Flat Bread Technology PDF

FLAT
BREAD
TECHNOLOGY
JOIN US ON THE INTERNET
WWW: http://www.thomson.com
EMAIL: findit@kiosk.thomson.com
thomson. com is the on-line portal for the products, services and
resources available from International Thomson Publishing (ITP).
This Internet kiosk gives users immediate access to more than 34 ITP
publishers and over 20,000 products. Through thomson. com Internet
users can search catalogs, examine subject-specific resource centers
and subscribe to electronic discussion lists. You can purchase ITP
products from your local bookseller, or directly through thomson. com.
Visit our Internet Resource Center for information on our new publications, links to
useful sites on the World Wide Web and an opportunity to join our e-mail mailing
list. Point your browser to: http://www.chaphall.com/chaphall.html or
http://www.chaphall.com/chaphall/foodsci.html for Food Science
A service of I ® p®
FLAT
BREAD
TECHNOLOGY
JalaI ~rooni
Consultant, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
CHAPMAN & HALL
I CD p® International Thomson Publishing

New York. Albany. Bonn. Boston. Cincinnati. Detroit. London. Madrid. Melbourne
Mexico City. Pacific Grove. Paris. San Francisco. Singapore. Tokyo. Toronto. Wasbington
Cover Design: Andrea Meyer, emDASH inc.
Copyright © 1996
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover I st edition 1996
Chapman & Hall
Printed in the United States of America
For more information, contact:
Chapman & Hall Chapman & Hall
115 Fifth Avenue 2-6 Boundary Row
New York, NY 10003 London SEi 8HN
England
Thomas Nelson Australia
102 Dodds Street Chapman & Hall GmbH
South Melbourne, 3205 Postfach 100 263
Victoria, Australia 0-69442 Weinheim
Germany
Nelson Canada
International Thomson Publishing Asia
1120 Birchmount Road
221 Henderson Road #05-10
Scarborough, Ontario
Henderson Building
Canada, MIK 5G4
Singapore 0315
International Thomson Editores International Thomson Publishing-Japan
Campos Eliseos 385, Piso 7 Hirakawacho-cho Kyowa Building, 3F
Col. Polanco 1-2-1 Hirakawacho-cho
11560 Mexico D.E Chiyoda-ku, 102 Tokyo
Mexico Japan
All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any
form or by any means-graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or
information storage and retrieval systems-without the written permission of the publisher.
I 23456789 10 XXX 01 00 99 97 96
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Qarooni,lalal
Flat bread technology / lalal Qarooni
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-8498-7 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4613-1175-1
001: 10.1007/978-1-4613-1175-1
I. Bread. 2.Cookery, International. I. Title.
TX769.Q27 1996
641.8'15-dc20 95-44918
CIP
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data available
To order this or any other Chapman & Hall book, please contact International Thomson Publishing, 7625
Empire Drive, Florence, KY 41042. Phone: (606) 525-6600 or 1-800-842-3636.
Fax: (606) 525-7778, e-mail: order@chaphall.com.
For a complete listing of Chapman & Hall's titles, send your requests to
Chapman & Hall, Dept. BC, 115 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10003.
This book is dedicated to the
farmers, millers, and bakers of the world
Contents
Dedication v
Preface xiii
CHAPTER 1
Cereal Grains in Flat Bread Production 1
Introduction 1
Wheat 2
Corn 5
Rye 7
Barley 10
Sorghum 11
Pearl Millet 12
Rice 13
References 16
CHAPTER 2
Cereal Milling and Flour Production
for Flat Breads 19
Introduction and Historical Background 19
Wheat Milling and Flour Extraction 20
viii Flat Bread Technology
Effect of Wheat Milling Variables on Flour and Flat

Bread Quality 22
Corn Milling to Flour and Masa Production 28
Production of Masa (Corn Dough) 29
Production of Rye, Sorghum, Millet, Barley, and
Rice Flour 30
Rye Milling 30
Barley Milling 32
Sorghum and Millet Milling 33
Rice Milling 33
References 34
CHAPTER 3
Properties and Functions of Sourdough and
Noncereal Ingredients in Flat
Bread Production 37
Introduction 37
Sourdough and Leavening Agents 37
Organisms Involved in Food Fermention 39
Bacteria 39
The Tribe Streptococceae 39
The Tribe Lactobacillacilleae 41
The Family Propionibacteriaceae 42
Yeast 42
Mold 42
The Functionality of Microorganisms in Sourdough
Bread Production 43
Sourdough in Flat Bread Production 44
Technology of Sourdough Production 44
Shortening 49
Emulsifiers 51
Definition and Classification of Emulsifiers 52
Surface-Active Emulsifiers 53
Naturally Occurring Materials 57
Legumes 60
Potato flour 62
References 62
Contents ix
CHAPTER 4
Flat Breads 67
Introduction 67
Classification and Processing of Flat Breads 68
Dough-Based, Single-Layered Flat Breads 72
Arepa and Corn Tortilla 72
Barbari Bread 75
BaUaw 78
Bazlama 78
Candy Bread 78
CiabaUa 80
Chapati 80
English Muffins 81
Focaccia (Boboli) 82
Gomme 83
Hillalla 83
Kalachi 83
Khobz EI-Daar 84
Korsan 84
Lao Bing 86
Lavash 86
Malouge 86
Matlowa 87
Matzo 87
Meat Bread 87
Moroccan Whole Wheat Bread 87
Paratha 88
Pizza and Pizza Crust 88
The Pressing (Stamping) Method 90
The Sheeting and Die-Cut Method 92
Purl 93
Rice Bread (Lakoy) 93
Rye Flat Bread 94
Saiki 97
Samoli 98
Sangak 98
Shamsy or Sunny Bread 99
Tanoor Bread 99
x Flat Bread Technology
Tamees 101
Terabelsi 101
Tortillas (Wheat Flour) 10 1
Tortilla de Harina 106
Yufka 106
Batter-Based Flat Breads (Leavened) 106
Blintzes 107
Crepes 107
Crumpets or Pikelets 108
Dosai 109
Injera 109
Kisra 112
Pancakes and Waffles 112
Quesadella 112
Rogag 115
References 115
CHAPTER 5
Double-Layered Flat Breads 121
Arabic (Pita) Bread 121
Dough Mixing 123
Bulk Fermentation 126
Intermediate Proofing 127
Dough Sheeting 128
Final Proofing 130
Baking 132
Cooling and Packaging 136
Baladi Bread 137
References 139
CHAPTER 6
Quality of Flat Breads 141
Quality Requirement of Flat Breads 141
Quality Assessment of Flat Breads 142
Flour Quality Requirement for Flat Breads 146
Contents xi
Comparison of Flat Bread Quality Prepared in a Laboratory

and Commercial Bakery 150
Shelf Life of Flat Bread 151
References 156
Appendices
Appendix I Formulation and Processing Steps of Selected Flat
Breads 159
Appendix II Conversion of Common Units to International
System of Units (SI) 175
Appendix IlIA Suppliers of Leavening Agents in the United
States and Canada 177
Appendix IIIB Suppliers of Dough Strengtheners and Crumb
Softeners in the United States and Canada 179
Appendix IIIC Suppliers of Gums. Thickeners. and Stabilizers
in the United States and Canada 181
Appendix IIID Suppliers of Oxidixing Agents in the United
Appendix IIIE Suppliers of Reducing Agents in the United
Appendix IIIF Suppliers of Enzymes in the United States and
Canada 187
Appendix IIIG Suppliers of Mold Inhibitors in the United
Appendix IIIH Suppliers of Acidulants in the United States
and Canada 191
Appendix IV Suppliers of Makeup Equipment and Ovens for
Pita (Arabic). Pizza and Tortilla Production Lines in the United
Appendix V Suppliers' Addresses. Phone and Fax
Numbers 195
Preface
Flat breads are the most popular breads throughout the

world. It is estimated that the number of people consuming vari-
ous types of traditional flat bread reaches over 1.B billion. This
includes the population of Central America, where tortillas pre-
pared from com and wheat are consumed daily; the countries of
southern Europe, where pizza, focaccia, ciabatta, and pita are
popular products; the Scandinavian countries, where many types
of traditional and crisp flat breads made from rye, barley, wheat
and other cereal grains are popular; the countries of north Africa,
where khobz el-daar, baladi, kisra, shamsi, injera, and many
other flat breads are popular; the countries of the Middle East,
Turkey, Iran, and the southern states ofthe former Soviet Union
(Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajik-
stan), where many types of flat breads from a wide range of cereal
grain, mainly wheat, have a long tradition of being the daily
breads; the countries of Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Bangla-
desh, and parts of China, where chapati, tandoor, naan, dosai,
etc. provide the essential nutrients for the masses. The consump-
tion of flat breads is not limited to these countries. The popularity
of pizza, pita and recently tortillas in the United States, Canada,
Europe, Australia, and other countries is a clear indication of the
future market value of these, and all other natural, high-fiber,
healthy flat breads.
xiv Flat Bread Technology
Although flat breads are popular worldwide, a very limited

number of resources are available that discuss the function of
their ingredients, processing steps, quality assessment, and shelf
life of the final products. The purpose of this book is to provide
an in-depth knowledge and know-how of flat breads to a wide
range of readers, from breeders of cereal grain to technical person-
nel of milling and baking industries, ingredients suppliers, as
well as students of food and cereal technologies.
Chapter 1 provides the historic background of various grains,
and their structure and chemical compositions. The effect of the
milling process to flour, and the production of mas a is discussed
in chapter 2. Chapter 3 provides a thorough background discus-
sion of the different microorganisms involved and the method of
sourdough production, as well as the different types of synthetic
and naturally occurring emulsifiers and other flat bread ingredi-
ents. The technology of flat bread production is discussed in chap-
ters 4 and 5. The former chapter is aSSigned to discuss the classi-
fication of flat breads and the technology of single-layered breads
prepared from a dough and a batter of raw materials. Chapter 5
discusses the processing of double-layered flat bread, mainly pita
(ArabiC) and sourdough-based baladi bread. Chapter 6 describes
the quality criteria for the most popular breads and their cereal
and flour requirements for optimum quality production, as well
as their shelf life stability.
I would like to express my appreciation to the individuals
who gave me permission to reprint some ofthe figures and tables.
My special thanks to my wife, MaIjaneh Talebi, for her encour-
agement and support, and long hours she spent developing the
computer-generated figures. Further, my sincere thanks to Dr.
Eleanor Riemer of Chapman & Hall for her contribution in the
publication of this book.
Jalal Qarooni
CHAPTER ONE
Cereal Grains in Flat

Bread Production
Introduction
The various flat breads made from all types of cereal grain
are probably among the oldest food products prepared by man.
Before commerce between ancient civilizations became a reality,
cereal grains cultivated in distinct parts of the world were made
into different types of flat breads, which constituted the major
sources of nourishment. Today, wheat and barley are the essen-
tial ingredients in a large number of flat breads in many parts of
western and central Asia, southern Europe, and North Africa.
Flat breads are prepared from sorghum and millet flour in many
parts of Africa. Corn and corn flour are the basic ingredients for
tortilla and arepa production in the Americas. Rye, barley, and
oats constitute the essential ingredient for a variety of flat breads
in many parts of Europe, especially the Scandinavian countries.
Flat breads from rice flour are still prepared in many Asian coun-
tries.
Because of the utilization of all cereal grains in flat bread
production, this chapter discusses the origin, historical back-
ground, structure, and composition of various cereal grains used
in flat bread production.
J. Qarooni, Flat Bread Technology
© Chapman & Hall 1996
2 Flat Bread Technology
Wheat
The exact location of ancient wheat cultivation is not known

with certainty. From archeological excavations it appears to have
originated either in Syria-Palestine or a little farther to the north
along the southern parts of Anatolia. Wheat cultivation spread
in two directions, from Palestine to Egypt and from northern Mes-
opotamia to Iran, where bread wheat was first developed. Growth
of bread wheat spread from Iran in all directions, to southern
Mesopotamia, to India, and to Russian Turkestan and from there
to China and southern Russia (Storck and Teague, 1952). In
Egypt, 26,000 to 30,000 square kilometers of land were culti-
vated. According to Weaver (1950) and Takahashi (1955), for a
time barley was grown more extenSively than wheat and appar-
ently was more highly regarded as human food. Drawings from
the Fifth-Dynasty tombs ofTi and Meeruka, 2600-2500 B.C. (Fig-
ure 1.1 ), show a series of fann activities indicating that barley
or emmer wheat was grown and harvested in ancient Egypt. The
top section depicts the plowing methods and tools, the two middle
sections indicate seed stamping, harvesting, and carrying the har-
vest, and the lowennost section shows grain threshing with ani-
mals as well as grain cleaning activities (Stork and Teague, 1952).
Wheat is a member of the species Triticum, which is divided
into three distictive groups, each having a specific number of
chromosomes that cany all the hereditary characteristics of the
family. The three groups are: A. The 14-chromosome group, dip-
loid (2n = 2x = 14), which appears only in wild and cultivated
einkorn, B, the 28-chromosome group, tetraplOid (2n = 4x = 28),
which appears in wild and cultivated emmer and durum wheats;
C, the 42-chromosome group, hexaplOid (2n = 6x = 42), which
includes bread wheat. Chromosomes from one parent combine
with chromosomes from the other in a set of seven pair blocks
called genomes.
The species in the tetraploid group originated from the combi-
nation of two diplOid species. The hexaplOid group originated from
the addition of an extra genome to the tetraploids. The hexaploid
species include Triticum compactum or club wheat, T. spelta, and
T. vulgare or common wheat (Poehlman, 1959).
Cereal Grains 3
Figure 1.1 Barley or wheat cultivation in ancient Egypt.
The physical appearance of wheat kernels varies widely.

Wheat kernels range from 5 to 8 mm in length. 2.5 to 4.5 mm in
width, and 20 to 60 mg in weight. The color ranges from beige
(known as white wheat) to dark reddish-brown (known as red
wheat). Depending on various forces between the components of
the endosperm, kernels can be soft or hard textured. Figures 1.2
and l.3 show the structure of the wheat kernel.
The common concentration ranges of the major components
in U.S. wheat are shown in Table 1.1. These differ significantly
Endosperm
Pigment Strand
Bran
Germ
Endosperm
Cell filled with Starch

Granules in Protein Matrix
Cellulose Walls of Cells

Aleurone Cell Layers
(part of endosperm but
separated with bran)
Nucellar Tissue
Seed Coat (Testa)
Tube Cells
Cross Cells
Hypodermis
Epidermis
Scutellum
Sheath Shoot
Rudimentary
Primary Root
Root Sheath
Root Cap
Figure 1.2 Longitudinal and cross sections of the wheat kernel. «(our-
tesy of the Wheat Flour Institute, Washington, D.C.)
4
Cereal Grains 5
Pericarp (fruit coat) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Outer
1. Epidermis (epicarp)
2. Hypodermis
3. Remnants of thin-walled cells
Wheat Inner
kernel - - - 4. Intermediate cells
(caryopsis) 5. Cross cells
-Bran
6. Tube cells
Seed coat (testa, spermoderm, tegmen)

and pigment strand
Nucellar epidermis (hyaline layer,

perisperm) and nucellar projection
Seed - - - Endosperm
1. Aleurone layer
2. Starchy endosperm - - - - - - - - - - '
Scutellum (cotyledon)
1. Epithelium
E
2. Parenchyma
3. Provascular tissues
Plumule, including
coleoptile
Germ - - - Embryonic axis - - - Primary root, covered

(embryo) by coleorhiza
. Secondary lateral
rootlets
Epiblast
Figure 1.3 Parts of the wheat kernel. (From MacMaster et al. 1971. Re-
printed with permission.)
in each part of the kernel (Table 1.2). The highest level of soluble
carbohydrate is in the endospenn. which also contains the lowest
levels of fiber. fat. and vitamins.
Corn
Corn (Zea mays) is a native plant of the Americas. that porba-

bly originated in the highlands of Peru. Ecuador. and Bolivia or
the regions of southern Mexico and Central America. Corn has
two close relatives: gamagrass (Tripsacuml. which has either 18
or 36 pairs of chromosomes and. teosinte (Euchlaenal. which has
Table 1.1 Ranges of Major Components in U.S. Wheat"-
Range of Analytical Results, %

Component Low High
Protein (N X 5.7) 7.0 18.0

Mineral matter (ash) 1.5 2.0
Lipids (fat) 1.5 2.0
Starch 60.0 68.0
Cellulose (crude fiber) 2.0 2.5
Moisture 8.0 18.0
• Data assembled from several sources.

Source: Matz, 1991. Reprinted with permission
Table 1.2 Composition of Major Parts of Wheat Kernel
Soluble
Part of carbo-
Kernel Protein hydrates Fiber Fat Vitamin 8, /ulg
Endosperm 12.0% 72.25% o to 0.2% 1.2% 0.1
Pericarp
22.0%
Pure Bran 16.8% 40.0% { 5.0% 1.5-2.0
Seed coat
10.0%
Scutellum
40
Germ 25.9% 43.8% 1.9% 10.8% {
Embryo
4
Source: Lockwood, 1962.
10 pairs of chromosomes and grows in MexiCO and Guatemala

(Poehlman, 1959). Corn kernels vary in size and shape according
to their genetic background and position on the ear. The average
kernel from the center of an ear measures about 4 mm thick, 8
mm long, and 12 mm wide (Watson, 1987).
Based on the quality, quantity, and pattern of endosperm
Cereal Grains 7
POPCORN FLINT DENT FLOUR

_ HORNY STARCH D SOFT STARCH a GERM
Figure 1.4 Types of corn (From USDA, 1979).
composition (Figure 1.4), corn is divided into six groups (Johnson,

1991). (1) Dent corn is characterized by the presence of corneous
endosperm at the sides and back and soft, floury endosperm at
the center of the kernel. White and yellow dent corns are available,
the former is more desirable for white foods products. (2) Flint
corn is characterized by hard horny endosperm surrounding the
central portion of soft starchy endosperm. (3) Popcorn is the most
primitive type and is characterized by small kernels of hard corne-
ous endosperm. (4) Flour corn has a soft endosperm that occupies
the whole kernel. (5) Sweet corn contains certain genes responsi-
ble for retarding the normal conversion of sugar to starch. (6) Pod
corn is an ornamental type and is not grown commercially. Figure
1.5 and Table 1.3 illustrate the structure and composition of
whole corn and various parts of dent corn, respectively.
Rye
Rye is considered a grain of cold climates. It grows well in

Northen and Eastern Europe, where the temperature sometimes
drops below freezing (Evans, 1976 cited by Zohary and Hopf,
1988). Rye has a high resistance to drought and can grow in poor
soil. It is a member of the genus Secale. The most cultivated
species of rye is S. cereale, which has seven pairs of chromosomes
(2n = 2x = 14). However, a tetraploid with 14 pairs of chromo-
BRAN
Epidermis _j'i~~~g~ ENIIlO!SPE:RM
Mesocarp .............. 'rLI
Cross Cells ENDOSPERM
Tube Cells r\:~I-_ Horny Endosperm
Seed Coat (Testa) ~l;.\.W:~"":;o~fIff1f-- Floury Endosperm
Aleurone Layer Cells Filled with Starch
(part of endosperm but Granules in Protein Matrix
separated with bran)
~lff~~:i;;,m-- Walls of Cells
GERM
Scutellum
P[umuleor
Rudimentary
Shoot and Leaves
Radicle or
Primary Root
~lIr-- Pericarp
Homey FlOUry
Endosperm Endosperm
Figure 1.5 Structure of the corn kernel. (From Johnson, 1991. Re-
printed, with permission.)
somes is grown to a limited extent (Bushuk. 1976; Matz. 1991a).

The mature grain of rye is 6 to 8 mm long and 2 to 3 mm wide.
Commonly. rye grain has a grayish-yellow color. It is free-thresh-
ing and without a hull. Similar to wheat. the rye kernel consists
of pericarp. seed coat, epidermis. and embryo attached to the
endosperm and aleurone layer (Figure 1.6). Table 1.4 shows the
composition of rye grain. bran. and flour at three levels of ex-
traction.
Table 1.3 Weight and Component Parts of Dent Com Kernels From Seven Midwest Hybrids'
Percent Composition of Kernel Parts (% db)
Dry
Weight
of Whole Unaccounted
Part Kernel Starch Fat Protein Ash Sugar For
Endosperm
Mean 82.9 87.6 0.80 8.0 0.30 0.62 2.7
Range 81.8-83.5 86.4-88.9 0.7-1.0 6.9-10.4 0.2-0.5 0.5-0.8
Germ
Mean 11.1 8.3 33.2 18.4 10.5 10.8 8.8
co Range 10.2-11.9 5.1-10.0 31.1-35.1 17.3-19.0 9.9-11.3 10.0-12.5
Pericarp (bran)
Mean 5.3 7.3 1.0 3.7 0.8 0.34 86.7
Range 5.1-5.7 3.5-10.4 0.7-1.2 2.9-3.9 0.4-1.0 0.2-0.4
Tip cap 9.8
Mean 0.8 5.3 b 3.8 9.9 1.6 1.6 78.6
Range 0.8-1.1 3.7-3.9 9.1-10.7 1.4-2.0
Whole kernels
Mean 100 73.4 4.4 9.8 1.4 1.9 9.8
Range 67.8-74.0 3.9-5.8 8.1-11.5 1.37-1.5 1.61-2.22
• Data of samples 1-6 and 8 in Earle et al. (1946).
b Composite.
Source: Earle et aI., 1946.

