(iii) Lithosphere (solid)
Chapter 01. Environment
The word ‘environment’ is derived from the old French word ‘environer’ –
which means to ‘surround, enclose, and encircle’. Environment refers to an
aggregate of conditions or surroundings in which living beings such as
humans, animals, and plants live or survive and non-living things exist.
All living beings including man and their environment are mutually reactive,
affecting each other in a number of ways. It is generally equated with nature
wherein physical components of the planet earth such as earth, air, water, etc.
support and affect life in the biosphere
The environment is defined as the whole physical and biological system
surrounding man and other organisms along with various factors influencing
them. The factors are soil, air, water, light, temperature etc. These are called
Abiotic factors. Besides the abiotic factors, the environment is very much
influenced by biotic factors which include all forms of life like plants, animals,
microorganisms etc.
Man is thus an inseparable part of the environment. Man and Environment
have very close relationship with each other. The social life of man is affected
by environment. This is the reason for various types of social and cultural
activities around the world. The hilly people have different life styles than
people in the plain area. Similarly people around the world differ in their food,
cloth, festivals etc. All these are influenced by the factors around him.
The environment has three important constituents. These are:
(a) Physical
(b) Biological
(c) Social
(a) The Physical Constituent of environment includes soil, water, air, climate,
temperature, light etc. These are also called abiotic constituents of the
environment. This part of the environment mainly determines the type of the
habitat or living conditions of the human population. This physical constituent
of the environment is again divided into three parts.
These are:
(i) Atmosphere (gas)
(ii) Hydrosphere (liquid)
These three parts represent the three important states of matter constituting the
environment. This physical component of environment only consists of non-
living things like air, water and soil. All these nonliving things influence much
to all living organisms including man. Water and temperature are the most
important abiotic components affecting living beings. Larger proportion of
body’s weight is due to water.
All living organisms require water for their survival. Besides water is the main
vital fluid to keep optimum temperature of the body. All life activates work in
a particular range of temperature. When temperature will be in excess of
necessity, living beings will die.
Air is main physical component which provides oxygen for respiration. All
living beings including plants & animals require oxygen for their existence.
Oxygen is taken into the body by respiration process and comes out in from of
carbon dioxide. Plants, on the other hand takes in carbon dioxide for food
preparation during photosynthesis and gives out oxygen to the surrounding.
Soil is the most important for all living beings to create their habitat. It is the
soil in which plant grows and man constructs houses to live in. It is the ground
water present in the soil which provides for drinking and other farming
activities.
(b) The biological constituent of environment is also called biotic component
of environment. This component consists of all living things like plants,
animals and small micro-organisms like bacteria. This component interacts
with the abiotic component of the environment. This interaction of two
components forms various ecosystems like pond ecosystem, marine
ecosystem, desert ecosystem etc.
The self sufficient large ecosystem of the earth is called Biosphere. All
ecosystems consist of three different types of living organisms.
These three types are named as:
(a) Producers
(b) Consumers
(c) Decomposers.
Producers are generally green plants and other photosynthetic bacteria which
produces various organic substances such as carbohydrates, proteins etc. with
the help of water, soil and light energy. Consumers depend for their nutrition
on the organic food produced by the green plants Decomposers bring about the
decomposition of dead plants and animals and return various important
minerals for the running of the biogeochemical cycles.
(c) The social constituent of environment mainly consists of various groups of
population of different living organisms like birds, animals etc. Man is the
most intelligent living organism. Like other living creatures, man builds house,
prepares food and releases waste materials to the environment. Man is a social
animal as told by Greek philosopher, Aristotle. He makes various laws,
policies for the proper functioning of the society.
The three components of the environment give rise to four important zones.
These are Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere and Biosphere. There is
continuous interaction among these four zones. These interactions involve the
transport of various elements, compounds and energy forms. These zones are
explained as follows. [Fig. l (A).l]
Atmosphere:
The earth’s atmosphere, a complex fluid system of gases and suspended
particles, did not have its origin in the beginning of the planet. The atmosphere
as of today has been derived from the Earth itself by chemical and biochemical
reactions. Although the fluid system forms a gaseous envelope around the
Earth, its boundaries are not easily defined. They can be arbitrarily defined as
the Earth’s atmosphere interface and space interface.
The gases like Nitrogen. Oxygen, Argon, Carbon dioxide and water vapour
etc. together make up the total volume of atmosphere. Together with
suspended particulates, viz. dust and soot constitute the gaseous turbidity
particularly in troposphere. However, the composition of atmosphere and so
also the structure is variable in time and space.
The vertical structure of atmosphere is very much related to radiant energy
absorption and this can be described in terms of variable of temperature [Fig.
1(A) 2]. Below 60 km. there are two main zones of absorption at the Earth’s
surface and in the Ozone layer. The absorbed energy is redistributed by
radiation, conduction and convection.
