ME – 481 (3, 1)

ENERGY RESOURCES &

UTILIZATION (ERU)
In-charge Subject
Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
anaeems@uet.edu.pk
 RECOMMENDED BOOKS
1.Renewable Energy Resources by John Twidell
and Tony Weir, 2nd Edition
2.Renewable energy by Godfrey Boyle
 ENERGY
 Energy is an engineering concept that might best be
described in terms of what it can do.
 We can not see energy, only its effects; we can not
make it, only use it; and we can not destroy it, only
waste it through inefficient use.
 Energy can be converted or redistributed from one
form to another, such as from wind energy to electrical
energy or from chemical energy to heat etc. However
total amount of energy in the universe is constant.
 Energy may be renewable, sustainable or non-
renewable.
 SOLAR RADIATION
“Sun is the primary source of all renewable
energy resources. The technology based on solar
energy are eco-friendly with environment.”
 INTRODUCTION
 Solar radiation: The emission from the sun into every corner of space
appears in the form of electromagnetic (EM) waves that carry energy at

the speed of light.

 Different shapes of incoming irradiation: Depending on the

geometry of the earth, its distance from the sun, geographical location of

any point on the earth, astronomical coordinates, and the composition of

the atmosphere, radiations at any given point may take different shapes.

 The sun as a sphere of hot gases: It is a sphere of intensely hot

gaseous matter. The solar energy strikes our planet after leaving the giant

furnace, the sun which is 1.5 × 1011 m away.

 INTRODUCTION Cont.
 Solar spectrum a as black body: It is roughly equivalent to a
perfect black body which is a perfect absorber or emitter of EM
radiation. The temperature in the central region is estimated at 8 × 106
to 40 × 106 K.
 Sun as a reactor: It is a continuous fusion reactor in which hydrogen is
turned into helium. The sun’s total energy output is 3.8 × 1020 MW. This
energy radiates outwards in all directions. Only a tiny fraction of the
total radiation is intercepted by our earth. It reaches the Earth’s surface
at a maximum flux density of about 1 kWm-2.
 Sun as an origin of energy: Basically, all the forms of energy in the
world are solar in origin.
 INTRODUCTION Cont.
 Applications of solar energy: It is used to heat and cool buildings (both
active and passive), to heat water for domestic and industrial uses, to
heat swimming pools, to power refrigerators, to operate engines and
pumps, to desalinate water for drinking purposes, to generate electricity,
even to grow food or dry cloths, and many more.

 Categories of the sun light: It may be split into three categories:

a) Photovoltaic (PV): to produce electricity directly from the sun’s light.
b) Photochemical (PC): to produce electricity or light & gaseous fuels by
means of non-living chemical processes, e.g. degradation of plastics.

c) Photobiological (PB): to produce food & gaseous fuels by means of

living organism or plants.
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION &
ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SPECTRUM
 Sun’s active core & passive layers: The reactions in the active
core of the Sun produce very high temperatures (~𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝑲) and an
inner radiation flux of uneven spectral distribution. This internal
radiation is absorbed in the outer passive layers which are heated
to about 5800K and so become a source of radiation with a
relatively continuous spectral distribution.
 Variation of radiant flux: The radiant flux (W/m2) from the Sun
at the Earth’s distance varies through the year by ±4%. Moreover,
the radiance also varies by perhaps ±0.3 per cent per year due to
sunspots.
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION &
ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SPECTRUM Cont.

 EM as wave & particle : Wave

and particle are two forms of light
or EM radiation.
 EM waves consist of electric and
magnetic fields, which are
perpendicular to each other and
perpendicular to the direction of
travel as shown in Fig. 1. The
Fig. 1: EM waves
wavelength and frequency are
related through the speed of light,
c, as: 𝝀𝒇 = 𝒄 →→→ (𝟏)
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION &
ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SPECTRUM Cont.

 Particle nature of EM radiation exhibits properties as photons

(having mass) made up of packets of energy E, which is related to
frequency f as:
𝑬 = 𝒉𝒇 → (𝟐)
where h is the Plank constant, h = 6.626×10−34 J.s.
𝒉𝒄
𝑬= → (𝟑)
𝝀
 The solar energy spectrum: It contains wavelengths that are too
long to be seen by the naked eye, and also wavelengths that are
too short to be visible. Thus the solar spectrum can be divided into
three main regions:
a) Ultraviolet region (λ < 0.4 µm); about 5% of the irradiance
b) Visible region (0.4 µm < λ < 0.7 µm); about 43% of the irradiance
c) Infrared region (λ ˃ 0.7 µm); about 52% of the irradiance
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION &
ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SPECTRUM Cont.