CREASE
~UI..:."--BRUSH
~~=::t:~~ CUTICLE
EPIDERMIS
HYPODERMIS
~i~Ir-"''' THIN WALLED CELLS
a
~~t- ..
CROSS CELLS
!Wiit-ll-~ TESTA
~eit-~ NUCELLAR
EPIDERMIS
1----1
O.5mm
~~~~~~ES-""-I~~~~i+'i!'t+.....~ ALEURONE CELLS
~!J:t::l: TUBE CELLS
o,ft PERIPHERAL
ENDOSPERM
PRISMATIC
CELL WALL . .--IrIN~ ENDOSPERM
.....1f'oo'IO"t-..
PERICARP
Figure 1.6 Longitudinal and cross-sections of the rye kernel. (From Sali-
bury and Campbell, 1976. Reprinted with permission.)
Barley
Barley is one of the oldest grains domesticated by man. A

type of barley similar to that grown today was cultivated in Ancient
Egypt as early as 18,300 years ago (Matz 1991b). Barley grows
in a wide range of climates and altitudes, for example, in arid
conditions of the Sahara and high altitudes of Tibet, and is toler-
ant to alkali soil, drought. and frost (Poehlman, 1959). Vavilov
(1951), cited by Poelhman (1959), suggested two areas as the
Cereal Grains 11
Table 1.4 Composition of Whole Rye and Its Milled Products (on a
15% Moisture Basis).
% Extraction
Component 100 85 75 60
Total N 1.40 1.28 1.17 0.99

Protein(N x 5.7) 7.98 7.30 6.67 5.64
Fat 1.98 1.64 1.33 1.01
Carbohydrate (Starch) 69.0 73.0 75.0 78.0
Fiber 1.56 0.84 0.48 0.22
Source: Extracted from McCance et ai., 1945.
original centers of barley cultivation: Ethiopia and North Africa

or China. Japan. and Tibet. The latter areas are considered the
places of origin for hull-less barley.
The cultivated barley species Hordeum vulgar (six row), H.
distichum (two row), and H. irregulare (irregular) are diploids (2n =
14) . However. tetraploid species with 14 pairs of chromosomes
also exist (Takashaki. 1955).
Sorghum
Cultivated species of sorghum have been classified (Harlan

and Stemler. 1976) into five basic races of Sorghum bicolor. S.
guinea. S. caudatum, S. kafir. and S. durra and 10 intermediate
races. Sorghum bicolor has been grown for more than 5000 years
in the vicinity of lake Chad and the western part of Ethiopia.
Sorghum spread to east to India and China and west to Europe.
A kernel of sorghum (Figure 1.7) weighs 3 to 80 mg and has
a spherical shape. The typical dimensions are 4 mm long. 2 mm
wide. and 2.5 mm thick. The weight of 1000 kernels varies from
25 to 35 mg. It appears in tan. red. brown. or white color. White
sorghum (kafir) has a smaller size kernel and is the most suitable
for traditional foods (Rooney and Serna-Saldivar. 1990; Matz.
1991c). Shown in Table 1.5 is the composition of early and recent
sorghum grain collected from several sources by Matz (l991c).
Sorghum grain has a reduced nutritional value because it
S.A.
ALEURONE
LAYER
TESTA
EPICARP
MESOCARP
CROSS CELLS
TUBE CELLS
HILUM
Figure 1.7 Longitudinal section of the sorghum kernel. (From Rooney,
1973. Reprinted with permission.)
contains phenolic compounds. Two types of such compounds,

phenolic acid and flavonoids, exist either in all or in most sor-
ghums, respectively. Tannins, the third type of phenolic com-
pound, are present in brown sorghum. This makes it resistant to
birds and reduces its mold infestation and sprouting potential
(Rooney and Serna-Saldivar, 1990).
Pearl Millet
Pearl millet is the most important and widely grown species
of millet. Other common names for this cereal are bulrush millet,
Cereal Grains 13
Table 1.5 Composition of Sorghum Grain"

Range
Component Early Recent Average
Moisture 8-20 11-14 15.5

Protein 6.6-16.0 7.5-9.0 11.2
Fat 1.4-6.1 2.7-3.5 3.7
Ash 1.2-7.1 1.3-1.7 1.5
Reducing sugars 0.4-2.5 1.8
Starch 60-77 74.1
Crude fiber 0.4-13.4 1.4-1.8 2.6
Tannin 0.003-0.17 0.1
Wax 0.2-0.5 0.3
Pentosans 1.8-4.9 2.5
• Data of Miller (1958), Werler (1967), and Watson (1967).
Data in percent, reducing sugars as dextrose.
Source: Malz, 1991. Reprinted with permission
spiked millet, cattail millet, and bajra. Pearl millet was domesti-
cated 5000 years ago in the Sahel zone of West Mrica, Ethiopia,
and the central Saharan highlands. The cultivation of this grain
then spread to East Mrica and to India and Pakistan (Poehlman,
1987; Matz, 1991d). Millet and sorghum are similar cereals and,
in dry climates where sorghum performs badly, millet can grow
successfully.
Pearl millet (Pennisetum americanum), with seven pairs of
chromosomes (2n = 2x = 14) has tear-shaped seeds with an aver-
age weight of9 mg and length and width of 1.5 mm (Shellenberger,
1980). The most common color is slate-green; however, it can
vary from yellow to green.
Rice
Rice (Oryza sativa) originated in parts of southeast Asia. It

has been cultivated in China since 2800 B.C. and in India since
1000 B.C. Rice cultivation then spread to the Middle East, Mrica,
and Europe (Ghose et al. 1956, cited by Matz, 1991). It grows
best in humid tropical and subtropical climates. The cultivated
Flowering Glume
Palea
Starchy Endosperm
C
Aleurone Layer
Testa
ross Layer
Peri carp Mesocarp
Epicarp
C
Hull (Glume & Palea)
Scutelium
Epiblast
Embryo Plumule
Radicle
Non-Flowering Glumes
Figure 1.8 Structure of the rice grain. (From Grist, 1983. Reprinted with
permission.)
species of O. sativa with 12 pairs of chromosomes (2n = 2x = 24)

grow in widely diverse geographical and climate conditions. Based
on morphological and physiological characteristics (Poehlman,
1986), three types of O. sativa have been identified: the tropical
type, O. sativa indica; the temperate type, 0. sativajaponica, and
the intermediate type, O. sativajavanica. Figure 1.8 and Table 1.6
illustrate the structure and composition of rice grain, respectively
(Grist, 1983).
Table 1.6 Composition of Rice-Husked and Polished (Percentage. on Moisture-free Basis)
Husked Milled Losses on milling and polishing
Component Platt Kik Rosedale Platt Kik Rosedale Platt Kik Rosedale
and and and
Williams Williams Williams
.....
CJ1
Fat 2.45 2.0 2.23 0.37 0.3 0.4 84.9 84.6 86.5
Crude fiber 0.88 1.0 0.6 0.16 0.2 0.4 81.8 79.1 33.3
Ash 1.22 1.9 1.19 0.36 0.4 0.9 70.5 78.5 24.1
Protein 8.67 8.9 9.54 8.15 7.6 6.7 6.0 11.4 29.4
Carbohydrates 86.67 77.0 86.34 90.79 79.0 91.4 4.7 6.5 5.5
Source: Grist, 1983. Reprinted with permission
References
Bushuk, W. 1976. History, world distribution, and marketing. In: W.

Bushuk (Ed). Rye: Production, Chemistry, and Technology. American
Association of Cereal Chemists, pp 1-11.
Earle, F. R., Curtis, J. J., and Hubbard, J. E. 1946. Composition of the
component parts of the corn kernel. Cereal Chern. 23:504-511.
Evans, G. M. 1976. Rye. In: N. W. Simonds (Ed). Evalution of Crop Plants.
Longman, London. pp. 108-111.
Grist, D. H. 1983. Rice. Longman. New York, pp 82 and 468.
Ghose, R. L. M., Ghatge, M. B., and Subrahmanyan, V. 1956. Rice in
India. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India.
Harlan, J. and Stemler, A. 1976. The races of sorghum in Africa. In:
Harlan, J., De Wet, J., and Stemler, A. B. L. (Eds). Origins of African
Plant Domestication. Mouten, The Hague, pp. 465-478.
Johnson, L. A. 1991. Corn: production, processing, and utilization. In:
K. J. Lorenz and K. Kalp (Eds). Handbook of Cereal Science and Technol-
ogy. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 55-132.
Kik, M. C. and Williams, R. R. 1945. National Improvement of white rice.
Nat. Res. Council Bull., 112.
Lockwood, J. 1962. Flour Milling, 4th edit. Henry Simon, Stockport,
Cheshire, U.K., p. 261.
MacMaster, M. M., Hinton, J. J. C., and Bradbury, D. (1971). In: Y.
Pomeranz (Ed). Wheat Chemistry and technology, 2nd edit. American
Association of Cereal Chemists, st. Paul, MN.
McCance, R. A., Widdowson, E. M., Moraa, T., Pringle, W. J. S., and
Macrae, T. F. 1945. The chemical composition of wheat and rye and
flours derived therefrom. Biochem. J. 39:213-222.
Matz, S. A. 1991a. Rye. In: The Chemistry and Technology of Cereals as
Food and Feed. Van Nostrand Reinthold, New York, pp. 169-184.
Matz, S. A. 1991b. Barley. In: The Chemistry and Technology of Cereals
as Food and Feed. Van Nostrand Reinthold, New York, pp. 135-166.
Matz, S. A. 1991c. Sorghum. In: The Chemistry and Technology of Cereals
Matz, S. A. 1991d. Millet. In: The Chemistry and Technology of Cereals
Matz, S. A. 1991e. Wheat. In: The Chemistry and Technology of Cereals
Cereal Grains 17
Platt, B. S, 1956, Vitamins in nutrition: orientation and perspective, Br.

Med, Bull., 12:83.
Poehlman, J. M. 1959. Breeding barley. In: Breeding Field Crops. Holt,
Rinehart, and Winston, New York, pp. 151-173.
Poehlman, J. M. 1987. Breeding Rice. In: Breeding Field Crops, 3rd edit.
AVI Publishing Co. Westport, CT. pp.343-374.
Rooney, L. (1973). In: Y. Pomeranz (Ed). Industrial Uses of Cereals. Ameri-
can Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.
Rooney, L. W. and Serna-Saldivar, S. O. 1990. Sorghum. In: K J. Lorenz
and K Kulp (Ed). Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology. Marcel
Dekker, New York, pp. 233-270.
Rosedale, J. L. 1939. The nutritive value of rice. J. Malay. Branch
BMA,4:213.
Shellenberger, J. A. 1980. Advance in milling technology. In: Y. Pomeranz
(Ed). Advances in Cereal Science and Technology. American Association
of Cereal Chemist, St. Paul, MN.
Salibury, D. K, and Campbell, W. P. (1976). In: W. Bushuk (Ed). Rye
Chemistry and Technology. American Association of Cereal Chemists,
St Paul, MN.
Storck, J. and Teague, W. D. 1952. Flour for man's bread. University of
Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
Takashaki, R. 1955. The origin and evolution of cultivated barley. Adv.
Genet. 7:227-266.
USDA 1933. Pop corn, Farmers' Bulletin No. 1679. 1933. U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
Vavilov, N. I. 1951. The origin, variation, immunity and breeding of culti-
vated plants (translated by K S. Chester). Chronica Botanica, Wal-
tham, MA.
Watson, S. A. 1987. Structure and composition. In: A. Watson and P. E.
Ramstad (Eds). Corn Chemistry and Technology. American Association
of Cereal Chemists, St Paul, MN, pp. 53-78.
Weaver, J. C. 1950. American Barley Production. Burgess, Minneapo-
lis, MN.
Zohary, D. and Hopf, M. 1988. Domestication of Plants in the Old World.
Clarendon Press, Oxford, p. 63.
CHAPTER TWO
Cereal Milling and Flour

Production for Flat Breads
Introduction and Historical Backgound
Construction of new tools for the cultivation and utilization

of cereal grains in ancient times provided a surplus of products
and eased the path toward development of advanced tools. As
early as Aurignocian times, 75,000 years ago, the tools for cereal
grinding were round stones, about 3 to 4 cm thick and 7 to 9 cm
in diameter, rubbed against flat stones in either a back-and-forth
or circular motion. Use of mortars for grinding reflected a marked
advancement in grinding tools. Figure 2.1 shows the motions
used with early milling tools. Figure 2.2 illustrates sets of commu-
nal grinding stone systems from southern Arizona and Malta in
the Mediterranean (Storck and Teague, 1952).
In the first millennium B.C. in the eastern Mediterranean, two
developments in the method of grain grinding marked the begin-
ning of new progress. First, milling became a profession because
of the improvement of milling tools and production of surplus prod-
ucts. Second, the use of continuous rotary milling tools created a
larger amount of surplus from the same amount of energy input.
Figure 2.3 shows the likely progrssion of grinding tools from sad-
dlestone to rotary millstones (Storck and Teague, 1952).
Today, cereal grinding in the developed countries has reached
Figure 2.1 Motions used with early milling implements. A, Pounder-rub-

ber: indiscrinate motions. B, tall mortar: up-and-down motion. C, shallow
mortar: round-about motion, with some pounding. D and E, saddlestone-
metate form: back-and-forth motion. Two ways of channeling the last mo-
tion-by curving the lower stone and by providing side ridges-are shown.
(From Storck and Teague, 1952. Reprinted with permission.)
to a highly advanced level, and volumes of published research

are devoted to its technological improvement. In developing coun-
tries, however, the traditional grinding tools are still utilized, and
along with automated and sometimes highly advanced methods,
provide flour for human consumption. Wheat flour of various
extraction levels is the principal flour for a wide range of flat
breads. Rye, barley, and oat flours are made into a variety of flat
breads in Scandinavian countries. Corn flour and treated corn
are made into arepa and tortilla in the Americas. Finally, sorghum
and millet flour are the principal ingredients for flat breads in
diverse parts of the world.
Wheat Milling and Flour Extraction

Wheat flour for flat bread production is commonly of a high
extraction rate. Whole meal flours are used for the production of
chapati and tannok. For Iranian flat breads, that is, barbari,
lavash, taftoon (tanoor), and sangak, flour of 78%, 82%, 84%,
Milling and Flour Production 21
Figure 2.2 (Below) Multiple-grinding system with metates, from Point

of Pines region of southeastern Arizona (earlier than the 15th century
A.D.). (Above) Neolithic multiple saddlestone from Malta in the Mediter-
ranean. It is not certain that this stone was used for multiple grinding, it
may have been a communal stone, although the workers would have
been crowded if adjoining places were occupied. (From Storck and
Teague, 1952. Reprinted with permission).
and 87% extractions, respectively, are reported (Faridi et al, 1981;

Qarooni 1988). The presence of wheat germ and bran particles
in flour has a significant impact on dough rheology and handling
properties. These effects are especially important in flat bread
production, because the dough pieces are sheeted to thin layers
prior to proofing and baking, and the properties of final products
are affected directly by the dough's response to the sheeting pro-
cess. The dough sheeting process significantly affects many as-
pects of Arabic bread quality. It plays an important role in dough
development, especially when an underdeveloped dough is pro-
cessed, and affects many aspects of bread quality, for example,
the tearing quality, uniformity in baking, and product color. The
dough's behavior during sheeting is an important indicator of
product quality. This is probably one of the main reasons for
utilization of high-extraction flour. In contrast, other flat breads,
Figure 2.3 Possible lines of evolution from the saddlestone to the mill-
stone. The great leap came when the arclike motion of the lever mill
gave rise to a mill using full rotary motion. In Greek areas, the hourglass
mill apparently preceded the quern; further east the quern was reached
by a single step, made before 700 B.C. The hand-powered quern pre-
ceded the water-powered millstone by at least 300 years in the Mediter-
ranean area; further east there was less of a difference. (From Storck
and Teague, 1952. Reprinted with permission.)
such as wheat flour tortillas. paratha. and puri. usually are pro-
duced from flour of low extraction (paratha and puri also might
be prepared from flours of high extraction). Although the process-
ing of these products also involves dough sheeting to thin layers.
their formulas contain substantial amounts of shortening. The
inclusion of high levels of shortening replaces the important role
of bran and germ and also prolongs products' shelf lives.
Effect of Wheat Milling Variables on Flour

and Flat Bread Quality
Flat bread quality is subject to a number of variables. such
as wheat quality. milling practice. ingredients. and processing
Table 2.1 Characteristics of Flour for Tanoori (Taftoon)

Bread Production
Commercial Reported by
Characteristic Kuwait flour Maleki (1984)
Protein (% d.b) 11.5 12.0

Ash (% d.b) 1.0 1.6
Flour extraction (%) 90
Farinograph water absorption(%) 63.0 64.4
Development time (min) 4.5
Valorimeter value 55 53
Extensograph area (em) 87 44
Maximum resistance (E.U) 370 290
Extensibility (mm) 152 107
Source: Qarooni, 1988.
methods. The similarity of flour quality for the production of ta-

noor bread in Kuwait (Qarooni, 1988) and in bakeries of Iran
(Maleki, 1984) (Table 2.1) clearly demostrates the flour properties
desired by the bakers for this product. It is interesting to note
that bakers in Kuwait often purchase two flour types (78% extrac-
tion and whole meal) to prepare their own blend of I: 1 or 2: 1
ratios.
Wheat milling practices might cause significant differences
in flour quality, which are due to flour particle size (granulations),
extraction rate, and the level of starch damage. The effects of
elevated levels of extraction, ranging from 72.5% to 92%, on flour
quality include increases in flour ash, protein, and color (the
higher the value, the darker the color) (Qarooni 1988). However,
no Significant changes in the level of starch damage or a-amylase
activity (falling number) were observed. Arabic bread prepared
from these samples exhibited an improvement in sheeting quality
with higher levels of flour extraction. The negative effect of bran
and germ particles, however, became apparent in samples of 87%
and 92% extraction. These samples resulted in excessively thin,
oval-shaped, sheeted doughs, instead of desirably round and 3-
mm-thick dough pieces. Although the resultant products had the
desired even thickness of the two layers and grain of uniform cell
structure, they had harsh texture and little resistance to tearing.
e
co
l co
•
"'C
til
....
e
.D
0
:0 I!!
til
<
'0
....
....
~
CJ) ~
"'iii
15
l- e
....
co
U)
:g
70 75 80 85 90 95
Flour Extraction (%)

Figure 2.4 Effect of flour extraction rate on the quality of Arabic bread.
(From Qarooni, 1988.)
Because of the relative absence of bran and germ particles.

dough samples from flour of the lowest extraction (72.5%) had
higher dough elasticity and demonstrated slight resistance to
the sheeting process. The resultant breads were round but had
undesirable thickness and dimpled crusts. The internal charac-
teristics were uneven layer thicknesses. woolly and nonuniform
grain. excessively moist texture. and rubbery tearing quality. A
superior quality product was obtained from flour samples having
77% and 82% extraction. Figure 2.4 illustrates the effect of flour
extraction on Arabic bread quality. It is interesting to note that
product quality improved with extraction rates of up to an opti-
mum level of 82%. However. a sharp drop in quality occurred
with higher extractions. The statistical analysis (Table 2.2) shows
the significant effect of extraction on overall and individual bread
quality parameters.
Wheat's inherit characteristics. tempering conditions. and
Table 2.2 Significance of the Relation Between Flour Extraction

Rate and Quality of Arabic Bread
Qaulity parameters Variance ratio
External score 18.1"

Internal score 42.5"
Second day score 31.3"
Total score 72.3"
Individual quality parameter
Crust color 8.4b
Ability to roll and fold 7.2b
Grain appearance 4.2<
Grain uniformity 28.4"
Crumb texture 22.4"
Quality of tearing 15.9"
Crumb color 87.2"
Second day
Ability to roll and fold 4.6C
Quality of tearing 109.5"
·Significant at p < 0.001.

bSignificant at p < 0.01.
'Significant at p < 0.5.
(From Qarooni, 1988)
milling practices cause significant differences in flour quality.

Leelavathi et al. (1986) reported a considerable variation in cha-
pati characteristics as a function of milling technique. Nine levels
of damaged starch. ranging from 10.6% to 19.6%. were produced
in a whole wheat flour. using a disk mill (Harides Rao et al .. 1989).
Flour temperature. which was dependent on the severity of wheat
grinding. increased from 70 to 95°C. The diastatic activity of cor-
responding flours increased. because of higher concentrations
of substrate (damaged starch) for enzymatic attack. A negative
correlation between the extensograph ratio (resistance/extensi-
bility) and starch damage (r = -0.67. P < 0.05) was reported. It
was suggested that the increase in dough stickiness was due to
higher amounts of dextrins and sugars produced by the action
of amylolytic enzymes on damaged starch. The puffing character-
istics and the undesirable dark blisters on the crust of chapati
were related positively to starch damage.
Flour and bran particle sizes and the level of starch damage
affected chapati texture (Sidhu et aI., 1988). Significantly higher
moisture was reported in chapati prepared from finer flour than
in that produced from crushed grain. Higher water absorption
resulted in higher product moisture and improved texture. Breads
made with finely crushed grains and those containing coarse bran
particles required a significantly higher force to cut and puncture.
A positive correlation between starch damage in flour (Qa-
rooni, 1988) and farinograph water absorption was reported. Se-
vere grinding reduced the dough development time and break-
down and increased its stability time. A negative correlation (r =
-0.92) between starch damage and falling number demonstrated
the higher susceptibility of gelatinized starch to enzymatic attack.
Heavy flour grinding resulted in Arabic bread of dark color and
poor aroma, leading to unacceptable products. Flour samples
containing high levels of starch damage had high water absorp-
tion and produced very soft and sticky dough. Without an extra
amount of dusting flour, they tended to tear in the center during
sheeting. This excessive dough softness also delayed the desirable
skin formation of sheeted dough during final proofing. As a conse-
quence, large air cells developed, leading to the formation of dark
blisters on the crust. The quality of bread made from flour con-
taining 10.6% damaged starch was only slightly inferior to that
of the control. However, it had an unpleasant aroma. Figure 2.5
shows the effect of the level of starch damage in flour on the
quality of Arabic bread. Variation in flour particle size had little
effect on the bread quality. The coarsest flour sample, which con-
tained the lowest level of starch damage, had the lowest water
absorption and produced bread with a pale crust color.
Qarooni (1988) conducted an experiment in which brans of
different particle sizes were blended with flours of different parti-
cle sizes and a commercial bakers' flour (10.9% protein). The
effects of these samples on Arabic bread quality were evaluated.
The ratio of bran to flour was adjusted to produce a flour of
0.65% ash content (Similar to commercial flour of 80% extraction).
Dough samples of similar handling properties and sheeting qual-
ity were obtained when bran and flour mixtures of varied particle
sizes were used. However, bread containing the finest bran and
flour particles was superior in softness and had a smoother crust.
'"co
0
co
;g
~
"0
'"
<II
Ql <0
.0
<.>
:0
<II
.:.t ....
0
'0
~
0
<.>
'"
(J)
<0
~
I-
0
<0
'"'" 8 10 12 14 16 18
Flour starch damage (%)

Figure 2.5 Effect of increased starch damage on the quality of Arabic
bread. (From Qarooni, 1988.)
This was attributed mainly to the effect of fine bran, because a

similar effect was observed when a blend of coarse flour and
fine bran was used. Products containing coarse bran, however,
possessed dry texture and were easier to tear. Similar bread qual-
ity was found when these bran samples were mixed with commer-
cial flour.
The effect of wheat germ on flour and flat bread quality was
studied (Qarooni, 1988). A middling sample from a commercial
mill stream was mixed with 1%, 2%, and 3% wheat germ and pin
milled. Shown in Table 2.3 is the effect of wheat germ on flour
and Arabic bread quality. Wheat germ resulted in higher flour
ash and protein contents, shorter dough mixing time, and softer
texture. The dough containing the highest germ content (3%) was
slightly sticky, leading to inferior bread shape, slight blistering,
and larger cracks in the bottom layer. Moderate levels of wheat
germ (l % and 2%) led to improvement in dough sheeting quality,
indicated by a higher score for crust smoothness. Wheat germ
Table 2.3 The Effect of Germ Content on Flour Properties and

Baking Quality of Arabic Bread
Flour samples with germ added to

% of
Flour
properties 0 2 3
Germ index 0.16 0.33 0.42 0.55

Ash content (%) 0.50 0.53 0.58 0.63
Protein (%) 11.5 11.6 12.0 12.0
Starch damage (%) 6.6 6.4 6.0 6.3
Farinograph water absorption (%) 60.3 61.3 61.5 61.4
Development time (min) 5.0 4.2 3.5 3.7
Stability time (min) 8.8 7.0 6.2 6.0
Breakdown (FU) 50.0 50.0 55.0 60.0
Valorimeter value 60.5 57.0 54.0 54.0
Extensogram (MR) 605 415 435 300
Extensibility (mm) 210 222 203 208
Bread quality
External score 42.2 43.2 43.0 41.2
Internal score 43.3 42.6 42.2 42.3
Second day score 39.1 39.8 39.5 41.8
Total Score (%) 83.0 83.7 83.2 83.5
also resulted in moderately nonuniform and coarse grain with

thin cell walls, which dried out rapidly, leading to harsh crumb
texture. Finally, wheat germ resulted in dark crust and crumb
color, but improvement in the product's aroma.
Corn Milling to Flour and Masa Production
Com flour is produced either by wet milling or dry milling

methods. In wet milling, com is cleaned from broken kernels,
chaff, and other impurities and steeped in warm water. To avoid
microbial growth in the steeping solution and to facilitate soften-
ing of steeped com, the water is treated with sulfur dioxide (50 2),
The steeped slurry is removed, and the com is ground in a "deger-
minating" mill. In dry milling, cleaned com is passed through a
steaming conveyor, which toughens the hull and facilitates its

removal by subsequent grinding (Matz, 1991). Traditional prepa-
ration of dehulled and partially degermed corn involved pounding
the moist maize in wooden mortars. Hulls and part of the germ
are separated from the endosperm, which then is cooked in boiling
water (41% water to 59% corn) and cooled prior to stone milling
for the preparation of corn dough (masa) (Cuevas et al 1985).
In Venezuela the modern procedure for making precooked
corn flour is generally similar to the traditional process (Cuevas
et aI., 1985). Corn is cleaned and dried to about 12% moisture.
The dehulling and partial removal of the germ are achieved by
breaking and coarse milling. Mter separation of the endosperm
from the germ, hulls, and fines, it is processed further. The prepa-
ration of precooked corn flour is achieved by tempering the endo-
sperm to 15% moisture at 35 to 40°C for 1 to 2 h. The steam
injection and flaking steps, which replace the traditional method
of cooking in water, follow. The flakes are dried and milled to flour
for packaging.
Production of Masa (Com Dough)
Corn dough, or mas a (a Hispanic term for dough) is the essen-

tial ingredient of tortillas, the traditional Central American flat
bread. The ancient Anzac technology for masa preparation in-
volved cooking and steeping of corn in lime solution (Serna-Saldi-
var et aI., 1990). The skin or pericarp and the steeping solution
are removed, and the corn is ground to moist, fine particles called
masa. Archeological discoveries showed that cooking corn in wood
ashes was the original alkaline treatment. Various sources of
alkali, such as limestone and burned shells also were used in-
stead of wood ashes (Katz et al 1974). Bressani and Scrimshaw
(1958), citing Illescas (1943), described the processing of corn
tortillas in Mexico. Corn was heated in a 1% lime solution (l :2)
to 80°C for 20 to 45 min and allowed to soak overnight. The
solution was discarded, and the soaked corn (nixtamal) was
washed several times with water. Nixtamal, which included endo-
sperm and germ, was ground to a fine dough or masa. Figure 2.6
shows the processing of com masa.
During alkaline and heat treatments the endosperm and
germ hydrate and the cooking allows for partial gelatinization of
starch granules and disintegration of the pericarp (Gomez et aI.,
1987, 1989). The treatment also inhibits microbial growth and
improves the nutritional value, color, and aroma of the resultant
tortillas (Rooney and Serna-Saldivar, 1987). Bressani et al (1958)
found that lime treatment increased the total nitrogen content of
treated com. This was related to the loss of the seed coat. The
solubility ofwater-, salt-, alcohol-, and sodium hydroxide-soluble
fractions of proteins was reduced Significantly by the lime treat-
ment. This reduction occurred mainly during the preparation of
masa. During the preparation of tortillas, however, changes in
solubility of the protein fractions were small, except for the alco-
hol-soluble fraction.
The increased popularity of com based Mexican foods in the
United States initiated the production of dry masa. This material
has the advantage of being shelf stable and results in products
with excellent texture and taste (Serna-Saldivar et al 1990). Dry
masa is produced by drying the freshly prepared mas a to a final,
safe moisture content of 8% to 10% and proper granulation. A
typical dry masa for tortilla production contains fine particles that
provide the desired water absorption and cohesiveness during the
mixing process. The color of dry mas a varies according to the type
of com, pH, and processing conditions. The most common pH
values range between 7 and 9 (Gomez et aI., 1989). Dry mas a
usually is blended with the minor ingredients, such as gums,
preservatives, and acidulants. For the preparation of fresh masa,
the dry ingredient is hydrated with an equal amount of water.
Production of Rye, Sorghum, Millet, Barley, and

Rice Flour
Rye Milling
Rye milling is an important industry in many European coun-

tries (Shands, 1969). It differs from the wheat milling system in
Processing of fresh and dry Masa
( Whole corn)
,
Cooking
,
in 200 • 3000/0 lime solution
(1·20/0 lime) at 95·100 C for 20·45 min
Steeping
,
overnight at room temperature
Cooked solution
discarded
.. (
_
,
Cooked com J
_
Washing
,
Washed solution . .
discarded with access water (2 • 3 times)
( Nixtamal )
,
Stone grinding
~
, .. c Fresh masa )
(Grinding)
8· Blending frO
with minor Ingredients . . ~ ry
~
mas~
Figure 2.6 Processing of fresh and dry masa (Bressani et aI., 1958b and
Plugfelder, 1986.)
31
many ways. The tempered grain (14% to 16% moisture) is heavily

crushed by the first break rolls in a system consisting of nine or
more break rolls (Kent-Jones and Amos, 1967). Rye mills in Eu-
rope begin with smooth rolls and continue with a set of five to
seven break rolls, a pair of bran finishers, six reduction rolls,
and a couple of tailing rolls (Rozsa, 1976). Unlike wheat milling,
semolina and middlings are not produced in rye mill systems,
and, hence, purifiers are not needed. Sifting is the means of sepa-
rating the coarse and fine stocks of rye flour (Kent-Jones and
Amos, 1967).
Rye is susceptible to fungus infestation. Ergot is a fungus
that produces toxic black colonies in rye and must be removed
prior to milling for food and feed uses. Rye is also highly suscepti-
ble to sprouting in warm and humid conditions, and this could
significantly affect its usefulness in breadmaking (Shands, 1969).
Rye flours of various extractions are produced: 80% in Ger-
many; 87% in Russia; 83% in United States; and 67% in Canada
(Rozsa, 1976). The thickness of bran, grain color, and a-amylase
activity in rye flour are important quality considerations (Drews
and Seibel, 1976). The latter authors cited Drews (1972), who
reported that an important factor in rye milling is the buffering
capacity of the resultant flour. This factor was shown to increase
with extraction rate.
Barley Milling
The primary usage of barley is in the feed industry. Malting

and brewing operations are the major users of barley in the food
industry. In many ASian, African, and European countries, barley
has many other uses as food. Pearled grains are utilized in soups,
ground grain for porridge, and flour for flat breads. In many parts
of the world, mortars and stone mills are used in the production
of refined and whole-grain barley flours. In the Scandinavian
countries, barley flours of various extraction rates are prepared
for breadmaking. In Sweden, the extraction rate reaches 90%,
and in Norway, it is as low as 50% (Fr<j>lich, 1992).
Sidhu et al (1990) reported that milling barley to flour requires
half the energy needed for wheat milling. Barley flours posses
lower gelatinization temperature, farinograph water absorption,
dough development time, and mixing tolerance and higher peak

viscosity than wheat flours with similar extraction rates. The
chemical composition of flour (75% extraction) prepared from
three Swedish cultivars of barley (Golf, Waxy, and HoraHSundberg
and Falk, 1992) varied in starch content, from 68.8% to 74.1%,
in protein, from 10.8% to 11.2%, and in the level of dietary fiber,
from 11.6% to 15.8%.
Sorghum and Millet Milling
In many parts of Mrica and Asia, various forms of sorghum-

based products are eaten every day and it has a special role in
the diet of populations (Matz, 1991). The traditional means of
cereal grinding, that is, mortars and stone mills, as well as rela-
tively advanced methods, such as hammer, pin, and roller mills,
are common for decortication and flour production from sorghum
and millet (Pushpamma and Kalpalothika, 1987; Serna-Saldivar
et aI, 1991; Rooney and Serna-Saldivar, 1991). Refined sorghum
flours are prepared commercially by the removal of pericarp and
germ, separation of the endosperm by air classification, and fi-
nally reduction to fine flour particles. Coarse sorghum flour pos-
sesses a sandy texture, unless special care is taken during the
milling process to produce fine flour particles.
Rice Milling
Rice flour is produced by wet milling. Small-scale rice milling

to coarse meal is the traditional method of rice flour production.
Whole grain and broken pieces of rice can be milled to rice flour
by wet and dry milling processes. Each method has a profound
effect on the properties of the final product. Nishita and Bean
(1982) reported a wide range of particle size distributions in rice
flour produced by seven different milling systems. Fine flour parti-
cles were obtained with hammer and pin mills, coarse particles
with a burr mill, and extremely fine flour particles with turbomills.
Parboiling of rice prior to milling significantly affects the final
properties of the flour, and, consequently, product quality (Bean
and Nishita 1985). Heat treatment during parboiling inactivates
the enzymes in rice grain and allows for gelatinization of starch
granules. Flour from parboiled grain would absorb significantly

higher amounts of water. The higher water holding capacity of
the starch granules. however. is reduced during the fermentation
period. resulting in a sticky mass. This reduction is known to
be the cause of increased susceptibility of gelatinized starch to
enzymatic attack.
References
Bean. M. and Nishita. K. D. 1985. Rice flour for baking. In: Rice. Chemis-
try and Technology. American Association of Cereal Chemists. St. Paul
MN. pp. 539-556.
Bressani. R. and Scrimshaw. N. S. 1958a. Effect of lime treatment on
vitro availability of essential amino acids solubility of protein fractions
in corn. Agric. Food Chern. 6:774-777.
Bressani. R. Paz. R. and Scrimshaw. N. S. 1958. Chemical changes in
corn during preparation of tortillas. Agric. Food Chern. 6: 770-773.
Cuevas, R, Figueira, E .. and Racca, E. 1985. The technology for indus-
trial production of precooked corn flour in Venezuela. Cereal Foods
World. 30:707-712.
Drews. E .. and Seibel, W. 1976. Bread-baking and other uses around the
world. In: W. Bushuk. (Ed). Rye: Production, chemiCtry and Technology.
American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, pp. 127-181.
Drews, E. 1972. Untersuchungen veber das Pufferungs-und das Saeu-
erungs-vermoegen bei Roffenmahlproduklon. Broteindustrie 15: 169-
181.
Faridi, H. A., Finney, P. C., and Rubenthaler, G. L. 1981. Microbaking
evaluation of some U.S. wheat for suitability in Iranian breads. Cereal
Chern. 58:428-432.
Fr$lich, P. W. 1992. Barley-past, present, and future. In ICC / SCF
International Symposium on Barley for Food and Malt, pp. 18-22.
Gomez, M. H., Rooney, L. W., and Waniska, R D. 1987. Dry corn masa
flours for tortilla and snack food. Cereal Foods World. 32:372-377.
Gomez, M. H., McDonough, C. M., Rooney, L. W., and Waniska, R D.
1989. Changes in corn and sorghum during Nixtamalization and tortilla
baking. J. Food Sci. 54:330-336.
Haridas Rao, P., Leelavathi, K., and Shulekar, S. R 1989. Effect of dam-
aged starch on the chapati-making quality of whole wheat flour. Cereal
Chern. 66:329-333.
Illescas, R1943. Soc. Mexicana de Historia Natural 4: 129.
Katz, S. H., Heddiger, M. L., and Valleroy, L. A. 1974. Traditional maize

processing techniques in the New World. Science 184:765-773.
Kent-Jones, D. W. and Amos, A. J. 1967. In: Modern Cereal Chemistry.
Food Trade Press, London, p. 119.
Leelavathi, K, Haridas Rao, P., and Shurpalekar, S. R. 1986. Studies
on the functional characteristics of differently milled whole-wheat flour.
J. Food Sci. Techno!. 23:10.
Matz, S. A. 1991. The chemistry and technology of cereals as food and
feed. Corn. AVI Pub. Co. New York. pp. 63-105.
Maleki, S. A. 1984. Baking characteristics ofIranian wheats and flours
and Iranian bread technology. Shiraz University Publication, Iran, p. 64.
(in Farsi).
Nishita, K D. and Bean, M. M. 1982. Grinding methods: Their impact
on rice flour properties. Cereal Chern. 59:46-49.
Plugfelder, R. L. 1986. Dry matter distribution in commercial alkaline-
cooking processes for production of corn tortillas and snack foods. Ph.D.
Dissertation, Texas A&M University, pp. 8-9.
Pushpamma, P. and Kalpalothika, M. P. V. 1987. Alternative uses of
sorghum in small scale food industry. In: Technology and Application
for Alternative Uses of Sorghum. Proceedings of the National Seminar.
Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani, India, p. 81.
Qarooni, J. 1988. Factors governing the quality of Middle Eastern flat
breads. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of New South Wales, Australia.
Rooney, L. W. and Serna-Saldivar, S. O. 1987. Food uses of whole com
and dry-milled fractions. In: S. A. Watson and P. E. Ranstad (Ed). Corn:
Chemistry and technology. American Association of Cereal Chemists,
St. Paul, MN, pp. 605.
Rooney, L. W. and Serna-Saldivar, S. O. 1991. Sorghum. In: K J. Lorenz
and K Kulp (Ed). Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology. Marcel
Dekker, New York, pp. 233-270.
Rozsa, T. A. 1976. Rye milling. In: W. Bushuk (Ed). Rye: Production,
Chemistry and Technology. American Association of Cereal Chemists,
St. Paul, MN, pp. 111-125.
Santiago Bedolla, M. S. and Rooney, L. W. 1982. Cooking maize for masa
production. Cereal Foods World 27:219-221.
Serna-Saldivar, S. 0, McDonough, C. M., and Rooney, L. W. 1991. The
millet. In: K J. Lorenz and K Kulp (Eds). Handbook of Cereal Science
and Technology. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 301-330.
Serna-Saldivar, S. 0., Gomez, M. H., and Rooney, L. W. 1990. Technol-
ogy, chemistry, and nutritional value of alkaline-cooked corn products.
In: Y. Pomeranz (Ed). Advances in Cereal Science and Technology. Vol.

X. American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, pp. 243-307.
Shands, H. L. 1969. Rye. In: Cereal Science. AVI Publishing, Westport,
CT, pp. 118-149.
Sidhu, J. S., Harinder, K., Kaur, A., and Ram, M. B. 1990. Functional
and chapati making properties of hull-less barley supplemented wheat
flour. J. Food. Sci. Technol. 27:311-313.
Sidhu, J. S., Seibel, W., Brummer, J. M., and Zwingelberg, H. 1988.
Effect of flour milling conditions on the quality of Indian Unleavened flat