There are, therefore, two temperature maxima: at the Earth’s surface and at an activities. The movement of water from earth surface to atmosphere through
elevation of 50 km. above each of these maxima there is mainly convectional hydrological cycle appears to be a close system.
mixing. Temperature in these mixing layers decreases with height above the Water is the most abundant substance on the Earth’s surface. The oceans cover
heat source. The lower of these two zones is referred to as troposphere and the approximately 71% water of the planet, glaciers and ice caps cover additional
upper is the mesosphere. areas. Water is also found in lakes and streams, in soils and underground
These are separated by a layer of little mixing in which the atmosphere tends reservoirs, in the atmosphere, and in the bodies of all living organism. Thus,
towards a layered structure referred as the stratosphere. Between the water in all its forms- ice, liquid, water and water vapour- is very familiar to
ionosphere and the stratosphere is the tropopause which marks the us. We use water at home, in industry, in agriculture, and for recreation. These
approximate upper limit of mixing in the lower atmosphere. The average applications differ widely in the quantity and quality of the water that they
height of this is usually given as 11 km., but this varies over the earth. require. In one way or another we use all available sources- inland waters,
In tropical latitude its average height is 16 km. and in polar latitude it is only ground water, and even oceanic water.
10 km. There is one further zone of heating, above the mesosphere and more The demand for global water resources increasing day-by-day though
than 90 km. from the Earth’s surface where shortwave ultraviolet radiation is availability pure fresh water has been decreasing severely. Thus there is need
absorbed by many oxygen molecules present at this height. This is referred to to make precious use of pure fresh water and their fruitful storage and
as thermosphere. conservation. A simplified outline of hydrological cycle is given in Fig.
Within this layer, ionization occurs which produces charged ions and free 1(A).3.
electrons. Beyond the thermosphere, at a height of approximately 700 km, lies
the exosphere where the atmosphere has an extremely low density. At this
level there are increasing numbers of ionization particles which are
concentrated into bands referred to as the Van Allen radiation belts.
However, this simple model of vertical structure can be simplified to provide a
model of the atmosphere as two concentric shells the boundaries of which are
defined by the stratopause at approximately 50 km. above the Earth’s surface
and a hypothetical outer limit of the atmosphere, at approximately 80,000 km.
Below the stratopause, in the stratosphere and troposphere, there is 99% of the
total mass of the atmosphere and it is at this level that atmospheric circulatory
systems operate. Beyond the stratopause a layer of nearly 80,000 km. thick
contains only 1 % of total atmospheric mass and experiences ionization by
high-energy, short wavelength solar radiation. The temperature profiles of
atmospheric layer are given in Fig. 1(A).2.
Hydrosphere:
It includes the surface water and its surrounding interface. It is vital for life
molecule to survive. Water possesses a number of physical and chemical
properties that help the molecule to act as best suited medium for life Lithosphere:
It is the outer boundary layer of solid earth and the discontinuity within the
mantle. The outer boundary forms a complex interface with the atmosphere
and hydrosphere and is also the environment in which life has evolved. The
inner boundary is adjacent to rock, which is near its melting point and is
capable of motion relative to the lithosphere above.
Basically lithosphere is nothing but a crustal system composed of various
layers: Core, mantle and outer crust. Various elements constitute such crustal
layer in mixture of different proportions. In general, the earth curst is
composed of three major classes of rocks (as classified on the basis of their
mode of origin):
Igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphosed rocks. There are two
types of crusts – continental crust which is composed of granitic rocks in
silicon aluminium and with a mean density of 2.8; the other oceanic crust
which is basaltic in composition consisting of more basic minerals and has a
mean density of 3.0. Overall, the average density of the earth is 5.5 gm/c.c.
Interaction between the crustal system of the lithosphere, atmosphere and
biosphere takes place where continental crust is exposed above sea-level. At
the land/air interface crustal material becomes exposed to inputs of solar
radiant energy, precipitation and atmospheric gases. These inputs are often
modified by or operate through the effects of the living systems of the
biosphere. Under the influence of these inputs, crustal rocks are broken down
by weathering process and are transferred to fine porus crustal layers called
soil.
An outline of earth layers and composition of crustal materials is given in Fig.
1(A).4.
Biosphere:
The biosphere encompasses all the zones on the Earth in which life is present,
i.e. entire bio-resources of the earth. It develops on earth since 4.5 billion year
through evolutionary process. At the top of the lithosphere, throughout the
hydrosphere and into the lower atmosphere, life of diverse type exists. These
bio-resources and their surrounding constitute the “Biosphere” where mankind
acts as the most evolved creature.
The steps involved in the origin of life on earth is very complex and require
several centuries. Considerable uncertainty surrounds the details of
atmospheric composition, the processes involved and even the sequence of
some events leading to formation of living cells. The conventional view held
that the earliest organism on the plant were heterotrophic prokaryotic bacteria.
Subsequently, autotrophic prokaryotes & eukaryotes start appearing as
stepwise evolutionary changes. The major steps of origin of life in primitive
earth are depicted in Fig. 1(A).5.

Life on Earth requires water, a source of energy (sun light) and various
nutrients found in the soil, water and air. Suitable combinations of these
essentials cannot be found high in the upper atmosphere or deep underground.
These exists only in a narrow layer near the surface of the Earth.
This biosphere layer extends over most of the surface of the Earth. It includes
the upper layers of the Earth’s crust and the thick layer of soil that supports
plant life. This zone of life also extends about 8 km. up into the atmosphere
(air borne biota) and much as 8 km. down into the depths of the sea. Living
organisms are not distributed uniformly on globe: few organisms live on polar
ice caps and glaciers, whereas many live in tropical rainforests (Fig. 1(A).6).