 Spectral distribution: Figure 2

shows the spectral distribution of
the solar irradiance at the Earth’s
mean distance, uninfluenced by the
atmosphere. The area beneath this
curve is the solar constant G0 =
1367Wm−2. This is the RFD (Radiant
flux density) incident on a plane
directly facing the Sun and outside
Fig. 2: Spectral distribution of
the atmosphere at a distance of 1.5 extraterrestrial solar irradiance
× 1011 m from the Sun (i.e. at the
Earth’s mean distance from the Sun).
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION &
ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SPECTRUM Cont.

 Maximum solar irradiance: As it can be seen from Fig. 2 that the

maximum solar irradiance occurs at λ= 0.5 μm. The proportions given in
figure are received at the Earth’s surface with the Sun incident at about
45°. The contribution to the solar radiation flux from wavelengths greater
than 2.5 µm is negligible, and all three regions contributing to the
irradiance are classed as solar short wave radiation.

 Wien's displacement law: According to the law, the wavelength

corresponding to the maximum of solar irradiance from the sun can be
obtained from:
λmaxT = 2897.6 µm K→→→ (𝟒)
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION &
ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SPECTRUM Cont.

 Intensity of Extraterrestrial radiation (𝑮𝒆𝒙𝒕. ):

 The orientation of the earth’s orbit around the sun-earth distance
varies only by 1.7% and since the solar radiation outside the
earth’s atmosphere at the mean sun-earth distance is nearly of
fixed intensities, the RFD is practically constant throughout the
year.
 However, this extraterrestrial radiation suffers variation due to the
fact that the earth revolves around the sun not in a circular orbit
but follows an elliptic path, with sun at one of the foci.
 The intensity of extraterrestrial radiation measured on a plane
normal to the radiation on the nth day of the year is given as :
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝒏
𝑮𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝑮𝟎 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔 → (𝟓)
𝟑𝟔𝟓
 PROBLEM
 Obtain Wien's displacement law by using Plank’s law of
radiation i.e.
𝑪𝟏
𝑬𝝀𝒃 = 𝑪𝟐
𝝀𝟓 . 𝒆 𝝀𝑻 − 𝟏

where 𝐶1 = 3.742 × 108 𝑊. 𝜇𝑚4 . 𝑚−2 &

𝐶2 = 14387.9 𝜇𝑚. 𝐾
 RADIATION COMPONENTS
 Direct & diffuse radiation: Solar
radiation incident on the atmosphere
from the direction of the Sun is the
solar extraterrestrial beam radiation.
Beneath the atmosphere, at the Earth’s
surface, the radiation will be
observable from the direction of the
Fig. 1: Origin of direct beam
Sun’s disc in the direct beam as well as
and diffuse radiation.
diffuse radiation as shown in Fig. 1.
 Generation of diffuse radiation:
Diffuse radiation is first intercepted by
the constituents of the air and then
released as scattered radiation in many
directions.
 RADIATION COMPONENTS Cont.

 Contribution of diffuse radiation: Even on a cloudless, clear day,

there is always at least 10% diffuse irradiance from the molecules in the
atmosphere.
 Distinction: The practical distinction between the two components is
that only the beam radiation can be focused. The ratio between the
beam irradiance and the total irradiance thus varies from about 0.9 on a
clear day to zero on a completely overcast day.
 Total irradiance: The total irradiance on any plane is the sum of the
beam and diffuse components, so:
Gt = Gb + Gd
GEOMETRY OF THE EARTH
AND SUN
 GEOMETRY OF THE EARTH AND
SUN
 Latitude(𝝓): The angular distance (north
or south of the earth's equator), measured
in degrees along a meridian from the
equator to a point on the earth’s surface.
Latitude is positive for points north of the
equator, negative south of the equator. If C
is the center of the Earth, a point P on the
Earth’s surface is determined by its
latitude.
 Longitude (𝝍) : The angular distance
measured (in degrees) from the prime
(solar noon) meridian through Greenwich Fig. 1: Sketch for latitude
(UK), west or east to a point on the earth’s and longitude
surface. By international agreement it is
measured positive eastwards from
Greenwich.
 GEOMETRY OF THE EARTH AND SUN Cont.

 Noon solar time: It is the time

when a local meridional plane
includes the sun (i.e. CEP includes
the sun) so that all points having
that longitude. It occurs once
every 24 h. It represents the solar
altitude at noon above the horizon
and changes by 47° from 21 June
to 21 December.
 GEOMETRY OF THE EARTH AND SUN Cont.