bread (chapati). J. Food Sci. 53:1563-1565.
Storck, J., and Teague, W. D. 1952. In Flour for Man's bread. University
of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN, pp. 17-92.
Sundberg, B., and Falk, H. (1992) Composition and properties of bread
and porridge prepared from different types of barley flour. In ICC/SCF
International Symposium on Barley for Food and Malt, pp. 236-238.
CHAPTER THREE
Properties and Functions of

Sourdough and Noncereal
Ingredients in Flat
Bread Production
Introduction
The effects of various ingredients on the quality of cereal-

based products are described in detail in a large number ofpubli-
cations (Hanneman, 1980; Fance, 1982; Pyler, 1982; Sultan,
1982; Brown, 1985). However, reports on the functions of other
ingredients, such as sourdough, potato flour, and various types
of legume flour, which are widely employed in many types of flat
bread, are relatively limited. Moreover, shortening, emulSifiers,
dough-modifying agents (reducing and oxidizing agents), and
mold inhibitors are becoming increasingly useful in automated
production methods for many flat breads. Hence, this chapter
introduces the properties and functions of leavening agents,
shortening, emulsifiers, legumes, and potato flours in flat bread
production. For a discussion of other, minor, ingredients, readers
are referred to Russel and Gould (1991) and Stauffer (1990).
Sourdough and Leavening Agents
The term "leaven" usually refers to the expansion of dough

or batter caused by microbial or chemical substances. Hence,
when a freshly prepared dough containing a mixture of flour and

water is baked instantly. the leavening is caused mainly by air
and the steam generated in the system. According to this general
description, all flat breads. made either with or without a fermen-
tation process or chemical leavening agents. are leavened prod-
ucts. Leavening has a more definite meaning in the baking indus-
try, that is. the expansion caused by carbon dioxide gas from
either the fermentation process or chemical substances. Fermen-
tation is caused either by naturally occurring microorganisms
(bacteria, yeast, and mold) or by the addition of a relatively pure
culture of yeast. Chemical leavening involves either the decompo-
sition of ammonium bicarbonate in the presence of heat. which
ultimately produces carbon dioxide, or the decomposition of ace-
tic salt and sodium bicarbonate in the presence of moisture and
heat, yielding neutral salt, water, and carbon dioxide. The appli-
cation of ammonium carbonate is limited to low-moisture baked
products, such as cookies and crackers. In bread production,
however, it is not used because ammonia retention develops an
objectional flavor (Conn. 1981).
Based on the type of leavening agents. flat breads are divided
into three types: 1) microbiologically (sourdough) leavened prod-
ucts, such as a variety of rye breads, baladi, injera, and sangak,
and many types of flat breads produced by traditional method;
2) chemically leavened products, such as wheat flour tortillas and
pancakes; and 3) unleavened products, such as chapati, paratha.
puri, and many Scandinavian flat breads. The majority of flat
breads are microbiologically leavened products, with sourdough
the dominant leavening agent. Although products from sour-
dough fermentation possess significantly more flavor and aroma,
the use of baker's yeast, Saccharomyces ceroisiae, is becoming
increasingly popular in many of these products, mainly because
it is convenient to use.
The production of sourdough results from activities of a num-
ber of bacteria, yeast, and mold species. which create many
changes in the dough system. The most distinguishable effect is
the development of a sour flavor. The exact components of that
flavor are not known. Rogosa (1974) reported that at least half of
the sour flavor developed by the genus Lactobacillus is due to
lactate. Additional products were acetate, ethanol, formate, succi-
Sourdough and Noncereal Ingredients 39
nate, carbon dioxide, and volatile acids. The acids in sour French
bread produced in San Francisco (Galal et al 1978) comprised of
approximately 70% lactic, 25% acetic, 1% volatile organic acids,
and 24% unidentified substances.
Organisms Involved in Food Fermentation
The microorganisms involved in food fermentation are mem-

bers of the plant kingdom in the phylum Thallophyta. Eumycetes,
a subphylum of Thallophyta, is divided into five classes: Schizo-
mycetes (bacteria); Phycomycetes; Ascomycetes (true yeast); Ba-
sidiomycetes (molds); and Fungi Imperfecti (asporogenous yeasts)
(Pederson, 1971a).
The following details on food microorganisms are reported
in Bergey's Manual of Bacteriology (1957, 1986), Singleton and
Sainsbury (1978)' and Pederson (1971a).
Bacteria
Schizomycetes are divided into 13 orders, 47 families, and

193 genera. Only two of these 13 orders are involved in food
fermentation, the Eubacteriales and Pseudomonadeles. Figure
3.1 shows the classification of bacteria important in food fermen-
tation.
The order Eubacteriales include 13 families. Two of these
families, Lactobacillaceae and Propionibacteriaceae, are impor-
tant in food fermentation. Carbohydrate is an essential compo-
nent for Lactobacillaceae activity, and is used to produce mainly
lactic acid and some by-products, such as volatile acids, alcohol,
and carbon dioxide. Pederson (1971a) reported that among the
tribes of Lactobacillaceae, Streptococceae and Lactobacilleae are
of significant importance in food fermentation.
The Tribe Streptococceae
The tribe Streptococceae includes five genera, of which three

Streptococcus, Pediococcus, and Leuconostoc, are important in
food fermentation.
m 0
~ Schizomycetes ~
~---------------------------------------------------o
~ Eubacteriales Pseudomonales ~
______~~/----~~~----------------------~l-----
~ .: '" " "T1
.~ Lactobacillaceae Propionibacteriaceae Pseudomonadaceae ~.
~ ~
-------~--~~--------------~~--------------------r_-----
"
.c
~
Streptococceae Lactobacilleae
Streptococcus
12 genera; only 2 are
Pediococcus 5 genera; only Lactobacillus is important important in food
"l in food fermentation fermentation G>
ID
/ \.
<1>
Leuconostoc
(!l
E
Subgenera Subgenera 3 genera; only Propionibacterium '"
Homo1ermentative Heterofermentative is important in food
L. acidophilus L brevis 11 species all important

P acidifactici L. bifidus L. buchneri in dairy products
P eervisiae L. bulgaricus L fermenti
m L. case; L. pastorianus (J)
" ~: r;:~~i~S
.~
L. caucasicus
L. delbrueckil
L. he/villcus
"0
<1>
o
~.
(/) S. {aetis L. citrovorum L. lactic
S. thermophil/us L. dextranicum L. leichmann!
L. mesenteroides L. pfantarum
L. rhermophilus
Figure 3.1 Classification of important bacteria in food fermentation.
Genus Streptococcus
The cells of Streptococcus are normally spherical or ovoid,
less than 21lm in diameter, and nonmotile. Most are facultatively
anaerobic, but some require additional carbon dioxide for growth,
and some may be strictly anaerobic. Carbohydrates are fermented
with the production of mainly lactic acid, but without gas. The
temperature optimum usually is about 37°C, but maximum and
minimum temperatures vary among species. Three species of this
genus are important in the preparation of starter cultures for the
dairy industry.
S. thermophilus. S. thermophilus is sensitive to salt and needs

high temperature (40 to 45°C) for optimum growth. The final
pH in glucose broth is 4.0-4.5. Acid is produced from fructose,
glucose, mannose, and lactose. Many strains ferment sucrose
and some ferment maltose.
s. Jaecalis. Fermentation of glucose normally yields primarily

lactic acid and increased amounts of formic and acetic acids;
ethanol is formed if the medium is kept neutral. The bacterium
is tolerant to salt and grows at a wide range of temperatures.
S. lactis. This species is important in the dairy industry and

capable of fermenting citric acid to produce carbon dioxide. acetic
acid. and diacetyl. It also produces acid from galactose. glucose.
and maltose and has the ability to ferment lactose and to digest
casein. The final pH in glucose broth is 4.0 to 4.5.
S. cremoris. This is similar to S. lactis and produces diacetyl.
Genus Pediococcus
Cells of Pediococcus are spherical, never elongated. All spe-
cies grow at 30°C. but the optimum temperature range is from
25 to 45°C. They are found in fermenting vegetables and meat.
but do not grow well in milk. because lactose is not a readily
available carbohydrate. P. cervisiae and P. acidilactici are impor-
tant species.
Genus Leuconostoc
Cells may be spherical but often lenticular. and usually occur
in pairs or chains. The optimum temperature range is 20 to 30°C.
and growth occurs between 5° and 30° C. It ferments sugar to
produce levorotatory acids. acetic acid. ethyl alcohol. and carbon
dioxide. Three species of Leuconostoc. L. mesenteroides. L. dex-
tranicum, and L. citrovorum, are important in the food industry.
The first is found most often in dairy products.
The Tribe Lactobacilleae
The tribe Lactobacilleae includes five genera. Only the genus

Lactobacillus is important in food fermentation. The cell shape
varies from long and slender. sometimes bent rods to short rods.
At least half the fermentation end-product is lactate. Additional
products may be acetate. carbon dioxide. formate or succinate.
and volatile acids. This genus is subdivided into two subgenera:
(1) heterofermentative (includes four species) and (2) homo fer-

mentative (includes 11 species).
Homofermentative species of Lactobacillus

These are Lactobacillus caucasicus, L. lactis, L. helviticus, L.
acidophilus, L. bifidus, L. bulgaricus, L. thennophilus, L. del-
brueckii, L. casei, L. leichmannii. and L. plantarum.
Heterofermentative species of the genus Lactobacillus

These are L. pas torianus , L. buchneri, L. brevis, and L. fer-
menti.
The Family Propionibacteriaceae
The family Propionibacteriaceae from the order Emubacteri-

ales includes three genera. Only one. Propionibacterium, is im-
portant in foods. It has 11 species that are involved in cultures
for dairy products, especially cheese. They ferment lactic acid,
carbohydrates, and polyhydroxy alcohols and produce acetic and
propionic acids and carbon dioxide.
The order Pseudomonadeles includes one family (Pseudomo-
nadaceae) important in food fermentation. This family of Gram-
negative, aerobic, typically motile bacteria includes 12 genera.
Yeast
Based on morphological and physiological criteria, yeast is a

non taxonomic category of fungi. The typical yeast is a unicellular
saprotroph that can metabolize carbohydrates by fermentation
and in which asexual reproduction occurs by budding. The most
widely used yeast is baker's or brewer's yeast, Saccharomyces
cervisiae or Saccharomyces carlsbergensis. They can ferment glu-
cose. Some strains of Saccharomyces can ferment sucrose and
maltose. Generally, they produce alcohol and carbon dioxide.
Mold
Bread and similar products are very susceptible to spoilage

by the growth of molds, especially Rhizopus nigricans (black bread
mold}, Neurospora sitophila (red bread mold), and species of Peni-

cillium and Aspergillus. A number of molds are used in the prepa-
ration of molded cheese and Oriental foods, such as soya sauce.
The Functionality of Microorganisms in Sourdough

Bread Production
The sourdough process imparts significant desirable attri-

butes to the final product. Oura et al. (1982) cited Westermarck-
Rosendahl (1978), who reported that optimal rye bread quality is
achieved only at relatively low pH value, because rye flour, ob-
tained from sprouted grain, is highly susceptible to a-amylase
activity. Lowering the dough pH inhibits enzyme activity and re-
sults in a marked improvement in the product's texture and shelf
life (Drews and Seibel, 1976). In breads made with wheat flour,
sourdough has multiple functions. The bacteria and yeast in-
volved in this process are responsible for the development of a
leavening agent and the unique acid flavor and aroma of sour-
dough bread (Sugihara, 1985). In comparison to bread prepared
with baker's yeast, the sourdough breads are characterized by
moist, dense grain, and rather chewy texture.
Among the various species of Lactobacillus bacteria that grow
in sourdough, the homofermentative species do not produce any
carbon dioxide, and their function is related closely to acidifica-
tion and flavor development. In the absence of yeast, the hetero-
fermentative Lactobacillus species are essentially responsible for
dough leavening, as well as flavor development (Pederson, 1971 b).
The heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria produce relatively
small amounts of carbon dioxide, and, therefore, the product is
more compact than yeast-leavened bread. Oura et al (1982) cited
Stegeman and Rohrlich (1958), who observed that a pure culture
of heterofermentative bacteria, L. brevis, provides rye bread with
the desirable aroma but not an elastic crumb. The opposite effect
was observed when homo fermentative L. plantarum was used.
They concluded that, to obtain satisfactory aroma and crumb
characteristics, both bacteria species must be used.
Sourdough in Flat Bread Production
In many parts of the world, production of sourdough still

follows the traditional procedure. Part of the fermented dough,
which is naturally loaded with a wide range of microorganisms,
is kept overnight under warm and humid conditions. During fer-
mentation, the activity ofthe undesirable microorganisms is elim-
inated by the desirable Lactobacillus species. Among various or-
ganic acids produced during fermentation, lactic acid and acetic
acid play an important role in lowering the dough's pH and con-
trolling the activities of other microorganisms. Schulz (1966) re-
ported that the three significant lactic acid bacteria in rye sour-
dough were the homofermentative Lactobacillus plantarum and
the heterofermentative L. brevis and L. Jermentum Pederson
(1971 b) reported the species of Lactobacillus in sourdough iso-
lated by Spicher (1959). It included four hetero- and four homofer-
mentative species. Lactobacillus plantarum and L. brevis were
dominant. Sugihara (1985) referred to the same publication of
Spicher (1959) and reported a total of 14 species of Lactobacillus,
plus Pediococcus acidilactici, and four species of yeast: Candida
krusei, Saccharomyces cervisiae, Pichia saitoi, and Torulopsis
holmiL
Oura et al (1982) reported that Lactobacillus has sufficient
leavening capacity. However, the leavening action of sourdough
is achieved mainly by a large number of yeast cultures in the
starter. They cited Spicher and Rabe (1979), who isolated 44 yeast
cultures from a number of sourdough starters. These included
27 strains of Candida krusei, 11 strains of Saccharomyces cervis-
iae, 4 strains of Saccharomyces exiguus, and 2 strains of Pichia
saitoi.
Technology of Sourdough Production

The traditional method ofleavened flat bread production was
based on sourdough fermentation. Many flat breads, for example,
rye bread, baladi, and sangak, are still prepared according to the
traditional procedures. Although rye sourdough bread produc-
tion has been studied extenSively in Europe, only a limited num-
ber of references are available with respect to the function of

sourdough in baladi, sangak, dosai, injera, and kisra flat breads.
Traditionally, sourdough was prepared by mixing water with
flour from various cereals or legumes and keeping it in a warm,
humid place overnight or longer before its inclusion into the pro-
duction process. For daily production, a portion of the fermented
dough was used, and the rest was remixed with additional por-
tions of flour and water to develop a new starter for the follow-
ing day.
In rye bread bakeries in Europe, sourdough is prepared in
multiple stages. The first step is preparing the fresh starter, the
second is developing the basic sour, and the final stage is full
sour development (Pyler, 1982). Oura et al (1982) noted that, in
the initial stage, more nutrients and microflora are added to the
old starter by the addition of flour, water, and airborne microor-
ganisms during mixing. During fermentation, because of high pH
value of the fresh starter, yeast activity would increase, resulting
in more alcohol and carbon dioxide. In the second stage, the
activity of lactic acid bacteria is enhanced, which further lowers
the pH value. In the third and final stage, yeast and bacterial
growth are all focused on the development of the desirable charac-
teristics in the final product.
The quality of sourdough can be controlled by various means,
such as flour quality, water absorption, aeration, level of salt,
temperature, and time. Flour quality and its buffering capacity
play an important role in this process. Oura et al (1982) cited
Rohrlich and Essner (1960), who reported that flour of high ex-
traction (ash content) required a higher level of acid to obtain a
certain pH value than flour of low extraction.
The most widely used method for sourdough production in
the bakeries of eastern Europe (Schulz, 1966) is the multiple-
stage or progressive method. This classic lengthy method consists
of a series of preliminary sourdough developments prior to the
final stage. The advantages of multiple-stage sourdough develop-
ment are the desirable effect on the baking quality of rye bread
and development of its leavening action with the absence of yeast.
However, because of the excessive length of this method, a shorter
and simpler procedure, that is, the Berlin short sour method,
has been developed. The slow acidification in the multiple-stage
method, which requires 24 h of fermentation, is replaced by a

rapid acidification during 3 h of fermentation. This is achieved
by increasing the dough temperature to 35°C, using a softer (90%
water absorption) dough, and incorporating yeast in the final
stage.
Schulz (1966) reviewed the fundamentals of sourdough devel-
opment in rye bread production. The aCidification of sourdough
by lactic and acetic acids and its leavening action are affected by
the microflora of the raw material, dough temperature, dough
consistency, and fermentation time. The optimum dough temper-
ature for aCidification of a rye flour-water (10:9) mixture is 37°C.
A pH value of 4.0 was reached in 3 h at a dough temperature of
37°C; within 4.5 hours at 30°C; and within about 8 h at 25°C.
From a bacteriological aspect, growth and acidification tended to
be greater when higher water absorption was used. Low absorp-
tion negatively affected the growth of bacteria. Maximum acidifi-
cation was obtained at absorptions between 80% and 90%. The
best conditions for acidification of sourdough were 90% water
absorption and a dough temperature of 35°C. Addition of up to
2% yeast to the sourdough had a marked retarding effect on the
acidification. Therefore, incorporation of yeast during the final
dough stage of sour development was recommended.
In the Berlin short sour method for rye bread (Schulz, 1966),
the sponge is prepared by mixing rye flour (100%), water (36%),
and sour starter from the previous batch (8%). The mixture is
allowed to ferment for 3 h by naturally occurring microorganisms
at 35.5°C. When the pH reaches 4.0, a ripe sourdough is achieved.
From this ripe sourdough a portion equivalent to eight parts
starter is removed for the next preparation, and the rest is mixed
with the other rye bread ingredients, namely rye flour (60 parts),
water (25 parts), yeast (0.5 to 1.0 part), and salt (1.7 parts). The
difference between the Berlin short sour method and the regular
sponge and dough method is that, in the former, sponge fermenta-
tion is achieved by the indigenous microorganisms, and baker's
yeast is added during dough mixing.
Another simple method of sourdough development for rye
bread is the Detmold method (Stephan, 1960, 1970). In this proce-
dure, acidification and preservation of the sourdough are con-
trolled by salt. Using this method, excessive acidification of an
overnight fermentation of sourdough is eliminated. The pH value

of rye sourdough having 90% water absorption dropped signifi-
cantly with salt. Without salt, the pH would drop to about 3.7
during 8 h of fermentation at 35°C. A higher level of salt (5%)
reduced the pH to approximately 4.6 (Schulz, 1966).
Although the development of sourdough in rye bread produc-
tion has been studied thoroughly, the use of sourdough in wheat-,
rice-, and sorghum-flour-based flat breads has been investigated
to a much lesser extent. Traditionally, a wide range of flat breads
was leavened with the sourdough method. A typical example of
these products is Egyptian baladi bread. The microbial and chem-
ical changes of dough and bread were studied by Abd-el-Malek
et al (1974). They reported that the microflora involved in fermen-
tation were mainly lactic acid bacteria and yeast. The lactic acid
bacteria in fresh dough were mainly heterofermentative, Lactoba-
cilli and Streptococci. The latter were less active after the first
hour of fermentation. Lactobacillie dominated the activity of other
microorganisms, with Lactobacillus brevis and L. jennenti being
the dominant species, and were responsible for the typical flavor
of baladi bread.
Abd-el-Malek et al (1974) cited Morad (1968), who studied
the presence of yeast species in the dough ofbaladi bread. Seven
genera: Saccharomyces, Debaromyces, Cryptococcus, Torulopsis,
Candida, Trichosporum, and Rhodotorula were identified. The first
five genera were present throughout the period of fermentation,
when Saccharomyces cervisiaecomprised 30%. During the course
of 2 hours fermentation, the pH value dropped to levels of 4.2
and 4.7 in dough samples prepared with flour of 72% and 90%
extractions, respectively. A typical sourdough starter for baladi
bread consists of flour of 82% extraction (100%)' old dough
(110%), and water (500%). A minimum fermentation of 3 h is
allowed to take place. In the bread-making process, sourdough
comprises 20% (flour basis) of the formula (Doerry, 1983).
The sour dough starter for sangak bread (Azar et al., 1977)
included three general groups of, streptococci, lactobacillus, and
Gram-positive cocci or tetrads. The species of Lactobacillus iso-
lated were L. plantarum and L. brevis. In fully developed sour-
dough starter, Leuconostoc sp., Lactobacillus sp., and Alcaligenas
sp. comprised 48%, 19%, and 2% of the culture, respectively.
Yeasts were present in much smaller numbers. They were identi-

fied as Torulopsis candida and T. colluculosa. In traditional sour-
dough Moroccan bread. yeasts were identified as Saccharomyces
cervisiae and Candida milleri. They comprised 46% and 50% of
the culture. respectively (Boraam et aI.. 1993). The most frequent
lactic acid bacteria were Lactobacillus plantarum (52%), L. brevis
(14%), L. buchneri (8%), and L. casei alactosus (8%). Small
amounts of L. casei casei (6%) and L. casei ramonosus (2%) also
were identified.
Venkatasubbaiah et al (1984) studied the microbial and phys-
ical changes in idli batter during fermentation. They reported a
6 to 7 log increase in total Lactobacilli. along with a 3 to 5 log
increase in coliforms. They suggested that the coliforms are in-
volved in converting the starch substrate to fermentable carbohy-
drates for lactic acid bacteria and yeast activity. Yeasts in the
fermented batter of idli were Trichosporon pullulans. Torulopsis
holmii. and T. candida.
Mter 20 to 22 h of fermentation. 90 to 100% of the microor-
ganisms developed in idli batter were Gram-positive cocci. The
bacterium that produced gas and acid was Leuconostoc mesenter-
oides. Leuconostoc was the predominant microorganism even
when idli was produced with sour milk and yeast starter. The
strains that were not involved in gas production were similar to
Streptococcus faecalis (Steinkraus et aI.. 1967).
The starter of kisra (Sudanese sorghum-based flat bread)
requires 12 to 18 h of fermentation at 35 to 38°C (Abdel Gadir
and Mohamed 1977). During the first 6 to 10 h of fermentation.
yeast flavor from Saccharomyces cervisiae becomes predominant.
The desirable kisra flavor is the result of yeast and bacterial (Lac-
tobacillus and Acetobacter) fermentation. Acetobacter spp. be-
come active when a sufficient amount of ethanol is developed
by yeast.
The microbial load of fermented batter for injera. the Ethio-
pian flat bread. has not been investigated fully. Vogel et al (1977)
cited Stewart and Getachew (1962), who reported that fungi in
injera batter include the fungi Pullaria. Aspergillus. and Penicil-
lium yeast Rhodotorula. Hormodendrum, and Candida. and a
number of unidentified bacteria and yeast. Vogel et al (1977)
assumed that the sour flavor of injera must be a result of a differ-
ent microbial flora than that reported by Stewart and Getachew

(1962).
Shortening
The majority of flat breads are prepared from the four essen-
tial ingredients of baked products, namely, flour, water, salt, and
leavening agents (sourdough or yeast). Many varieties of these
breads, such as chapati and corn tortillas, were traditionally and
still are prepared from a mixture of flour and water, with or with-
out salt. The history of incorporating shortening in the formula
of flat breads is not well known; nevertheless, today, the formulas
of many flat breads include various types of shortenings. For
example, lard is considered to be one of the essential ingredients
of wheat flour tortillas and butter, of naan and kalachi. Paratha
and puri are prepared with, or deep fried in, shortening and oil.
Irrespective of the nutritional improvement of baked prod-
ucts, shortenings are added to improve the eating quality, i.e.,
"mouth feel" or palatability, flavor, and shelf life of the baked
products. They also are used to improve dough handling proper-
ties and machinability in both small manual-scale and large auto-
mated operations. Edible oil and fats previously (Torrey, 1983)
were divided into two distinctive groups: (1) liqUid oils, such as
olive, soybean, and cottonseed; and (2) plastic fats, such as butter,
lard, margarine, and shortening. However, many types of oils and
fats are now referred to as shortening, in order to separate them
from margarine and other product of high fat content (Weiss,
1983). They are composed of triglycerides of saturated or unsatu-
rated fatty acids. The level of saturated fatty acids in the triglycer-
ide determines the hardness and plasticity of the shortening and
plays an important role in the properties of the final product.
Plastic shortenings are composed of a mixture of various crystal-
line and liqUid triglycerides which is expressed as percent solid
fat index (SFI). Table 3.1 shows the solid fat index of various kinds
of shortening (Elinger 1962).
Pyler (1982a) divided the plastic shortenings into two general
groups: compound and all-hydrogenated. Compound shorten-
ings were further classified into two groups: those consisting of
Table 3.1 Solid Fat Indices of Several Bakery Shortenings
S.F.I. S.F.I. S.R.I. S. F. I. S. F. I. S.R.I.

tOo ( 21°( 26.7°( 33°( 37.8"( 43.3°(
Type of Shortening % % % % % %
Lard 24-26 18-20 12-14 4-5 2.5-3 None

Plastic animal and
vegetable shortening 31-35 22-26 20-25 15-19 13-15 8-10
Plastic emulsified animal and
Plastic vegetable shortening 26-32 17-23 15-21 10-16 9-11 6-8
Plastic emulsified
Fluid aerating shortening 4-8 3-5 2-4 0.5-2.5 None None
Source: Ellinger, 1962.
a mixture of animal fat and vegetable oil and those made entirely
from partly hydrogenated vegetable oils.
Frying fats have been divided (Baeuerlen et al.. 1968) into 11
groups with respect to their application. (1) Vegetable oils have
a bland flavor and range of colors. They are in liquid form at room
temperature. (2) Hydrogenated vegetable oils are also winterized
(the process of eliminating the solidification of oil at refrigeration
temperature). (3) In hydrogenated vegetable shortening or heavy-
duty fats. the hydrogenation process is extended to a level neces-
sary to obtain a firm product at room temperature. These products
resist oxidation changes during frying and packaging. (4) AlI-
purpose vegetable shortenings are similar to the previous group
of shortenings. but have an additional improvement in their plas-
ticity. (5) Blended vegetable shortenings consist of blends ofvege-
table oil and fat. They are less resistant to oxidation. (6) Lard
develops fried products with good mouth feel because of its low
melting point. (7) Hydrogenated lard has improved resistance to
oxidation and also is suitable for frying operations. (8) Tallow and
reduced beef fat have a higher melting point than lard and are
highly resistant to oxidation. They have a desirable flavor and are
used widely for frying. (9) Blends of meat fat and vegetable oils
are deodorized and treated with antioxidant. (10) Hydrogenated
meat fat-vegetable oil blends. because of their hydrogenation
level, have a higher resistance to oxidation than the previous

group. (11) Coconut oil shortenings possess both a low melting
point and unsaturated fatty acids. They are highly resistant to oxi-
dation.
In the deep frying process, the product is immersed com-
pletely in the frying fat. During frying, product components react
with the frying oil and result in a product of unique characteris-
tics. A proper frying condition is indicated by a rapid development
of air bubbles (release of steam and volatile substances) from the
product. The optimum frying temperature for various products
depends on their composition and the desired attributes of the
final product. Generally, it is between 165 and 196°C. The proper
selection of frying conditions are an important factor. Too Iowa
temperature results in an excessively long frying time, loss of
frying oil because of the product's high absorption, and a greasy
product. Too high a frying temperature, on the other hand, results
in a nonuniformly fried product (Weiss, 1983).
Emulsifiers
Although shortening is the essential ingredient of a number

of flat breads, such as wheat flour tortillas, naan, and paratha,
and is utilized to improve the quality and shelf life of other flat
breads, very limited studies have been reported with respect to
its function in end products. Even fewer reports have been pub-
lished on the effects of various emulsifiers and dough-modifYing
agents on product quality. Because most flat breads are produced
from only the essential ingredients of flour, water, and salt, with
or without a source of leavening agent, their shelf life is extremely
limited. Today's production trend toward medium and large size,
automated and semi-automated plants and the life style in many
nations, which allows for less frequent bread purchase, dictate
the use of various natural and synthetic additional ingredients
in bread production. Hence, this section is devoted to a brief
discussion of the fundamentals and applications of various emul-
sifiers and dough-modifYing agents in flat bread production.
Many of these minor ingredients, especially those of naturally
occurring materials, such as gums, have been used traditionally
Emulsifiers
Su rface - active Finely divided
materials solids
Naturally occurring
materials
Figure 3.2 A broad classification of emulsifying agents.
in flat bread production. Other emulsifiers, especially synthetic

types, alone or in combination with naturally occurring materials,
have a tremendous application potential in modem production
of quality flat bread.
Definition and Classification of Emulsifiers
As defined by Becher (1965), "an emulsion is a heterogeneous

system, conSisting of at least one immiscible liqUid intimately
dispersed in another in the form of droplets, whose diameters, in
general, exceed 0.111. Such systems possess a minimal stability,
which may be accentuated by such additive as surface-active
agents, finely divided solids, etc". A rather broad system of classi-
fication of emulsifying agents (Figure 3.2) is based on their arbi-
trary division into three major classes (Becher, 1965): (1) surface-
active materials, (2) naturally occurring materials, and (3) finely
divided solids. Both naturally occurring and surface-active mate-
rials have a wide range of application in the food industry. These
will be discussed in brief in the following sections.
The naturally occurring materials (some of which are gums
or hydrocolloids) in a sense could be considered as surface-active
materials. The difference is that the latter materials are synthetic
and could be produced specially to fit a particular application,
whereas the former materials are naturally developed products
Surface - Active Emulsifiers

t t t
Anionic - active Nonionic - active Water - insoluble
(positive charge) (dipole, without emulsifiers
formal charge)
./ '- ./ '- ./
/' / '\
Cationic - active Ampholytic
(negative charge) (positive and
negative charges)
'- '-
Figure 3.3 Classification of surface-active emulsifiers, according to their
hydrophilic groups.
and are often expensive, sensitive to pH, and susceptible to hydro-

lysis.
Swface-Active Emulsifiers
Surface-active materials can be classified according to the

hydrophilic group of the molecule into five groups (Figure 3.3)
(Becher, 1965; Hasenhuett, 1990): (1) anionic-active emulsifying
agents (positive charge), (2) cationic-active emulsifying agents
(negative charge), (3) nonionic-active emulsifying agents (dipole,
without formal charge), (4) ampholytic (positive and negative
charges) and (5) water-insoluble emulsifying agents.
Nonionic surface-active emulsifiers are used widely in the
food industry (Weiss, 1972; Lauridsen, 1976; Rusch, 1981; Ha-
senhuett, 1990; Kamel and Ponte, 1993), because they have many
economic and quality advantages and are not affected by water
hardness and pH. It is worth mentioning that the oldest anionic
emulsifier, soap, has been and still is employed in the baking
method for a type of flat bread (sangak) in Iran.
Another approach in classifying the synthetic emulsifiers is
by their hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB), which is related to
their efficiency for application in certain food systems. Emulsifiers
with HLB numbers in a range of 3 to 6 are strongly lipophilic
(oil soluble) and are suitable for water-in-oil emulsions. whereas

those with HLB numbers between 8 and 18 are strongly hydro-
philic and are suitable for oil-in-water emulsions (Becher. 1965;
Kamel and Ponte. 1993).
The following sections. extracted from the Food Chemical
Codex (1981) and Lewis (1989), describe the properties of the
most common surface-active emulsifiers (Figure 3.4) and their
applications in the baking industry. These emulsifiers are also
employed widely in other food industries.
Mono- and diglycerides

These consist of mixtures of glycerol mono-and diesters of
edible fats and oils or edible fat-forming fatty acids. The commer-
cially available products vary in consistency from liqUid to plastic
to hard and have a range of colors from yellow to ivory. They have
a bland odor and flavor. and are insoluble in water. These are used
as dough strengtheners. emulsifiers. flavoring agents. lubricants.
softeners. stabilizers. surface-active agents. texturizers. and
thickeners in baked (yeast-raised) products. They are classified
as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) when used according to
good manufacturing practice.
Acetylated Monoglycerides
These are esters of glycerine with acetic and edible fat-forming
fatty acids or solids. They have a bland flavor and are insoluble
in water. They are used as emulsifiers. lubricants. and texture-
modifYing agents at a level not in excess of the amount reasonably
required to accomplish the intended effect.
Diacetyl Tartaric Acid Ester of Mono- and

Diglycerides (DATAEM)
These are products of partial glycerides of edible oils and
fats or fat-forming fatty acids with diacetyl tartaric anhyride. The
esters range in appearance from a sticky. viscous liqUid to a fatlike
consistency to a waxy solid. They have a faint acid odor and are
soluble in water and oil. They are used in baked products as
emulsifiers and flavoring agents. They are considered as GRAS
when used in accordance with good manufacturing practice.
Surface - Active Agents
( Mono - and diglYCerideS)
Dirivitives of Mono - and diglycerides
- Acetylated monoglycerides
- Diacetyl tartaric acid
ester of mono - and
diglycerides (DATAEM)
- Ethoxylated mono - and
diglycerides (EMD)
- Lactylic esters of fatty acids
- Polyglycerol esters of
fatty acids
- Propylene glycol
mono - and diesters
- Sodium and calcium steroyl
lactylate (SSL and CaSL)
- Sodium stearyl fumarate
- Sorbitan ester
- Succinylated monoglyceride
- Sucrose ester (SE)
Figure 3.4 The most common surface-active emulsifiers used in the food
industry.
55
Ethoxylated Mono- and Diglycerides (EMD)

These are mixtures of stearate, palmitate, and lesser amounts
of myristate partial esters of glycerine condensed with approxi-
mately 20 moles of ethylene oxide per mole of a-monoglyceride
reaction mixture. They occur as pale, slightly yellow, oily liquids
or semigels. They have a mildly bitter flavor and are soluble in
water and partially soluble in vegetable oil. They are used as
dough conditioners and emulsifiers in baked (yeast-leavened)
products at 0.5% flour basis.
Lactylic Esters of Fatty ACids

These are hard waxy solids to liquids and are dispersible in
hot water and soluble in vegetable oil. They function as emulsifiers
and plasticizers in foods and baked products.
Polyglycerol Esters of Fatty Acids

These are yellow to amber, oily, viscous liquids, and dispersa-
ble in water. They are used as emulsifiers in cake mixes and
confectionery products at a level not in excess of the amount
reasonably required to accomplish the intended effect.
Propylene Glycol Mono- and Diesters

These are clear liquids or white to yellow beads or flakes,
have a bland odor and flavor, and are insoluble in water. They
are used as emulsifiers and stabilizers in cake batters at a level
not in excess of the amount reasonably required to accomplish
the intended effect.
Sodium and Calcium Stearoyl Lactylates (SSL and CaSL)

These are mixtures of sodium or calcium salts of stearoyl
lactylic acid and minor proportions of other salts of related acids.
They are slightly hygroscopic, occur as cream-colored powders
having a mild caramel like odor, and are slightly soluble in hot
water. They are used as dough conditioners, stabilizers, and whip-
ping agents. The level of usage in yeast-leavened baked products
is 0.5% flour basis.
Sodium Stearyl Fumarate

This is a fine powder, insoluble in water, used as a dough
conditioner in yeast-leavened and nonleavened baked products
at levels of 0.5% and 1.0% flour basis, respectively.
Sorbitan Ester (Sorbitan Monostearate)

This is a mixture of partial stearic and palmitic acid esters
of sorbitol and its mono-and dianhydrides. It has a light cream
to tan color and hard, waxy solid with a bland odor and flavor.
It is insoluble in cold water, but dispersable in warm water. It
is used as a defoaming agent, emulsifier, rehydration aid, and
stabilizer in cake mixes at a level of 0.6%.
Succinylated Monoglycerides
These are mixtures of succinic acid esters of mono- and di-
glycerides produced by succinylation of a product obtained by
glycerolysis of edible fats and oils or by the direct esterification
