cardiac arrest interference with sized free-ranging effective
cardiac and birds
respiratory function
Maceration Physical damage to Direct concussion Rapid Easily performed Safe Newly hatched Effective when
brain of brain tissue with properly chicks and poults, equipment is
designed, and pipped eggs properly designed
commercially only and operated
available
equipment
AVMA Guidelines on Euthanasia
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Appendix 4—Some unacceptable agents and methods of euthanasia

Some unacceptable agents and methods of euthanasia (refer to text for details)
Agent or method Comments
Air embolism Air embolism may be accompanied by convulsions, opisthotonos, and vocalization. If used, it should be done only
in anesthetized animals.
Blow to the head Unacceptable for most species.
Burning Chemical or thermal burning of an animal is not an acceptable method of euthanasia.
Chloral hydrate Unacceptable in dogs, cats, and small mammals.
Chloroform Chloroform is a known hepatotoxin and suspected carcinogen and, therefore, is extremely hazardous to personnel.
Cyanide Cyanide poses an extreme danger to personnel and the manner of death is aesthetically objectionable.
Decompression Decompression is unacceptable for euthanasia because of numerous disadvantages. (1) Many chambers are
designed to produce decompression at a rate 15 to 60 times faster than that recommended as optimum for animals,
resulting in pain and distress attributable to expanding gases trapped in body cavities. (2) Immature animals are
tolerant of hypoxia, and longer periods of decompression are required before respiration ceases. (3) Accidental
recompression, with recovery of injured animals, can occur. (4) Bleeding, vomiting, convulsions, urination, and
defecation, which are aesthetically unpleasant, may develop in unconscious animals.
Drowning Drowning is not a means of euthanasia and is inhumane.
Exsanguination Because of the anxiety associated with extreme hypovolemia, exsanguination should be done only in sedated,
stunned, or anesthetized animals.
Formalin Direct immersion of an animal into formalin, as a means of euthanasia, is inhumane.
Household products and solvents Acetone, quaternary compounds (including CCl4), laxatives, clove oil, dimethylketone, quaternary ammonium
products*, antacids, and other commercial and household products or solvents are not acceptable agents for
euthanasia.
Hypothermia Hypothermia is not an appropriate method of euthanasia.

Neuromuscular blocking agents (nicotine, magnesium
sulfate, potassiumchloride, all curariform agents)
Rapid freezing
Smothering
When used alone, these drugs all cause respiratory arrest before loss of consciousness, so the animal may perceive
pain and distress after it is immobilized.
Rapid freezing as a sole means of euthanasia is not considered to be humane. If used, animals should be
anesthetized prior to freezing.
Smothering of chicks or poults in bags or containers is not acceptable.

Strychnine Strychnine causes violent convulsions and painful muscle contractions.

Stunning Stunning may render an animal unconscious, but it is not a method of euthanasia (except for neonatal animals with
thin craniums). If used, it must be immediately followed by a method that ensures death.
Tricaine methane sulfonate (TMS, MS 222) Should not be used for euthanasia of animals intended as food.

AVMA Guidelines on Euthanasia