 Civil time: It is the time that a larger part of a country

(15° of longitude) observe in order to share the same
official zone.
 The hour angle 𝝎 : It is the angle through which the
Earth has rotated since solar noon. It is positive in the
evening and negative in the morning.
𝝎 = 𝟏𝟓°𝒉−𝟏 𝒕𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 − 𝟏𝟐𝒉
where 𝑡𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦.
 GEOMETRY OF THE EARTH AND SUN Cont.
 Declination angle 𝜹 :
The angle between the line joining the
center of the sun and the earth & its
projection on the equatorial plane. It
is due to the rotation of the earth, and Fig. 1: View of declination angle
varies from +23.5˚ (on June, 21) to -
23.5˚ (on December, 21). Analytically,
it may be calculated as:

𝟑𝟔𝟎° 𝟐𝟖𝟒 + 𝒏
𝜹 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝟑𝟔𝟓
where n is the day in the year (For
example, n = 1 on 1 January). Fig. 2: Variation of δ
 GEOMETRY OF COLLECTOR & THE
SOLAR BEAM
 Slope (β): It is the angle
between the plane surface under
consideration and the horizontal.
It is positive for the surface
sloping or pitching towards
south and negative for the
surface sloping towards north.
 Zenith angle 𝜽𝒛 : The angle
b/w normal to H.P & beam
radiation.
 Surface azimuth angle (ϒ): Fig. 3: View of various angles
It is the angle between the line
due south and the projection of
the normal to inclined plane in
an H.P.
 GEOMETRY OF COLLECTOR & THE SOLAR BEAM
Cont.

 Solar azimuth angle 𝜸𝒔 : It is

the angle in a horizontal plane
(H.P) between the line due south
and the projection of beam
radiation on the H.P.
 Angle of incidence 𝜽𝒊 : It is
the angle between beam radiation
on a surface & normal to that
surface.
 Solar altitude angle 𝜶𝒔 : It is
the angle between the sun ray and
its projection in a horizontal plane.
It is complement to the zenith
angle (i.e. 𝜶𝒔 + 𝜽𝒛 = 𝟗𝟎°).
 LATITUDE, SEASON AND DAILY
INSOLATION
 Daily insolation (H): It is the
total energy per unit area
received in one day from the sun:
𝒕=𝟐𝟒𝒉
𝑯= 𝑮𝒅𝒕 → (𝟏)
𝒕=𝟎𝒉
 Effects of φ and δ: The
seasonal variation is most
significant at high latitudes, as
shown in Fig. The length of day
(N), defined as number of hours
between sunrise & sunset, varies
as:
𝟐
𝑵= 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 (− 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝓 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜹) → (𝟐)
𝟏𝟓 Fig. : Variation with φ
 LATITUDE, SEASON AND DAILY INSOLATION
Cont.

 Role of orientation of receiving surface: The horizontal plane at a

certain location is oriented much more towards the solar beam in
summer than in winter owing to the role of 𝜽𝒛 given as:
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝒛 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝓 − 𝜹) → (𝟑)
 Effect of zenith angle on atmospheric attenuation: The amount
of attenuation of solar radiation depends on the distance that the solar
radiation travels through the earth’s atmosphere. Atmospheric
attenuation is directly related to zenith angle, and thus increases with 𝜽𝒛 .
An expression involving the 𝜽𝒛 is:
𝑨𝑩
 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝜽𝒛
𝑨𝑪
𝜃𝑧
 ANGLE BETWEEN BEAM AND
COLLECTOR

 Solar Modeling: It is performed through the following equation

involving the various attributes:
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝒊 = 𝑨 − 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹 + 𝑪 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎 + 𝑫 + 𝑬 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹 → (𝟏)

Where

𝐴 = sin 𝜙 cos 𝛽

𝐵 = cos 𝜙 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛾

𝐶 = sin 𝛽 sin 𝛾

𝐷 = cos 𝜙 cos 𝛽

𝐸 = sin 𝜙 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛾

 EXAMPLE
Calculate the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a surface
located at Glasgow (56˚N, 4˚W) at 10 a.m. on 1 February, if the
surface is oriented 20˚ east of south and tilted at 40˚ to the
horizontal.
Solution:
Hints: n = 32 (1 February), Thus
 Also 𝜔 can be calculated at 10 AM, which is −30°
 Thus from the Eqn. given below, 𝜃𝑖 may be calculated:

cos 𝜃𝑖 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 sin 𝛿 + 𝐶 sin 𝜔 + 𝐷 + 𝐸 cos 𝜔 cos 𝛿

𝜽𝒊 = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟓°
 OPTIMUM ORIENTATION OF A
COLLECTOR
 A concentrating collector should always point towards the
direction of the solar beam (i.e. 𝜽𝒊 = 𝟎). However, the optimum
direction of a fixed flat plate collector may not be obvious, because
the collector insolation (𝑯𝒄 ) is the sum of both the beam and the
diffuse components:

𝑯𝒄 = 𝑮∗𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + 𝑮𝒅 𝒅𝒕

where * denotes the plane perpendicular to the beam.