of glycerol with edible fat-forming fatty acids. They occur as a
waxy solid having an off-white color and bland flavor. They are
used in bread dough (0.5% flour basis) as conditioners and emul-
sifiers.
Sucrose Ester (SE)

This is used as an emulSifier, protective coating, and textur-
izer in baked products at a level not in excess of the amount
reasonably required to accomplish the intended effect.
Naturally Dccuning Materials
The emulsifiers in this class are either extracted from natural

sources (higher plants, seaweed, and seed gums) or are the prod-
ucts of microbial fermentation (such as xanthan gum and dex-
tran) (Enriquez et a!., 1989). The naturally occurring emulsifiers
often are called auxiliary emulsifying agents, because many of
them are relatively inefficient when used alone, but in combina-
tions might have a Significant emulSifYing effect (Becher, 1965).
The naturally occurring emulsifiers are classified into two major
groups: phospholipids and sterols, and water-soluble gums (Fig-
Naturally Occurring Materials

1Phospholipids & Sterolsl / "I Water - soluble gums
,
"
Lecithin 1 1Lanolin
r---..:...-,/ Anionic
/ 1 "'I--'N'-o-ni-o-nl-c'l
f ~ ~
Microbial gum Plant exudates Seaweed extracts Seed gums
-Xanthan - Gumarab/c - Allg/nates -Guargum
- Ghat/gum - Carrageenan - Locust bean
-Karaya gum
- Tragacanth - Tamarind
Figure 3.5 Classification of naturally occurring emulsifiers.
ure 3.5). Phospholipids (lecithin) and sterols (lanolin) are present

in minor quantities in fats and oils (Becher, 1965). Lecithin is
extracted from soybeans, and lanolin from a refined wax obtained
from the wool of sheep. Water-soluble gums, on the other hand,
are divided into four major groups of higher plant exudates, sea-
weed extracts, seed gums (Meer, 1977), and microbial gums.
According to the chemical grouping, the water-soluble gums
are divided into anionic and nonionic compounds. The anionic
group includes either higher plant exudates (gum arabic, ghati
gum, karaya, and tragacanth) or extracts from seaweed (aliginates
and carrageenan). The seed gums (guar gum, locust bean gum,
and tamarind) are nonionic compounds.
The following sections, extracted from the Food Chemical
Codex (1981) and Lewis (1989), describe the properties of the most
common naturally occurring emulsifiers and their applications in
the baking industry.
Phospholipids
Lecithin. This is a complex mixture of phospholipids that con-
sists mainly of phosphatidyl choline, phosphatidyl ethanolamine,
and phosphatidyl inositol, combined with various amounts of
other substances, such as triglycerides, fatty acids, and carbohy-
drates obtained from soybeans and other plants. Refined grades

of lecithin may contain any of these components in various pro-
portions. It is a light yellow to brown, semisolid solution, and has
a nutlike odor and bland flavor. It is used as an antioxidant and
emulsifier in a wide range of foods including baked products.
Plant exudates
Gum Arabic. This is obtained from the stem and branches of
Acacia senegal or acacia (family, Leguminosae), and is soluble in
water. It is used as an emulSifier, flavoring agent, formulation
aid, stabilizer, and thickener. It is considered GRAS with a limita-
tion of 1.0% in baked products when used in accordance with
good manufactUring practice.
Karaya Gum. This is a dried gummy exudate of the tree Sterculia

ureus (family: Sterculiaceae). It occurs in tear shapes of variable
sizes or in broken irregular pieces having a somewhat crystalline
appearance. It is a pale yellow to pinkish brown, translucent
product. In the powdered form, it is light gray to pinkish gray. It
swells in water to form a gel for application as an emulsifier,
formulation aid, stabilizer, and thickener in baked products. It
is considered GRAS when used in accordance with good manufac-
turing practice.
Tragacanth Gum. This is dried gummy exudate obtained from

the shrub Astragalus gummifier (family: Labillardiere). It is odor-
less with a mucilaginous taste and available in the form of a white
to pale yellow, translucent powder. Tragacanth gum is used in
baked products as an emulSifier, thickener, and preservative. It
is considered GRAS with a limitation of 0.2% in baked goods.
Seed Gums
Guar Gum. This is a yellowish-white powder, dispersable in hot
or cold water that is obtained from the ground endos perms of
Cyamopsis tetragonolobus (Family: Leguminosae). It consists
mainly of a high molecular weight, hydrocolloidal polysaccharide
comprising galactose and mannose units combined through gly-
cosidic linkage, which may be described chemically as a galacto-
mannan. It is odorless and soluble in water and is used as an
emulsifier, firming agent, formulation aid, stabilizer, and thick-

ener in the baking industry. It is considered GRAS with a limita-
tion of 0.35%.
Locust Bean Gum. This is a galactomannan polysaccharide, ob-

tained from the ground endosperm of Ceratonia ailiqua (family:
Leguminosae). It is a white powder, odorless and flavorless, but
acquires a leguminous flavor when boiled in water. This is used
as an emulsifier, stabilizer, and thickener. It is considered GRAS,
with a limitation of 0.15% in baked products.
Seaweed Extracts
Carrageenan. This is obtained by extraction with water or aque-
ous alkali from certain members of the family Rhodophyceae (red
seaweeds). It is a hydrocolloid conSisting mainly of the potassium,
sodium, magnesium, calcium, and ammonium sulfate esters of
galactose and 3,6-anhydrogalactose copolymers. It has a yellow-
ish to white color, is odorless with a mucilaginous flavor, and
appears in the form of a fine to coarse powder. It functions as an
emulsifier, stabilizer, thickener, and gelling agent.
Microbial Gum
Xanthan Gum. This is high molecular weight polysaccharide
gum produced by a pure culture fermentation of carbohydrate
with the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris. It contains D-glu-
cose and D-mannose as the dominant hexose units, along with
D-glucuronic acid. It is prepared as a cream colored powder of
sodium, potassium, or calcium salts and is soluble in hot and cold
water. It is used as a binder, bodying agent, emulsifier, stabilizer,
suspending agent, and thickener at a level not in excess of the
amount reasonably required to accomplish the intended effect.
Legumes
Legumes are among the earliest crops domesticated by hu-
mans. Their history dates to Neolithic times. They were the next
most important crop after wheat and barley, and mixtures of
legumes with other cereals played an important role in traditional
foods of many parts of the world. Mixtures of cereal and legume
flours often constitute the main ingredients of various flat breads
Table 3.2 Proximate Compositions of Black Gram, Chick Peas, and

Broad Bean
Component Black gram" Chickpea b Broadbean c
Protein (%) 21.6 21.5 30.7

Carbohydrate (%) 60.0 60.7 59.7
Crude fiber (%) 5.4 8.0 6.8
Ash (%) 3.4 3.4 3.2
Fat (%) 1.4 5.3 1.3
"Average of data reported by Reddy et al. (1989).
bAverage of data reported by Chavan et al. (1989a).
'Average of data reported by Chavan et al. (1989b).
in countries of the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, and

North Mrica. In Europe, flours from broad beans, lentils, and
peas were mixed with cereal flours for traditional food preparation
(Aykroyd and Doughty. 1982).
Incorporation of various types of legume flour in the formulas
of cereal-based foods provides a variety of flavors and textures,
and complements the protein quality, resulting in a more nutri-
tionally balanced final product. Legumes contain high levels of
the essential amino acid lysine. whereas the levels of sulfur-con-
taining amino acids (methionine and cystine) are adequate in
cereals (Hallab et al, 1974; Sarwar et al .. 1978; Bressani and
Elias, 1980; Finney et al., 1982). Black gram, chickpeas, andfava
beans are used widely in flat bread production. A fermented batter
of rice flour and black gram constitutes the major ingredient of
"dosai," an Indian flat bread. Chickpeas and fava bean flours are
often important components of various flat breads in the Middle
East and North Mrica. Table 3.2 shows the chemical composition
of these legumes.
Rheological data for the final compositions of 5%, 10%, and
20% of mung bean, lentil, fava bean, navy bean, and pinto beans
flours with wheat flour (D'Appolonia. 1977) indicated a decrease
in farinograph development and stability times. Only the blend
of navy bean flour and wheat flour showed an increase in farino-
graph water absorption; the other mixtures led to a reduction in
water absorption. Both lentil and fava bean flours resulted in an
increase in the initial pasting temperature and a reduction in
peak height of the amylograph peak. The organoleptic properties

of Arabic bread prepared from a mixture of wheat flour and chick-
pea flour (up to 20%) compared favorably to that of the control
sample (Hallab et al, 1974). Higher levels of this supplementation,
however, adversely affected the taste and acceptability of Ara-
bic bread.
Potato Flour
Potato flour and flakes are the second solid ingredient of

potato flat breads commonly produced in the Scandinavian coun-
tries. Nevertheless, the effects of potato flakes and flour on a
variety of flat breads have not been investigated thoroughly. Pyler
(1982b) reported that potato flour provides a distinctive flavor,
reduces product firming and staling rates, and assists in the
leavening of the product. The leavening function of potato flour
was employed prior to the introduction of compressed yeast. Kent-
Jones (1967) reported that the addition of 5% potato flour to whole
wheat flour did not deteriorate the quality of pan bread, but rather
improved the "liveliness of the dough." Fresh potatos (Woolfe,
1987) contain 80% water; solid matter consists of 84. 5% carbohy-
drate, 10% protein, 0.5% lipid, and 5% ash. Braden (1962) showed
that the addition of3% potato flakes to flour led to a 4.2% increase
in farinograph absorption. Pan bread made with this dough dem-
onstrated a softer texture and higher volume.
References
Abdel Gadir, A M. and Mohamed, M. 1977. Kisra: Sudanese lactic/ acetic

acid fermented sorghum bread. In: K. Steinkraus, R. E. Cullen, C. S.
Pederson, L. F. Nelis (Eds). Handbook of Indigenous Fermented Foods
1983. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 175-179.
Abd-el-Malek, Y., El-Leithy, M. A, and Awad, Y. N. 1974. Microbiological
studies on Egyptian BaladyBread-making. II. Microbiological and chemi-
cal changes during dough fermentation. Chern. Mikrobiol. Technol. Leb-
ensm.3:148-153.
Aykroyd, W. R. and Doughty, J. 1982. In: Legumes in Human Nutrition.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, pp. 3,
22,49.
Azar, M. Ter-Sarkissian, N., Ghavifek, H., Ferguson, T., and Ghassemi,

H. 1977. Microbiological aspects of Sangak bread. J. Food Sci. Tech-
nol. 14:251-254.
Baeuerlen, R, Erickson, D., and Brody, H. 1968. Frying fats and their
uses. Baker's Dig. Dec:51-55.
Becher, P. 1965. In: Emulsions: Theory and Practice. The Chemistry of
EmulSifying Agents. Van Reinhold Nostrand, New York, pp. 209-266.
Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. Williams & Wilkins, Balti-
more, MD (1957).
Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. Williams & Wilkins, Balti-
more, MD (1986).
Boraam, F., Faid, M., Larpent, J. P., and Breton, A. 1993. Lactic acid
bacteria and yeast associated with traditional Moroccan sour-dough
bread fermentation. Sci. Aliments. 13:501-509. (Abstr.).
Braden, B. 1962. A study of potato flakes in bakery foods. Bakers Dig.
36:46-49.
Bressani, R and Elias, L. G. 1980. Nutritional value oflegume crops for
human and animal. In: Summerfield, R J. and Bunting, A. H. (Eds).
Advances in Legume Science. London.
Brown, J. 1985. The Master Bakers' Book of Breadmaking. Hastings
Printing, London.
Buskens, H. 1978. Fackunde fur Baker, Vol. 1, 7th edit. VerlagW. Girar-
det, Essen.
Chavan, J. K, Kute, L. S., and Kadam, S. S. 1989b. Broad bean. In: D. K
Salankhe and S. S. Kaddam (Eds). Handbook of World Food Legumes:
Nutritional ChemiStry, Processing Technology and Utilization, Vol. 1. CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FI, pp. 223-245.
Chavan, J. K, Kadam, S. S., and Salunkhe, D. K 1989a. Chickpea.
In: D. K Salankhe and S. S. Kaddam (Eds). Handbook of World Food
Legumes: Nutritional ChemiStry, Processing Technology and Utilization.
Vol. 1. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fl, pp. 247-288.
Conn, J. F. 1981. Chemical Leavening Systems in Flour Products. Cereal
Foods World 26:119-123.
D'Appolonia, B. L. 1977. Rheological and baking studies oflegume-wheat
flour blends. Cereal Chern. 55:53-63.
Doerry, W. 1983. Baking in Egypt. Cereal Foods World 28:677-679.
Drews, E. and Seibel, W. 1976. In: W. Bushuk (Ed). Rye: Production,
ChemiStry, and Technology, American Association of Cereal Chemists,
St. Paul, MN, p. 127.
Ellinger, R. H. 1962. The development and uses of fluid shortening.

Baker's Dig. Dec:65-69.
Enriquez, L. G., Hwang, J. W .. Hong. G. P .. Bati. N. A. and Flick. G. J.
1989. Plant and microbial food gums. In:G. Charalambous and G. Doxas-
takis (Eds). Food Emulsifiers: Chemistry. Technology. Functional Proper-
ties. and Applications. Elsevier, New York, pp. 335-411.
Fance, W. J. 1982. In: The Student's Technology of Breadmaking and
Flour Confectionery. Routledge and Kegan Paul. London.
Finney, P. L.. Beguin, D., and Hubbard. J. D. 1982. Effect of germination
on bread baking properties of mungbean (Phaseolus aureus) and gar-
banzo bean (Cicer arietinum). Cereal Chern. 59:520-524.
Food Chemical Codex 1981. National Academic Press. Washington, DC.
Galal, A. M., Johnson, J. A., and Varriano-Marston, E. 1978. Rheology
properties as affected by organic acids and salt. Cereal Chern. 55:46.
Hallab, A. H., Khatchadourian, H. A., and Jabr, 1. 1974. The nutritive
value and organoleptic properties of white Arabic bread supplemented
with soybean and chickpea. Cereal Chern. 51: 107-112.
Hanneman, L. J. 1980. Bakery, bread and fermented goods. Redwood
Burn, Hertfordshire, U.K.
Hasenhuett, G. L. 1990. Design and selection of emulsifiers in the food
industry. In: E. L. Gaden. Jr. (Ed). Food Emulsion and Foams: Theory
and Practice. American Institute of Chemical Engineers. pp. 35-43.
Kamel, B. S., and Ponte, J. G. Jr. 1993. Emulsifiers in baking. In: B. S.
Kamel. and C. E. Stauffer (Eds). Advances in Baking Technology. Blackie
Academic & Professional. Glasgow, U.K. pp. 222-253.
Kent-Jones, D. W. 1967. Modern Cereal Chemistry. Food Trade Press,
London.pp.115-149.
Lauridsen, J. B. 1976. Food emulsifiers: surface activity, edibility, manu-
facture, composition, and application. J. Am. Oil Chemists Soc. 53:400-
407.
Lewis, R. J. 1989. Food Additives Handbook. Van Nostrand Reinhold,
New York.
Meer, W. A. 1977. Plant hydrocolloids. In: H. D. Graham (Ed). Food
Colloids. AVI Publishing, Westport, CT, pp. 522-539.
Morad, M. M. H. 1968. Microbiological study of some Egyptian bread
doughs. M.Sc. thesis. Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University.
aura, E., Suomalainen, H., and Viskari, R. 1982. Breakmaking. In: A. H.
Rose (Ed). Fermented Foods. AcademiC Press, London, pp. 87-146.
Pederson, C. 1971a. Microorganisms offermented foods. In: Microbiology
of Food Fermentation. AVI Publishing, Westport, CT, pp. 12-35.
Pederson, 1971 b. Some cereal foods. In: Microbiology of Food Fermenta-

tion. AVI Publishing, Westport, CT, pp. 173-198.
Pyler, E. J. 1982. Baking Science and Technology, Siebel Publishing,
Chicago, IL.
Pyler, E. J. 1982a. Shortening products. In: Baking Science and Technol-
ogy. Siebebel Publishing, Chicago, IL, pp.435-486.
Pyler, E. J. 1982b. Miscellaneous flours. In: Baking science and Technol-
ogy, Vol 1. Siebel Publishing, pp. 367-395.
Reddy, N. R., Padhye, V. W., and Salunkhe, D. K. 1989. Black gram.
In: D. K. Salankhe and S. S. Kaddam (Eds). Handbook of World Food
Legumes: Nutritional Chemistry, Processing Technology and Utilization.
Vol. I. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fl, pp. 195-222.
Rogosa, M. 1974. In: R. E. Buchanan and N. E. Gibbons (Eds). Bergey's
Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, The Williams & Wilkins, Balti-
more, MD. 8th edit. p. 576.
Rohrlich, M. and Essner, W. 1960. Die Muhle 97:250.
Russel, N. J. and Gould, G. W. 1991 Food Preservatives. AVI Publishing,
New York.
Rusch, D. 1981. Emulsifiers: Uses in Cereal and Bakery Foods. Cereal
Foods World, 26:111-115.
Sarwar, G., Sosulski, F. W., Bell, J. M., and Bowland, J. P. 1978. Nutri-
tional evaluation of oilseeds and legumes as protein supplements to
cereals. In: Friendman, M., (Ed). Nutritional Improvement of Food and
Feed Proteins, Plenum Press, New York, p. 415.
Schulz, A. 1966. Rye bread production. Baker's Dig. 40(4):77-80.
Singleton, P. and Sainsbury, D. 1978. Dictionary of Microbiology and
Molecular Biology, 2nd edit. Wiley-Interscience, New York.
Spicher, G. and Rabe, E. 1979. Veroffentlichungen der Bunderfor-
schungsanstalt fur Getreide- und Kartoffelverarbeitung, No. 4644. Det-
mold. 30. Tagung fur Getreidechemie 16-18.5.
Spicher, G. 1959. Zentralblatt fur Bacteriologie, Parasitenkudde, Infedti-
onskheitten und Hygiene Abteilung II 113:80.
Stauffer, C. E. (1990). Functional Additives for Bakery Foods. Van Nos-
trand Reinhold Publishing, New York.
Stegeman, J. and Rohrlich, M. 1958 Brot und Geback 12, 65.
Steinkraus, K. H; Van Veen, A. G. and Thiebeau, D. B. 1967. Studies
on idli-An Indian fermented black gram rice food. Food Technol. 21 :916.
Stephan, H. 1960. Merkblatt No. 41, Arbeitsgemeinschaft Getreidefor-
schung, Detrnold.
Stephan, H, 1970. Merkblatt No. 64, Arbeitsgemeinschaft Getreidefor-

schung, Detmold.
Stewart, R. B. and Getachew, A. 1962. Investigations of the nature of
injera. Econ. Bot. 16: 127-130.
Sugihara, T. F. 1985. Microbiology of breadmaking. In:B. J. V. Wood
(Ed), Microbiology of Fermented Foods, Elsevier Applied Science, New
York, pp. 249-261.
Sultan, W. J. 1982. Practical Baking. AVI Publishing, Westport, CT.
Torrey, S. 1983. Cooking and salad oils. In: Edible Oils and Fats. Develop-
ments Since 1978. Noyes Data Corporation, Park Ridge, NJ, p.153.
Venkatasubbaiah, P., Dwarakanath, C. T., and Sreenivasa Murthy, V.
1984. Microbial changes in Idli batter during fermentation. J. Food Sci.
Technol. 21:59-62.
Vogel, S., Gobezie, A, and Gifawesen, C. 1977. Enjera-a fermented
pancake-like bread of Ethiopia. In: K. Steinkraus, R. E. Cullen, C. S.
Pederson, L. F. Nelis (Eds) , Handbook of Indigenous Fermented Foods
1983. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 162-173.
Weiss, T. J. 1972. Symposium: fats and oils in the food industry. J. Am.
Oil Chemists Soc. 49:457-461.
Weiss, T. J. 1983. Shortening-introduction. In: Food Oils and Their
Uses. Ellis Horwood Limited, Chichester, U.K. p. 121.
Westermarck-Rosendahl, C. 1978. University of Helsinki, Department
of Food Chemistry and Technology Series No. 464, Helsenki.
Woolfe, J. A 1987. The Potato in the Human Diet. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, p. 23.
CHAPTER FOUR
Flat Breads
Introduction
In many countries, bread is classified as a yeast-leavened

product; those cereal-based products that are either unleavened
or leavened with sourdough or chemical agents are not classified
as bread. In other countries, however, sourdough-leavened and
unleavened products are consumed as daily bread.
According to the Encyclopedia Americana (1994) bread is:
"A food made from a wide variety of plant substances that are
ground into flour, mixed with water into dough, and then usu-
ally baked into loaves or cakes. The flour may be prepared from
grass seeds such as wheat and rye. from legumes and tubers,
and even from such exotic items as artichoke."
"Bread may be from a mixture of several flours, and the recipe

mayor may not include yeast, or other leavening. Such ingredi-
ents as milk, eggs, honey, sugar, or nuts are sometimes added.
The cooking can be done by frying, boiling, or steaming instead
of baking."
The New Encyclopedia Britannica (1994) defines bread as:

"Baked food product made of flour or meal that is moistened,

kneaded, and sometimes fermented. A major food since prehis-
toric times, it has been made in various forms using a variety
of ingredients and methods throughout the world."
"Flat breads, the earliest form of bread, are still eaten, especially
in much of the Middle East, Asia, and Mrica. The principal
grains used in such breads are com, barley, millet, and buck-
wheat-all lacking sufficient gluten to make raised bread-and
wheat and rye. Millet cakes and chapaties are popular types in
India. Com is used to make small, flat cakes known as tortillas,
important throughout much of Latin America."
Classification and Processing of Flat Breads
Flat breads are probably the oldest, most diverse, and most
popular products in the world. It is estimated that over 1.8 billion
people consume various type of flat breads in Central America;
many parts of Mrica, especially North Mrica; parts of Southern
Europe; the Indian subcontinent; the Middle East; Turkey; the
Southern States of the former Soviet Union (Armenia, Georgia,
Azarbiajan, Torkamanstan, Uzbekstan, and Tajikstan); Scandi-
navia and many other countries. The popularity of these tradi-
tional breads is growing in certain areas, such as North America,
Europe, and Australia, because of the steady increase of ethnic
populations, and higher demand for exotic, healthy, all natural
breads.
These flat breads are prepared from one flour or a mixture of
two or more flours made from wheat, corn, rye, barley, sorghum,
millet, or rice grain. These flours are mixed with other essential
and/or optional ingredients (Figure 4.1) and processed to develop
a wide range of products.
The classification of flat breads is illustrated in Figure 4.2.
Based on the cross-sections of these products, they can be divided
into two groups, Single-layered and double-layered. The distinc-
tive difference in the cross-section is achieved by the processing
method. In the Single-layered flat bread, dough pieces are baked
immediately after sheeting, or at relatively lower temperature for
a longer time. The sheeted dough pieces also may be docked,
Ingredients of flat breads
Essential:
-Wheat, com, rye, barley, sorghum,

millet, or rice flours
-Yeast, sourdough, soda, baking powder
(or without leaving agents)
-Salt
-Water
Optional:
-Acidulants
-Antimicrobial agents
-Cornmeal
-Fruits
-Herbs
-Malt flour
-Meat
-Milk
-Natural and synthetic emulsifiers
-Potato, okra flour and flour from various legumes
-Reducing and oxidizing agents
-Sesame, poppy, caraway, fennel seeds or flours
-Shortening
-Spices
-Sugar
-Whole egg
-etc.
Figure 4.1 Ingredients of flat breads.
69
Classification of flat breads
C
-----------
/,-----------
Flat breads ~
\
-Arabie (pita)
-Baladi
...etc.
-Arepa
-Chapati
-Matzo
-Paratha
-Scandinavian erisp breads
-Barbari -Blintzes -Tortillas (corn)
-Ciabatta -Crepe -Tortillas (wheat)
-English maffin -Dosai ... eel.
-Focaeeia -Injera
-Gommes -Kisra
-Khobz El-daar -Paneake
-Lavash -Rogag
-Malouge ...eet.
-Naan
-Pizza crust
-Rye flat bread
-Sangak
-Tanoor
-Yufka
-Zanzibar
...eet.
Figure 4.2 Classification of flat breads.
70
Flat Breads 71
Dough after Dough during Early stage Baked

sheeting docking of baking product
Steam + C02
••••••
Dough after
proofing
Figure 4.3 Processing differences between single- and double-layered

flat breads.
grooved, or partially cut prior to final proofing or baking. For the

production of double-layered flat breads, sheeted dough pieces
are allowed to proof prior to baking. This final proofing stage
allows the dough to relax, aerate, and develop a thin skin. Conse-
quently, during baking, especially at high oven temperature, the
thin skin of the dough changes to a pale colored and extensible
crust, and the steam from free water in the dough, along with
the pressure from CO 2 and other volatile substances that are
developed during fermentation, force the top and bottom crusts
apart and create two layers. Figure 4.3 shows the processing
difference between single- and double-layered flat breads.
Single-layered flat breads are the most diverse products. They
can be either leavened or unleavened. The latter group includes
Arepa, com and (wheat) flour tortillas, paratha, puri, and Scandi-
navian flat breads. Some of these products may contain chemical
leavening agents. The leavened, single-layered flat breads are di-
vided into dough- and batter-based products. Barbari (pedeh).
khobz el-daar, rye flat bread, naan, pizza crust, and tanoor are
a few examples of the diverse and widely consumed dough-based
products. The batter-based flat breads include blintzes, crepes,
crumpets, dosai, injera, kisra, rogag, and chemically leavened
pancakes.
Typical examples of double-layered flat breads are Arabic and
baladi bread. Other names for Arabic bread includes pita, shami,
Lebanese, and mafrood. These are leavened products containing
sour-dough or yeast as leavening agents.
The modern methods of processing flat breads are shown in

Figure 4.4. Based on the sheeting process, they are divided into
five general categories: (1) two-direction sheeting, (2) die-cut, (3)
one- or two- direction sheeting, (4) hot and cold press or sheeting,
and (5) pouring. The processing times of these products (exclud-
ing the preparation of sourdough and batter) ranges from 45 min
to 2.5 to 3.0 h. The duration of some processing steps can be
altered to impart significant changes in the properties of the final
product. The thickness, shape, and weight of these products also
vary. The thickness ranges from paper thin to 3 to 4 cm; shapes
may be round, rectangular, or triangular; and weights range
widely from 20 to 1000 g.
The ingredients and processing of a wide variety of single-
and double-layered flat breads are discussed in this and the fol-
lowing chapter.
Dough-Based, Single-Layered Flat Breads
Arepa and Com Tortillas
Corn (maize), the native cereal of Central and South America,

is the principal ingredient of arepa and tortillas, the traditional
American flat breads. Arepa is the traditional product from Vene-
zuela, southern parts of Colombia, and Peru and is prepared from
mechanically dehulled and partially degermed com. Cuevas et
al. (1985) reported that arepa is a round product with 8 to 10 cm
diameter, 1 to 3 cm thickness, and a flat or convex surface. The
traditional processing of arepa included pounding the moist corn
in a pilon (a wooden mortar) to remove the hulls and part of the
germ from the endosperm. The resultant product (maize pillano)
was washed and mixed with water (41:59 ratio), cooked, cooled,
and allowed to stand overnight. It then was mixed with water and
salt to form the masa (Hispanic term for dough). Small dough
pieces were made, flattened to the desirable diameter and thick-
ness, and baked on hot clay or a metal plate for 2 min on each
side. Arepa dough may be boiled in water for a few minutes prior
to baking. Today, the modern processing method of preparing
precooked corn flour has replaced the traditional procedure in
Venezuela (Cuevas et al., 1985).
Processin.g o f fla.t brea.ds
One-or-two Hot & cold
Two-direction
Die-cut direction press Pouring
sheeting
sheeting or sheeting
C I:><>~gh :rr:L:i.x... :ir1g

~
t
1
ferrnent:at:i0"0
G
Dividing and rounding
C,
t t
First proofing ~ t
t "- t
G t
Figure 4.4 Processing methods of flat breads.
73
The traditional processing of com tortillas in Mexico and Cen-

tral America (Guatemala) includes lime cooking of com, removal
of skin and pericarp by washing, and stone grinding into amasa
(Serna-Saldivar et a11990, who cited Clavijero, 1979 and Urrutia
et aI., 1979). A portion of masa is flattened by hand into round
(20 cm diameter) pieces and baked on a hot stone. Mexican tor-
tillas are generally thinner than those prepared in other parts of
Central America.
Apart from variation in size, thickness, and final appearance,
the main difference between arepa and tortillas (Cuevas et al.,
1985) is that the latter is lime treated, which has a significant
effect on the flavor and color of the final products.
The modem production of lime-treated tortillas in the United
States follows the traditional processing method. The duration of
each processing step varies from one plant to another. Com ker-
nels (yellow, white, or a mixture of various proportions of both)
are soaked in 1.7 to 3.6 parts food-grade lime (Le., quick lime
and hydrated lime) solution. The amount of lime in the solution
varies from 0.8% to 6.2% of com weight. The mixture is cooked
for 6 to 60 min at 83 to 100°C with some agitation. The cooking
time at the highest temperature varies from 0 to 24 min in various
commercial processing plants. Following the heat treatment the
com is steeped for 5 to 24 h (Pflugfelder, 1986; Serra-Saldivar et
al., 1990).
At the end of the steeping period the cooking solution is
drained. Treated com (nixtamal) is washed with fresh water to
remove the lime solution and pericarp and then is transferred to
a stone mill for grinding (Serna-Saldivar et aI., 1990). A pair of
carved stone mills (10 cm thick x 40 cm diameter each) and a
continuous flow of water are used to grind the nixtamal into
cohesive and plastic masa. Water is used to cool the stones, elimi-
nate temperature buildup, and reduce stone wear. A grinder of
600 Kg/h capacity requires water addition of 0.6 to 1.2 L/min.
Stone grinding of freshly produced nixtamal has many disad-
vantages (Riley, 1991). Among these are difficulties in controlling
the particle size, consistency, and moisture content of the resul-
tant masa. The quality of com, level of nixtamal cooking, grinding
pressure, and water addition are among other factors reported
(Serna-Saldivar et aI., 1990) to have a significant effect on mas a
Flat Breads 75
and, consequently, the quality of the final product. The most

favorable moisture of nixtamal for an optimum quality tortilla is
not known. Santiago Bedolla and Rooney (1982) cited various
sources and reported that properly cooked nixtamal has a mois-
ture content of 46% (Sollano and Berriozabal. 1955) or between
52 and 69% (Cortez and Wild-Altamirano, 1972).
Ground nixtamal is kneaded and extruded through a pair of
smooth sheeting rolls to form a continuous masa sheet. A rotary
cutter installed under the front sheeting roll cuts the sheet into
pieces of fixed configuration and size. Mter cutting, raw tortillas
are baked in gas-fired ovens (Serna-Saldivar et al 1990). The
oven consists of three conveyors (tiers) fixed on top of each other.
Tortilla sheets are baked on one side, then flipped over onto the
lower tier, which moves in the opposite direction. At the end of
the second tier, the sheets are flipped over again onto the third
tier for the last baking cycle. Riley (1991) reported baking times
of 30 to 34 sec at 219°C for 35.4-g table tortillas and 18 to 21
seconds at 226-234°C for average tortilla chips. During baking
a total moisture loss of 10% to 12% is expected, resulting in
an end product of apprOximately 38% to 46% moisture (Serna-
Saldivar et aI., 1990).
Mter baking, tortillas are cooled on moving conveyor belts.
Cooling systems may consist of 3, 5, 7, 9, or 11 levels located
over each other in parallel order (Riley, 1991). An odd number of
conveyor belts is necessary, so that the product enters and leaves
the cooling section in the same upright pOSition. Tortillas are
cooled from the original temperature of 94 to 100° C when taken
out of the oven to 25°C prior to packaging (Serna-Saldivar et aI.,
1990). A corn tortilla is shown in Figure 4.5.
Barbari Bread
This bread is usually 70 to 80 cm long and 25 to 30 cm wide,

with a thickness of 2.5 to 3.0 cm (Figure 4.6). Pedeh is a similar
product that is popular in Turkey. It is probably one of the thickest
and heaviest flat breads. A typical formula for barbari bread (Far-
idi and Finney, 1980) is wheat flour of 77% extraction, (100%),
soda (0.35%), salt (2.0%), sourdough (40%) or yeast (1 %), and
water (60%). In a formula reported by Tweed (l979)' sourdough
Figure 4.5 Corn tortilla.
was not included; instead 0.25% active dry yeast was used. The
ingredients are mixed to the desired consistency and fermented
for 2 h. Dough balls of 800 to 900 g are formed and allowed to
rest (intermediate proof) on a table. They are flattened to oval
shapes and rested for 20 min. A gelatinized paste of flour and
water (roomal) is prepared by increasing the temperature of the
flour-water mixture (lO% wt/vol) to a boil and then allowing it
to cool down to room temperature (Faridi, 1988). An alternative
method for the preparation of paste is to boil 80% of the water,
and gradually add a mixture of flour (5% of total amount of water),
sugar (1 %), oil (1 %), and the remaining water (20%) to the boiling
water with constant stirring. The mixture is allowed to boil for an
extra 5 to 10 min. One or two tablespoons of this paste are spread
evenly on the sheeted dough with the fingers, while forming a
number of groves (2 to 3 cm apart) along the sheeted dough. These
groves prevent the separation of the top and bottom crusts of
77
barbari bread. After application of the paste, the dough is allowed

to ferment for an extra 20 min prior to baking. The sheeted dough
is lifted by both hands and placed on a wooden peel, which is
used to transfer it to the oven. During this lifting, the sheeted
dough is stretched further to its final length prior to baking. The
dough is baked at 220°C for 8 to 12 min on the hearth of a brick
oven (Faridi and Finney, 1980) or at 250°C for 12 to 15 min in a
deck oven.
Battaw
This is a thin, round (50 cm diameter) crisp flat bread. The

amount of each ingredient varies. It consists of wheat flour (from
o to 75 parts) as 100%, maize flour (25% to 98%), fenugreek flour
(0.75% to 1.8%), salt (1.0%)' and water (65-100%). The ingredi-
ents are mixed to develop a dough, placed on a bran-coated board,
and spread to thin layer (Davis et al., 1987). The shaped dough
is baked at 300°C for 40 to 60 sec (Faridi, 1988).
Bazlama
The ingredients (flour, water, salt, and sourdough) are mixed.

After 1.5 to 3 h of fermentation, 200- to 250-g dough pieces are
rounded, sheeted to 4 to 5 mm thickness, and baked on a hot
iron or clay plate. The product is placed between two fires for
final baking and puffing (Pomeranz, 1987).
Candy Bread
A range of flat breads are prepared with high levels of sugar,

honey, or sweet fruits such as chopped dates and/or date paste.
A general term for these products is candy or sweet bread. One
type of candy bread (Figure 4.7A) is prepared from a mixture
of flour (l00%), yeast (2.0%), baking powder (1.0%), shortening
(30%), chopped dates or honey (15 to 25%), and fresh milk or
water (40 to 50%). After mixing, a total fermentation time of 2 to
3 h is allowed. The dough is divided, rounded, and allowed to rest
for a short time. Then it is sheeted to a desired size and thickness.
Sheeted dough pieces are brushed with wiped eggs, sprinkled
A
B
Figure 4.7 (A and B). Candy bread.
79
with sesame seeds, and either baked immediately in a tanoor

oven (Figure 4.7B) or allowed to ferment for 20 to 40 min prior
to baking in a deck oven.
Ciabatta
This Italian flat bread is prepared with a lean formula of flour,

yeast, salt and water. Sometimes milk and olive oil are included
in the formula (Lutzow, 1995). The level of water is as high as
70% to 80%, which results in ciabatta's unique spongy crumb
and coarse and nonuniform grain. This product is prepared with
the sponge and dough procedure. The sponge is allowed to fer-
ment for 24 h in a retarder to develop a sour flavor. The dough
is mixed and shaped into a flat form and parbaked in hearth oven,
cooled, and finally dusted with flour. It is heated and/or baked
prior to consumption.
Chapati
This unleavened, round (15 to 20 cm diameter), flat bread is

probably the most popular flat bread of the world. The populations
of parts of Afghanistan, Bangladish, India, Mongolia, Pakistan,
and Tibet rely heavily on chapati. It is prepared from a mixture
of whole wheat flour (atta) and water to form a stiff dough. Some-
times small amounts of salt and oil are included in the formula.
The ingredients are mixed to form a cohesive dough. After a short
resting time, a small dough piece is divided and rounded into
three to four dough balls. These then are sheeted by hand and
baked on both sides on a hot plate.
Haridas Rao et al. (1986) sheeted the dough pieces of chapati
to 2 mm thickness and baked them on a griddle heated to 205
to 230°C. One side was baked for 45 sec and the other side for
105 sec. After this baking, chapati was transferred to a chicken
tandoor oven set at 340°C for 25 sec to puff the product.
The amount of water for chapati making was estimated by
Haridas Rao et al (1986) to be on the farinograph consistency line
of 450 to 500 Brabender Units (BU), using the lever of the 1:3
instead of normal lever of 1: 1. Shurpalekar and Prabhavathi
(1976) used a range of dough consistencies from 400 to 600 fari-
Flat Breads 81
Figure 4.8 English muffin.
nograph BU on the same 1:3 lever and reported that the corres-
ponding water absorptions resulted in a comparatively stiff dough
that was difficult to roll. They found it necessary to add an extra
amount of water ranging from 0.5% to 4%. Based on these proce-
dures, it was found that an atta flour having a standard farino-
graph water absorption of 70% and development time of 9.0 min
requires 57% water for chapati making. This amount of water
would have resulted in a normal farinograph dough consistency
of 890 BU, that is, 40 units higher than that reported by Qarooni
et al (1987, 1988) for Arabic bread.
English Muffins
The ingredients, processing method, shape, and thickness of
English muffins resemble those of many types of flat breads.
Matlowa (a 2.5 cm thick, round, flat bread popular in Algeria) is
produced from a lean formula of wheat flour-semolina (3: 1), yeast,
salt, and water. The dough of matlowa is grilled on a hot plate
instead of baked.
The English muffin (Figure 4.8) is a wheat-flour-based, yeast-
fermented, grilled product. It is round, somewhat flat, with

straight side walls and light color, and is relatively chewy. Ideally,
it should have a medium to coarse grain and bland flavor (Pfefer,
1976). English muffin is prepared from a relatively slack and low-
temperature dough. Water absorption of 79% to 85% and dough
temperature of20 to 20.5°C are recommended for a quality prod-
uct. High water absorption is critical to obtain the desired crumb
structure, and low temperature allows for trouble-free production
on automated lines.
Three methods of dough preparation, straight dough, no-time
dough, and sponge dough, were reported (Noel, 1971). In these
procedures, flour of 13.0% protein was used. The water absorp-
tions for straight dough and no-time dough were 80% and 76%,
respectively. The sponge dough procedure required 62% water.
Other ingredients included yeast (1.25% to 6.5%), salt (1.2% to
1. 7%), sugar (2.0% to 4.3%), shortening (1.0%), calcium propio-
nate (0.5%), and protease enzyme (1.0%) on a flour basis.
Dough is mixed beyond the full development stage and di-
vided after a short (15 min) rest period. The dough pieces are
rounded; dusted with either corn meal, corn flour, rice flour,