Within the biosphere, there are several major regions containing specific types
of ecosystems. These major regions are called biomes. Biomes are then
recognized by the types of dominant ecosystem- tropical rainforests, temperate
forests, prairies, deserts, and arctic tundra. The ecosystems again are
composed of population which is composed of individuals. The global
estimate of species of both prokaryotes and eukaryotic life forms are given in
Tables 1(A).1 and 1(A).2 These figures imply the fact that how diverse is our
biological world on earth is?
Chapter 02 Environmental science/ studies
What is Environmental Studies?
Environmental studies refer to an extensive and systematic study of
nature/environment and of its physical, biological, social, and cultural factors,
and the nature and characteristics of relationship between man and
environment. How far man influences nature and to what extent nature
delivers its bounties constitute another objective of environmental studies.
It is an interdisciplinary study as subjects like ecology, biochemistry,
toxicology, geography, geology, meteorology, sociology, etc. are dealt with
under environmental studies

Meaning Of Environmental Studies:

Environmental studies are the scientific study of the environmental system and
the status of its inherent or induced changes on organisms. It includes not only
the study of physical and biological characters of the environment but also the
social and cultural factors and the impact of man on environment.

Objectives and Guiding Principles of Environmental Studies:

According to UNESCO (1971), the objectives of environmental studies are:
(a) Creating the awareness about environmental problems among people.
(b) Imparting basic knowledge about the environment and its allied problems.
(c) Developing an attitude of concern for the environment.
(d) Motivating public to participate in environment protection and
environment improvement.
(e) Acquiring skills to help the concerned individuals in identifying and
solving environmental problems.
(f) Striving to attain harmony with Nature.

According to UNESCO, the guiding principles of environmental education

should be as follows:
(a) Environmental education should be compulsory, right from the primary up
to the post graduate stage.
(b) Environmental education should have an interdisciplinary approach by
including physical, chemical, biological as well as socio-cultural aspects of the
environment. It should build a bridge between biology and technology.
(c) Environmental education should take into account the historical
perspective, the current and the potential historical issues.
(d) Environmental education should emphasise the importance of sustainable
development i.e., economic development without degrading the environment.
(e) Environmental education should emphasise the necessity of seeking
international cooperation in environmental planning.
(f) Environmental education should lay more stress on practical activities and
first hand experiences.
Scope and Importance of Environmental Studies:
The disciplines included in environmental education are environmental
sciences, environmental engineering and environmental management.
(a) Environmental Science:
It deals with the scientific study of environmental system (air, water, soil and
land), the inherent or induced changes on organisms and the environmental
damages incurred as a result of human interaction with the environment.
(b) Environmental Engineering:
It deals with the study of technical processes involved in the protection of
environment from the potentially deleterious effects of human activity and
improving the environmental quality for the health and well beings of humans.
(c) Environmental Management:
It promotes due regard for physical, social and economic environment of the
enterprise or projects. It encourages planned investment at the start of the
production chain rather than forced investment in cleaning up at the end.
It generally covers the areas as environment and enterprise objectives, scope,
and structure of the environment, interaction of nature, society and the
enterprise, environment impact assessment, economics of pollution,
prevention, environmental management standards etc.
The importance’s of environmental studies are as follows:
1. To clarify modern environmental concept like how to conserve biodiversity.
2. To know the more sustainable way of living.
3. To use natural resources more efficiently.
4. To know the behaviour of organism under natural conditions.
5. To know the interrelationship between organisms in populations and
communities.
6. To aware and educate people regarding environmental issues and problems
at local, national and international levels.
Need of Public Awareness about Environment:
In today’s world because of industrialization and increasing population, the
natural resources has been rapidly utilised and our environment is being
increasingly degraded by human activities, so we need to protect the
environment.
It is not only the duty of government but also the people to take active role for
protecting the environment, so protecting our environment is economically
more viable than cleaning it up once, it is damaged.
The role of mass media such as newspapers, radio, television, etc is also very
important to make people aware regarding environment. There are various
institutions, which are playing positive role towards environment to make
people aware regarding environment like BSI (Botanical Survey of India,
1890), ZSI (Zoological Survey of India, 1916), WII (Wild Life Institute of
India, 1982) etc.
 Chapter 03 Ecosystem
Concept of an Ecosystem:
Living organisms cannot live isolated from their non-living environment
be-cause the latter provides materials and energy for the survival of the former
i.e. there is interaction between a biotic community and its
environment to produce a stable system; a natural self-sufficient unit
which is known as an ecosystem
An ecosystem is, therefore, defined as a natural functional ecological
unit comprising of living organisms (biotic community) and their non-
living (abiotic or physio chemical) environment that interact to form a
stable self-supporting system. A pond, lake, desert, grassland, meadow,
forest etc. are common examples of ecosystems
Structure and Function of an Ecosystem:
Each ecosystem has two main components:
(1) Abiotic
(2) Biotic
(1) Abiotic Components:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
The non living factors or the physical environment prevailing in an ecosystem
form the abiotic components. They have a strong influence on the structure,
distribution, behaviour and inter-relationship of organisms.
Abiotic components are mainly of two types:
(a) Climatic Factors:
Which includeFactors:
(b) Edaphic rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity etc.
Which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.?
The functions of important factors in abiotic components are given below:
Soils are much more complex than simple sediments. They contain a mixture
of weathered rock fragments, highly altered soil mineral particles, organic
matter, and living organisms. Soils provide nutrients, water, a home, and a
structural growing medium for organisms. The vegetation found growing on
top of a soil is closely linked to this component of an ecosystem through
nutrient cycling.