 A suitable fixed collector orientation for most purposes is facing

the equator (e.g. due north in the southern hemisphere) with a
slope equal to the latitude. As the angle of solar noon varies
considerably over the year, it is sensible to adjust the ‘fixed’
collector slope month by month.
 HOURLY VARIATION OF IRRADIANCE
 The variation of solar radiation on
a horizontal plane (𝑮𝒉 ) for clear
and cloudy days is given in Fig.
1(a) & Fig. 1(b), respectively.
 On clear days the form of Fig. 1(a)
follows the relation given as:
𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝝅𝒕
𝑮𝒉 ≈ 𝑮𝒉 𝒔𝒊𝒏 → (𝟏)
𝑵
where 𝑡 = time after sunrise &
N = the duration of daylight for a
particular clear day.
 Integrating Eqn.(1) over the
daylight period (N) for a clear day,

𝑯𝒉 ≈ 𝟐𝑵 𝝅 𝑮𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒉 → (𝟐)
Fig. 1: variation of solar radiation
 AIR-MASS-RATIO
 The increased mass encountered,
compared with standard mass (i.e.
mass that caused by normal path
due to the normal incidence of
direct beam, if the beam is at 𝜽𝒛 ) is
called the air-mass-ratio or air-
mass, with symbol m. The
abbreviation AM is also used for
air-mass. It, basically, a distance Fig. 1: Air-mass-ratio
travelled by the sun’s rays to reach
the earth’s surface.
 If the distance-dependent density
is ρ(s) then the actual optical mass,
ma, can be expressed as:
∞
𝒎𝒂 = 𝝆 𝒔 𝒅𝒔 → (𝟏)
𝟎
 AIR-MASS-RATIO Cont.
 If the sun is at its zenith at a location then Eq. (1) can be written as:
∞
𝒎𝒛 = 𝝆 𝒛 𝒅𝒛 → (𝟐)
𝟎
where z is the distance on the zenith direction.

 If the path is different than the zenith direction then its optical path can
be expressed as the ratio, m, of Eqs. (1) & (2):

∞
𝒎𝒂 𝟎
𝝆 𝒔 𝒅𝒔
𝒎= = ∞ → (𝟑)
𝒎𝒛 𝝆 𝒛 𝒅𝒛
𝟎

 From Fig. (1) it is clear that: 𝒎𝒛 = 𝒎𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝒛

𝒎 = 𝑨𝑴 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝜽𝒛 → (𝟒)
CASES: 𝒊 𝒎𝒂 = 𝟎; 𝒊𝒊 𝒎𝒂 = 𝒎𝒛 ; 𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒎𝒂 ≠ 𝒎𝒛 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒎𝒂 > 𝒎𝒛
 AIR-MASS-RATIO Cont.
AM Condition Radiation flux (W/m2)

AM0 Extraterrestrial 1367 to 1376

AM1 Sun at overhead position 1105

AM1.5 Sun at about 48⁰ from overhead position 1000

AM2 Sun at about 60⁰ from overhead position 894

 ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION AND
RELATED PROCESSES
As the solar short wave radiation passes through the Earth’s atmosphere, a
complicated set of interactions occurs. The interactions include absorption,
scattering, and reflection. These processes are outlined in Fig. 1, while the
effects and interactions are summarized as follows:
 Reflection: On average, about 30% of the extraterrestrial solar
intensity is reflected back into space (i.e. 𝝆𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟑, where subscript 0
denotes values outside the atmosphere in space). This reflectance 𝝆𝟎
(into space) is called the albedo, and varies with atmospheric conditions
and angle of incidence.
 Greenhouse effect, climate change and long wave radiation: At
thermal equilibrium, the power received is equal to the power radiated
from the Earth system, of emittance 𝜺 = 𝟏 and mean (equilibrium)
temperature 𝑻𝒆 , as observed from space i.e.
𝝅𝑹𝟐 𝟏 − 𝝆𝟎 𝑮𝟎 = 𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟐 𝝇𝑻𝟒𝒆 → (𝟏)
Where R = radius of the earth
 ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION AND RELATED
PROCESSES Cont.