farina, wheat flour, or other materials; and proofed for 30 min at
43°C and 96% relative humidity. The proofed dough pieces are
deposited into the griddle cups after a 360° turn, in which the
bottom of the proofed dough faces the hot surface of the grill.
They are grilled-baked for a total of 10.5 min. After the first 2.5
min of grilling, the cups are covered. They are transferred to the
oven and baked at 246°C for 4.5 min. The griddle rings are re-
moved, and the muffins are turned over and baked for an addi-
tional3.5 min. After baking-grilling, the muffins are cooled on a
conveyor belt for 50 to 60 min, split or sliced, and packaged
(pfefer, 1976).
Focaccia (Boboli)
Focaccia is the simplest pizza-like flat bread, topped with

olive oil and aromatic herbs. It can range from thin (1.25 cm)
crisp cracker-like flat bread to thick (5 cm) products. The basic
formula of pizza dough is used for focaccia. Sometimes a long
bulk fermentation is given, including two or three times of punch-
Flat Breads 83
ing down. Lutzow (1995) noted that focaccia dough includes flour,
yeast, salt, olive oil, and water. It is prepared by the straight
dough method without long fermentation. The dough pieces are
flattened by fingers in a shallow pan, allowed to proof for 30 min,
and topped with olive oil, thin slices of onion, plum tomatoes,
garlic, and herbs. It is baked at 204 to 232°C for 20 to 25 min
(Slomon, 1984).
Gomme
This is a circular (35 to 40 cm diameter) bread up to 5 cm

thick, which is prepared from a stiff dough of flour and milk. The
sheeted dough is baked on a hot, thin, iron plate covered with
ashes (Pomeranz, 1987).
Hillalla
The ingredients used to make hillalla are ground toasted

whole wheat, salt, and water. The dough is mixed, kneaded, and
formed into flat pieces and baked immediately on hot stone or in
an oven. During baking the product develops a pocket, which is
later filled with vegetables (Robutti and Sa Souzan, 1995).
Kalachi
The ingredients of this bread include wheat flour (100%),

yeast (2.0%), sugar (5.0%), salt (0.7%), butter (12%), milk (64%),
and fresh eggs (15%). The dry ingredients, fresh eggs, warm
melted butter, and milk are mixed in sequence to form a smooth,
well-developed dough. Mter a bulk fermentation of 2.0 to 2.5 h,
it is divided and formed into round pieces of 165 g and allowed
to proof for 5 to 10 min. Each dough piece is sheeted to a round
shape of 17.5 cm diameter. In the middle of the sheeted dough,
a half circle (7.5 cm diameter) cut is created to form a flap. A
piece offrozen butter (1.5 to 3.0 g) is placed underneath and the
flap is folded over and sealed. The dough is proofed for 25 to 30
min and baked at 190 to 200°C for 20 to 25 min. The flapped
portion of Kalachi is brushed with butter or egg white and dusted
with flour. The bread is then returned to the oven for a extra 3
to S min of baking (Volokh, 1983).
Khobz El-Daar
Khobz el-daar (Figure 4.9) is the Arabic term for "bread of the
house" and is used for a type of popular flat bread in Morocco.
The ingredients include flour (80% extraction as 100%), salt (1 %
to 1.S%), yeast (1.0%) or sourdough, and water. The amount of
water can be adjusted to provide a dough consistency of 400 to
4S0 farinograph units. The straight dough method is the most
widely used procedure. The ingredients are mixed to form a well
developed dough. Mter a bulk fermentation of 60 to 90 min the
dough is divided into 300g round pieces, which are allowed to
rest at 30°C for 10 to IS min. Each piece is sheeted to a round
shape of 1 to 2 cm thickness. Fine semolina is used during sheet-
ing to avoid dough stickiness and to give an attractive surface.
The dough then is proofed for 4S min at high relative humidity
(7S% to 8S%) to avoid excessive drying. Prior to baking, a rectan-
gular-shaped cut (1 cm deep) is made on the surface of the dough
or a hole of 1 to 2 cm deep is created in the middle. The dough
is then baked at 200 to 2S0°C for IS to 20 min. Patel and Johnson
(197S), Finney et al. (1980), and Faridi and Rubenthaler (1983)
used the term Moroccan bread for essentially the same product.
In Morocco, most housewives prepare the dough for their daily
bread consumption and bake it in a local commercial baking
shop. These shops operate twice a day, from 10 a.m. to 1.30 p.m.
and from 6.00 to 9.30 p.m. Each family prepares and bakes its
bread once or twice daily (M. Moujeeb, personal communication).
Karsan
This is a single-layered, circular (S7 cm), thin, flat bread (6S.S

g), with a light brown crust. The ingredients, whole meal flour
(100%), salt (0.3S%), and water are mixed manually for 30 min,
allowed to rest (30 min), and then mixed a second time (IS min),
followed by final resting time of 60 min. The dough is divided
manually into 180 to 200 g pieces and allowed to proof for 30 to
Figure 4.9 Khobz el-daar.
85
45 min. The pieces then are sheeted by hand and baked at 150
to 200°C for 2 to 3 min (Mousa and Al-Mohizea. 1987).
Lao Bing
This Chinese flat bread is prepared from a mixture of flour.

salt. and water. The ingredients are mixed to form a dough and
allowed to rest for a short time. Dough is divided. rounded. and
sheeted to a thin layer 13 to 17 cm wide and 23 to 26 cm long.
The surface is brushed with peanut oil. and is then folded.
rounded and sheeted again prior to baking both sides on a hot
plate (Nagao. 1995).
Lavash
This is an oval to rectangular (60 to 70 cm long. 30 to 40 cm

wide) flat bread (220 g) of 2 to 3 mm thickness. with creamy-
white color and small blisters distributed over the whole surface.
The ingredients. flour of 82% extraction (100%), yeast (1%). salt
(2.0%), soda (0.25%), and water (45%) are mixed and fermented
for 1 to 3 h. Dough balls of 300 g are allowed to proof for 5 to 10
min and sheeted to thin layers with a roller on a wooden board.
They are sheeted further to a final thickness by a long roller. Then
they are placed on a special cushion and pressed against the wall
of the oven (Faridi and Finney. 1980). The bread. if not consumed.
dries out quickly and could be stored for 3 to 6 months depending
on storage conditions.
Malouge
This round (30 to 35 cm), 3 to 5 mm-thick bread is made

from flour. water. salt. and sourdough or yeast. All ingredients
are mixed and fermented for 1 to 2 h. Dough pieces are rounded
and allowed to rest. They are sheeted by hand. placed on a cushion
(mekhbazeh). and pressed against the inner wall of a clay oven or
metal oven previously heated by burning wood or gas. Traditional
malouge ( the flat bread of Yemen) was prepared from barley flour.
Flat Breads 87
Matlowa
Semolina. flour. water. salt. and yeast are mixed to form a

soft dough. It is allowed to ferment and then divided and rounded.
Mter a resting period. it is flattened to 2 to 2.5 cm thickness and
baked on both sides on a griddle.
Matzo
This thin. crisp. unleavened. heavily docked and blistered

bread is eaten during the Jewish Passover holidays instead ofleav-
ened bread. Traditional matzo was prepared during the Jews' hasty
flight from Egypt. Because of lack of time the Hebrews could not
allow the dough to rise by natural fermentation. Instead. it was
baked immediately to unleavened flat bread (Levy. 1991). Matzo
production on automated lines begins with a mixture of flour
(100%) and water (38%) (Faridi. 1988). Other ingredients may in-
clude whole wheat flour. salt. onions. hydrogenated vegetable
shortening. eggs. and malt. The mixture is passed through sheet-
ing rolls to form a continuous sheet, laminated with two to six lay-
ers and further reduced to a thin layer. The dough sheet is heavily
docked to develop small. uniformly distributed blisters duringbak-
ing at 400°C. The bread moisture is reduced to about 3%.
Meat Bread
The ingredients of tanoor bread may include a whole range

of additions to produce a variety of products. One of these is meat
bread. In addition to the essential ingredient of flat bread. finely
chopped or ground meat (25 to 40%. flour basis); chopped onion
(5 to 10%); and small quantities of chopped parsley. coriander.
green pepper. and tumeric are blended into a well-developed
dough and processed according to the procedure of tanoor bread
(see below).
Moroccan Whole Wheat Bread
This round bread (18 cm diameter. 2 cm thick) is made in

two stages. A portion of white flour (70%). water (45%). and yeast
(1 %) is mixed and allowed to ferment for 90 min. Then salt (2%),
the remaining flour (30%). and water (15%) are added. and the
Figure 4.10 Stretching, pulling, and twisting of paratha dough.
dough is mixed to optimum development. The dough is fermented

for an additional 30 min; rounded; flattened (18 cm in diameter,
5 cm thick); and proofed for 45 min. The proofed dough is baked
for 20 min at 220°C (Faridi, 1988).
Paratha
The ingredients of paratha include whole wheat or white flour

(100%), salt 1.5% to 2.5%), shortening (5% to 10%), and water.
The ingredients are mixed to form a cohesive dough. It is divided
into small pieces and rounded. The rounding is carried out after
a stretching, pulling, and twisting (Figure 4.10) process. After a
short resting time (5 min), which is required to complete the
rounding of a small batch of dough, it is sheeted to 2 to 3 mm
thickness and baked on both side on a griddle (Figure 4.11).
Pizza and Pizza Crust
In many ways, pizza resembles a flat bread with various

cheeses, tomato sauce, pieces of different vegetables, and meat
Flat Breads 89
Figure 4.11 Paratha.
toppings. These include the flour requirement for a quality prod-

uct (Fischer, 1981; Lehmann, 1986; Spooner, 1989; and Qarooni,
1993), the ingredients, the processing methods, and the thickness
and shape of the final product. The ratio of pizza crust to its
toppings usually is in a range of 55:45, respectively. Hence, pizza
crust is an important part of the product. The origin of pizza is
traceable back to the height of the Persian Empire, roughly 500
B.C. The soldiers of Darius the Great baked their flat bread and
topped it with cheese and dates. The Greeks called it "Persian Pie"
(Pizza Pie in Attic Greek). They kept the cheese and substituted the
dates with olives. Later the Romans inherited the pizza pie and
changed the cheese from feta to mozzarella and added to it the
tomato (Goldberg and Fleisher, 1971).
Various types of traditional pizza-like products are still pro-
duced widely in many countries of the Mediterranean region and
the Middle East. For example, "menaiesh" is a traditional Leba-
nese-Syrian product in which a mixture ofthyme, various spices,
and sesame seeds is blended with oil and spread over the sheeted
dough of Arabic (pita) bread prior to baking. "Focaccia" and "cia-
batta" are pizza-like products with olive oil, tomato, and herb
toppings ...Araees" is another product in which a fried mixture of
ground meat, chopped tomato, and spices is placed between the
two layers of Arabic bread and baked for 5 to 10 min. In "meat
bread" a mixture of small pieces of meat, fresh herbs, and spices
is blended into the dough along with the essential ingredients of
tanoor bread and baked in the traditional tanoor.
The pizza making industry in the United States has a long
history. It was introduced in the late 1800s by Italian immigrants
(Lehmann, 1986). Fifty years after the establishment of the first
pizzerias in New York in 1895, the first commercial frozen pizza
plant was developed. Between 1984 and 1992 per capita con-
sumption of pizza in the United States increased 47.8% in private
homes and 51.5% in restaurants (Reynolds, 1992).
The basic formula of pizza crust includes flour (100%), salt
(1.0% to 2.0%), sugar (1.0% to 5.5%), shortening or vegetable oil
(3.0% to 14.0%), yeast or a chemical leavening agent (0.5% to
5.0%, or 0.5% to 4.0%, respectively), calcium propionate (0.1%
to 0.3%), and water (55% to 70%) (Lehmann and Dubois, 1980).
The formula given by Spooner (1989) for two pizza types (cracker
and bread) listed the level of water to be 55% to 65%, yeast from
4% to 6%, shortening from 3% to 10%, and 1.0% sugar. The
optional ingredients might include corn meal (10% to 20%), L-CYSt-
eine or sodium metabisulfite (45 to 95 ppm), protease enzyme,
vinegar (100 grain, 0.5% to 1.0%), vital wheat gluten (1.0% to
2.0%), and sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate (SSL) (0.25% to 0.50%)
(Lehmann and Dubois, 1980).
The characteristics of pizza crust vary widely. It might be
divided into two types: (1) thin crust (Figure 4. 12A) or cracker type
and (2) thick crust (Figure 4. 12B) or deep dish style (Lehmann
and DubOis, 1980; Spooner, 1989). Automated pizza production
utilizes either the dividing, rounding, and pressing method, or
the continuous sheeting and die-cut procedure. In the pressing
method both hot and cold press (stamping) mechanisms may
be employed.
The Pressing (Stamping) Method oj Pizza Crust Production

In the pressing method, the pizza crust ingredients are mixed
to or slightly beyond the clean-up stage and, without a bulk fer-
A
B
Figure 4.12 (A) Thin crust pizza. (8) Thick crust (pan) pizza.
91
mentation, transferred to the hopper of the dividing and rounding

machine. A short floor time (10 to 15 min) might be given to the
dough prior to dividing. The divider scale is adjusted to achieve
the proper dough size for the final pizza crust. Lehmann and
Dubois (1980) noted that for a 22.8 cm (9 in.) pizza crust the
typical scaling weight is 120.5 to 135.0 g (4 112 to 4% oz). The
divided dough pieces are transferred to the intermediate proofing
cabinet for a short resting time prior to the pressing step.
In a production line described by Spooner (1989), the proofed
dough pieces are transferred to flat pans with four to nine shallow
cavities. A hydraulic press descends on the dough pieces and
presses them to fill the cavities. Dough pieces are allowed to relax
and recover from the stress of pressing for 4 to 8 min. Depending
on flour quality and the formulation of the pizza shell, the stamped
dough might shrink back. Hence, it might be necessary to use a
second stamping step to ensure the desired size and thickness
of the final product. The shells are either transferred to the oven
or an additional proofing stage of 10 to 20 min is used (Spooner,
1989). The latter produces a thicker and spongier shell. The shells
are then transferred to the oven band and baked at 232°C (450°F)
for 5 to 8 min. A baking time of 3 to 5 min was reported by
Lehmann and Dubois (1980) for pizza shells produced by both
the pressing and die-cut methods. The temperature profile of the
oven was reported to be in a range of 205°C (400°F) for the feeding-
end and 315.5°c (600°F) for the discharge-end of the oven.
The baked pizza shells are removed from the pan by a vacuum
system and the shells are conveyed to the cooling section, while
the pans are transferred back to the loading section. A cooling
time of 10 to 15 min is required to lower the shells' temperature
for packaging.
In the hot press method, dough sheeting is achieved by heated
plattens at 82.2 to 104.4°c (180 to 220°F). The plattens press
each dough ball into a flat shell for approximately 6 seconds
(Reynolds, 1992).
The Sheeting and Die-Cut Method

In this method, dough is allowed to undergo a short bulk
fermentation time and is extruded to form a thick band covering
a large section of the entire width of the conveyor belt. It is further
Flat Breads 93
sheeted with smooth sheeting rolls to a fixed thickness. Spooner

(1989) described a method in which the dough is sheeted and
then cross-sheeted to cover the width of the belt. Finally, the
desired thickness of the dough is achieved by the last sheeting
rolls. Lehmann and Dubois (1980) reported that a thickness of
approximately 0.3 to 0.64 cm (0.125 to 0.250 in.) is needed for
thin and 0.64 to 95 cm (0.250 to 0.375 in.) for thick crusts.
The dough is passed under a rotary docker, and finally under
a rotary die-cut. This system creates a fixed amount of scrap
dough which is either collected manually or automatically trans-
ferred to the hopper of the sheeting line. The scrap dough might
also be mixed with a new batch of dough. The pizza shells are
finally baked in a band oven as described previously.
Puri
This deep-fried flat bread is prepared from a mixture of whole

meal (atta) or refined wheat flour (maida) (100%), salt (1 %), and
water (65% to 71% for atta and 48% to 60% for maida) (Shurpa-
lekar and Shukal 1992). Sometimes a portion of water is substi-
tuted by 10% to 12% vegetable shortening or butter. A developed
dough is prepared by mixing the dry ingredients, followed by the
addition of oil and water. A portion of the dough is cut, then
rounded and sheeted to a flat (1.5 to 2.0 mm thick), round shape
and deep fried in oil heated to 170 to 195°C for 25 to 40 sec. Deep
frying of both sides of puri is stoped when the desirable golden
color is achieved. Shurpalekar and Shukla (1992) reported that
puri prepared from refined flour has an inferior texture and eating
quality when compared to that made from whole meal flour (atta).
Rice Bread (Lakoy)
This flat bread is prepared from a mixture of rice and wheat

flours (ratio, 4: 1) and small amounts of salt and sugar. Polished
rice grain is soaked (10 to 15 h) in excess water. Water is removed
by straining, and the surface of the grain is allowed to dry before
grinding to fine flour. Rice flour is moistened gradually with boil-
ing water during constant kneading to form a firm dough. Small
Figure 4.13 Traditional flat bread making method in Norway. (Courtesy

of Vestfold Flatbrodfabrik AlS)
dough pieces are fonned and flattened. These are dropped in a

pot containing vigorously boiling water for 3 to 5 min. These
partially cooked rice cakes are removed and allowed to cool before
being mixed and kneaded with wheat flour. The resultant cohesive
dough is divided into small pieces and, after a short resting time,
they are sheeted to thin (2 to 3 mm), round (30 to 40 em) layers.
These are baked on both sides on a heated clay griddle.
Rye Flat Bread
Flat bread making has a long tradition in the Scandinavian

countries. The Vikings made bread in round (30 em diameter),
thin products. Bread was prepared by mixing a blend of barley,
oat, and rye flours with water, rolling the dough to a thin layer, and
baking on a hot plate (Norheim, 1993, personal communication).
Figure 4.13 shows the traditional method of flat bread production
in Norway.
Traditional production of Finnish sour rye bread includes a
Flat Breads 95
Figure 4.14 Finish rye sour bread.
well-developed sourdough starter, rye flour (medium granula-

tion), wheat flour, yeast, salt, sugar, and water (Figure 4.14). All
ingredients are mixed to develop a cohesive dough and allowed
to ferment for 45 min. Dough pieces of 400g are rounded and
flattened to 0.7 to 1.0 cm thickness. A round (5.0 cm diameter)
central portion of the sheeted dough is cut and removed. It is
then fermented for 30 to 45 min and baked at 230°C for 30 min
(Valjakka, 1993, personal communication).
The automation of flat bread production was initiated by Vest-
fold Flatbrodfabrik AjS in Norway, a company with a history
dating back over a century. The idea of automation was developed
by Nils Halvorsen, the founder of Vestfold Flatbrodfabrik AjS,
who worked on sheeting machines for paper mills. The concept
of employing the machinery of a paper mill to sheet bread dough
to a thin layer led to the automation of flat bread production in
1958. With this method, flat bread is prepared either from a hard
and relatively stiff dough conSisting of wheat, barley, and oat flour
and water or from a soft dough containing a mixture of rye and
Figure 4.15 Scandinavian crisp flat breads.
wheat flours with salt. The dough is sheeted to a 1700 mm wide,

thin (1.5 to 5 mm) layer and transferred to a 50m long oven. It
is baked at 220 to 250°C for 2 to 12 min depending on the thick-
ness of the final product. Mter baking, the bread (2% to 4% mois-
ture) is cut, wrapped, and packaged automatically (Figure 4.15)
(Norheim, 1993, personal communication).
A wide range of rye crisp breads, round sour rye breads,
and potato breads are produced in Finland. Hapankorppuja is a
rectangular (22 x 6.7 cm, 3 mm thick) crisp, sour, rye bread. Mter
sheeting and baking, the bread is split into top and bottom crust,
cut, dried, and packaged. Tosirukinen (real rye bread) is prepared
from whole meal rye flour, pieces of rye kernel, whole wheat flour,
wheat bran, malt (from rye kernels), yeast, sourdough, salt, and
water. Potato bread (Figure 4.16) is prepared from a mixture of
wheat flour, potato flakes, water, and salt. The dough is formed,
and, after a short rest time, is sheeted to a thin layer (7 mm), cut
into a round shape (20 to 22 cm diameter), and baked at 250°C
for 10 min (Valjakka, 1993, personal communication).
Albertsson (1992) reported that round rye crisp bread (knack-
Flat Breads 97
Finish 4.16 Finish potato bread.
ebrod) of 5 mm thickness with the hole in the center is still popular

in Sweden. The new products of 100g are rectangular shaped and
wrapped into a I-kg package or cut to eight pieces of 12 g. Rye
crisp bread is prepared from a mixture of whole meal rye flour
(100%)' yeast (3%)' salt (0.9%), and water. Dough is mixed and
allowed to ferment for 135 min at 26°C, then formed into a thin
sheet (250 x 300 mm), proofed at 35°C for 40 min, and baked.
The final bread moisture is 8%. Andersson et al (1981) applied a
twin-screw extruder to produce high-fiber crisp bread from a dry
mixture of wheat bran, secondary starch, and gluten. Swedish
crisp bread of acceptable structure, texture, and flavor was pro-
duced from a mixture of 30% bran, 60% secondary starch, and
10% gluten.
Saiki
Saiki is prepared from a mixture of flour (100%), yeast (2.0%),

sugar (5.0%), salt (0.7%), fresh eggs (15%), butter (12%), and
fresh milk (60% to 64%). Yeast is activated in a solution of warm

water and sugar, in which it is allowed to ferment to 45 min. Then
it is mixed with flour, salt, sugar, and warm fresh milk. Whole
egg and melted butter are added separately and all ingredients
are mixed to obtain a well-developed dough. A bulk fermentation
of 2.0 to 2.5 h is allowed to take place. Dough is divided into
165-g pieces and proofed for 5 to 10 min. The pieces are sheeted
to oval shapes and proofed for 25 min. Baking is carried out at
190°C until a pale crust is developed. The bread is removed from
the oven, brushed with beaten eggs, and an incision (0.7 to 1.0
cm deep) is made lengthwise on the saiki. It is returned to the
oven and baked for 25 min until a golden crust color is developed
(Volokh, 1983).
Samoli
This is an oblong-shaped bread (19 x 15 cm) with golden

brown crust and heavy white crumb and weighs 87.5 g. The ingre-
dients, flour of 75% extraction (100%), water (54% to 58%), yeast
(0.45%), salt (0.45%), sugar (1 % to 3%), oil or shortening (I % to
3%), and bread improver (0.01% to 0.02%), are mixed mechani-
cally (25 to 30 min) and allowed to ferment for 20 to 30 min.
The fermented dough is divided into 100-g pieces and sheeted
mechanically. Mter a final proofing (60 min), pieces are baked at
250 to 300°C for 10 to 15 min (Mousa and Al-Mohizea, 1987).
Sangak
This is an Iranian sourdough bread. The name is drived from

a Farsi term for a small stone. Sangak is an almost triangular
shaped, flat bread, 70 to 80 cm long, 40 to 50 cm wide, and 3 to
5 mm thick. The bottom crust is full of indented blisters from
heated pebbles in the oven hearth on which it is baked. The
top crust has many small blisters and usually is sprinkled with
sesame or poppy seeds. The ingredients, flour of 87% extraction
(100%), water (85%)' sourdough (20%), and salt (1%), are mixed
and fermented for 2 h. A portion of the dough (500 g) is sheeted
on a special convex peddle, docked, and transferred onto the hot
pebbles of the oven. The pebbles are moistened from time to time
Flat Breads 99
with a soap solution to ensure easy removal of the bread (Faridi

and Finney, 1980). The temperature of the pebbles varies from
350 to 500°C and the baking time from 2 to 4 min (Maleki, 1984).
Shamsy or Sunny Bread
This disk-shaped bread (500 g and 20 cm diameter) with a

brownish crust and white, firm crumb is made from a lean for-
mula. Flour, water, salt, and sourdough (consisting of old dough,
2 kg of flour, and 0.5 L of water) are hand mixed for 25 min and
fermented for 45 min. Dough pieces are covered with wheat bran
and left in a sunny place for 60 min for the second fermentation
time. They are pressed by hand to form a flat dough of 20 cm
diameter and left to sit in the sun for 60 min (third fermentation).
They are turned over and left in the shade for 30 min (fourth
fermentation). They are then baked in a special home-made oven
(EI-Gendy, 1983).
Tanoor Bread
This bread is shown in Figure 4.17. The choice of a common

name for this product is difficult. Several names-tanoori, tan-
dour, khubz, and naan-are given to essentially the same product
in various parts of the Middle East, Mghanistan, Pakistan, and
the Indian subcontinent. Traditionally (in Iran), tanoor (locally
called taftoon) bread is made from flour (I OO) of 84% extraction;
soda (I %), sourdough (50%) or yeast (0.5%), water (60%), and an
optional ingredient, date syrup (2.5%) (Faridi and Finney, 1980).
However, date syrup is added only infrequently because of its
high cost. The formula for tanoor bread used in seven commercial
bakeries in Kuwait (Qarooni, 1988) consisted of flour of 90% ex-
traction (100%), soda (0.0% to 0.3%), salt (0.7% in winter and
1% to 1.5% in summer), dry active yeast (0.1 %), and water (65%).
Soda has several functions. Faridi et al. (1983) noted that soda
strengthens the dough and increases the water absorption. Soda
prevents excessive acid formation in the fermented dough, espe-
cially during warm summer weather; and develops a desirable
crust color. Because of the availability of active dry yeast in the
local market, the use of sourdough is now less popular. Maleki
Figure 4.17 Tanoor bread made from flour of 9.4% (1), 11.5% (2), and
14.4% (3) protein content. (From Qarooni, 1988)
(1984) stated that the flavor and texture of breads made from
sourdough are superior to those of bread made from yeasted
dough. However, these differences are hardly noticed by the pub-
lic, and, hence, the use of yeast is quite satisfactory.
The ingredients of tanoor bread are mixed for 15 to 20 min
in a wishbone mixer (most popular) and allowed to ferment for 1
to 2 h. The dough then is divided into 220-g pieces and rounded
by hand into balls. An intermediate proof time of 10 to IS min is
allowed. In dry weather, the dough pieces are covered with a cloth
to prevent skin formation. Each dough piece then is sheeted by
hand or with a roller to the proper thickness. It is docked, spread
on a special cushion, and immediately pushed agaist the wall of
a clay oven. The docking prevents pocket formation and allows a
uniform baking. It is also a means of decoration. The baking is
carried out for 45 to 120 sec depending on the distance of the
sheeted dough from the heat source. The bread peels off the oven
wall and is removed.
Naan is prepared by the same procedure. The ingredients
include the essential ingredients ofTanoor bread and may include
Flat Breads 101
up to 25% yogurt and 6% shortening; the amount of water may

be decreased to 35% (Faridi, 1988). It is also prepared from the
four essential ingredients ofleavened bread, that is, flour, water,
salt, and yeast or sourdough. The dough is mixed, immediately
divided into balls, and allowed to ferment while covered with a
wet cloth. It is then is sheeted into thin, oblong, flat pieces and
baked at 315°C for 2 min.
Tamees
This is a circular (35 cm), thick, flat bread (503 g) with a

golden brown crust, dark blisters, and sesame seeds distributed
on the crust. The ingredients, flour of 75% extraction (100%),
water (66.5% to 77.8%), salt (0.3% to 0.4%), yeast (0.1 % to 0.15%),
sugar (0.1 % to 0.2%), oil or shortening (4.5% to 7.8%), and baking
soda (0.1 to 0.2%), are mixed mechanically (20 to 30 min) and
allowed to ferment (45 to 60 min). Dough is divided manually into
700 to 800 g pieces, rounded, and proofed for 2 to 3 h. It is sheeted
with a wooden roller and baked at 250 to 300°C for 2 to 3 min
(Mousa and Al-Mohizea 1987).
Terabelsi
This round bread (20 cm diameter) is made from white flour

(100%), water (60%), salt (2%), and yeast (1 %). The ingredients
are mixed to optimum development and fermented for 30 to 45
min. The dough is divided into 700-g balls and rolled out to a
thickness of 2 cm. Proofing time is 45 min. Four cuts are made
across the top to form a square before the dough is placed in the
oven heated at 220°C. The bread weighs about 650 g (Faridi,
1988).
Tortillas (Wheat Flour)
The introduction of wheat to the North American continent

by Spaniards in 1525 (Matz, 1991) eventually led to the prepara-
tion of the native American tortilla with wheat flour instead of
corn. The traditional wheat flour tortilla was prepared in homes
(Serna-Saldivar et aI., 1988). Flour was mixed with lard, salt, and
water and kneaded to develop a workable, cohesive dough. Mter

a short resting time, it was divided and formed into round pieces.
These were allowed to rest; then sheeted to flat, round shapes;
and baked on a hot plate.
In the United States, the expanding market for a wide range
of ethnic foods, including corn and flour tortillas, led to the devel-
opment of this industry from small, family-oriented, manual and/
or semi-manual operations to highly automated large production
lines. Based on the dough sheeting operation, three commercial
processing methods are employed. These are hot press; hand
stretching (sheeting, cross sheeting, and hand stretching); and
die-cut methods. The most popular and fastest growing method
in the United States is the hot press procedure (Janson, 1990).
The processing methods for flour tortillas are shown in Figure
4.18. In a processing plant with high production capacity, the
hand stretching step is eliminated.
Dough Mixing
The typical tortilla (Figure 4.19) formula for hot-press and
die-cut production methods is shown in Table 4.1. The flour qual-
ity, level of water, and other ingredients may vary from one pro-
cessing method to another. It has been reported that tortilla
dough requires 47% to 50% water for the hot-press operation,
45% to 50% for the sheeting and cross sheeting, and 40% to
50% for die-cut production method (Janson, 1990). Qarooni et
al. (1992) estimated the optimum water absorption for the hot-
press method to be based on a farinograph dough consistency
line of 680 BU. This is approximately 2.5% higher than the level
reported by Bello et al. (1991).
Dough Resting
Mter mixing, the dough is allowed to rest for 5 min prior to
dividing and rounding operations. Pieces are transferred to the
intermediate proofing cabinet for a short relaxation time. The
relative humidity and temperature of the proofing cabinet are
controlled to allow maximum dough relaxation and to prevent
either excessive drying and skin formation or excessive moisture
condensation on dough pieces. Bello et al. (1990) reported that
Processing of flour Tortillas
t
Hand stretching
C~in.~
t
Figure 4.18 Processing method of wheat flour tortilla.(From Qarooni,

1993).
103
Figure 4.19 Wheat flour tortilla.
a proofing temperature of 32°C and relative humidity of 60% to

70% are most suitable for the hot-press method.
Dough Sheeting
The dough sheeting process is the most important step in flat
bread production. The performance of dough during the sheeting
process affects many aspects of product quality. In the hot-press
method, dough pieces are sheeted to thin layers by a hydraulic
pressing device on a heated conveyor plate. The temperatures of
the platens are adjusted to 177 to 237°C (350° to 450°F) and
pressing pressure to 278 to 758 N/cm2 (400 to 1100 lb/in2) (Jan-
son, 1990). Pressing time and hot-plate temperature significantly
affect the sheeting process. Bello et al. (1990) adjusted the tem-
peratures of hot press to 218°C (424°F) and 204°C (399°F), for
top and bottom platens, respectively. One of the most important
effects of the hot press on the sheeted dough of tortilla is the
Flat Breads 105
Table 4.1 Typical Formula of Tortilla for Hot-press and Die-cut

Production Methods a
Ingredient (%) Hot Press Tortilla Die-cut Tortilla
Flour 100 100

Water 50 54
Fat 8-14 6-10
Salt 2 1.3
Baking Powder 1-1.5 1-1.5
Preservative
Proionate 0.2
Sorbate 0.3
Gums variable
Guar Gum 0.5
Reducing Agents variable
SSLb plus Bisulfite variable
aBaker's percentage.
bSodium stearoyl-2-lactylate.
From: Serna-Saldivar et al 1988
fonnation of a thin skin. This allows for faster crust development

in the early stages of baking, and, consequently, helps in develop-
ing the desirable multi-layer crumb structure in the final product.
In the hand-stretched method, dough pieces are passed twice
through two pairs of sheeting rolls. Mter the first passage, an
oval-shaped flat dough is fonned. It is then passed through the
second pair of sheeting rolls, which are fixed at a 90° angle to the
other pair. Mter the second passage, a round shape is produced.
Finally, they are hand stretched to the final shape and thickness
(Janson, 1990).
The sheeting process in the die-cut method is continuous.
Dough is extruded and passed through a number of sheeting rolls
to fonn the final thickness of 3 to 4.8 mm. A cutting device is
used to cut the dough into a fixed shape.
Baking
Tortilla dough pieces prepared by all methods are baked in
a three-tier oven, as described for corn tortillas. The baking tem-
perature for flour tortillas varies from 191 to 260°C and baking
time from 17 to 40 seconds (Janson. 1990). For tortillas prepared

by the hot-press method. a total time of 40 sec at 232°C. 273°.
and 232°C for top. middle. and lower baking belts was employed
(Bello et al .• 1991).
Cooling and Packaging

Cooling and packaging methods for flour tortillas are similar
to those described for com tortillas and other flat breads.
Tortilla de Hanna
This Guatemalan tortilla is prepared from soft whole wheat

flour (100%), whole egg (4.0%). sugar (26%), shortening or oil
(4.0%), salt (0.3%), and water (33.0% to 44.0%). The ingredients
are mixed to a soft dough. which is divided into small pieces.
rounded. and sheeted to a flat shape by hand or a tortilla press.
Flat dough pieces are baked on a hot plate (Peiia. 1995).
YuJka
This thin. round. flat bread (40 to 50 cm) is made from flour.
water. and salt. The mixture is kneaded and allowed to rest for
30 min. Dough pieces (150 to 200 g) are rounded. sheeted (I mm).
and then baked on a hot iron plate (Pomeranz. 1987).
Batter-Based FLat Breads (Leavened)
A large number of single-layered flat breads are prepared

from a batter of raw ingredients rather than a soft dough. Typical
examples of these flat breads are dosai of India. injera of Ethiopia.
kisra of Sudan. and rogag of the Middle East (the automated
production method). Moreover. variety crepes. fritters. pancakes.
Flat Breads 107
Figure 4.20 Ataif.
ataif (Figure 4.20), waffles, crumpets, and blintzes could be cate-

gorized as batter-based flat breads. In this section, the production
methods for these products are discussed.
Blintzes
Blintzes are similar to crepes and prepared from a batter

containing flour (a 50: 50 blend of bread and cake flour) (100%),
salt (0.2%), oil (44%), fresh egg (450%), and water (50%). The
amount of fresh egg is high and used to produce a thin and flexible
blintze that holds various fillings and folds into rectangular
shapes without breaking (Sultan, 1977). Mter folding and shaping
it is further fried to the optimum desired color.
Crepes
A crepe or French pancake is a thin, flexible, product prepared

from a batter containing flour (a 50:50 blend of bread and cake
flour) (100%), sugar (15.5%), salt (3.0%), nonfat dry milk (25%),
Figure 4.21 Crumpets.
whole egg (75%), egg yolk (50%), melted butter (50%), and water
(200%). Various flavoring ingredients could be included in the
formula (Sultan, 1977). For the preparation of the batter, the dry
ingredients are mixed. The whole egg is blended into the egg yolk
and added to the dry ingredients. Water is mixed into the batter
to control the final consistency. Finally, the melted butter is added
into the mixture. This batter is poured into a frying pan or onto
a griddle for cooking.
Large-scale automated lines for crepe production include
continuous mixers and refrigerated storage tanks, cooking units
capable of producing round crepes of 18 to 36 cm diameter, cool-
ing conveyors, folding devices for one or two foldings, and stacking
and packaging machinery. Large-scale production lines capable
of producing 1400 to 5000 crepes/h are operated in France.
Crumpets or Pikelets
Crumpets (Figure 4.21) or pikelets are batter-based flat-

bread-like products. The ingredients (Hanneman 1980)-strong
Flat Breads 109
flour (100%), warm water (110%), yeast (S.S%), salt (3.0%), and
sugar (7.0%)-are thoroughly mixed and allowed to ferment for
I.Sh in a covered container. A mixture of soda (0.3%) and cold
water (28%) is prepared and thoroughly mixed with the main
portion of the batter. A portion (to produce a 12 cm diameter,
1.2S cm thick product) of the resultant batter is poured into a
lightly greased crumpet ring placed on a hot plate (griddle). When
the batter thickens and bubbles appear on its surface, the crum-
pet ring is removed. The crumpet is turned over and heated to
the desired color.
Dosai
The processing method for dosai, an Indian flat bread, is

outlined in Figure 4.22. This procedure is similar to that reported
by Ramakrishnan (1977) for traditional idli production in India.
Black gram and white, polished rice are soaked separately in
excess water for S to 10 h, drained, and ground to fine particles.
Rice flour and black gram meal (3: 1 to 4: I), salt (1 %), and water
are mixed to form a thick batter. This mixture is allowed to ferment
overnight at 30 to 32°C. At this stage the consistency ofthe batter
can be adjusted to produce the desired characteristics in the final
product. A portion of the final batter is poured on a griddle (hot
plate) to form a round shape and cooked for a couple of minutes.
The final product has a white-gray color with small reddish -brown
blisters. Many types of cereal grains and legumes could partially
or completely replace rice and black gram. Various portions of a
wide range of spices and chopped vegetables also could be in-
cluded in the formula.
Injera
The processing steps for injera, a SO to 60 cm diameter flat

bread of Ethiopia, are shown in Figure 4.23 (Vegel et aI., 1977).
A batter consisting of a mixture of flour (tef, sorghum, barley,
corn, or a mixture of various proportions of these ingredients),
sour starter, and water are blended thoroughly and allowed to
ferment for 17 to 72h at room temperature. The fermentation
time is controlled according to the desired sour taste in the final
Processing of Dosai
(
,
Black gram)
,
Rice
(white polished)
, ,
Soaking Soaking
(in water 5-10 h) (in water 5-10 h)
Draining & grinding Draining & grinding

(fine particles) (fine particles)
Mixing
,
[black gram flour: rice flour (1: 3-4)]:
water and 1% w/v salt to thick batter
,
Fermentation
(3O-32°C for 16h)
,
Dilution
to desirable consistency