The atmosphere provides organisms found within ecosystems with carbon di-
oxide for photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration. The processes of evapora-
tion, transpiration and precipitation cycle water between the atmosphere and
the Earth’s surface.
Solar radiation is used in ecosystems to heat the atmosphere and to evaporate
and transpire water into the atmosphere. Sunlight is also necessary for
photosynthesis. Photosynthesis provides the energy for plant growth and me-
tabolism, and the organic food for other forms of life.
Most living tissue is composed of a very high percentage of water, up to and
even exceeding 90%. The protoplasm of a very few cells can survive if their
water content drops below 10%, and most are killed if it is less than 30-50%.
Water is the medium by which mineral nutrients enter and are trans-located in
plants. It is also necessary for the maintenance of leaf turgidity and is required
for photosynthetic chemical reactions. Plants and animals receive their water
from the Earth’s surface and soil. The original source of this water is precipita-
tion from the atmosphere.
(2) Biotic Components:
The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-organisms (Bacteria
and Fungi) that are present in an ecosystem form the biotic components.
On the basis of their role in the ecosystem the biotic components can be
classified into three main groups:
(A) Producers
(B) Consumers
(C) Decomposers or Reducers.
(A) Producers:
The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap solar
energy and change it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple
inorganic compounds namely water and carbon dioxide. This process is known
as photosynthesis. As the green plants manufacture their own food they are
known as Autotrophs (i.e. auto = self, trophos = feeder)
The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilised partly by the producers
for their own growth and survival and the remaining is stored in the plant parts
for their future use.
(B) Consumers:
The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesise their own food.
Therefore, they depend on the producers for their food. They are known as
heterotrophs (i.e. heteros = other, trophos = feeder)
The consumers are of four types, namely:
(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or Herbivores:
These are the animals which feed on plants or the producers. They are called
herbivores. Examples are rabbit, deer, goat, cattle etc.
(b) Secondary Consumers or Second Order Consumers or Primary
Carnivores:
The animals which feed on the herbivores are called the primary carnivores.
Examples are cats, foxes, snakes etc.
(c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers:
These are the large carnivores which feed on the secondary consumers.
Example are Wolves.
(d) Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order Consumers or Omnivores:
These are the largest carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are
not eaten up by any other animal. Examples are lions and tigers.
(C) Decomposers or Reducers:
Bacteria and fungi belong to this category. They breakdown the dead organic
materials of producers (plants) and consumers (animals) for their food and re-
lease to the environment the simple inorganic and organic substances produced
as by-products of their metabolisms.
These simple substances are reused by the producers resulting in a cyclic ex-
change of materials between the biotic community and the abiotic environment
of the ecosystem. The decomposers are known as Saprotrophs (i.e., sapros =
rotten, trophos = feeder)
Energy flow in ecosystem
Energy has been defined as the capacity to do work. Energy exists in two
forms potential and kinetic.Potential energy is the energy at rest {i.e., stored
energy) capable of performing work. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion
(free energy).It results in work performance at the expense of potential
energy.Conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy involves the
imparting of motion.
The source of energy required by all living organisms is the chemical energy
of their food. The chemical energy is obtained by the conversion of the radiant
energy of sun. The radiant energy is in the form of electromagnetic waves
which are released from the sun during the transmutation of hydrogen to
helium.The chemical energy stored in the food of living organisms is
converted into potential energy by the arrangement of the constituent atoms of
food in a particular manner. In any ecosystem there should be unidirectional
flow of energy.
This energy flow is based on two important Laws of Thermodynamics
which are as follows:
(1) The first law of Thermodynamics: It states that the amount of energy in
the universe is constant. It may change from one form to another, but it can
neither be created nor destroyed. Light energy can be neither created nor
destroyed as it passes through the atmosphere. It may, however, be
transformed into another type of energy, such as chemical energy or heat
energy. These forms of energy cannot be transformed into electromagnetic
radiation.
(2) The second law of Thermodynamics: It states that non-random energy
(mechanical, chemical, radiant energy) cannot be changed without some
degradation into heat energy. The change of energy from one form to another
takes place in such a way that a part of energy assumes waste form (heat
energy). In this way, after transformation the capacity of energy to perform
work is decreased. Thus, energy flows from higher to lower level.
Main source of energy is sun. Approximately 57% of sun energy is absorbed
in the atmosphere and scattered in the space. Some 35% is spent to heat water
and land areas and to evaporate water. Of the approximately 8% of light
energy striking plant surface, 10% to 15% is reflected, 5% is transmitted and
80 to 85% is absorbed; and an average of only 2% (0.5 to 3.5%) of the total
light energy striking on a leaf is used in photosynthesis and rest is transformed
into heat energy.
Energy flow in Ecosystems: Living organisms can use energy in two forms
radiant and fixed energy. Radiant energy is in the form of electromagnetic
waves, such as light. Fixed energy is potential chemical energy bound in
various organic substances which can be broken down in order to release their
energy content. Organisms that can fix radiant energy utilizing inorganic
substances toproduce organic molecules are called autotrophs. Organisms that
cannot obtain energy from abiotic source but depend on energy-rich organic
molecules synthesized by autotrophs are called heterotrophs. Those which
obtain energy from living organisms are called consumers and those which
obtain energy from dead organisms are called decomposers (Fig. 3.7).