Fig. 1: Effects of extraterrestrial

radiations on atmosphere.
 ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION AND RELATED
PROCESSES Cont.

 Thus, in space, the long wave radiation from the Earth has approximately
the spectral distribution of a black body at 250 K. The peak spectral
distribution at this temperature occurs at 10 𝝁𝒎, and the distribution
does not overlap with the solar distribution (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Short (including visible) and long wave (far infrared) spectral
distributions at the top of the atmosphere.
 ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION AND RELATED
PROCESSES Cont.
 It is obvious from Fig. 2 that a definite distinction can be made
between the spectral distribution (i) of the Sun’s radiation (short
wave) and (ii) that of the thermal sources (long waves).
 The infrared long wave fluxes at the Earth’s surface are themselves
complex and large. The atmosphere radiates both down to this
surface and up into space.
 During radiation measuring or energy balance of an area of ground,
it is important to be aware of the invisible infrared fluxes in the
environment, reaching at intensities of ∼1kW m-2.
 The black body temperature of the Earth’s system in space is
effectively that of the outer atmosphere and not of the ground and
sea surface.
 The Earth’s average surface temperature is about 40⁰C greater than
the effective temperature of the outer atmosphere.
 ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION AND RELATED
PROCESSES Cont.

 Actually, the atmosphere acts as an infrared blanket, because some of its

gases absorb long wave radiation. This increase in surface temperature
(relative to what it would be without the atmosphere) is called the
greenhouse effect, and the gases responsible for it are called greenhouse
gases (GHG).
 The glass of a horticultural glasshouse (a greenhouse) likewise prevents
the transmission of infrared radiation from inside to out, but does allow
the short wave solar radiation to be transmitted.
 Thus the Earth’s atmosphere is not only a source and sink of chemical
substances for life, it provides the physical mechanisms for controlling the
environmental temperature at which life continues and at which water
for life remains liquid.
 Absorption in the atmosphere: In order to explain the
absorption processes, the solar short wave and the atmospheric long
wave spectral distributions may be divided into regions:
 ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION AND RELATED
PROCESSES Cont.
 Short wave ultraviolet region (𝝀 < 𝟎. 𝟑𝝁𝒎): Solar radiation is
completely removed at sea level by absorption in O2, O3, O and N2 gases and
ions.
 Near ultraviolet region (𝟎. 𝟑𝝁𝒎 < 𝝀 < 𝟎. 𝟒μm): Only a little
radiation is transmitted, but enough to cause sunburn.
 Visible region (𝟎. 𝟒𝝁𝒎 < 𝝀 < 𝟎. 𝟕μm): The pure atmosphere is
almost totally transparent to visible radiation, and becomes an open
‘window’ for solar energy to reach the earth. About half of the solar
irradiance is in this spectral region as shown in Fig. 3. However, aerosol
particulate matter (PM) and pollutant gases can cause significant
absorption effects.
 Near infrared region (𝟎. 𝟕𝝁𝒎 < 𝝀 < 𝟐. 𝟓μm): About 50% of
the extraterrestrial solar radiation is in this region. Up to about 20% of
this may be absorbed, mostly by water vapor and also by carbon dioxide
(CO2) in the atmosphere as shown in Fig. 3.
 ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION AND RELATED
PROCESSES Cont.

 Far infrared region λ > 𝟏𝟐 μ𝒎 : The atmosphere is almost

completely opaque in this part of the spectrum.

Fig. 3: Spectral distributions of solar irradiance received above

the atmosphere (upper curve) and at sea level (lower curve).
 MEASUREMENTS OF SOLAR
RADIATION
 Some useful instruments used for measuring the solar radiation are
listed in Tables. They are basically divided into two categories:
a) Pyroheliometer: An instrument using a collimated detector for
measuring the beam irradiance at normal incidence. It is also known as
actinometer.
b) Pyranometer or solarimeter: An instrument used for measuring
total irradiance (beam + diffuse), usually on a horizontal surface.
 Only the active cavity radiometer (ACR) gives an absolute reading. In this
instrument, the solar beam falls on an absorbing surface of area A, whose
temperature increase is measured and compared with the temperature
increase in an identical absorber heated electrically. In principle, we may
write:
𝜶𝑨𝑮∗𝒃 = 𝑷𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄 → (𝟏)
where 𝜶 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟗
MEASUREMENTS OF SOLAR
RADIATION Cont.
MEASUREMENTS OF SOLAR
RADIATION Cont.
Thanks