,
Pouring & baking
(on hot plate)
Cooling
and packaging
Figure 4.22 Processing method of dosai.
110
Processing of Injera
Batter mixing J
(Tef, sorghum, barley, millet, com, or a mixure): water
(1: 1.2 - 2.2) and starter (0.1 - 0.7)
t
Primary fermentation
at room tempreture
Sweet injere: 17 - 25 h fermentation
\. Sour injere: 48 - 72 h fermentation
~ ___--::=-t
"'S-u-p-e-rn-a-te-n-"t .. C'-S-e-d"""'e-m-e-n-t--)
,
Inoculum Dilution
lor further lennentallon Supernatent: _erll:3)
( Boiling
, )
( Cooling )-.
,
0.5-2.0 h
Pouring
,
on hotplate
Coverina
,
to steam bake
2- 3 min
cooling
and packaging
Figure 4.23 Processing method of injera.
III
product. At the end of the fermentation period, the supernatant,

a clear yellow liquid is collected as a starter for the next produc-
tion. A portion of the sediment is mixed with water (1:3) and
heated to the boiling point. It is mixed with the remaining portion
of the batter and allowed to ferment for an extra 1.5 to 2.0 h,
during which it leavens and develops a sour flavor. A portion of
this batter is poured over a concave clay griddle to form a thin
layer, covered with a conical lid to prevent drying of the surface,
and griddle-steamed for 2 to 3 min.
Kisra
Production of kisra, the most popular flat bread in Sudan,

is outlined in Figure 4.24 (Abdel Gadir and Mohamed, 1977).
Sorghum flour alone or in a mixture with millet and/or wheat
flour is mixed with water (2:3) and starter from an old batter. It
is allowed to ferment at 35 to 38°e for 12 to 18h (or until a target
pH of 3.7 is achieved). Depending on the desired characteristics
of the final product, the batter in diluted to the correct consistency
by mixing with additional water. A portion (250 ml) is poured on
a griddle (hot plate) and cooked to 1 to 2 min at 150 to l60oe.
Pancakes and Waffles
The ingredients of pancakes and waffles (Sultan, 1977) in-

clude bread flour (100%), sugar (24%), salt (2.0%), skim milk
powder (14.0%), egg (55.0%), melted butter or margarine (27.5%),
vanilla (1.7%), baking powder (3.5%), and water (110%). Water is
added to a mixture of flour, baking powder, and skim milk and
is mixed thoroughly to develop a uniform batter. In three stages,
sugar and salt, followed by egg and vanilla, and finally butter or
margarine, are blended into the mixture. It is allowed to rest for
1 to 1. 5 h. For pancakes a portion of this batter is poured on a
heated griddle, baked for a couple of minutes (to a desirable color),
and turned over to bake on the other side.
QuesadeUa
This batter based pan-cake is popular in the rural areas of

EI Salvador (Herrera, 1982, cited by Pella, 1995). The formula
Processing of Kisra
Batter mixing
Sorghum flour, a mixture with
,
millet and/or wheat flour:
water
Fermentationo
,
12 - 18 h at 35 - 38 C
final pH 3.7
Dilution
to desired consistancy
Pouring & baking

,
on hot plate
Cooling
and packaging
Figure 4.24 Processing method of kisra.
113
Figure 4.25 Rogag bread produced on an automated crepe production
line.
Figure 4.26 Traditional rogag (sauj) bread.
114
Flat Breads 115
consists of soft wheat flour (100%), sugar (50%), whole eggs (30%),
and variable amounts of fresh cheese or cream. To produce Que-
sadella, flour, sugar, and cheese are thoroughly mixed and beaten
eggs added to form a thick batter. A portion of this batter is poured
on heated pan and baked at 350°C.
Rogag
This thin, round, crispy, flat bread of the Middle East is pro-
duced successfully on automated production lines for crepes (Fig-
ure 4.25). It is prepared from a mixture of high extraction (90%)
wheat flour (100%), sugar (l to 3%), salt (0.5 to 1.5%), oil (1 to
2%), yeast (0.1%), and water (200%). The thickness of the final
product is controlled by the viscosity of this batter. The homoge-
neous blend of the ingredients is fermented for 0.5 to 1 h and
baked automatically on a hot plate at 230°C for 80 sec. Figure
4.26 shows the traditional rogag (sauj) bread.
References
Abdel Gadir, A. M. and Mohamed, M. 1977. Kisra: Sudanese lactic/acetiC

acid fermented sorghum bread. In: Steinkraus, K. Cullen, R. E. Pederson,
C. S. and Nelis, L. F. (Eds). Handbook of Indigenous Fermented Foods,
1983, Marcel Dekker. New York, pp. 175-179.
Albertsson, C. E. 1992. Rye crispbread (Knackebrod) and "Scorpa-type
bread-Swedish whole meal products." American Association of Cereal
Chemists, 77th Annual Meeting. Minneapolis. MN.
Andersson, Y .. Hedlund. B .. Jonsson, L., and Svensson. S. 1981. Extru-
sion cooking of a high-fiber cereal product with crisp bread character.
Cereal Chern. 58:370-374.
Bello. A. B .. Serna Saldivar, S. 0 .. Waniska. R. D., and Rooney. L. W.
1991. Methods to prepare and evaluate wheat tortillas. Cereal Foods
World. 36:315-322.
Clavijero. F. J. 1979. A history of Mexico. Vol. I. Translation of Storia
Antica de Messico (1787). Garland Publishing. New York. 476. p.
Cotez. A. and Wild-Altamirano. C. 1972. Contribution to the technology
of maize flour. In: Nutritional of Maize. Proceedings of the Institute de
Nutrition de America Central y Panama (INCAP). Guatemala City. Gua-
temala.
Cuevas, R., Figueira, E,. and Racca, E. 1985. The technology for indus-
trial production of precooked corn flour in Venezuela. Cereal Foods
World. 30:707-712.
Davis, K. R., Khorshid, A, Ashour, H., and Faraq, H. 1987. Village breads
of Egypt. Unpublished report. Department of Bacteriology and Biochem-
istry. Food Research Center, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 83843.
EI-Gendy, S. M. 1983. Fermented foods of Egypt and the Middle East.
J. Food Prot. 46:358-367.
The Encyclopedia Americana (1994). Bread. Vol. 4. Grolier, CT. p. 480.
Faridi, H. A 1988. Flat breads. In: Y. Pomeranz (Ed). Wheat Chemistry
and Technology, 3rd edit. American Association of Cereal Chemists, St.
Paul, MN, pp. 457-498.
Faridi, H. A and Finney, P. L. 1980. Technical and nutritional aspects
ofIranian breads. Baker's Dig. 54(5): 14-22.
Faridi, H. A, Finney, P. L., and Rubenthaler, G. L. 1983a. Iranian flat
breads: relative bioavailability of zinc. J. Food Sci. 48: 107-109.
Faridi, H. A, Finney, P. L., and Rubenthaler, G. L. 1983b. Effect of soda
leavening on phytic acid content and physical characteristics of Middle
Eastern breads. J. Food Sci. 48: 1654-1658.
Faridi, H. A and Rubenthaler, G. L. 1983. Experimental baking tech-
niques for evaluating PaCific Northwest wheats in North Mrican breads.
Finney, P. L., Morad, M. M., Patel. K., Chaudry, S. M., Ghiasi, K., Runho-
tra, G., Seitz, L. M., and Sebti, S. 1980. Breads from sound and highly-
field-sprouted Pacific Northwest soft white wheat. Bakers' Dig.
June:22-27.
Fischer, H. A. 1981. Pizza crust production. American Society of Bakery
Engineers pp. 170-176.
Goldberg, L, and Fleisher, L. (1871). Goldberg's Pizza Book. Random
House, Inc. New York, p. 27.
Hanneman, L. J. 1980. Bakery bread and fermented goods. Heineman,
London, pp. 154-156.
Haridas Rao, P., Leelavathi, K., and Shurpalekar, S. 1986. Test baking
of Chapati-development of a method. Cereal Chern. 63:297-303.
Jason, J. J. 1990. Tortilla manufacturing. In the processings of the
American Society of Bakery Engineers, Chicago, IL, pp. 110-118.
Lehmann, T. A 1986. Pizza crust. In the proceedings of the American
Society of Bakery Engineers, Chicago, IL. pp. 167-177.
Lehmann, T. A and DubOis, D. K. (1980). Pizza crust: Formulation and
processing. Cereal Foods World. 25:589-592.
Flat Breads 117
Levy, F. (1991). Passover: International Jewish Cookbook. The Spring-

time Holiday. Warner Books, Inc. New York, pp. 1-37.
Lutzow, S. (1995) Flat breads on the rise. Bakery production and market-
ing. July: 18,22-27.
Maleki, M. 1984. The characteristics of Iranian wheat and flour and the
technology of Iranian breads. University of Shiraz, p.8 (in Farsi).
Mousa, E. I. and Al-Mohizea, I. S. 1987. Bread baking in Saudi Arabia.
Cereal Foods World. 32(9):614-620.
Nagao, S. (1995). Wheat end usage in East Asia.In: H. Faridi and J. M.
Fobion (Eds). Wheat end uses around the world. American Association
of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, pp. 167-189.
The New Encyclopedia Britanica (1994). Bread, Vol. 2. Encyclopaedia
Britanica, Chicago, p.490.
Noel, Sir. E. M. 1971. English muffin production. In Proceedings of the
American SOCiety of Bakery Engineers. Chicago, IL, pp. 128-136.
Norheim, H. 1993. Vestfold flatbrodfabrik a/s, Postboks 70, 3157 Bar-
kaker, Norway.
Patel, K. M. and Johnson, J. A. 1975. Horsebean protein supplements
in breadmaking. III. Effect of physical dough properties, baking and
amino acid composition. Cereal Chern. 52:791-800.
Pena, R. J. (1995). Wheat usage in Mexico and central America. In: H.
Faridi and J. M. Fobion (Eds). Wheat end uses around the world. Ameri-
can Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN. pp. 43-64.
Pflugfelder, R. L. 1986. Dry matter distribution in commercial alkaline-
cooking process for production of corn tortillas snack food. Ph.D. Disser-
tation, Texas A&M University. 33. p.
Pfefer, D. N. 1976. Proc. English muffins. In: Proceedings of the American
Society of Bakery Engineers, Chicago, IL, pp. 51-56.
Pomeranz, Y. 1987. Modern Cereal Science and Technology. VCH Pub-
lishers, New York, p. 259.
breads. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of New South Wales. Australia.
Qarooni, J. 1993. Wheat flour tortillas. American Institute of Baking,
Technical Bulletin. May.
Qarooni, J. 1993. Wheat end uses around the world-Focus on the Mid-
dle East and North Mrica. In: 78th Annual Meeting of the American
Association of Cereal Chemists.
Qarooni, J., Moss, H. J., Orth, R. A., and Wootton, M. 1988. The effect
of flour properties on the quality of Arabic bread. J. Cereal Sci. 7:95-107.
Qarooni. J .. Orth. R. A.. and Wootton. M. 1987. A test baking technique

for Arabic bread quality. J. Cereal Sci. 6:69-80.
Qarooni. J .. Ponte. J. G. Jr .. and Posner. E. S. 1992. Test baking proce-
dure for evaluation of flour tortilla quality. Association of Operative Mill-
ers. Bulletin. December. 6136-6138.
Ramakrishnan. C. V. 1977. The use of fermented foods in India. In:
Steinkraus. K. Cullen. R. E. Pederson. C. S. and Nelis. L. F. (Eds). Hand-
book of Indigenous Fermented Foods. 1983. Marcel Dekker. New York.
pp. 131-146.
Reynolds. P. T. 1992. Bakers ride the pizza wave. Bakery Product Market-
ing. October: 160-170.
Riley. J. R. 1991. Corn tortillas. corn chips. and tortialla chips. Proceed-
ings of the American Society of Bakery Engineers. Chicago. IL. pp. 142-
150.
Robutti. J. L. and de Sa Souza. E. (1995). Wheat end usage in South
America. In: H. Faridi and J. M. Fobion (Eds). Wheat end uses around the
world. American Association of Cereal Chemists. St. Paul. MN. pp. 65-91.
Santiago Bedolla. M. S. and Rooney. L. W. 1982. Cooking maize for masa
production. Cereal Foods World 27:219-221.
Serna-Saldivar. S. 0 .. Gomez. M. H .. and Rooney. L. W. 1990. Technol-
ogy. chemistry. and nutritional alue of alkaline-cooked corn products.
In: Y. Pomeranz (Ed). Advances in Cereal Science and Technology. Vol.
X. American Association of Cereal Chemists. St. Paul. MN. pp. 243-307.
Serna-Saldivar. S. 0 .. Rooney. L. W .. and Waniska. R. D. 1988. Wheat
flour tortilla production. Cereal Foods World. 33:855-864.
Shurpalekar. S. R. and Prabhavathi. C. 1976. Brabender farinograph.
research extensometer. and Hilliff chapati press as tools for standardiza-
tion and objective assessment of chapati dough. Cereal Chern. 53:457-
469.
Shurpalekar. S. R. and Shukal. V. K. 1992. Characteristics ofPuri dough
and puri based on wheat and composite flours. J. Food Sci. Technol.
29: 153-158.
Sollano. C. and Berriozabal. C. 1955. Method of producing corn tortilla
flour. U.S. Patent 2.704.257.
Slomon. E. 1984. The pizza book. Times books. Random house. pp 87-89.
Spooner. T. F. (1989). Pizza systems: a menu full of choices. Baking
Snack Systems. May. 10-15.
Sultan. W. J. 1977. Modern pastry chef. Vol. 2.AVI Publishing. Westport.
CT. pp. 1-15.
Flat Breads 119
Tweed, R. H. 1979. The production of traditional breads. Iran, Cuba,

and Syria, Japan. In: Proceedings of the American Society of Bakery
Engineers, Chicago, IL, March, pp. 38-48.
Urrutia, J. J., Teller, C., Pivaral, V. M., Garcia, B., Flores, M. Kennedy,
E., Sequiera, C., and Austin, J. F. 1979. Case study: Guatemala. In:
E. Austin (Ed), Global Malnutrition and Cereal Fortification, Ballinger
Publishing, Cambridge, MA, pp.131-171.
Vegel, S., Gobezie, A., and Gifawesen, C. 1977. Enjera-a fermented
pancake-like bread of Ethiopia. In: Steinkraus, K. Cullen, R. E. Pederson,
C. S. and Nelis, L. F. (Eds). Handbook of Indigenous Fermented Foods,
1983. Marcel Dekker, New York. pp. 162-173.
Volokh, A. 1983. The Art of Russian Cuisine. Macmillan, Riverside, NJ,
pp.491-494.
CHAPTER FIVE
Double-Layered Flat Breads
Arabic (Pita) Bread
Arabic bread is a name commonly given to a double-layered

flat bread produced in the Middle East and North Africa. "Pita"
is a modern Greek term used in Greece. Cyprus. Europe. and
the United States for the same product. Lebanese. mafrood. and
shami are among other terms for essentially the same product.
For the production of Arabic bread. the ingredients. flour of 75%
to 80% extraction (100%), dry active yeast (0.5% to 1.0%), salt
(0.75% to 1.5%), and water are mixed to form a cohesive and well-
developed dough. The dough of Arabic bread is relatively stiff.
Abdel-Rahman and Yousef (1978) adjusted the dough consistency
of this bread on 800 BU in a farinograph bowl. A farinograph
dough consistency of 850 BO was used by Qarooni et al (1987)
after investigating the effect of water addition on bread quality.
Dough was prepared with seven levels of water: 49. 51. 53. 55.
57. 59. and 61% (Table 5.1). Dough consistency above the 850
BU level improved sheeting quality and resulted in round. larger.
and thinner dough with a less dimpled surface compared to dough
with high water addition. However. the baked loaves had a darker
crust color and tended to break during a rolling test. The crumb
had a close. dense grain. the dgree of which increased as the
Table 5.1 Evaluation of Bread Quality Using a Range of

Baking Absorptions
Baking Farinograph Bread
abs. consistency Eternal Internal Second Total moisture
(%) line (FU) score score day score score (%) (%)
45.0' Off scale 37.8 33.4 34.5 70.5 26.6

51.0' Off scale 38.8 36.2 37.5 75.0 26.6
53.0 b Off scale 42.0 ± 1.6 40.5 ± 1.2 35.3 ± 1.5 78.5 ±0.8 27.1
55.0 b 850d 41.8±0.5 43.4 ± 0.2 40.5±1.7 83.8± 1.5 27.8
57.0 b 745 39.8± 0.9 41.2 ± 0.2 36.4 ± 2.2 78.3 ± 0.9 28.1
59.0 b 670 35.7 39.2 40.5 77.0 30.5
61.0' 590 34.9 39.8 24.5 66.5 30.1
'Average of six loaves from one batch.

bAverage of three batch replicates carried out over 3 days ± standard deviation.
'Average of two batches.
dOptimum baking absorption.
(From Qarooni et aI., 1987. Reprinted with permission)
amount of water was decreased. However, the rolling and folding

behavior of the loaves from these trials improved after standing
overnight, probably because of equilibration of moisture.
Lower dough consistency, which resulted from absorption
levels of above 57%, led to the formation of sticky doughs and
deterioration of sheeting quality and product symmetry. This "low
dough consistency" resulted in the formation of gas bubbles on
the surface and the edges of the sheeted dough during the final
proofing stage. The baked products had asymmetrical shapes,
light crust color, surface blistering, and woolly crumb appearance
with large air cells.
Analysis of variance of the data representing the effect of
baking absorption from 53% to 57% (Table 5.1) indicated that
overall bread qualities were affected by baking absorption. The
water level Significantly affected the amount of blistering, number
and size of cracks, ability to roll and fold, evenness of layers, and
grain appearance (Table 5.2).
Although the dough consistency of 850 EU was found to be
applicable to many flour types, a farinograph dough consistency
of 650 EU was found to be suitable for other flour samples in
large automated bakeries (Qarooni, 1989). The reason for this
variation is not known.
Table 5.2 Level of Significance of Baking Absorption on the Quality

Parameters of Arabic Bread
Quality parameter Variance ratio
Cracks 17.78b
Blisters 28.49"
Ability to roll and fold 12.76 b
Evenness of layers 13.0 b
Grain appearance 11.40b
Crumb texture 6.12'
-Significant at p < 0.001.
Dough Mixing
Dough mixing time is an important factor in the production

of "quality" Arabic bread. In commercial bakeries, dough usually
is mixed to the fully developed stage. Qarooni et al. (1987) exam-
ined this common commercial practice and studied the effect of
mixing time on the quality of Arabic bread. Dough was mixed for
2.0 min (underdeveloped), 4.0 min (fully developed), and 7.0 min
(over-mixed). Sections of the dough samples taken after mixing
clearly indicate that the dough mixed for 2.0 min (Figure 5.1A)
was poorly developed. Many isolated masses of gluten protein
and many discontinuities occurred in the protein matrix, leaving
many starch granules free of any supporting protein. The dough
sample mixed for 4.0 min (Figure 5.1B) showed good development,
because the protein matrix was composed of extensively intercon-
nected sheets of intensely stained protein. However, a few traces
of overdeveloped, veiling protein films occurred. The dough sam-
ples mixed for 7.0 min (Figure 5.1e) showed areas that had a
marked increase in the amount of veiling protein, resulting in a
sticky dough that was difficult to process. The sheeting process
had a marked effect on the degree of gluten development visible
in the sample mixed for 2.0 min (Figure 5.10) , but relatively little
effect in the other two samples. In the former, the gluten matrix
was further developed by the rolling required to sheet the doughs,
so it more closely resembled that seen in the other two samples.
5,18
Figure 5.1 Photomicrographs of dough sections stained with Ponceau 2R
to demonstrate protein development. C, continuous protein matrix; F, thin
protein film; M, protein masses; Bar=5I1m. (A) Dough mixed for 2.0 min.
The coarse protein masses and the absence of a continuous protein matrix
indicate that the dough is underdeveloped. (8) Dough mixed for 4.0 min.
The protein masses have been stretched out to form a continuous, in-
tensely stained protein matrix that surrounds nearly all the starch granules.
124
SJC
5JD
(e) Dough mixed for 7.0 min. The protein has been overdeveloped and
stretched out to form thin, palely stained films of protein that flow over
the surface of many of the starch granules. (D) Dough mixed for 2.0 min
after the sheeting process. The sheeting process has further developed the
protein to form a continuous, intensely stained matrix that surrounds the
starch granules. (From Qarooni et al.,1987, Reprinted with permission)
125
Table 5.3 Score Assessed for Arabic Breads Made from

Underdeveloped. Optimum. and Overdeveloped Doughs
Mixing time
Overall quality
parameters 2.0 min 4.0 min 7.0 min
External score 37.0 ± 0.8 41.8±1.9 41.0 ± 2.1

Internal score 38.6 ± 1.8 39.5 ± 1.6 41.2 ± 1.2
Second day score 24.8 ± 3.2 32.2 ± 3.7 35.5 ± 1.4
Total score'(%) 66.9 ± 3.1 75.2 ± 2.3 78.5 ± 2.2
'The scores are the average of four batch replicates carried out over 4 days
± standard deviation.
The effect of dough mixing times on the quality scores of

external, internal, second-day evaluation. and total scores of Ara-
bic bread are shown in Table 5.3. Overmixing resulted in superior
quality products in terms of internal characteristics and keeping
quality (second-day score). However. these breads were inferior
to the fully developed product because of slight blistering and a
lack of symmetry. The undermixed doughs scored lowest in all
regards. Thus. undermixing clearly presented the greater threat
to loaf quality. However. the extra development imparted by the
sheeting process meant that scores were not as bad as the under-
developed microstructure (Figure 5.1A) might suggest. The over-
mixed dough. although producing a loaf that was superior to
loaves from fully developed dough. had the drawback of being
excessively sticky. The analysis of variance of the overall and
individual bread scores made from doughs with different mixing
times (Table 5.4) indicates the significant effect of dough mixing
on bread quality. The levels of blistering and tearing quality of
Arabic bread were affected most.
Bulk fermentation
Mter mixing. the dough is allowed to ferment for an hour. This

stage of processing sometimes is reduced to 30 min in commercial
bakeries. Qarooni et al (1989) found that extending the bulk fer-
mentation time from 30 to 90 min had a significant (p < 0.001)
Table 5.4 Level of Significance of Dough Mixing Time on Quality

Parameter of Arabic Bread
Quality parmeter Variance ratio
External 9.25 b
Internal 2.98 (NS)
Second day 13.76b
Total bread score 21.82'
Blisters 7.50'
Quality of tearing 25.58'
Quality of tearing 2nd day 17.17'
NS: not significant.
effect on instrumental assessment (Hunter Lab. yellow index) of

crust and crumb color. the level of blistering. evenness of the two
layers. and the grain appearance of Arabic bread. The crust's
yellow index decreased (lighter color) and thecrumb'syellowindex
increased (darker color) as a result of longer fermentation time.
The level of blistering on the top crust decreased. and layers of
even thickness were formed by prolonging the fermentation time
of Arabic bread dough.
Intermediate Proofing
After bulk fermentation. the dough is divided. rounded. and

allowed to proof for 10 to 15 min. In automated bakeries. the
temperature and humidity of the proofing cabinet are adjusted
to allow sufficient dough relaxation and to prevent either sticki-
ness or skin formation. A deSirable. soft. moist. and uniform
crumb texture of Arabic bread was affected positively by the dough
temperature and intermediate prooftime (Qarooni et al .. 1989).
In semi-automated bakeries. the divided dough pieces are placed
in a number of proofing boxes arranged on top of each other.
Dough Sheeting
After the dough pieces have passed through the intermediate

proofing, they are shaped to flat, round, or oval pieces prior to
final proofing. In automated bakeries, the dough pieces are
passed under pressing rollers, to form a flat dough of 2 to 2.5 cm
thick, and then through two stages of sheeting rolls by staggered
conveyor belts. They are rolled first into flat oval shapes (Figure
5.2A), then taken up by another staggered band and turned over
(Figure 5.2B) onto the second sheeting, which rolls the oval pieces
into round shapes of desired thickness. In semi-automated baker-
ies, a small sheeter with two pairs of sheeting rolls is used. The
dough pieces are transferred manually from the first to the second
sheeting rolls. The thickness of sheeted dough ranges from 1.5
to 10 mm, based on consumers' preference. Dough sheeting is
the single most important processing step in the production of
Arabic bread. Each double-layered flat bread has a narrow range
of dough thickness that results in optimum product quality, and
small variations in thickness significantly affect that quality
(Dalby, 1963, 1966; Patel and Johnson, 1975; Schnee, 1979;
Rubenthaler and Faridi, 1982; Qarooni et aI., 1987; Williams et
aI., 1988; Quail et aI., 1990). A consumers' survey (Qarooni, 1989)
in Kuwait showed that 68.9% of the population preferred Arabic
bread to have an even thickness of layers, and 24% were in favor
of a thicker top or bottom layer. The effect of sheeted dough thick-
ness on the quality of separation and evenness of layers was
studied by Rubenthaler and Faridi (1982) and Qarooni et aI.
(1987). The latter reported that, with the baking conditions used
(400°C for 90 sec), optimum quality in the separation of layers
and evenness of layers was achieved with dough of 3 mm thick-
ness. The thinnest dough sample (2 mm) resulted in excellent
separation characteristics and even thickness of the layers (Fig-
ure 5.3); however, the product was extremely dry and heavily
blistered. They recommended a higher baking temperature and
shorter time for an optimum 2 mm thick product. Quail et al
(1990) studied the effects of the thickness of sheeted dough, bak-
ing time, and temperature on the quality of Arabic bread. Dough
pieces were passed through a 1 mm roll gap and baked at 600°C
for 21 sec; through a 1.1 mm gap and baked at 550°C for 30 sec;
A
8
Figure 5.2 Sheeting process of flat bread: (A) after first sheeting; and
(8) before the second (cross) sheeting in an automated Arabic bread pro-
duction line.
129
Figure 5.3 Effect of sheeted dough thickness on the quality of pocket

formation and evenness of the upper and lower layers of Arabic bread.
Top loaves left pair, 2 mm; right pair, 3 mm thickness. Bottom loaves left
pair, 4 mm; center pair, 5 mm; right pair, 6 mm thickness. (From Qarooni
et aI., 1987, Reprinted with permission)
through a 1.2 mm gap and baked at 500°C for 43 sec; and through
a 1.5 mm gap and baked at 400°C for 90 sec. They reported that.
in all cases, a full pocket was developed.
Final Proofing
After the severe action of sheeting, degassing, and stressing,

the dough pieces are allowed to aerate again and relax prior to
baking. In automated bakeries, the second proofing stage devel-
ops in a temperature- and humidity-controlled proofing cabinet.
Several (odd number) conveyor belts are installed on top of each
other in parallel order in the cabinet. The sheeted dough pieces
are transferred along the top conveyor belt and then turned over
onto a belt below it (Figure 5.4) and move in opposite directions
toward the end. This movement continues until the end of final
Figure 5.4 Final proofing stage of Arabic bread dough. Sheeted dough
pieces are transferred from upper to lower conveyors.
proofing. An odd number of conveyor belts is necessary to ensure

that the dough pieces enter and leave the proofer in the same
unright position. The final proofing time is controlled by the num-
ber and length of belts and their speeds. A relative humidity of
65 ± 5% for the second proofing cabinet is suggested by Qarooni
et al. (1987). A humidity of above 75% should be avoided, because
it tends to cause moisture condensation on the sheeted dough
and gives rise to the formation of blisters during baking. The
formation of a thin skin on the surface of sheeted dough is essen-
tial for a blister-free product. A little aeration and proper skin
formation are required for the development of grain and separa-
tion (pocket formation) of the layers during baking.
The final proofing time (15, 30, or 45 min) and its combined
effect with dough temperature (25, 30, or 35°C) Significantly af-
fected many aspects of Arabic bread quality (Qarooni et al, 1989).
A longer final proofing time allowed for more recovery of the
sheeted dough from the severe action of the sheeting process on
gluten structure and resulted in a smoother and thicker crust on
the final product. Thick skin, however, limits product expansion

during pocket formation in the oven and results in smaller loaves.
The appearance of blisters on the surface of Arabic bread was
eliminated completely by prolonging the final proof time. The in-
ternal quality characteristics of Arabic bread showed that the
evenness of layers, grain appearance, and uniformity as well as
crumb texture were affected significantly (p < 0.001) by final
proofing time. With reduction of the time to 15 min, tearing quality
was improved steadily by increasing the dough temperature.
However, at a longer final proofing time (45 min), increased dough
temperature severely reduced bread resistance to tearing.
Baking
Baking of Arabic bread is carried out in high temperature

ovens and for a short time. Baking temperatures and times are
470 to 500°C for 60 to 90 sec for shamy bread (Doerry, 1983)'
500 to 525°C for 45 to 60 sec for mafrood (Mousa and Al-Mohazea,
1987), and 400°C for 90 sec for Arabic bread (Qarooni et aI.,
1987). The baking time and temperature vary depending on the
thickness of the sheeted dough. Thin Arabic bread usually is
baked at high temperature (650°C) for a short time (18 to 20 sec).
Although a thin product is desirable in many countries of the
Middle East (Williams et aI., 1988; Qarooni, 1989), maintaining
the temperature of a large commercial oven to such a high level is
extremely difficult. Quail et aI. (1990) studied the effect of baking
temperature, time, and the thickness of sheeted dough on the
quality of Arabic bread. They selected four settings (1.0, 1.1, 1.2,
and 1.5 mm) for the roll gap in the final sheeting stage. The
sheeted dough pieces were allowed to proof for 30 min and were
baked at 600°C for 21 sec, 550°C for 30 sec, 500°C for 43 sec, or
400°C for 90 sec. The interactions of these baking conditions
and dough thicknesses showed that sheeted dough of 1.1 mm
thickness baked at 600°C for 21 sec resulted in products with the
highest total score. This product had a moisture content similar to
that of the product sheeted with 1.5 mm gap setting and baked
at 400°C for 90 sec. They concluded that baking thinner dough
pieces at a higher temperature for a shorter time produced softer
and more pliable products with superior keeping quality. The

pliability of the flat bread reported by Quail et al. (1990) is in
agreement with the work of Faridi and Rubenthalor (1984), who
sheeted the dough of baladi breads to a constant thickness (6
mm) and baked it at four combinations of baking time and temper-
ature. They reported that starch gelatinization is generally higher
in baladi bread than in white pan bread. From the four combina-
tions of baking time and temperature, baking at 370°C for 3 to
4 min gave the highest level of starch gelatinization. El-Samahy
and Tsen (1981) found that the chemical characteristics and
amino acid contents varied only slightly among baladi breads
baked at different temperatures (248 to 343°C) and times (3.5 to
7.0 min). They found a significant deterioration of protein quality
as a result of higher baking temperature or longer time.
During the baking of double-layered flat breads (Arabie and
baladi), the thin skin of sheeted dough that was formed during
the final proofing stage changes to a pale-colored crust, and the
internal temperature of the central portion of dough rises to 99°C
(El-Samahy and Tsen, 1981), causing steam development. The
combined actions of steam pressure and CO2 result in separation
of the top and bottom layers (Figure 4.3). With all thicknesses of
sheeted dough (1.0, 1. 1, 1.2, and 1.5 mm) and baking conditions
used by Quail et al. (1990), pocket formation occurred at one
third of the baking time.
The extent of starch gelatinization in different sections of
Arabic bread was examined by Qarooni (1988). Starch granules
in the dough sample (Figure 5.5) clearly demonstrate the well-
known Maltese cross birefringence pattern of raw starch. When
heat is applied to a dough, the starch granules will absorb water
and swell. Provided that sufficient water is available, their struc-
ture will be disrupted, and they will lose their birefringence. The
loss of birefringence will be limited by low dough water content
or the presence of solutes such as salt and sugar (Wootton and
Bamunuarachchi, 1979, 1980). The microstructure of the top
and bottom layers of Arabic bread, viewed under bright field illu-
mination, and crossed polarized light is shown in Figure 5.6A, B,
e, and D. The starch granules in the outermost layer of the top
crust (Figure 5.6A and B) still show a considerable amount of
Figure 5.5 Photomicrograph of cryostat section of dough stained with

Ponceau 2R under polarized light to demonstrate the birefringence of
row starch. Bar=60 11m; P, protein; BS, birefringent starch. (From Qa-
rooni, 1988)
birefringence, because of their exposure to the hot dry oven atmo-

sphere, which results in rapid evaporation of moisture. This outer
layer of birefringent starch granules varied in thickness from 60
to 90 microns.
In contrast, the bottom crust (Figure 5.6D) does not have any
birefringent granules in the outermost layer. This is presumably
due to steam being trapped in this area as a result of the close
contact of the dough with the hot oven surface. The outermost
layer (Figure 5.6C) is very dense (35 microns) and has a smoother
surface than the upper layer. In the internal region of both upper
and lower crusts, the outer walls of the air cells that constitute
the crumb are lined by a single layer of partially birefringent
starch granules. This indicates that limited water is available for
starch gelatinization because of the lower dough water and the
rapid moisture loss caused by the large surface area of this bread.
A
D
Figure 5.6 (A and C). Photomicrograph of cryostat section of top (A) and
bottom (C) layers of Arabic bread stained with periodic acid, schiff re-
agent I fast green (PAS/FG) under bright field illumination. Bar=60 /-lm;
GS, gelatinized starch; P, protein. (B and D) Photomicrograph of crystat
section of the top (B) and bottom (D) layers of Arabic bread stained with
Ponceau 2R under polarized light to demonstrate the birefringence of row
starch. Bar=60 /-lm; BS, birefringent starch; P, protein. (From Qarooni, 1988)
135
Figure 5.7 The sheeted, proofed dough and Arabic bread (immediately
after baking) being baked in a commercial peel oven.
Cooling and Packaging
Mter baking, bread is cooled prior to packaging. In automated

bakeries, fine spray nozzles are used immediately after baking to
apply water on the surface of bread. The water dries out, leaving
an attractive glaze on the surface ofthe product. Breads are trans-
ferred (10 to 15 min) to the packaging area on a cooling conveyor.
Before packaging, the interior bread temperature should be low-
ered to about 35 to 37°C. Figure 5.7 shows the sheeted, proofed
dough and Arabic bread (immediately after baking) being baked
in a commercial peel oven. Insufficient cooling might give rise to
many problems, such as difficulties in separation of bread layers
and excessive moisture condensation within the wrapping mate-
rial (Qarooni, 1989).
Temperature profile, shrinkage and expansion, and moisture
loss of Arabic bread during processing on two automated lines
were studied (Qarooni, 1989). Each line had a production capacity
of 6000 loaves/h. Dough temperature was recorded immediately

after dividing and rounding and monitored during the subsequent
processing stages of first proofing, sheeting, second proofing, bak-
ing, and cooling. In both production lines, changes in dough and
bread temperature followed similar overall patterns. Average
drops in temperature were 1.5°C during the first proofing, 2.1°C
during sheeting, and 1.3°C during the final proofing stage. Bread
temperature, measured immediately after baking, was 93.7°C.
Mter 10 min of cooling on conveyor belts, loaves were packed
at 40°C.
Because of the movement of sheeted dough pieces on several
conveyors, an overall shrinkage of about 0.5 cm occurred during
the final proofing stage. At the same time that the dough pieces
were expanded in the moving direction of the belts, shrinkage
occurred in the other perpendicular direction. The extra shrink-
age during baking averaged 1.5 cm.
The moisture loss, as measured by weight loss of Arabic
bread, indicated an average loss of 0.45 g/loaf during the first
proofing stage and a gain of 0.1 g during sheeting. This increase
was due to the dusting flour applied during sheeting. In the sec-
ond proofing, each dough piece lost a total of 3.6 g. Most of the
moisture losses occurred during the baking stage. In both lines,
the average moisture loss was equivalent to 15% of the weight.
Baladi Bread
The typical formula ofbaladi bread, a sourdough-based, dou-

ble-layered, flat bread, contains 100 kg flour of 82% extraction,
70 to 75 kg water, 0.5 kg salt, and 20 kg sourdough from a
previous batch (Doerry, 1983). A typical starter consists of an old
dough (5.5 kg), flour (50 kg), and water (25 kg). A minimum of 3
h of fermentation is allowed. During the winter months, some
compressed yeast is added to the starter and sometimes to indi-
vidual doughs to compensate for the lower dough temperature.
The ingredients are mixed in a single-speed, spiral mixer for 15
to 25 min. Because of high water content, the dough is very slack,
which makes the mechanical processing of this product difficult.
However, this has a significant impact on the physical character-
Figure 5.B Baking of baladi bread in hearth oven.
istics and flavor of the bread (Dalby, 1963; Mousa et al 1979).

The dough (27 to 28°C) is fermented for 40 min and divided into
180-g pieces, which are formed into balls and placed on a wooden
tray covered with a thin layer of bran. A first proofing time of 15
min is allowed. At the end of this period, the dough is flattened
by hand into round shapes (20 cm diameter and 1.25 cm thick).
A final proofing time of 50-60 min is given. During this period
(Doerry, 1983), the pH of the dough can drop to 4.0. The relative
humidity around the flattened dough pieces reaches 75 to 85%,
which prevents a skin formation. Prior to baking, the dough pieces
are hand pressed further to meet the diameter specifications. The
excess bran is removed, and the dough pieces (5 or 6) are placed
on a long wooden peel and transferred to the hearth of the oil-
fired oven (Figure 5.8). They are baked at 450 to 600°C for 90 sec
(Dalby, 1963). Baking periods of 2 to 3 min at 350°C (Hamed et
aI., 1973) and 3 to 4 min at 300 to 350°C (Mousa et al., 1979;
Finney et aI., 1980) also were reported. Some freshly baked baladi
bread is brushed with water and placed in another oven (200°C)
for a few minutes (Dalby, 1963) to produce roasted products.
References
Abdel-Rahman, A. H. Y. and Yousef, S. A. M. 1978. Fortification of some

Egyptian foods with soybean. J. Am. Oil Chern. Soc. 55:338A-341A.
Dalby, G. 1963. The baking industry in Egypt. Baker's Dig. 37:74-77.
Dalby, G. 1966. Bread baking in the Sudan and Saudi Arabia. Baker's
Dig. 40:64-66.
Doerry, W. 1983. Baking in Egypt. Cereal Foods World 28:677-679.
EI-Samahy, S. K and Tsen, C. C. 1981. Effects of varying baking tempera-
ture and time on the quality and nutritive value of Balady bread. Cereal
Chern. 58(6):546-548.
Faridi, H. A. and Rubenthaler, G. L. 1984. Effect of flour extraction,
baking water absorption, and shortening level on physical quality and
shelflife of pita (pocket) bread. Cereal Foods World 29(9):566-567.
Finney, P. L., Morad, M. M., Patel, K, Chaudry, S. M., Ghiasi, K, Runho-
tra, G., Seitz, L. M., and Sebti, S. 1980. Breads from sound and highly-
field-sprouted Pacific Northwest soft white wheat. Bakers' Dig.
June:22-27.
Hamed, M. G. E., Rafai, F. Y., Hussein, M. F., and EI-Samahy, S. K
1973. Effect of adding sweet potato flour to wheat flour on physical dough
properties and baking. Cereal Chern. 50:140-146.
Mousa, E. I. and Al-Mohazea, I. S. 1987. Bread baking in Saudi Arabia.
Cereal Foods World. 32(9):614-620.
Mousa, E. I., Ibrahim, R. H., Shney, W. C., and Maneval, R. D. 1979.
Influence of wheat classes, flour extraction, and baking methods on
Egyptian Balady bread. Cereal Chern. 56:563-566.
Patel, K M., and Johnson, J. A. 1975. Horsebean protein supplements
in bread making. III. Effect of physical dough properties, baking and
amino acid composition. Cereal Chern. 52:791-800.