When the light energy falls on the green surfaces of plants, a part of it is
transformed into chemical energy which is stored in various organic products
in the plants. When the herbivores consume plants as food and convert
chemical energy accumulated in plant products into kinetic energy,degradation
of energy will occur through its conversion into heat. When herbivores are
consumed by carnivores of the first order (secondary consumers) further
degradation will occur. Similarly, when primary carnivores are consumed by
top carnivores, again energy will bedegraded.
Trophic level:
The producers and consumers in ecosystem can be arranged into several
feeding groups, each known as trophic level (feeding level). In any ecosystem,
producers represent the first trophic level, herbivores present the second
trophic level, primary carnivores represent the third trophic level and top
carnivores represent the last level.
Flow of Energy can be explained by means of two models namely: single
channel energy model and Y-shaped energy model.
1. Single-Channel Energy Models: The principle of food chains and the
working of the two laws of thermodynamics can be better made clear by
means of, energy flow diagrams shown in Figures 1. 3 and 1. 4.
As shown in Figure 1.3 out of the total incoming solar radiation (118,872
gcal/cm2/yr), 118,761 gcal/cm2/yr remain un-utilised, and thus gross
production (net production plus respiration) by autotrophs is 111 gcal/cm2/yr
with an efficiency of energy capture of 0.1 0 per cent. It may also be noted that
21 percent of this energy or 23 gcal/cm2/yr is consumed in metabolic reactions
of autotrophs for their growth, development, maintenance and reproduction. It
may be seen further that 15 gcal/cm2/yr are consumed by herbivores that graze
or feed on Autotrophs-this amounts to 17 per cent of net autotroph production.
Decomposition (3 gcal/cm yr) accounts for about 3.4 per cent of net
production. The remainder of the plant material, 70gcal/cm /yr or 79.5 per cent
of net production, is not utilised at all but becomes part of the accumulating
sediments. It is obvious, then that much more energy is available for herbivore
than is consumed. It may also be noted that various pathways of loss are
equivalent to an account for energy capture of the autotrophs i.e. gross
production. Also, collectively the three upper ‘fates’(decomposition, herbivore
and not utilised) are equivalent to net production, of the total energy
incorporated at the herbivores level, i.e. 15 gcal.cm /yr, 30 percent or 4.5
gcal/cm /yr is used in metabolic reactions. Thus, there is considerably more
energy lost via respiration by herbivores (30 percent) than by autotrophs (21
per cent).

Again there is considerable energy available for the carnivores,namely 10.5
gcal/cm /yr or 70 per cent, which is not entirely utilised; in fact only 3.0
gcal/cm /yr or 28.6 per cent of net production passes to the carnivores. This is
more efficient utilisation of resources than occurs at autotroph- herbivore
transfer level.
At the carnivore level about 60 percent of the carnivores’ energy intake is
consumed in metabolic activity and the remainder becomes part of the not
utilised sediments; only an insignificant amount is subject to decomposition
yearly. This high respiratory loss compares with 30 per cent by herbivores and
21 per cent by autotrophs in this ecosystem. From the energy flow diagram
shown in Figure 1.3, two things become clear. Firstly, there is one-way street
along which energy moves (unidirectional flow of energy). The energy that is
captured by the autotrophs does not revert back to solar input; that which
passes to the herbivores does not pass back to the autotrophs. As it moves
progressively through the various trophic levels it is no longer available to the
previous level. Thus due to one-way flow of energy, the system would
collapse if the primary source, the sun, were cut off. Secondly, there occurs a
progressive decrease in energy level at each trophic level. This is accounted
largely by the energy dissipated as heat in metabolic activities and measured
here as respiration coupled, with un-utilised energy. In Figure above the
“boxes” represent the trophic levels and the ‘pipes’ depict the energy flow in
and out of each level. Energy inflows balance outflows as required by the first
law of thermodynamics, and energy transfer is accompanied by dispersion of
energy into unavailable heat (i.e. respiration) as required by the second law.
Figure 1. 4 presents a very simplified energy flow model of three tropic levels,
from which it becomes evident that the energy flow is greatly reduced at each
successive trophic level from producers to herbivores and then to carnivores.
Thus at each transfer of energy from one level to another, major part of energy
is lost as heat or other form. There is a successive reduction in energy flow
whether we consider it in terms of total flow (i.e. total energy input and total
assimilation) or secondary production and respiration components. Thus, of
the 3,000 Kcal of total light falling upon the green plants, approximately 50
per cent (1500Kcal) is absorbed, of which only 1 per cent (15 Kcal) is
converted at first trophic level.
2. Y-shaped Energy Flow Models:
The Y-shaped model further indicates that the two food chains namely the
grazing food chain and detritus food chain are in fact, under natural conditions,
not completely isolated from one another. The grazing food chain beginning
with green plant base going to herbivores and the detritus food chain
beginning with dead organic matter acted by microbes, then For instance, dead
bodies of small animals that were once part of the grazing food chain become
incorporated in the detritus food chain as do the feces of grazing food animals.
Functionally, the distinction between the two is of time lag between the direct
consumption of living plants and ultimate utilisation of dead organic matter.
The importance of the two food chains may differ in different ecosystems, in
some grazing is more important, in others detritus is major pathway.
The important point in Y-shaped model is that the two food chains are not
isolated from each other. This Y- shaped model is more realistic and practical
working model than the single channel model because,
(i) it confirms to stratified structure of ecosystems,
(ii) it separates the grazing and detritus chains (direct consumption of living
plants and utilization of dead organic matter respectively) in both time and
space, and
(iii) that the micro-consumers (absorptive bacteria, fungi) and the macro-
consumers (phagotrophic animals) differ greatly size-metabolism relations. (E-
P> Odum. 1983).
It must however, be remembered that these models depict the basic pattern of
energy flow in ecosystem. In practice, under natural conditions, the organisms
are interrelated in a way that several food chains become interlocked results
into a complex food web. We have already referred to food webs in grassland
and in pond ecosystems. The complexity of food web depends Thus in nature
there operates multi-channel energy flows, but in these the channels belong to
either of the two basic food chains i.e., will be either a grazing or a detritus
food chain. Interlocking pattern of such several chains in food web of an
ecosystem would lead to a multi-channel flow of energy. Thus in practice,
under field conditions, we might face difficulties in measuring energetic of
ecosystem.
It becomes evident from Figures 1.3 and 1.4 that there is a bsuccessive
reduction in energy flow at successive trophic levels. Thus shorter the food
chain, greater would be the available food energy as with an increase in the
length of food chain there is a corresponding more loss of energy.
Food Chain:
In the ecosystem, green plants alone are able to trap in solar energy and
convert it into chemical energy. The chemical energy is locked up in the
various organic compounds, such as carbohydrates, fats and proteins, present
in the green plants. Since virtually all other living organisms depend upon
green plants for their energy, the efficiency of plants in any given area in
capturing solar energy sets the upper limit to long-term energy flow and
biological activity in the community.
The food manufactured by the green plants is utilized by themselves and also
by herbivores. Animals feed repeatedly.Herbivores fall prey to some
carnivorous animals. In this way one form of life supports the other form.
Thus, food from one trophic level reaches to the other trophic level and in this
way a chain is established. This is known as food chain.
A food chain may be defined as the transfer of energy and nutrients through a
succession of organisms through repeated process of eating and being eaten. In
food chain initial link is a green plant or producer which produces chemical
energy available to consumers. For example, marsh grass is consumed by
grasshopper, the grasshopper is consumed by a bird and that bird is consumed
by hawk.
Thus, a food chain is formed which can be written as follows:
Marsh grass → grasshopper → bird →hawk
Food chain in any ecosystem runs directly in which green plants are eaten by
herbivores, herbivores are eaten by carnivores and carnivores are eaten by top
carnivores. Man forms the terrestrial links of many food chains.
Food chains are of three types:
1. Grazing food chain
2. Parasitic food chain
3. Saprophytic or detritus food chain
1. Grazing food chain: The grazing food chain starts from green plants and
from autotrophs it goes to herbivores (primary consumers) to primary
carnivores (secondary consumers) and then to secondary carnivores (tertiary
consumers) and so on. The gross production of a green plant in an ecosystem
may meet three fates—it may be oxidized in respiration, it may be eaten by
herbivorous animals and after the death and decay of producers it may be
utilized by decomposers and converters and finally released into the
environment. In herbivores the assimilated food can be stored as
carbohydrates, proteins and fats, and transformed into much more complex
organic molecules. The energy for these transformations is supplied through
respiration. As in autotrophs, the energy in herbivores also meets three routes
respiration, decay of organic matter by microbes and consumption by the
carnivores. Likewise, when the secondary carnivores or tertiary consumers eat
primary carnivores, the total energy assimilated by primary carnivores or gross
tertiary production follows the same course and its disposition into respiration,
decay and further consumption by other carnivores is entirely similar to that of
herbivores.
Thus, it is obvious that much of the energy flow in the grazing food chain
can be described in terms of trophic levels as outlined below:
A schematic representation of grazing food chain showing input and losses of
energy has been presented in Fig. 3.8.
2. Parasitic food chain:
It goes from large organisms to smaller ones without outright killing as in the
case of predator.
3. Detritus food chain:
The dead organic remains including metabolic wastes and exudates derived
from grazing food chain are generally termed detritus. The energy contained in
detritus is not lost in ecosystem as a whole, rather it serves as a source of
energy for a group of organisms called detritivores that are separate from the
grazing food chain. The food chain so formed is called detritus food chain
(Fig. 3.9).
In some ecosystems more energy flows through the detritus food chain than
through grazing food chain. In detritus food chain the energy flow remains as a
continuous passage rather than as a stepwise flow between discrete entities.
The organisms in the detritus food chain are many and include algae, fungi,
bacteria, slime moulds, actinomycetes, protozoa, etc. Detritus organisms ingest
pieces of partially decomposed organic matter, digest them partially and after
extracting some of the chemical energy in the food to run their metabolism,
excrete the remainder in the form of simpler organic molecules. The waste
from one organism can be immediately utilized by a second one which repeats
the process. Gradually, the complex organic molecules present in the organic
wastes or dead tissues are broken down to much simpler compounds,
sometimes to carbon dioxide and water and all that are left are humus. In a
normal environment the humus is quite stable and forms an essential part of
the soil. Schematic representation of detritus food chain is given in Fig. 3.9.