Qarooni, J. 1989. Handbook of Arabic Bread Production. Kuwait Flour
Mills and Bakeries Co., Kuwait, p.25.
Qarooni, J., Orth, R. A., and Wootton, M. 1987. A test baking technique
Qarooni, J., Miskelly, D., and Wootton, M. 1989. Factors affecting the
quality of Arabic bread-fermentation variables. J. Sci. Food Agric.
48:99-109.
Quail, K J., McMaster, G. J., Tomlinson, J. D. and Wootton, M. 1990.
Effect of baking temperature/time conditions and dough thickness on
Arabic bread quality. J. Sci. Food Agric. 53:527-540.
Rubenthaler, G. L., and Faridi, H. A. 1982. Laboratory dough moulder

for flat breads. Cereal Chern. 59:72-73.
Schnee, W. 1979. Installation for automatic preparation of Arabic flat
bread. German Federal Republic Patent Application, 2752464.
Williams, P. C., EI-Haramein, F. J., Nelson. W., and Srivastava, J. P.
1988. Evaluation of wheat quality for the baking of Syrian-type two-
layered flat breads. J. Cereal Sci. 7: 195-207.
Wootton, M. and Bamunuarachchi. A. 1979. Application of differential
scanning calorimetry to starch gelatinization. II. Effect of heating rate
and moisture level. Starke 39:262-264.
Wootton, M. and Bamunuarachchi, A. 1980. Application of differential
scanning calOrimetry to starch gelatinization. III. Effect of sucrose and
sodium chloride. Stacrke 32:126-129.
CHAPTER SIX
Quality of Flat Breads
Quality Requirements of Flat Breads
The acceptability of a food product (bread in particular) to a

group of people is subject to a number of factors. These include,
among others, the affect of climate and geographical location,
consumer's age, and level ofincome. Flat breads, in general, (ex-
cept dry, crisp flat breads of north em Europe) are rolled or bent
to hold various types offood. Hence, the rolling ability (pliability) of
these products is the most important factor in their acceptability.
Arabic and baladi breads have two separate layers and are used
to hold food in their cavities (pockets). Therefore, the formation
of a pocket (separation of the two layers) is another important
factor. Because flat breads are made from flour of high extraction
rates, their color, texture, and chewability are affected directly
by the levels of aleurone layer, bran, and germ in the flour. There-
fore, in assessing the quality of flat bread, all these parameters
should be closely examined.
A survey of 1,400 consumers from a wide range ethnic back-
grounds in Kuwait (Qarooni, 1988b, 1989) indicated that the
majority (93.4%) were in favor of complete separation (pocket
formation) of the layers of Arabic bread. The ability of bread to
roll or fold appeared to be a second important factor (91 % in favor).
Other important quality parameters in order of acceptability were

the absence of cracks on the sides. softness. absence of dusting
flour. and evenness of layers. However. the population was di-
vided on the issue of bread thickness. with a significant number
(31. 9%) in favor of thick crumb. It was suggested that this percent-
age probably represents the consumers who are accustomed to
the thick baladi bread of Egypt.
Spooner (1989) reported that the thin. crispy type pizza shell
is popular in areas of Boston. New York. and Chicago. The heavy.
chewy-type pizza is more popular on the west coast of the United
States. The result of a survey conducted by Totino's Frozen Pizza
(Anonymous. 1979) has shown that 44% of the consumers re-
garded the crust as the best part of pizza. Forty percent gave
general comments and 29% commented on cheese. 26% on sauce
and spices. 15% on meat. and 7% on other toppings as being the
main factor in choosing any pizza as the best product.
Quality Assessment of Flat Breads
A number of quality assessment procedures have been re-

ported for flat breads. Rashid (1983) evaluated the texture. color.
aroma. and flavor of Arabic bread by presenting the freshly baked
product to a panel of 12 judges. Ten Egyptian tasting panels
evaluated the crust color and crumb color. grain and texture.
aroma and flavor. and chewability of baladi bread (Mousa et al.
1979). A scale of 1 to 10 was used in this scoring. Faridi and
Rubenthaler (1983) scored the quality of four North African
breads (Tunisian. Moroccan. ArabiC. and baladi) on a numerical
basis of 1 to 10. The score was then converted to descriptive
categories of excellent (9 to 10). satisfactory (7 to 8). questionable
(5 to 6). and unsatisfactory (lower than 5). The most desirable
characteristics of Tunisian and Moroccan breads included glossy
gold-brown color. shiny-white crumb. small and uniform grain.
high specific volume. and low rheological value. Quality factors
for white Arabic and baladi bread included a complete separation
of upper and lower layers. equal thickness of layers. soft white
and moist crumb. low rheological value. and white arId shiny
crust with brown spots. A visual scoring system with a maximum
Quality 143
of 65 was used by the same investigators (Faridi and Rubenthaler,

1984) to study the quality of pita bread, In this scoring system,
a maximum number of 10 was given for crust color; 5, for crumb
color; 20, for the upper and lower crumb ratio; 20, for pocket
formation, and 10, for crumb texture.
Haridas Rao et al. (1986) developed a scoring system for cha-
pati and indicated that it should have an appealing color, with
evenly distributed light brown blisters, smooth and pliable feel,
soft chewing quality, and sweet taste. A maximum quality score
of 100 included 10 each for pliability, puffing, and hand feel; 20
for appearance, and 25 each for flavor and texture.
Qarooni et al (1987) developed a scoring system for Arabic
bread, consisting of seven external quality factors: area index,
crust smoothness, shape, crust color, cracks, blisters, and ability
to roll and fold; and seven internal quality factors: quality of
separation (pocket formation), evenness of layers, grain appear-
ance, grain uniformity, crumb texture, tearing quality, and crumb
color. These parameters (maximum score of 100) were assessed
on the first day of scoring. After overnight storage, two of the
previous quality characteristics (ability to roll and fold and tearing
quality) were assessed again and a maximum score of 50 was
allocated for both characteristics. Numerical scores of 5,7,8, 10,
15, 20, or 30 were given to each parameter according to its level
of importance. This scoring system could be assessed either on
the first day of evaluation to obtain a quality score in percent or
combined with the results of second day evaluations. In this case,
the sum of all numerical scores was converted to percentage and
reported as total score. The quality assessment of flat bread after
overnight storage allowed the staling rate to be judged.
To facilitate the scoring of different quality parameters with
variable highest scores, a conversion scheme was developed by
Qarooni et al (1987) and Qarooni (1993). In this scheme (Table
6.1) a numerical value was given to each quality description. For
example, excellent is eqUivalent to 90% to 100% of the possible
score; good, 80% to 90%; satisfactory, 70% to 80%; fair, 60% to
70%; unsatisfactory, 50% to 60%; poor, 40% to 50%; and very
poor, 30% to 40%. For instance, the product's ability to roll and
fold had a maximum possible score of30. If the product exhibited
only a small crack in the crust during rolling, a descriptive score
Table 6.1 Quantitative Scoring Guide for Bread
Maximum Very
Possible poor Poor Unsatisfactory Fair Satisfactory Good Excellent
score (35%) (45%) (55%) (65%) (75%) (85%) (100%)
oj::. 5 1.8 2.2 2.8 3.2 3.8 4.2 5.0

oj::. 7 2.4 3.2 3.8 4.6 5.2 6.0 7.0
- 8 2.8 3.6 4.4 5.2 6.0 6.8 8.0
10 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 10.0
15 5.2 6.8 8.2 9.8 11.2 12.8 15.0
20 7.0 9.0 11.0 13.0 15.0 17.0 20.0
30 10.5 13.5 16.5 19.5 22.5 25.5 30.0
Quality 145
of satisfactory, equivalent to a numerical score of 22.5 (Le., 75%

of 3D), or fair, equivalent to 19.5 (Le., 65% of 3D), or the average
of both numbers, 21.0 (Le., 70% of 30) was given. The same
assessment method was applied to other quality parameters. This
systematic scheme is easy to apply and proved to work well for
untrained personnel.
Quail et al (1991) modified the scoring system of Qarooni
et al (1987) for Arabic bread, while maintaining the suggested
weighting on some quality parameters. The scoring system of
Williams et al (1988) for Syrian type, two-layered, flat bread was
based on dough handling properties as well as product quality.
Bread was judged for handling properties, color and appearance,
diameter, crumb texture, separation of the two layers, aroma,
bitability, flavor, and keeping quality. An arbitrary score of 1 to
5 was given for each quality, with 5 being the best.
Bello et al (1991) assessed the quality of wheat flour tortillas
according to the level of toasted spots (blisters), flexibility, puffing,
weight, moisture content, streaks, mouth feel, layering, diameter,
symmetry, aroma, and flavor. These characteristics were rated
from 1 to 5 with 1 being excellent and 5 very poor, or as high,
medium, and poor. An alternative method for assessing the qual-
ity of wheat flour tortillas was reported by Qarooni et al. (1992a). It
consisted of subjective assessments ofthe appearance of blisters,
ability to roll and fold, texture, quality of tearing, and crumb
layering and objective assessments of area index (diameter) and
crust color.
The quality assessment of tanoor bread suggested by Qarooni
(1988a) and Qarooni et al (1993b) included the characteristics of
area index, crust smoothness, uniformity of thickness, crust
color, uniformity of blisters, rolling ability, quality of tearing, and
crumb appearance in the first day of evaluation. Similar to Arabic
bread, ability to roll and fold and tearing quality were assessed
both on the first and second days of evaluation. Numerical scores
of 5, 10, 15, 20, or 30 were given to each quality parameter
according to its importance.
The quality assessment ofkhobz el-daar might include diam-
eter, thickness, shape, appearance of crust surface, crust color,
crumb color, texture, grain uniformity, and tearing quality. These
quality parameters and the product's ability to roll and fold with-
out breaking also might be applied to the quality assessment of

barbari and pedeh bread.
Flour quality Requirement for Flat Breads
A number of attempts have been made to identity the wheat

and flour quality requirements for producing acceptable and opti-
mum quality flat breads. Dalby (1963) reported that flour for
baladi bread is a mixture of 25-30 parts of American flour (72%
extraction) and 70-75 parts of Egyptian flour (82% extraction).
Shurpalekar and Prabhavathi (1976) examined six Indian wheat
varieties for chapati quality. They reported that the varieties ka-
lyan sona and K-68 (atta protein, 8.9% and 10.7%; starch dam-
age, 6.6% and 6.8%, respectively) were excellent. Chapaties from
the soft variety, chhoti lerma (atta protein, 8.8%; starch damage,
2.8%), were only fairly acceptable. Both wheat varieties of sharbati
sonora and sonalika (atta protein II. 1% and 11.5%; starch dam-
age 4.9% and 4.8%, respectively) gave good chapaties.
Twelve United States wheat varieties representing six classes
of soft white winter, three of soft white spring, two of club, and
one of hard red winter wheat were evaluated for North Mrican
breads (Faridi and Rubenthaler, 1983). These samples were
milled to two levels of extractions. 71 % extraction for Tunisian
and white Arabic breads and 82% extraction for Moroccan and
baladi breads. The levels of protein ranged from 8.1% (14% m.b.)
to 12.1% in flour of 71% extraction and from 8.7% to 12.6% in
flour samples of 82% extraction. The authors reported that the
variations in baking quality of soft white and club wheat samples
were not functions of protein. The poor performances of soft white
spring samples for all breads, a soft white winter wheat for three
bread types, and two other soft white winter wheats for Moroccan
bread were unexplainable.
The assessment of five United States wheat varieties for bar-
bari, lavash, taftoon (tanoor), and sangak bread was carried out
by Faridi et al. (1981). One hard red winter wheat sample, two
soft white winter, one soft white spring, and a composite of West-
ern white wheat samples were milled to four levels of extraction
(77%, 82%, 84%, and 87%) and made into barbari, lavash, taf-
Quality 147
toon, and sangak breads, respectively. Flour protein content

ranged from 9.8% (14% m.b.) to 12.2% for barbari bread, and
from 10.2% to 13.1 % for sangak bread. They reported that soft
white wheats were generally most suitable for Iranian breads and
hard white wheat flour less suitable, especially at high extraction.
A sample of soft white winter flour with 9.8% protein at 77%
extraction was the best for all Iranian breads.
Chapati-making quality of six commercial Indian wheat culti-
vars was tested by Haridas Rao et al. (1986). The total quality
score of chapati made with the soft wheat variety pissi-Iocal was
44.2%. This chapati had a rough surface, low pliability, dry tex-
ture, and low score for eating quality. The medium hard wheat
variety (WG-357) resulted in a score of 86.8%, indicating excel-
lent chapati-making properties. The scores of other wheat varie-
ties were high and ranged from 71.1% to 73.8%. Hanslas (1986)
reported that suitable flour for chapati-making should have a
range of protein (10% to 13%), water absorption of not less than
68%, and a high diastatic activity and produce a strong, elastic,
and extensible dough.
The quality of Arabic bread made with flour from 25 hard and
eight soft wheat samples representing 30 varieties of Australian
wheat was tested by Qarooni et al (1988). They reported a curvilin-
ear relationship between bread quality and several flour compo-
nents, indicating that, in each case, an optimum existed for a
given parameter. In the case of dough strength, for example, below
the optimum, weakness was a limiting factor but, above the opti-
mum, toughness of the dough led to a loss of bread quality. The
optimum product quality was obtained from hard wheat flour of
intermediate protein (10% to 12%) content and dough strength
and starch damage of above 6%. Five wheat samples produced
the best quality product. Six samples of low protein and four of
high protein failed to produce satisfactory bread. Hard wheat
resulted in a significant level of starch damage during wheat mill-
ing. This allowed for higher water absorption and satisfactory
pocket formation during dough mixing and baking, respectively.
Both the level of protein and starch damage were significantly
(p < 0.001) related to the crust color of Arabic bread. Williams
et al. (1988) reported that weak dough caused problems during
sheeting, and the resultant product become stale and hardened
faster than that made with strong flour. Dough made with very
strong dough, on the other hand, contracted after sheeting and
resulted in a product of poor texture and bitability. Durum wheat
flour resulted in a softer texture than did bread flour. This soft-
ness was related to the level of starch damage, high water absorp-
tion in flour, and starch gelatinization during the baking of Ara-
bic bread.
The work of QUail et al. (1991), who studied 49 wheat samples
representing nine Australian cultivars, confirmed the findings of
Qarooni et al. (1988) and Williams et al. (1988). Within six of the
cultivars, a parabolic relationship was established between flour
protein content and the quality of Arabic bread. Quail et al. (1991)
reported that the number of samples or the range in protein con-
tent for the other three cultivars was inadequate to confirm the
parabolic relationship. They found that grain hardness (particle
size index) was related significantly to Arabic bread quality. Qa-
rooni et al. (l993a) tested 15 samples of United States wheats
(hard white, hard red winter, hard white spring, and soft white
winter) for quality pita (Arabic) bread. They reported that the best
product was obtained from flour samples of 9.5% to 12.0% protein
(in flour of 80% extraction). Extremes in protein content adversely
affected the product's quality.
Published reports on flour characteristics for quality pizza
are limited. Lehmann and Dubois (1980) reported that patent or
straight grade flour of 11.5% to 14.0% protein prepared from
either spring or spring/winter wheat is suitable for pizza. Leh-
mann (1986) reported a flour protein range of 11.0% to 12.5%
from the same wheat type as being suitable for pizza. The latter
author indicated that flours of low protein content exhibit less
shrinkage during processing and result in a desirable level of
chewiness in the final product. Thin or cracker type crusts are
best produced from flour that contains a high level of protein
because it delays the soaking of pizza sauce into the crust.
Spooner (1989) reported that flour quality does not seem to be
very important. He also indicated that bakers use a flour of 10.0%
to 11.0% protein.
Flour of 13.95% protein, obtained from hard spring and of
11.2% protein from hard winter wheat was reported (Larsen et al.
1993) to have no significant effect on the sensory characteristics of
Quality 149
pizza crust. Retardation time of one to seven days at 2-3°C how-

ever. had a significant effect on denseness. cohesiveness. crisp-
ness. and pullapart of the product. In an unpublished report. V.
Proctor. J. M. Fabion. and J. G. Ponte (Larsen et al.. 1993) found
that crust weight, specific volume. and specific lift were higher
in pizza crust made from spring wheat than winter wheat. They
reported that these differences. however. may not be recognized
byendusers.
The flour requirement for whole meal pizza crust is a compos-
ite of various segments of wheat (Anonymous. 1986). This in-
cludes the distribution of 100 parts of flour into: defatted soy
flour. 0.9%; toasted wheat germ. 1.8%; wheat gluten. 1.8%; bran.
3.6%; stone-ground whole-wheat flour. 14.2%. and high-gluten
spring wheat bread flour. 78.1%.
The quality of com tortilla depends on grain quality and pro-
cessing method. Jackson et al (1988) indicated that hard com
hybrids are less susceptible to processing and handling inconsis-
tency than soft com. The pericarp of soft com does not dissolve
during the alkaline cooking process until the moisture content
exceeds the optimum level. Because soft com requires a shorter
cooking time. complete removal of pericarp is not achieved.
Four commercial wheat flours having a range of protein con-
tents (9.7%. 11.6%. 14.4%. and 15.6%) were made into tortillas.
and the quality of the final products was assessed (Qarooni et
al.. 1992a). The most obvious feature of tortillas obtained from
soft wheat flour with 9.7% protein was the whiteness of their
color. After overnight storage. these tortillas cracked and split
apart during the rolling and folding test and had unsatisfactory
tearing quality. The best quality product was obtained from flour
of 11.6% protein. This sample exhibited satisfactory dough han-
dling. dividing. and rounding properties. The resultant tortillas
had evenly distributed small blisters and a soft. silky texture.
They rolled without cracking on the first and second days of as-
sessment and possessed many layers. Flour of high protein con-
tent, however. gave tortillas with dark color. large black blisters.
and rubbery tearing quality. The overall quality of tortillas made
with high-protein flours decreased slightly compared to those
made with flour of moderate protein content and with flat breads
that are produced with a lean formula. such as Arabic and tanoor
bread. This was mainly due to the level of shortening used in

this product.
Tortilla quality of 10 hard white winter and soft white winter
wheat samples milled to 75% flour extraction (Qarooni et aI.,
1992b) indicated that hard wheat flour of moderate protein con-
tent produced superior quality hot-press tortillas. A combined
effect of starch properties, protein quality, and flour ash content
was related closely to product quality. The layering oftortillas was
significantly (r = 0.81) related to the initial paste temperature of
flour measured by the rapid visco-analyser. Flour water absorp-
tion measured by the farinograph gave a good prediction of tortilla
quality. The effect of flour protein content on tortilla quality
(Friend et aI., 1995) has indicated that tortilla prepared with flour
of 11.8% protein resulted in a product with a rolling ability supe-
rior to that of a tortilla made with 10.7% protein.
Eleven United States wheat samples (hard white winter, hard
red winter, and soft white winter) were milled to 85% extraction
and made into tanoor bread. The flour components affecting the
quality ofthe final product were identified (Qarooni et aI., 1993b).
They reported that flour protein quality, as indicated by valorim-
eter value and starch relative viscosity measured by the rapid
visco-analyser, was correlated highly with many aspects of bread
quality. The quadratic functions of flour valorimeter value and
relative viscosity on the bread quality indicated that extremes in
dough strength and starch relative viscosity adversely affect the
quality oftanoor bread. Qarooni et al (l993b) reported that opti-
mum tanoor bread was produced from flour (85% extraction) of
11.0% to 13.0% protein.
Comparison of Flat Bread Quality Prepared in a

Laboratory and a Commercial Bakery
Comparative baking tests in a laboratory and a commercial

bakery were carried out by Quail (1990) to examine the two baking
systems. Three flour samples (8.5%, 1l.2%, and 13.0% protein)
were tested. The baking method in the commercial bakery differed
from that of test baking in formulation, mixing, sheeting, proofing,
and baking profile. In the commercial bakery, the gap between
Quality 151
sheeting rolls was adjusted to produce breads of a fixed diameter.

whereas in the test baking method. a constant roller gap was
applied. In both baking techniques. the bread shape obtained
from flour of moderate protein content was superior to that from
both low and high protein flours. The test baking method was
able to distinguish the difference between flour types more clearly
than commercial baking. In both methods. the ability of bread to
roll and fold scored lowest when flour of low protein content was
used. Some of the bread samples made from flour with high pro-
tein content did not achieve a full pocket formation when baked
according to the test baking method. but a full pocket formation
was achieved in the commercial baking practice. Poor crumb tex-
ture was obtained from the sample having the lowest protein level
and was distinguishable in the test baking method. The crumb
appearance was poor for both low and high-protein samples in
both baking methods. In these two methods. low protein flour
resulted in the lowest score for tearing quality. Flour of moderate
protein content gave bread with the highest scores for rolling
ability and tearing quality after overnight storage. and this was
reflected in both baking methods. The overall quality of Arabic
bread was similar with both the laboratory-scale and large. auto-
mated. commercial method. The former. however. showed a
greater differences between flour samples.
Shelf Life of Flat Bread
Because most flat breads are produced from the four essential
ingredients of any leavened baked product. their shelf life is short
and does not exceed a couple of hours. Although the availability
of refrigerators and freezers introduced the habit of freezing flat
breads and reducing the amount of wastage cause by staling. a
significant portion ofthese products is wasted. A number of stud-
ies have been reported for extending the shelf life of flat breads.
Among those are the reports of Maleki et al. (1981); Faridi and
Rubenthaler (1984), Qarooni et al. (1989), Christina et al. (1993),
Farvili (1993), Yau et al. (1994), Friend et al. (1995), and Farvili
et al. (1995).
Maleki et al. (1981) studied the antistaling effect of various
combinations of additives including shortening on barbari bread

quality. They reported that untreated bread was not edible after
16 h. whereas those treated with 0.5% sodium stearoyl-2-lactilate
(SSL) and 0.3% shortening remained edible for up to 36 h.
The primary function of emulsifiers in a yeast-raised product
is their ability to develop a complex interaction with starch and
gluten. leading to improved tolerance to flour quality. improved
dough machinability. improved gas retention. uniform grain ap-
pearance. improved texture. and reduced requirement for short-
ening (Rusch. 1981). Vegetable gums. including guar gum. have
been found to significantly improve the kneading oftortilla dough
and the product's strength and pliability. even after freezing and
heating (Gorton. 1984).
Pita bread quality was improved with the addition of 1% short-
ening (Faridi and Rubenthaler. 1984). A higher level (2% shorten-
ing) deteriorated the quality. leading to an excessively soft and
fragile product. Using a range of shortening (0.5% to 2.0%) in
the formula of Arabic bread. Qarooni (1988a) reported a marked
improvement in dough sheeting qUality. However. because of a
softening effect of shortening. the highest level of treatment was
associated with large cracks in the bottom layer. Overall, the
treated samples had superior crumb texture and tearing quality.
Only Arabic bread containing 2% shortening lost its desirable
moderate resistance to tearing and. therefore. was downgraded.
The optimum product was reported to contain 1% shortening.
Qarooni et al. (1989) employed various levels of shortening and
dough-modifying agents (ascorbic acid. potassium bromate.
L-cysteine. sodium metabisulfate. SSL. and various types of su-
crose fatty acid esters) in the production of Arabic bread. They
found that a combination of 0.25% SSL and 0.5% shortening
resulted in the best quality products.
The effects of various emulsifiers on pita and tanoor bread
quality were studied (Farvili. 1993). Three levels (0.25%. 0.50%.
and 0.75%. flour basis) of SSL. glycerolmono stearate (GMS-90).
and di-acetyl tartaric acid esters of mono glycerides (DATEM). and
sugar esters (S-570. S-1170. S-1670. and P-1670) were selected.
It was reported that flour of moderate protein content (11.6%)
mixed with a low concentration (0.25%) of SSL. S-1170. S-1670.
and S-570 resulted in good quality pita bread. All emulsifiers
Quality 153
improved the product's tearing quality. The effect ofthese emulsi-

fiers after 5 days of storage on two important attributes of pita
bread, namely, the ability to roll and fold and tearing quality, was
not significantly different. The best tanoor bread was produced
with flour of moderate protein content and medium (0.5%) level
of P-1670, S-1670, and S-1170. These emulsifiers improved the
tearing quality and had a negligible effect on the rolling ability of
tanoor bread after prolong (5 days) storage.
In the United States, the modern, automated methods of the
wheat flour tortilla industry apply a wide range of emulsifiers,
gums, and reducing and oxidizing agents. Table 6.2 indicates the
functions of various additives and level of usage for the production
of wheat flour tortillas. The shelf stability of corn tortillas was
examined by incorporating a wide range of food additives, includ-
ing gluten, sodium caseinate, whey, starch, hydrocoloids, and
polyol (Yau et al. 1994). They reported that the product's stability
was improved slightly by most additives. Gluten increased the
level of blisters and improved the shelflife. The best storage stabil-
ity in corn tortillas was obtained with a combination of sodium
carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) (0.5%), gluten (2.0%), and sorbi-
tol (3.0%).
To reduce the level of fat in wheat flour tortilla, Christian et
al. (1993) utilized 13 fat replacers to substitute more than 8% of
fat content in the formula. Five fat replacers-potato maltodex-
trins, pea starch, pregelatinized rice flour, modified rice solid,
and tapioca maltodextrins-resulted in acceptable products. Al-
though fat replacers improved some processing and quality as-
pects of tortillas, those containing 10% lipid had a superior tex-
ture, and none of the fat replacers was able to enhance the
organoleptic and rollability of the final product.
The effect of flour protein content and the addition of various
additives on tortilla quality and its shelf life stability (Friend et
al., 1995) have indicated that tortilla prepared with flour of 11.8%
protein resulted in a product with a better rolling ability than
that made with 10.7% protein. The effect of antimicrobial agents
(potassium sorbate and calcium propionate) increased as the pH
of tortillas decreased. Lower pH (5.5) resulted in drier and less
elastic and pliable dough than a higher value (5.8). Microbial
growth was inhibited for more than 16 days with potassium sor-
Table 6.2 Minor Ingredients Used in Flour Tortillas
Method of
Tortilla
Ingredient Use Level Effects Production
Emulsifiers
• Sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate 0.1-0.4% • Dough conditioning • Hot press
(SSL)
• Improves dough machinability • Hand stretch
.... • Improves texture • Die-cut
CJ1 Up to 1 %
• Monoglyceride • Reduces shortening level
*'" • Improves tearing quality
• Diglyceride Up to 1% • Helps in eliminating sticking after
packaging
Gums
• Guar gum • Improves dough machinability • Hot press
• Decreases dough and product stick- • Hand stretch
iness • Die-cut
• Carboxymethyl cellulose 0.25-0.5% • Delays staling
• Improves rolling and folding prop-
erties
• Xanthan gum • Binds large amount of water
• Gum arabic • Improves freeze-thawing prop-
erties
• Decreases moisture loss
Preservatives and Acidulants
• Sodium and calcium propionate 0.3%" • Mold inhibitor • Hot press
• Catalyst for some preservatives • Hand stretch
• Potassium sorbates 0.4%" • pH adjustment • Die-cut
• Sorbic acid 0.2%
• Fumeric acid 0.1-0.2%
• Phosphoric acid To lower pH to 5.5
• Citric acid 80 gl100 kg flour
• Mono-calcium phosphate 0.15-0.4%
Reducing agents
• L-Cysteine Depends on flour quality • Improves dough machinability • Hot press
• Sodium bisulfites • Improves extensibility • Hand stretch
• Sodium metabisulfites • Decreases elasticity • Die-cut
...... Oxiding agents
(J1
(J1 • Ascorbic acid Depends on flour quality • Improves mixing tolerance • Die-cut
• Potassium bromate • Improves dough machinability
From Serna-Saldivar et aI., 1988.
"Optimum pH 5.5.
Qarooin, 1993.
bate at pH 6.0 and with calcium propionate at pH 5.5. To decrease

the pH, fumaric, citric, or malic acid was used. It was reported
that a quality product with prolonged shelf life was obtained by
the addition of SSL (0.25%), monoglyceride (0.05%), potassium
sorbate (0.3%), and fumaric acid (0.16%) to the basic ingredients
of flour tortilla.
References
Anonymous (1986). The essentials about gearing up for pizza: crust style,
processing and formula needs. Milling and Baking News. April: 15-20.
Anonymous (1979). The market study that showed the need for a new
crust. Quick Frozen Food, 40-43.
Bello, A. B., Senna-Saldivar, S. 0., Waniska, R. D., and Rooney, L. W.
1991. Methods to prepare and evaluate wheat tortillas. Cereal Foods
World 36:315-322.
Christina, C. D., Wansika, R. D., and Rooney, L. W. (1993). Effect of
carbohydrate-based fat replacers in wheat tortilla. In: Annual Meeting
of the American AsSOCiation of Cereal Chemists. Miami beach, FL.
Dalby, G. 1963. The baking industry in Egypt. Baker's Dig. 37:74-77.
Faridi, H. A. and Rubenthaler, G. L. 1983. Experimental baking tech-
niques for evaluating Pacific Northwest wheats in North Mrican breads.
Cereal Chem.60:74-79.
Faridi, H. A., and Rubenthaler, G. L. 1984. Effect of flour extraction,
baking water absorption, baking temperature, and shortening level on
physical quality and shelf life of pita (pocket) bread. Cereal Foods
World 29:566-567.
Faridi, H. A., Finney, P. L., and Rubenthaler, G. L. 1981. Microbaking
evaluation of some U. S. wheat classes for suitability in Iranian breads.
Farvili, N. (1993). Effect of emulSifiers upon Middle Easter breads. M.Sc.
thesis. Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS.
Farvili, N., Walker, C. E., and Qarooni, J. (1995). Effect of emulsifiers
on pita bread quality. J. Cereal Sci. 21:301-308.
Friend, C. P., Ross, R. C., Waniska, R. D., and Rooney, L. W. (1995). Effect
of additives in wheat flour tortillas. Cereal Foods World. 40:494-497.
Haridas Rao, P., Leelavathi, K., and Shurpalekar, S. R. 1986. Test baking
of Chapati-development of a method. Cereal Chern. 63:297-303.
Quality 157
Hanslas, V. K. 1986. Chapati and bread making properties of wheat. In:

D. K. Salunkhe, S. S. Kadam, and A Austin (Ed). Quality of Wheat and
Wheat Products. Metropolitan Book Co., New Delhi, India, pp. 233-236.
Jackson, D. S., Rooney, L. W., Kunze, O. R, and Waniska, R D. 1988.
Alkaline processing properties of stress-cracked and broken corn (Zea
mays L.). Cereal Chern. 65:133-137.
Larsen, D. M., Setser, C. S., and Fabion, J. M. 1993. Effect of flour and
dough retardation time on the sensory characteristics of pizza crust.
Lehmann, T. A 1986. Pizza crust. American Societt of Bakery Engi-
neers, 167-177.
Lehmann, T. A, and Dubois, D. K. 1980. Pizza crust: formulation and
processing. Cereal Foods World. 25:589-592.
Maleki, M., Vetter,J. L., and Hoover, W. J. 1981. The effect of emulsifiers,
sugar, shortening, and soya flour on the staling of Barbari flat bread. J.
Sci. Food Agric. 32:1209-1211.
Mousa, E. I., Ibrahim, R H. Shuey, W. C., and Maneval, R D. 1979.
Influence of wheat classes, flour extraction, and baking methods on
Egyptian Balady bread. Cereal Chern. 56:563-566.
Qarooni, J. 1988a. Factors governing the quality of Middle Eastern flat
Qarooni, J. 1988b. Wheat characters for optimum flat bread quality.
RACI Cereal Chemistry Conference. Sydney, Australia.
Qarooni, J. 1989. Handbook of Arabic bread production. Kuwait Flour
Mills and Bakeries Co., Kuwait.
Qarooni, J. 1993. Wheat flour tortilla. Technical Bulletin. American Insti-
tute of Baking, May, Manhattan, KS.
Qarooni, J., Orth, R A, and Wootton, M. 1987. A test baking technique
Qarooni, J., Wootton, M., and McMaster, G. 1989. Factors affecting the
quality of Arabic bread-additional ingredients. J. Sci. Food Agric.
48:235-244.
Qarooni, J., Moss, H. J., Orth, R A, and Wootton, M. 1988. The effect
of flour properties on the quality of Arabic bread. J. Cereal Sci. 7:95-lO7.
Qarooni, J., Ponte, J. G. Jr., and Posner, E. S. 1992a. Test baking proce-
dure for evaluating flour tortilla quality. Assoc. Operat. Mill. Bull.
Dec:6136-6138.
Qarooni, J., Ponte, J. G. Jr., and Posner, E. S. 1992b. Tortilla production
with hard and soft white winter wheat flour. Assoc. Operat. Mill. Bull.
Oct:6112-6115.
Qarooni, J., Posner, E. S., and Ponte, Jr. J. G. 1993a. Production of Pita
bread with hard white and other u.s. wheats. Lebens. Wiss. Technol.
(LWf). 26:93-99.
Qarooni, J., Posner, E. S., and Ponte, Jr. J. G. 1993b. Production of
Tanoor bread with hard white and other U.S. wheats. Lebens. Wiss.
Technol. (LWf) 26: 100-106.
Quail, K. J. 1990. Factors affecting Arabic bread quality. Ph.D. Disserta-
tion, University of New South Wales. Australia, pp.22-86.
Quail, K. J., MacMaster, G. J., and Wootton, M. 1991. Flour quality tests
for selected wheat cultivars and their relationship to Arabic bread quality.
J. Sci. Food Agric. 54:99-110.
Rashid, J. 1983. Effect of wheat types and extraction rate on quality of
Arabic type leavened flat bread. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Grain
Science and Industry. Kansas State University, pp.25-28.
Rusch, D. 1981. Emulsifiers: use in cereal and bakery foods. Cereal
Foods World. 26: 111-115.
Serna-Saldivar, S. 0., Rooney, L. W., and Waniska, R. D. 1988. Wheat
flour tortilla production. Cereal Foods World 33:855-864.
Shurpalekar, S. R. and Prabhavathi, C. 1976. Brabender Farinograph,
research extensometer, and hilliff chapati press as tools for standardiza-
tion and objective assessment of chapati dough. Cereal Chern. 53:457-
489.
Spooner, T. F. (1989). Pizza systems: a menu full of choices. Baking
Snack Systems. May: 10-15.
Williams, P. C., El-Harramein, F. J., Nelson, W., and Srivastava, J. P.
1988. Evaluation of wheat quality for the baking Syrian -type two-layered
flat breads. J. Cereal Sci. 7: 195-207.
Yau, J. C., Waniska, R. D., and Rooney, L. W. 1994. Effect offood addi-
tives on storage stability of corn tortilla. Cereal Foods World 39:396-402.
APPENDIX I
Formulation and Processing Steps

of Selected Flat Breads a
Arepa: Traditional Processing Method
Ingredients
Corn
Water
Salt
Procedure
A. Moist corn is pounded in a wooden mortar to remove the hull

and part of germ from the endosperm.
B. The resultant product is washed and mixed with water (40:60
ratio), cooked. cooled. and kept overnight.
C. Cooked corn is mixed with water and salt and kneaded to
form a dough (mas a) .
D. A small portion of dough is flattened to the desirable thickness
aFor more information and citations refer to the text in chapters 4 and 5.
and size, and baked on the surface of hot clay or metal plate
for 2 min on each side.
Arabic (Pita) Bread
Ingredients (%, ]lour basis) Part
Flour 100% 63.750

Yeast 0.5-1.0% 0.478
Salt 0.75-1.5% 0.717
Water 50-60%* 35.060
Total 100.0
*based on flour quality
Procedure
A. The ingredients are mixed to a developed dough that is allowed

to ferment for 1 h.
B. The dough is divided into 60 to 120-g pieces, rounded and
allowed to proof for 5 to 10 min.
C. The relaxed dough balls are sheeted to a thin layer (2 to 10
mm) and are allowed to proof for 30 min.
D. Depending on the thickness of the sheeted dough, the baking
temperature might vary from 350 to 650 0 C and baking time
from 18 seconds to a couple of minutes.
Baladi Bread
Ingredients (%, ]lour basis) Part
Flour 100% 51.546

Sour dough 20% 10.309
Salt 0.5% 0.258
Water 72-75% 37.886
Total 100.0
Procedure
A. The ingredients are mixed to a cohesive mass and allowed to

ferment for 40 min.
Appendices 161
B. The dough is divided into 180-g pieces. rounded. covered with

fine bran. and allowed to proof for 15 min.
C. The dough pieces are flattened by hand into round. 1.25 cm
thick portions and proofed for 50 to 60 min.
D. They are baked at 350 0 C for 2 to 3 min.
Barbari
Ingredients (%. flour basis) Part
Flour 100% 49.176

Yeast 10% 0.492
Sour dough (optional) 40% 19.670
Salt 2% 0.984
Soda 0.35% 0.172
Water 60% 29.505
Total 100.0
Past (%. Water basis) Part
Water 100% 93.447

Flour 10% 4.673
Sugar 1% 0.935
Oil 1% 0.935
Total 100.0
Procedure
A. The ingredients are mixed to a well-developed dough.

B. A bulk fermentation of 2 h is allowed to take place.
C. Dough is divided into 300-g pieces. and rounded. and allowed
to rest for 20 min.
D. One or two tablespoons of paste is applied to the surface of
the dough and the dough is sheeted with fingers while a num-
ber (three or four) of groves is formed.
E. The sheeted dough is allowed to proof for 20 minutes and
baked at 220 to 250 0 C for 8 to15 min.
Battaw
Ingredients (%, flour basis) Part
Wheat flour 75% 40.589

Maiz flour 25% 13.529
Fengreek flour 0.75-1.8% 0.690
Salt 1% 0.541
Water 65-100% 44.649
Total 100.0
Procedure
A. The ingredients are mixed to develop a cohesieve. well devel-

oped dough.
B. The dough is divided into deSirable portions and placed on a