Food web:
Many food chains exist in an ecosystem, but as a matter of fact these food
chains are not independent. In ecosystem, one organism does not depend
wholly on another. The resources are shared specially at the beginning of the
chain. The marsh plants are eaten by variety of insects, birds, mammals and
fishes and some of the animals are eaten by several predators. Similarly, in the
food chain grass → mouse → snakes → owls, sometimes mice are not eaten
by snakes but directly by owls. This type of interrelationship interlinks the
individuals of the whole community. In this way, food chains become
interlinked. A complex of interrelated food chains makes up a food web. Food
web maintains the stability of the ecosystem. The greater the number of
alternative pathways the more stable is the community of living things. Fig.
3.10. illustrates a food web in ecosystem
Ecological pyramid:
The trophic structure of an ecosystem can be indicated by means of ecological
pyramid. At each step in the food chain a considerable fraction of the potential
energy is lost as heat. As a result, organisms in each trophic level pass on
lesser energy to the next trophic level than they actually receive. This limits
the number of steps in any food chain to 4 or 5. Longer the food chain the
lesser energy is available for final members. Because of this tapering off of
available energy in the food chain a pyramid is formed that is known as
ecological pyramid. The higher the steps in the ecological pyramid the lower
will be the number of individuals and the larger their size.
The idea of ecological pyramids was advanced by C.E. Elton (1927). There are
different types of ecological pyramids. In each ecological pyramid, producer
level forms the base and successive levels make up the apex.
Three types of pyramidal relations may be found among the organisms at
different levels in the ecosystem.
These are as follows:
1. Pyramid of numbers,
2. Pyramid of biomass (biomass is the weight of living organisms), and
3. Pyramid of energy.
1. Pyramid of numbers:
It depicts the numbers of individuals in producers and in different orders of
consumers in an ecosystem. The base of pyramid is represented by producers
which are the most abundant. In the successive levels of consumers, the
number of organisms goes on decreasing rapidly until there are a few
carnivores.
The pyramid of numbers of an ecosystem indicates that the producers are
ingested in large numbers by smaller numbers of primary consumers. These
primary consumers are eaten by relatively smaller number of secondary
consumers and these secondary consumers, in turn, are consumed by only a
few tertiary consumers (Fig. 3.11, 3.12a).
This type of pyramid is best presented by taking an example of Lake
Ecosystem. In this type of pyramid the base trophic level is occupied by
producer elements—algae, diatoms and other hydrophytes which are most
abundant. At the second trophic level come the herbivores or zooplanktons
which are lesser in number than producers. The third trophic level is occupied
by carnivores which are still smaller in number than the herbivores and the top
is occupied by a few top carnivores. Thus, in the ecological pyramid of
numbers there is a relative reduction in number of organisms and an increasein
the size of body from base to apex of the pyramid. In parasitic food chain
starting from tree, the pyramid of numbers will be inverted (Fig. 3.12).
2. Pyramid of biomass of organisms:The living weights or biomass of the
members of the food chain present at any one time form the pyramid of
biomass of organisms. This indicates, by weight or other means of measuring
materials, the total bulk of organisms or fixed energy present at one time.
Pyramid of biomass indicates the decrease of biomass in each tropic level from
base to apex, e.g., total biomass of producers is more than the total biomass of
the herbivores. Likewise, the total biomass of secondary consumers will be
lesser than that of herbivores and so on (Fig. 3.13, 3.14 a, b). Since some
energy and material are lost in each successive link, the total mass supported at
each level is limited by the rate at which the energy is being stored below. This
usually gives sloping pyramid for most of the communities in terrestrial and
shallow water ecosystems. The pyramid of biomass in a pond ecosystem will
be inverted as shown in Fig. 3.13 b.

3. Pyramid of energy:
This depicts not only the amount of total energy utilized by the organisms at
each trophic level of food chain but more important, the actual role of various
organisms in transfer of energy. At the producer level the total energy will be
much greater than the energy at the successive higher trophic level. Some
producer organisms may have small biomass but the total energy they
assimilate and pass on to consumers may be greater than that of organisms
with much larger biomass. Higher trophic levels are more efficient in energy
utilization but much heat is lost in energy transfer. Energy loss by respiration
also progressively increases from lower to higher trophic states (Fig.3.15)
Ecological succession:
Succession is the process by which new community gets established at an area
which had been uninhabited. The community which gets established at the site
is called climax community. It is the aggregation of changes of species
structure in an ecological community over time. Even though ecologists have
tried to define the processes and events of succession, they are more or less a
continuum of activities which are overlapped in the ecological timescale.