board coated with bran.
C. Each piece of dough is sheeted to a thin layer and baked at
300 0 C for 40 to 60 sec.
Candy Bread
Flour 100% 51.413

Yeast 2% 1.028
Baking powder 1% 0.511
Shortening 30% 15.345
Chopped dates 15-20% 8.951
Fresh milk or water 40-50% 23.018
Total 100.0
Procedure
A. The ingredients are mixed to form a well-developed dough.

B. The dough is allowed to ferment for 2-3 h and is divided into
300-g pieces and rounded before a short resting time.
C. The dough is sheeted to a desirable thickness. brushed with
whipped eggs. and sprinkled with flavoring seeds.
Appendices 163
D. It is either baked immediately in a tanoor oven or is allowed to

fennent (proof) for 20 to 40 min prior to baking in a deck oven.
Chapati
Flour 100% 62.500

Salt (optional) (optional)
Oil (optional) (optional)
Water 55-65% 37.500
Total 100.0
Procedure
A. The ingredients are mixed to develop a firm dough.

B. After a short resting time, the dough is divided into small
portions, rounded, and allowed to rest for a short time.
C. Dough balls are flattened by hand to 2 to 3 mm thickness
and about 15 cm diameter and baked immediately on both
sides on a hot plate.
Dosai
Ingredients
Black gram
White polished rice
Salt
Water
Procedure
A. Black gram and white rice are soaked separately in water for
5 to 10 h, drained. and grounded to fine particles.
B. Rice flour and black gram (3-4: 1 ratio), salt. and water are
mixed to fonn a thick batter which is allowed to fennent ove-
night at 30 to 32° C.
C. The consistency of the batter is adjusted by addition of water.
D. A portion of the batter is poured on a hot plate and cooked

for a couple of minutes.
English Muffins
Flour 100% 52.924

Yeast 1.2-6.5% 2.037
Salt 1.2-1.7% 0.767
Sugar 2.0-4.3% 1.667
Shortening 1.0% 0.529
Calcium porpionate 0.5% 0.265
Protease enzyme 1.0% 0.529
Water 76-80% 41.280
Total = 100.0
Procedure
A. The ingredients are mixed to beyond the full development

stage and is divided after a short resting time.
B. The dough pieces are rounded and dusted with corn meal and
proofed for 30 min at 43° C and 96% relative humidity.
C. The dough pieces are deposited into the griddle cups. Both
sides ofthe proofed dough are griddle-baked for a total of 13.5
min at 246° C.
Injera
Ingredients
Tef, sorghum, barley, corn flour or a mixture of these

Sour starter
Water
Procedure
A. The ingredients are thoroughly mixed and allowed to ferment

for 17 to 72 h at room temperature.
Appendices 165
B. A portion of the sediment is mixed with water (1 :3), heated to

the boiling point, and mixed with the remaining portion of
the batter.
C. The batter is allowed to ferment for an extra 1.5 to 2.0 h.
D. A portion of the batter is poured over a concave clay griddle
to form a thin layer, covered with a conicalHd, and cooked
for 2 to 3 min.
Kalachi
Flour 100% 50.505

Yeast 2.0% 1.010
Sugar 5.0% 2.525
Butter 12.0% 6.060
Fresh egg 15.0% 7.575
Milk 64.0% 32.323
Total = 100.0
Procedure
A. The dry ingredients, fresh egg, warm melted butter, and milk
are mixed in sequence to form a developed dough.
B. Mter a bulk fermentation period of 2 to 2.5 h, the dough is
divided (165 g) , rounded and allowed to proof for 5 to 10 min.
C. Dough pieces are sheeted to round shape. A half circle (7.5
cm diameter) cut is created to form a flap.
D. A piece of frozen butter is placed undreneath the flap, which
is folded and sealed.
E. The dough is proofed for 25 to 30 min and baked at 190 to
200 0 C for 20-25 min.
F. Mter baking the flapped portion of kalachi is brushed with
melted butter or egg white and dusted with flour and baked
again for an additional 3 to 5 min.
Khobz el-daar
Flour 100% 60.975

Yeast 1.0% 0.610
Sourdough (optional) (optional)
Salt 1.5% 0.915
Water 58-65%* 37.500
Total = 100.0
Procedure
A. The ingredients are mixed to form a well-developed dough

and a bulk fermentation time of 60 to 90 min is allowed to
take place.
B. The dough is divided into 300-g pieces, rounded, and allowed
to prooffor 10 to 15 min.
C. Proofed dough pieces are dusted with fine semolina and
sheeted to round shapes of 1 to 2 cm thickness.
D. The dough is proofed for 45 min at high relative humidity and
prior to baking a rectangular-shape cut (1 cm deep) is made
on the surface and the dough is baked at 200 to 250 0 C for
15 to 20 min.
Lavash
Flour 100% 65.253

Yeast 1.0% 0.652
Sour dough (optional) (optional)
Salt 2.0% 1.305
Soda 0.25% 0.163
Water 45-55%* 32.626
Total = 100.0
Appendices 167
Procedure
A. The ingredients are mixed to a well-developed dough and is

feremented for 1 to 3 h.
B. The dough is divided into 300-g pieces, rounded, and is al-
lowed to proof for 5 to 10 min.
C. The proofed dough pieces are sheeted to a thin layer, ducked,
and immediately baked at high temperature for a short time,
to produce a pale color bread with evenly distributed small
blisters.
Pancake
Ingredients (%. flour basis) Part
Flour 100% 29.655

Sugar 24.0% 7.117
Salt 2.0% 0.593
Skim milk powder 14.0% 4.151
Egg 55.0% 16.310
Melted butter 27.0% 8.007
Vanilla 1.7% 0.504
Baking powder 3.5% 1.038
Water 110.0% 32.621
Total = 100.0
Procedure
A. Water is added to the mixture of flour. baking powder. and

skim milk. It is mixed thoroughly to develop a uniform batter.
B. Sugar. salt. egg, vanilla and finally butter is blended into
the mixture.
C. The mixture is allowed to rest for 1 to 1.5 h. A small portion
of the batter is poured on a hot griddle and baked to a desir-
able color.
Paratha
Ingredients (%, flour basis)
Flour 100%
Salt 1.5-2.5%
Shortening 5.0-10.0%
Water Variable*
*depending on flour quality
Procedure
A. The ingredients are mixed to form a cohesieve dough. After a

short resting time it is divided into small pieces (75 to 100 g).
B. Each dough piece is stretched several time and twisted to
form a dough ball.
C. After a short rest time (5 min) the dough is sheeted to a 2 to
3 mm thickness and baked on both sides on a griddle.
Pizza crust
Flour 100% 57.077

Yeast (or) 0.5-5.0% 1.570
Chemical leavening 0.5-4.0% 1.284
Salt 1.0-2.0% 0.856
Shortening 3.0-14.0% 4.851
Calcium propionate 0.1-0.3% 0.114
Water 55.0-65.0% 34.246
Total = 100.0
Procedure
A. The ingredients are mixed to beyond the clean-up stage and

after a short rest time divided. rounded. and allowed to proof
for a short time.
B. The proofed dough pieces are transferred into flat pans and
pressed to fill the cavity of the pan.
Appendices 169
C. They are allowed to relax for 4 to 8 min before baking at 232 0

C for 5 to 8 min.
Purl
Flour 100% 58.309

Salt 1.0% 0.583
Oil (optional) 10.0-12.0% 6.414
Water 48.0-71.0%* 34.693
Total = 100.0
Procedure
A. The ingredients are mixed to a well-developed dough and after

a short rest time divided into small pieces, rounded, and al-
lowed to rest.
B. Dough pieces are sheeted to 1.5 to 2.0 mm thickness and
deep fried to a golden color (25 to 45 sec) in oil heated to 170
to 1950 C.
Saiki
Flour 100% 50.838

Yeast 2.0% 1.016
Sugar 5.0% 2.541
Salt 0.7% 0.355
Fresh egg 15.0% 7.625
Butter 12.0% 6.100
Fresh milk 60.0-64.0% 31.520
Total = 100.0
Procedure
A. Yeast is activated by dissolving it in warm water-sugar so-

lution.
B. Yeast solution is mixed with flour. salt. sugar. and warm fresh
milk. whole egg and melted butter are added separately. The
dough is mixed to a well develped dough.
C. The dough is fermented for 2 to 2.5 h and divided into 165-g
pieces. These are allowed to rest for 5 to 10 min.
D. The dough pieces are sheeted to an oval shape and proofed
for 25 min before baking at 190° C.
E. Saiki is removed from the oven. brushed with beaten eggs.
and a lengthwise cut of 1.0 cm deep is made on the crust.
F. Finally. it is re-baked for an additional 25 min or until a golden
crust color is developed.
Sangak
Ingredients (%. }lour basis) Part
Flour 100% 48.543

Sour dough 20.0% 9.708
Salt 1.0% 0.485
Water 85.0% 41.262
Total = 100.0
Procedure
A. The ingredients are mixed to a slack dough and allowed to

ferment for 2 h.
B. A portion of the dough (500 g) is sheeted by hand on a special
convex peddle. docked. and sprinkled with flavoring seeds.
C. The dough is transferred onto the hot pebbles of the oven and
is baked at 350° C for 2 to 4 min.
Naan
Ingredients (%. }lour basis) Part
Flour 100% 61.690

Yeast 1.0% 0.617
Salt 0.7-1.5% 0.678
Yogurt 25% 15.422
Water 35% 21.592
Total = 100.0
Appendices 171
Procedure
A. The ingredients are mixed to form a well-developed dough and

immediately divided into small pieces. rounded. and allowed
to rest for 5 min.
B. Dough pieces are sheeted to a thin. oblong layer and are baked
for 2 min on the inner wall of a clay oven heated at 3150 C.
Tortillas (Corn): Traditional Formulation and

Processing Method
Ingredients
Corn
Water
Lime
Procedure
A. Corn is cooked in lime solution to remove the skin and

precarp.
B. Cooked corn is stone grinded to form a dough (masa).
C. A portion of the masa is flattened to form a thin. round sheet.
This is baked on both sides on a hot plate.
Tortilla (Com): Modern Method
Ingredients
Corn
water
Lime
Procedure
A. Corn (yellow. white. or a mixture of both) is soaked in 1.7 to

3.6 parts of food-grade lime solution.
B. The mixture is heated for 6 to 60 minutes at 83 to 1000 C
with some agitation.
C. Cooked corn is steeped in the lime solutiion for 5 to 24 h.

D. The solution of the cooked corn is drained and the corn is
washed several times with fresh water to remove the lime
solution and to loosen parts of the corn.
E. Treated corn is stone milled to form a cohesive and plastic
dough.
F. Corn dough is kneaded and extruded through a pair of smooth
sheeting rolls to form a continuous sheet.
G. A rotary cutter is used to cut the dough to a uniform shape.
H. Dough pieces are baked in a three tiers oven at 219.5°C for
30 to 34 sec or at 227 to 234°C for 18 to 21 sec.
Tortilla (Wheat Flour): Traditional Method
Ingredients
Flour
Lard
Salt
Water
Procedure
A. The ingredients are mixed to form a cohesive dough.

B. Mter a short rest time, it is divided into small pieces and
rounded.
C. The pieces are allowed to rest for a short time, sheeted by
hand, and are baked on a hot plate.
Tortilla (Wheat Flour): Modern Procedure
Flour 100% 60.882

Shortening 8.0-14.0% 6.697
Salt 2.0% 1.217
Baking powder 1.0-1.5% 0.761
Water 50.0% 30.441
Total = 100.0
Appendices 173
Procedure
A. The ingredients are mixed to form a well-developed dough and

allowed to rest for 5 min. The dough is divided into small
pieces and rounded.
B. Dough pieces are proofed for 5 to 10 min and sheeted to thin
layer. In automated production lines the sheeting is achieved
by a pressing device on a heated conveyor plate).
C. The pieces are baked in a three-tier oven at 191 to 260 0 C for
17 to 40 sec.
APPENDIX"
Conversion of Common Units to

International System of Units (SI)
Common Units SI
Area
1 ft2 (square foot) 0.0929 m 2 = 929.0 cm2

1 in2 (square inch) 6.451 cm2 = 645.2 mm2
Energy
1 kilocalorie (cal) 4.1855 kj
Capacity
1 US gal 3.785 liter = 3.785 dm3

1 British gal 4.546 liter = 4.546 dm3
1 pt (pint) 0.568 liter = 0.568 dm3
1 fl oz 28.4 13 cm3
Length
1ft 0.3048 m = 30.48 cm

lin 2.54 cm = 25.4 mm
Mass
1 ton 1016.05 kg =1.01605 t

1 cwt 50.8023 kg
lIb 0.4535 kg
loz 28.3495 g
Temperature
Degree Celsius oC = 5 (0 F -32) / 9

Degree Fahrenheit oF = 0 C x 9 / 5 + 32
Kelvin (K) K = 5 (0 F + 459.67) / 9
Volume
1 ft3 (cubic foot) = 28.317 dm3 = 0.028316 cm3

1 in3 (cubic inch) = 16.387 cm3
APPENDIX lilA
Suppliers of Leavening Agents in

the United States and Canada
A. Bacterial leavening agents
Products Codes
Bacterial culture A
Dry ferment B
Sour dough culture C
Yeast D
B. Chemical leavening agents
Baking powder E
Baking soda F
Sodium bicarbonate G
Suppliers Products
ABCO Laboratories, Inc. E,F,G

American Yeast Sales D
Byrnes & Kiefer Co. E
Church & Dwight Co., Inc. E,G
Diamalt Backmittl North America B,C

Fleischmann's Yeast, Inc. D,E,G
Gallard-Schlesinger Industries, Inc. F,G
Gist-brocades Food Ingredients D
Hawaian Flour Mills E
Kimson Chemicals, Inc. E, F,G
Lallemand, Inc. A. B, C, D, E
M-Cap Technologies International F,G
Minn-Dak Yeast Co., Inc. D
Ph. Orth Co. E,F
Quest Intermational Flavor & Food Ingredients A,B,C,E
Red Star Yeast & Products D,E
SAF Products D
Van den Bergh Foods Co. G
Vernon Walden, Inc. D
Walson Foods Co., Inc. A.C, G
APPENDIX IIIB
Suppliers of Dough Strengtheners

and Crumb Softeners
(Emulsifiers: Synthetic and
Naturally Occurring Materials) in
Products Code
Diacetyl tartaric acid ester (DATEM) A

Ethoxylated monoglycerides (EOM) B
Lecithein C
Mono- & di-Glycerides D
Polysorbate 60 E
Sodium & calcium stearoyllactylates F
(SSL & CaSL)
Soyflour. Lecithnated G
Succinylated monoglycerides (SMG) H
Sucrose polyesters I
Suppliers Products
ADM Arkady B.C.E.D.F.G

Cain Food Industries. Inc. A. B. D
Diamalt Backmittel North America G
Eastman Chemical Co. D.H
Food Ingredients. Inc. C.D.G
Germantown ManufactUring Co. D
Hawaiian Flour Mills D

ICI Americas Inc. E
Kerry Ingredients C,D
Lallemand, Inc. D,F
Mallet & Co., Inc. C,D,E,F
Penta Manufacturing Co. B,C,E,G
Quality Ingredients Corp. C
J.R. Short Milling Co. B,D,F,H
Takeda U.S.A., Inc. A,D,H
Van den Bergh Foods Co. B,D,E
Watson Foods Co., Inc. A,B,C,D,E,F,G
APPENDIX IIiC
Suppliers of Gums, Thickeners,

and Stabilizers (Emulsifiers:
Naturally Occurring Materials) in
Products Code
Acacia A
Agar B
Algin & Alginates C
Arabic D
Carboxymethyl Cellulose E
(CMC)
Carob F
Carrageenan G
Gelatin H
Ghatti
Guar J
Hydroxyproply cellulose K
Karaya L
Locust bean M
Methyl cellulose N
Microcrystaline cellulose 0
Pectin P
Tragacanth Q
Xanthan R
Suppliers Products
ABCO Laboratories, Inc. A, C, G, J, L, M, 0, R

H. C. Brill Co. Inc. B
Colony Import & Export A, B, C, 0, E, F, G, I,J, L, M, Q, R
Corp.
DeZean, Inc.
Feinkost Ingredient Co. °M,R
Gallard -Schlesinger A,D
Industries, Inc.
Heller Seasonings & G
Ingredients, Inc.
Jodawnco, Inc. E,R
Kelco C,R
David Michael & Co., Inc. G,J,M,R
Penta Manufacturing Co. A,C,D,E,P,Q,R
Quallity Ingredients B,D,O
Corp.
Rhone-Poulenc, Inc. A, B, 0, F, I, J, L, M, Q, R
Sanofi Bio-Industries C, G, H, M, P, R
Canada
Takeda U.S.A., Inc. O,P
Vernon Walden, Inc.
Watson Foods Co., Inc. °
A,D,E,J,K,R
Zumbro/IFP 0, E, G, J, M, R
APPENDIX 1110
Suppliers of Oxidizing Agents in

A. Oxidizing agents
Products Code
Ascorbic acid A
Azodicarbonamide (ADA) B
Calcium bromate C
Calcium iodate D
Calcium peroxide E
Potasium bromate F
Potasium iodate G
Suppliers Products
ABCO Laboratories, Inc, A

Cain Food Industries, Inc. A, B, D, E, F, G, H, I
Elf Atochem North America, Inc. A,B,H
Fleischmann's Yeast, Inc. A, B, C, D, F, G, H, I
Gist -brocades Food Ingredients, Inc. A,B
Hoffmann-La Roche, Inc. A
International Sourcing, Inc. A
MLG Enterprises Ltd. A. B. C. D. H. I

Penta Manufacturing Co. A.D.F.G
Quest International Flavors & Food H
Ingredients
Research Flour Service Products Co. A.B.F
Seltzer Chemicals. Inc. A.D.G
Takeda U.S.A.. Inc. A
Watson Foods Co .. Inc. A.B.C.D.E.F.G.H.I
APPENDIX IIIE
Suppliers of Reducing Agents in

Products Code
L-Cysteine A
Sodium bisulfate B
Other C
Suppliers Products
ABCO Laboratories, Inc. A

Cain Food Industries, Inc. B
Diamalt Backmittel North America A
Elf Autochem North America, Inc. A
Fleischmann's Yeast, Inc. A
International Sourcing, Inc. A
Kimson Chemicals, Inc. B
MLG Enterprises Ltd. B,C
Penta Manufacturing Co. A,B
Seltzer Chemicals, Inc. A
Takeda U.S.A., Inc. A
Watson Foods Co., Inc. A,B,C
APPENDIX IIIF
Suppliers of Enzymes in the

United States and Canada
Products Code
Amylase, bacterial A
Amylase, fungal B
Amylase, malt C
Bromelain D
Bulk powder E
Combinations F
Lipoxidase G
Protease, bacterial H
Protease, fungal I
Tablet J
Suppliers Products
ADM Arkady E, G, I. J
Cain Food Industries, Inc. B, D, E, F, H, I. J
Diamalt Backmittel North America B,C,E,F,G
Elf Atochem North America, Inc. B, E, F, I
Fleischmann's Yeast, Inc. A. B, D, H, I, J
Gist-brocades Food Ingredients, Inc. B, I
Henkel Corp. B, C, E, I
Minnesota Grain Pearling Co. C
Nova Nordisk Bioindustrials, Inc. A, B,H, I
Premier Malt Products, Inc. C
Quest Intermational Flavors & A, B, D, E, F, H, I
Foods Ingredients
Rohm Tech, Inc. A, B, E, F, H, I
J. R. Short Milling Co. E, F, G, I, J
Solvay Enzymes, Inc. A, B, D, E, H, I
Watson Foods Co., Inc. A, B, D, E, F, G, H, I, J
APPENDIX IIiG
Suppliers of Mold Inhibitors in

Products Code
Calcium & sodium propionate A

Natural B
Potassium sorb ate C
Propionic acid D
Sodium benzoate E
Sodium diacetate F
Sorbic acid G
Vinegar H
Other
Suppliers Products
ABCO Laboratories, Inc. C

Cain Food Industries, Inc. I
Diamalt Backmittel North America B
Eastman Chemical Co. C,D,G
Federated Mills, Inc. A, C, D, F, G, I
Gallard-Schlesinger Industries, Inc. A,F
Haarmann & Reimier Corp. C,E
International Sourcing, Inc. C,E,F,G

J & K Ingredients Co. B, I
Lallemand, Inc. A, C, E, F
M -Cap Technologies International F,H
Niacel Corp. A,F
Penta Manufacturing Co. A,C,D,E,G
Quality Ingredients Corp. A, C, 0, G, I
Red Star Yeast & Products A
Sanofi Bio-Industries, Inc. Canada C,G
Tri-K Industries, Inc. C,G
Watson Foods Co., Inc. B,G
APPENDIX IIIH
Suppliers of Acidulants in the

United States and Canada
Products Code
Acetic acid A
CitIic acid B
FumaIic acid C
Gluconic acid D
Lactic acid E
Malic acid F
Monoca1cium phosphate G
TartaIic acid (cream of tartar) H
Suppliers Products
ABCO LaboratoIies, Inc. B,C,E

Cain Food IndustIies, Inc. B
Eastman Chemical Co. A
Flavor Innovations, Inc. A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H
Gallard-Schlesinger IndustIies, Inc. C,E,F,G
Haarmann & Reimier Corp. B,C,F
International Sourcing, Inc. A,B,C,D,E,F,H
Jodawnco, Inc. B
Kimson Chemicals. Inc. B.C.H

Mincing Overseas Spice Co. H
Penta Manufacturing Co. A.B.C.D.E.F.H
Quality Ingredients Corp. A.B.C.
Seafla. Inc. E
Takeda U.S.A.. Inc. B.C.E.F.H
Van den Bergh Foods Co. B.C.D.E
Watson Foods Co .. Inc. A.B.C.E.G
APPENDIX IV
Suppliers of Makeup Equipment

and Ovens for Pita (Arabic), Pizza,
and Tortilla Production Lines in
Products Code
Cooling conveyors A
Die-cut system B
Hand-stretch system C
Hot press system D
Mixers, Batch E
Mixers, Continous F
Ovens G
Proofer H
Stacker I
Pita (Arabic) J
Pizza K
Tortilla L
Suppliers Equipments
ABI Auto-Bake Industries Ltd. A,B,E,J,K,L

Bakery Machinery & A, G, K
Fabrication, Inc.
Campbell Technologies, Inc. K
Casa Herrera. Inc. A.B.C.D.E.G

Dawn Food Products. Inc. K
Diamond Bakery Equipment A.D.G.H
Center. Inc.
Enersyst Development. Ltd. G
Food Equipment K
Manufacturing Corp.
FMC Corp. A
G & F Systems. Inc. A
Gemini Bakery Equipment Co. J.K
J. E. Grote Co .. Inc. J.K
Hamilton Kettles E
Heat and Control Inc. L
IABM Bakery Systems. Inc. J.K.L
Kelley - Perry. Inc. A.G
Koning C.D.G
The Lanly Co. G.K.L
Lawernce Equipment. Inc. L
MacTavish Machine G
Manufacturing Co.
Maddox Metal Works. Inc. L
Moline Machinery Ltd. J.K.L
Nussex Co .. Inc. E.J.K.L
Nu-Vu Food Service Systems K
Peerless Machinery Corp. E
Pizza Automation. Inc. K
Rademker U.S.A.. Inc. B. C. H. I. J. K. L
SASIB Bakery North America J.K
Somerset Industries Inc. C.D
Tecnomaiz. S.A. De Cvy A. B. D. E. F. G. H. I
Union Standard Equipment Co. J.K
Werner & pfleiderer Corp. J.K
Winkler U.S.A. J.K
Wolverine (Massachusetts) Corp. G
APPENDIX V
Suppliers' Address, Phone and

Fax Numbers
ABCO Laboratories, Inc. 2377 Stanwell Dr., Concord, CA 94520.

Tel: (510)685-1212. Fax: (501) 682-7241
ABI Auto-Bake Industries Ltd. 160 Applewood Crescent, Unit 5,
Concord, ON L4K 4H2 Canada. Tel: (905) 660-6410. Fax: (905)
660-6412.
ADMArkady. 100 Paniplus Roadway, Olathe, KS66061. Tel: (913)
782-8800. Fax: (913) 782-1792.
American Yeast Sales. Three A St., Derry, NH 03038. Tel:
(603)432-4006. Fax: (603) 432-5283
Bakery Machinery & Fabrication, Inc. 307 Bakery Ave, Peru, IL
61354. Tel: (815) 224-1306. Fax: (815) 224-1396.
H.C. Brill Co. Inc. 1912 Montreal Rd., Tucker, GA 30084. Tel:
(404) 938-3823. Fax: (404) 939-2934.
Byrnes & Kiefer Co. 131 Kline Ave., Callery, PA 16024. Tel:
(804)359-5786. Fax: (804) 359-5514
Cain Food Industries, Inc. 8401 Sovereigh Row, P. O. Box 35066,
Dallas, TX 75235. Tel: (214) 630-4511. Fax: (214) 630-4510.
Campbell Technologies, Inc. 5965-B5 Peachtree Corners E., Nor-
cross, GA 30071. Tel: (404)368-1601. Fax: (404) 368-1544.
Church & Dwight Co .. Inc. (Speciality products Division -Perfor-

mance Products Division). 469 N. Harrison St.. P. O. Box CN
5297. Princeton. NJ 08543. Tel: (609) 683-5900; (800) 221-0453.
Fax: (609) 497-7176.
Colony Import & Export Corp. 226 Seventh St .. Garden City. NY
11530. Tel: (516) 746-2580. Fax: (516) 294-4575.
Dawn Food Products. Inc. 2021 Micor Dr .. Jakson. MI 49203.
Tel: (517) 789-4400; (800) 248-1144. Fax: (517) 789-4465.
DeZean. Inc. 800 First Stamford Place. Stamford. CT 66902. Tel:
(203) 351-9600. Fax: (203) 592-9247.
Diamalt Backmittl North America. 311 Woodchester Dr.. Missis-
sauga. ON L5L IS2 Canada. Tel: (905) 569-8054. Fax: (905)
828-8372.
Diamond Bakery Equipment. 191 Roundtree Dairy Rd .. Wood-
bridge. ON L4L 8B8 Canada. Tel: (416) 889-0524. Fax: (416)
889-0529.
Eastman Chemical Co .. (Nutrition and Formulation Products). P.
O. Box 431 Kingsport. TN 37662. Tel: (800) 695-4322 ext. 2409.
Fax: (615) 229-1064.
Elf Atochem North America. Inc. (Flour Service Department). 701
Decatur Ave. N.. Suite 209. Golden Valley. MN 55427. Tel: (612)
544-4451. Fax: (612) 544-6549.
Enersysts Development Center. Inc. 2051 Valley View Lane. Dal-
las. TX 75234. Tel: (214) 2479624. Fax: (214) 247-9738.
Federated Mills. Inc. Main St.. P. O. Box 127. Windham. NY
12496. Tel: (518) 734-5400. Fax: (518) 734-5805.
Feinkost Ingredient Co. 103 Billman St.. Lodi. OH 44254. Tel:
(216) 948-3006. Fax: (216) 948-3016.
Flavor Innovations. Inc. 220 St. Nicholas Ave .. South Plainfield.
NJ 07080. Tel: (908) 754-2020. Fax: (201) 753-2557.
Fleischmann's Yeast. Inc. 206 Fabricator Dr .. Fenton. MO 63026.
Tel: (314)349-8800; (800) 247-7473. Fax: (314) 349-8875.
FMC Corp .. (Packaging and Material Handling Division). 57 Coo-
per Ave .. Homer City. PA 15748. Tel: (412) 479-4500. Fax: (412)
479-3400.
Appendices 197
Food Equipment Manufacturing Corp. 22201 Aurora Rd .. Bedford

Heights. OH 44146. Tel: (216) 663-1208. Fax: (216) 663-9337.
Food Ingredients. Inc. 1375 N. Winchester. Olathe.KS 6606l. Tel:
(913) 829-6262. Fax: (913) 780-5574.
Gallard-Schesinger Industries. Inc. 584 MineolaAve .. Carle Place.
NY 11514. Tel: (516) 333-5600. Fax: (516) 333-5628.
Germantown Manufacruring Co. 505 Parkway. P. O. Box 405.
Broomall. PA 19008. Tel: (215) 544-8400; (800) 345-8209. Fax:
(215) 544-4490.
Gemini Bakery Equipments Co. 9990 Gantry Rd .. Philadelphia.
PA 1911l. Tel: (215) 673-3520. Fax: (215) 673-3944.
Gist-brocades Food Ingredients. Inc. 2200 Renaissance Blvd ..
King of Prussia. PA 19406. Tel:(610) 272-4040; (800) 662-GIST.
Fax: (610) 272-5695.
G&F Systems. Inc. 70 Bennington Ave .. Freeport. NY 11520. Tel:
(516) 868-4923. Fax: (516)868-4968.
J.E. Grote Co .. Inc. 1160 Gahnna Parlway. Blacklick. OH 43004.
Tel: (614) 868-8414. Fax: (614) 863-1647.
Haarmann & Riemer Corp. (Food Ingredients Division) P. O. Box
932. Elkhart. IN 46515. Tel: (800) 348-7414. Fax: (219) 262-6747.
Hamilton Kettles (Division of Trinity Industries). 4866 Factory
Dr .. Fairfield. OH 45014. Tel: (513) 829-8800. Fax: (513) 829-
8898.
Hawaoan Flour Mills. (Division of Kerr Pacific Corp.). P. O. Box
855. Honolulu. HI 96808. Tel: (808) 527-3222. Fax: (808) 563-
0947.
Heat and Control, Inc. 225 Shaw Rd .. South San Francisco. CA
94080. Tel: (415) 871-9234; (800) 227-5980. Fax: (415) 875-1857.
Heller Seasonings & Ingredients. Inc. 6363 W. 73rd St .. P. O. Box
128. Bedford Park. IL 60499. Tel: (312) 581-6800. Fax: (708)
594-2342.
Henkel Corp. (Fine Chemicals. Division). 5325 S. Ninth Ave .. La-
Grange. IL 60525. Tel: (708) 579-6200. Fax: (708) 579-6152.
Hoffmann-LaRoche. Inc. 340 Kingsland St .. Nutley. NJ 07110.

Tel: (201) 235-8091. Fax: (201) 235-8023.
IABM Bakery Systems. Inc. 48 Prospect Park S.W .. Brooklyn. NY
11215. Tel: (718) 499-6200. Fax: (718) 499-8040.
ICI Americas Inc. (lCI Speciality Chemicals). New Murphy Rd. and
Concord Pike. Wilmington. DE 19897. Tel:302) 886-3000. Fax:
(302) 886-3525.
International Sourcing. Inc. 121 Pleasant Ave .. Upper Saddle
River. NJ 07458. Tel: (201) 934-8900. Fax: (201) 934-8291.
J&K Ingredients Co. P. O. Box 402. Totowa. NJ 07511. Tel:
(201)942-1498. Fax: (201) 595-1322.
Jodawnco. Inc. P. O. Box 3028. 1121 E. PennsylvaniaAve .. Escon-
dido. CA 92033. Tel: (619) 741-6046. Fax: (619)741-7491.
Kelco (Division of Merck & Co .. Inc.). 8355 Aero Dr.. San Diego.
CA 92123. Tel: (619) 292-4900; (800) 535-2656.
Kelley-Perry. Inc. 7311 Ardmore St .. P. O. Box 20144. Houston.
TX 77225. Tel: (713) 747-2600; (800) 231-1010. Fax: (713)
747-1918.
Kerry Ingredients. 352 E. Grand Ave .. Beloit. WI 53511. Tel: (608)
365-5561.
Kimson Chemicals. Inc. 77 Summer St.. Boston. MA 02210. Tel:
(617) 292-7773. Fax: (617) 292-7766.
Koning America. Inc. 1328-A Cross Bean Dr.. Charlotte. NC
28217. Tel: (704) 357-1765. Fax: (704) 357-1770.
Lallemand. Inc. 1620 Prefontaine. Montreal, PQ HIW 2N8 Can-
ada. Tel: (514) 522-2133. Fax: (514) 522-2884.
The Lanly Co. 26201 Tungoten Rd .. Cleveland. OH 44132. Tel:
(216) 731-1115. Fax: (216) 731-7900.
Lawrence Equipment. Inc. 2034 N. Peck Rd .. South Elmonte. CA
90631. Tel: (818) 442-2894. Fax: (818) 350-5181.
MacTavish Machine Manufacturing Co. (Bakery/Food Equip-
ment Division) 9001 Hermitage Rd .. Richmond. VA 23228. Tel:
(804) 264-6109. Fax: (804) 262-4118.
Appendices 199
Maddox Metal Works. Inc. 4031 Bronze Way. Dallas. TX 75237.

Tel: (214) 333-2311. Fax: (214) 337-8169.
Mallet & Co .. Inc. P. O. Box 474. Arch St. Ext.. Carnegie. PA.
15106. Tel: (412) 276-9000.; (800) 245-2757. Fax: (412) 276-
9002.
M-Cap Technologies International (Subsidiary of DuPont). P. O.
Box 7137. Wilmington DE 19803. Tel: (302) 695-5616. Fax: (302)
695-5681.
MLG Enterprises Ltd. P. O. Box 53568. 1801 Lakeshore Rd. W ..
Mississauga. ON L5J 4S6 Canada. Tel: (905) 569-3330. Fax: (905)
569-2133.
David Michael & Co .. Inc. 10801 Decatur Rd .. Philadelphia. PA
19154. Tel: (215) 632-3100. Fax: (215) 632-3920.
Mincing Overseas Spice Co. 528 Ferry St .. Newark. NJ 07105.
Tel: (201) 465-0066. Fax: (201) 465-6755.
Minn-Dak Yeast Co .. Inc. 18175 Red River Rd. W .. Wahpeton.
ND 58075. Tel: (701) 642-3300. Fax: (701) 642-1908.
Minnesota Grain Pearling Co. P. O. Box 545. Cannon Falls. MN
55009. Tel: (507) 263-3325. Fax: (507) 263-5393.
Moline Machinery Ltd. P. O. Box 16308. Duluth. MN 55816. Tel:
(218) 624-5734. Fax: (218) 628-3853.
Niacel Corp. Niagara Falls Blvd. and 47th St.. Niagara Falls. NY
14304. Tel: (800) 828-1207. Fax: (716) 285-1497.
Nova Nordisk Bioindustrials. Inc. 33 Turner Rd .. Danbury. CT
06813. Tel: (203) 790-2600. Fax(203) 790-2748.
Nussex Co .. Inc. 880 S. Five Point Rd .. West Chester. PA 19382.
Tel: (215) 696-3324; (800) 345-8092. Fax: (215) 430-2995.
Nu-Vu Food Service Systems. 5600 N. 13th St.. Menominee. MI
49858. Tel: (906) 863-4401; (800) 338-9886. Fax: (906) 863-5889.
PH. Orth Co. 7350 S. 10th St.. Oak Greek. WI 53154. Tel:
(414)764-5500; (800) 558-6784. Fax: (414) 764-6739.
Peerless Machinery Corp .. (A peerless Company). 500 Vandemark
Rd .. P. O. Box 769. Sidney. OH 45365. Tel: (513) 492-4158; (800)
999-3327. Fax: (513) 492-3688.
Penta Manufacturing Co. (Industrial Foods Division). 500kner

Parkway, Livingston, NJ 07039. Tel: (201) 740-2300. Fax: (201)
740-1839.
Pizza Automation, Inc. 7800 College Dr., Suite 2N.E., Palos
Heights, IL 60463. Tel: (708) 361-1533. Fax: (708) 361-1606.
Premier Malt Products, Inc. P. O. Box 36359, Grosse Pointe, MI
48236. Tel: (313) 822-2200; (800) 521-1057. Fax: (313) 822-9511.
Quality Ingredients Corp. 500 Rte. 24E., P. O. Box 306, Chester,
NJ 07930. Tel: (800) 843-6314. Fax: (908) 879-2502.
Quest International Flavor & Food Ingredients. 1833 57th St.,
Sarasota, FL 34243. Tel: (813) 355-8561. Fax: (813) 351-6720.
Rademker U.S.A., Inc. 5170A, Hudson Dr., Hudson, OH 44236.
Tel: (216) 650-2345. Fax: (216) 656-2802.
Red Star Yeast & Products (Division of Universal Foods Corp.).
433 E. Michigan St., P. O. Box 737, Milwaukee, WI 53202. Tel:
(414) 271-6755. Fax: (414) 347-4789.
Research Flour Service Products Co. (Division of McShares, Inc.).
P. O. Box 1277, Shawnee Mission, KS 66222. Tel: (913) 236-
9550. Fax: (913) 236-9772.
Rhone-Poulence, Inc. (Food Ingredients Division). Prospect Plains
Rd., Cranbury, NJ 08512. Tel: (609) 395-8300. Fax: (609) 395-
4522.
Rohm Tech, Inc. (Enzyme Division). 195 Cannal St., Malden, MA
02148. Tel: (800) 666-7646 ext. 263. Fax: (617) 322-0358.
SAF Products. 400 S. Fourth St., Suite 310. P. O. Box 15066,
Minneapolis, MN 55415. Tel: (612) 338-0900; (800) 641-4615.
Fax: (612) 338-4669.
Sanofi Bio-Industries Canada. 5611 McAdam Rd., Mississauga,
ON L4Z IN4 Canada. Tel: (905) 890-0102. Fax: (905) 890-2814.
SASIB Bakery North America (Bread/Bun Division) 808 Stewart
Ave., P. O. Box 869034, Plano, TX 75086. Tel: (214) 422-5808.
Fax: (214) 424-5041.
Seafla, Inc. 999 Tech Dr., Milford, OH 45150. Tel: (513) 248-
9876. Fax: (513) 248-8808.
Appendices 201
Seltzer Chemicals. Inc. 593 I Priestly Dr.. Carlsbad. CA 92008.

Tel: (619) 438-0089. Fax: (619) 438-0336.
Short Milling Co .. (Bakery Products Division). 500 W. Madison
St.. Chicago. IL 60661. Tel: (312)559-5457. Fax: (312) 559-5455
Solvay Enzymes. Inc. P. O. Box 4859. Elkhart. IN 46514. Tel:
(219) 523-3700. Fax: (219) 523-3800.
Somerset Industries. Inc .• (Boston Division). One Esquire Rd .•
North Billerica. MA 01862. Tel: (508) 667-3355. Fax: (508) 671-
9466.
Takeda U.S.A.. Inc. Eight Corporate Dr .• Orangeburg. NY 10962.
Tel: (914)365-2080. Fax: (914) 365-2786.
Technomaiz. S.A. DeCvy. Ave. Ruiz Cortines 2002. Ote .. 67110
Cd .. Guadalupe. N.L.• Mexico. Tel: 778650. Fax: 779450.
Tri-K Industries. Inc. 27 Bland St.. P. O. Box Box 312. Emerson.
NJ 07630. Tel: (201) 261-2800; (800) 526-0372. Fax: (201)
261-1432.
Union Standard Equipment Co .. (Division of National Equipment
Corp.). 801 E. 141st St.. Bronx. NY 10454. Tel: (212) 585-0200.
Fax: (212) 993-2650.
Van den Bergh Foods Co .. (Food Ingredient Group). 2200 Cabot
Dr.. Lisle. IL 60532. Tel: (708) 955-5260. Fax: (708) 955-5497.
Vernon Walden. Inc. P. O. Box 121, 268 Green Village Rd .. Green
Village. NJ 07935. Tel: (201) 301-1700. Fax: (201) 301-1760.
Walson Foods Co .• Inc. 301 Hefferman Dr .. West Haven. CT
06516. Tel: (203) 932-3000. Fax: (203) 932-8266.
Welverine (Massachusetts) Corp. 51E. Main St.. Merrimac. MA
01860. Tel: (508) 346-4541. Fax: (508) 346-4213.
Werner & Pfleinderer Corp. (Food Equipment Division) 663 E.
CrescentAve .. Ramsey. NJ 07446. Tel: (201) 327-6300. Fax: (201)
825-6460.
Winkler U.S.A. 300 Forge Way. Unit # 1. Bldg. B. RockawayTown-
ship. NJ 07866. Tel: (201) 625-4566. Fax: (201) 586-2091.
Zumbro/IFP. Rt. 1. Box 81. Hayfield. MN 55940. Tel: (507) 365-
8400. Fax: (507) 365-8288.
Index
Acetic acid, 44 Battow,78

Acetylated monoglyceride, 54, 55 Batter based flat breads, 106-115
Arabic (pita) bread, 70, 121-137 Bazlama,78
dough mixing, 123-126 Beef fat, 50
bulk fermentation, 126-127 Berlin method (sourdough), 45-46
Intermediate proofing, 127 Blintzes, 70, 107
dough sheeting, 128-130 Boboli, 82-83
final proofing, 130-132 Bran, 23-24
baking, 132-136 Bran particle size, 26
cooling and packaging, 136-137 Bread (flat bread), definition, 67-68
commercial vs. laboratory, 150-151 Broad bean, 61
quality, 21, 24, 26, 141-147, Butter, 49
150-152
All hydrogenated shortening, 49-50 Candy bread, 78-80
All purpose vegetable shortening, 50 Calcium stearoyllactylates, 56
Alginates, 58 Carrageenan, 58, 60
Alkaline treatment, 29-31 Cereal milling, 19-34
Araees, 90 Chapati,26, 70, 80-81
Arepa, 70, 72 quality, 143, 147
Ataif, 107 Chickpea, 61
Ciabatta, 70, 80, 89
Bacteria (Schizomycetes), 39-42 Coconut oil, 51
Barban, 75-78 Cold method, 73
quality, 146, 151-152 Compound shortening, 49-50
Baladi bread, 70, 137-138 Com, 5-7
qUality, 141-146 composition, 7-9
sourdough, microflora, 47 types, 7
Barley, 10-11 flour, 29
milling, 32-33, 86 milling, 28-29
Corn tortilla. 74-76 Gomme. 70. 83

quality. 149 Guar gum. 58. 59
Cotton seed oil. 49 Gums. 52
Crepes. 70. 107-108 naturally occurring materials 52.
Crumpets. 108-109 57-60
Gum Arabic. 58-59
Detmold method (sourdough), 46-47
Diacetyl tartaric acid (DATAEM), 54.
Hapankorppja. 96
55
Hillalla. 83
Die-cut. 73
Heterofermentative lactobacillus. 39.
Dosai. 70. 109. 110
40-42. 43-44
sour microflora (idli), 48
Homofermentative lactobacillus. 40.
Durum wheat. 148
42-44
Emulsifiers. 51-60 Hot method. 73
classification. 52 Hydrogenated lard. 50
Hydrogenated meat fat. 50
definition. 52
English muffin. 70. 81-82
Ergot. 32 Idli batter microflora. 48
Ethoxylated mono- and diglyceride. Injera. 70. 109. 111-112
55. 56 batter microflora. 48
Extraction. 20-28
Kisra. 70. 112. 113
Fava bean. 61
batter microflora. 48
Fermentation. 39-49
Karaya gum. 58-59
Flat bread
Khobz el-daar. 84
definition. 67-68
qUality. 145-146
ingredients. 69
Knackenbrod. 96-97
classification. 68. 70
Korsan. 84. 86
single-layered. 72-115
double-layered. 121-138
processing difference. 71 Leavening agent. 37-39
processing steps. 73 chemical. 38
flour quality. 146-151 definition. 38
Flour extraction. 22-28 flat breads. 38
starch damage. 26. 27 microbial. 39-49
rye. 30. 32 Lakoy.93-94
barley. 32-33 Lactic acid. 44
sorghum. 33 Lactic ester of fatty acids. 56
millet. 33 Lactobacillus homofermentative. 40.
rice. 33-34 42.43
Flour quality. 146-150 Lactobacillus heterofermentative. 40.
Flour tortilla 42.43
minor ingredients. 154-155 Lao bing. 86
quality. 149-150. 153 Lard. 49-50
Focaccia. 70. 82-83. 89 Lavash. 70, 86
Frying fat. 49-50 Legumes. 60-62
Frying process. 51 Lecithin, 58-59
Lentil. 61
Germ. 27-28 Liquid oil, 49
Ghati gum. 58 Locust bean. 58, 60
Index 205
Malouge, 70, 86 Quality assessment, 142-146

Margarine, 49-50 Quality of flat breads, 141-158
Masa, 29-31 Quality requirement, 141-146
Mattowa,87 Quality scoring guide, 144
Matzo, 70, 87 Quesadella, 112
Meat bread, 87
Menaiesh, 89 Rice, 13-15
Microbial gum, 58 flour, 15
Millet, 12-13 milling, 32-33
milling, 33 Rice bread, 93-94
Mold,42-43
Rye. 7-8, 10-11
Mono- diglyceride, 54 Rye milling, 30, 32
Moroccan whole wheat bread, 87-88 Rye bread (sourdough), 45-46
khobz el-daar, 184 Rye crisp flat bread, 70, 94-97
quality, 142, 145-146 Rogag, 70, 114,115
Naan, 70, 100-101

Saiki, 97-98
Naturally occurring materials, 52,
Samoli,98
57-60
Sangak,70,98-99
classification, 58
sourdough microflora, 47
Navy bean, 61
Saturated fatty acid, 49
Nixtamal, 74-75
Sauj, 115
Scandinavian flat breads. 70, 94-97
Olive, 49 Seaweed exudates, 58, 60
One-or-two direction sheeting, 73 Shamsy. sunny bread. 99
Sheeting method, 73
Pancake, 70, 71, 106-107 Shelf life of flat breads, 151-156
Paratha, 70, 88, 89 Sodium lactylates, 56
Pearl millet, 12-13 Shortening, 49-51
Pedeh,75 Sodium stearyl fumarate, 55, 57
Percent solid fat index, 49-50 Sorbitan ester, 57
Pikelets, 108-109 Sorbitan monostearate, 55, 57
Pita 26 also see Arabic bread, Sorghum, 11-13
121-136 milling, 33
Pito bean, 61 Sourbatter, idli, 48
Pizza crust. 70, 88-93 Sourbatter. injera. 48
dough, retardation. 148-149 Sourbatter, kisra, 48
pressing method, 90-91 Sourdough. 37-49
sheeting and die-cut method 92-93 Sourdough, Berlin method, 45
quality, 142, 148-149 Sourdough, Detmold method, 46-47
Plant exudates, 59-60 Sourdough, multiple stages, 45
Plastic fat. 49-50 Sourdough flat bread, 44-49
Plastic shortening, 49-50 Sourdough, Moroccan bread, 48
Phospholipids, 58-59 Sourdough production, 44-49
potato flakes. 62 Sourdough rye bread, 43
Potato flour. 62 Sourdough wheat bread, 43
Pouring method, 73 Soybean, 49-50
Propylene glycol mono- and diesters, Starch damage, 25, 26
55,56 Succinylated monoglycerides, 55, 57
Puri,93 Sucrose ester, 55, 57
Sulfur dioxide. 28 Tunisian bread. 142

Surface active materials. 52 quality. 145-146
classification. 53 Two direction sheeting. 73
Unsaturated fatty acids. 49

Tallow. 50
Tagacanth. 58--59 Vegetable oil. 50
Tamarind. 58 Vegetable oil hydrogenated. 50
Tamees.101
Tanoor bread. 70. 99-100 Wheat. 2-5
quality. 145 composition. 3-6
Terabelsi. 10 1 historical background. 19-22
Triglyceride. 49-50 milling. 20-26
Tortilla. com. 70. 74-76 Winterization. 50
quality. 149
Tortilla de Harina. 106 Xanthan gum. 58. 60
Tortilla. wheat flour. 70. 101-106
qUality. 145 Yeast. 42
Tosirukinen. 96-97 Yatka. 70. 106

Flat Bread Technology PDF

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Flat Bread Technology PDF

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

FLAT

CHAPMAN & HALL

I CD p® International Thomson Publishing

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Effect of Wheat Milling Variables on Flour and Flat

Comparison of Flat Bread Quality Prepared in a Laboratory

Flat breads are the most popular breads throughout the

Although flat breads are popular worldwide, a very limited

Cereal Grains in Flat

The exact location of ancient wheat cultivation is not known

Figure 1.1 Barley or wheat cultivation in ancient Egypt.

The physical appearance of wheat kernels varies widely.

Cell filled with Starch

Cellulose Walls of Cells

Pericarp (fruit coat) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

Seed coat (testa, spermoderm, tegmen)

Nucellar epidermis (hyaline layer,

Germ - - - Embryonic axis - - - Primary root, covered

Corn (Zea mays) is a native plant of the Americas. that porba-

Table 1.1 Ranges of Major Components in U.S. Wheat"-

Range of Analytical Results, %

Protein (N X 5.7) 7.0 18.0

• Data assembled from several sources.

Table 1.2 Composition of Major Parts of Wheat Kernel

Endosperm 12.0% 72.25% o to 0.2% 1.2% 0.1

Source: Lockwood, 1962.

10 pairs of chromosomes and grows in MexiCO and Guatemala

POPCORN FLINT DENT FLOUR

Figure 1.4 Types of corn (From USDA, 1979).

composition (Figure 1.4), corn is divided into six groups (Johnson,

Rye is considered a grain of cold climates. It grows well in

~lff~~:i;;,m-- Walls of Cells

somes is grown to a limited extent (Bushuk. 1976; Matz. 1991a).

Source: Earle et aI., 1946.

Barley is one of the oldest grains domesticated by man. A

Total N 1.40 1.28 1.17 0.99

Source: Extracted from McCance et ai., 1945.

original centers of barley cultivation: Ethiopia and North Africa

Cultivated species of sorghum have been classified (Harlan

contains phenolic compounds. Two types of such compounds,

Table 1.5 Composition of Sorghum Grain"

Moisture 8-20 11-14 15.5

Rice (Oryza sativa) originated in parts of southeast Asia. It

Peri carp Mesocarp

species of O. sativa with 12 pairs of chromosomes (2n = 2x = 24)

Bushuk, W. 1976. History, world distribution, and marketing. In: W.

Platt, B. S, 1956, Vitamins in nutrition: orientation and perspective, Br.

Cereal Milling and Flour

Introduction and Historical Backgound

Construction of new tools for the cultivation and utilization

Figure 2.1 Motions used with early milling implements. A, Pounder-rub-

to a highly advanced level, and volumes of published research

Wheat Milling and Flour Extraction

Figure 2.2 (Below) Multiple-grinding system with metates, from Point

and 87% extractions, respectively, are reported (Faridi et al, 1981;

Effect of Wheat Milling Variables on Flour

Table 2.1 Characteristics of Flour for Tanoori (Taftoon)

Protein (% d.b) 11.5 12.0

methods. The similarity of flour quality for the production of ta-

Flour Extraction (%)

Because of the relative absence of bran and germ particles.

Table 2.2 Significance of the Relation Between Flour Extraction

External score 18.1"