Ecological Succession: the series of changesin an ecosystem when one
communityis replaced by another community as a result of changes in
bioticand abioticfactors
•Can regenerate a damagedcommunity
•Can create a community in a previously uninhabitedarea
•Occurs in all types of ecosystems (forests, ponds, coral reefs, etc)
Primary Succession
Primary Succession: the process of creating and developing an ecosystem in an
area that was previously uninhabited
Examples of uninhabited areas:
Sides of volcanoes
Sites of glacier recession
1.Occurs in areas with no soil
2.Is a very slow process
3.The process of primary succession starts with the arrival of living things
such as lichens and mosses that do not need soil to survive

4.These first species are called pioneer species
5.Pioneer species: the first organisms to live in a previously uninhabited area
Pioneer species move into an unoccupied area
•The pioneer species help create soil by breaking down the rock particles into
smaller and smaller pieces
•As lichen and mosses die, they decompose and add small amounts of
nutrients to the rock particles, creating soil
During this early stage of succession there are not many habitats so not many
organisms are found in the environment
Once there is enough soil and nutrients, small plantssuch as flowers, ferns, and
grasses grow
•These plants help to further break down the rocks and add nutrients to the soil
when they die and decompose
The small plants create habitats for small animals like insects and small
mammals
Over time, as animals die and decompose, their bodies add nutrients to the soil
allowing larger plant species to populate the area
Larger animals follow the larger plants
Eventually, a mature community is formed, this mature community is called a
climax community. A climax community is a community that is able to
maintain itself for long periods of time with few changes in the species that
populate it
Secondary Succession
•Secondary Succession: the process of repairinga damaged ecosystem
•Occurs in areas where the soil was left intact
•Examples of events that damage ecosystems:
•Natural disasters
•Human activities
•Death of organisms
Is typically a much faster process than primary succession because there is
already soil
•Secondary succession is a never ending process
•Any disturbance in an ecosystem results in secondary succession starting over
Stages of succession
The process begins with establishment of a few pioneer species which are
replaced or reduced in abundance by species of increasing complexity. The
diversity increases until the ecosystem as a whole gets stabilized with the
establishment of climax community. The establishment of pioneer species at a
bare site causes changes in soil structure and nutrient content. Changes in
physical environment soon follow the first step. New species of plants replace
the existing plants due to the change of physical factors and soil structure.
These in turn alter the existing conditions paving way for newer species to get
established. These changes are often accompanied by the introduction of
animal species into the area. The cyclic process ends after reaching a stabilized
community called as climax community. The ecosystem is fully balanced at
this stage until they get disturbed by any other external factors. Disturbances
eventually destroy the existing climax community and the process of
succession starts anew.
The process
The processes of ecological succession are
1. Nudation. It is the development of a bare site uninhabited by any organisms.
The process is usually caused by disturbances. These factors can be either
topographic (soil erosion, wind action etc); climatic (hails, storm, glaciations,
fire etc.); or biotic (human activities). The area thus formed can sustain only
autotrophic organisms which can utilize inorganic substrates.The
environmental conditions are set up for the inhabitation of new species. For
example, secretion of acidic substances by lichen species helps in break down
of rocks into soil.
2. Invasion or migration. The process of invasion or migration helps the arrival
of seeds, spores or other reproductive propagules for establishment of species.
Invasive species are non native organisms which can spread widely in a
community. These are usually threatening the normal ecosystem and causative
agents for community disturbance. However, in succession process, they help
to alter the soil texture and function. Rselected species are often the first
colonizers due to their high reproductive rates and better dispersal
mechanisms.
3. Ecesis. This is the initial establishment of plant community. This is
dependent on the soil structure. The stage is also called as 'colonization'. In
this stage, the early colonizing species proliferate abundantly through
germination, growth, and reproduction. Ecesis is due to allogenic mechanisms
alone. This is the stage at which the pioneer species survive the dispersal
mechanisms. The different pioneer species can have different maturation rates
which allow this process to be longer and gradually allowing replacement of
some species by others. The process also makes the soil structure suitable for
those species whose seeds were present in the existing ecosystem but were
unable to germinate for lack of suitable community support.
4. Aggregation is the increase in population of the species which has become
established in the area. The shrubs replace the small herbs in most successions.
This also proves as a source of food for future inhabitants.
5. Competition. Once the few initial species have become established the intra
as well as interspecific competition among the species starts. This stage is
called competition. The competition is usually for resources such as food,
water etc. Competition is found in both plants as well as animal species. The
process leads to sharing of resources (resource partitioning) or competitive
exclusion.
6. Reaction. The environmental conditions get modified by the action of
species occupying the habitat. These changes subsequently trigger the
displacement and replacement of one species by another. The existing
community will be unable to support itself due to the harsh conditions. The
major underlying mechanism is autogenic succession in which the plants
themselves alter the environmental conditions. Early colonizers usually
facilitate the way for establishment of mature species.
7. Stabilization is the process by which the climax community gets established.
A climax community is mature, self sustaining, stable and is the final stage of
succession. The physical and chemical conditions are altered and stabilized to
such levels that it supports the entire community. The climax communities are
best adapted to the regions of succession and the community structure is likely
to continue until another disturbance steps in. This represents a steady state of
ecological equilibrium with specific composition, structure and energy flow.
The process of secondary succession is much faster due to the availability of
enriched soil and other factors. The only limiting factor in such succession is
the disturbance. The process is essentially the same as primary except for the
absence of some of the typical stages. Eventually both will result in the
establishment of stable communities which are made up mostly of K-selected
species.
Biogeochemical cycles:
1.Hydrologic Cycle:
In the hydrologic cycle there occurs an interchange of compounds between the
earth’s surface and the atmosphere via precipitation and evaporation. The biota
of the ecosystem plays an accessory role in the cycle and the presence or
absence of the biota does not affect the movement of the cycle.
However, it is an established fact that a significant amount of water is in-
corporated by the-biota of the ecosystem in protoplasmic synthesis and also
there is a substantial return to the atmosphere by way of transpiration.
Characteristics of hydrological cycle:
a. The general world precipitation pattern is dependent upon the interaction of
several forces. Primary of these forces is the interaction between atmospheric
circulation and the topography. The distribution of the major ecosystems is
dependent upon the interactions. The rate and amount of precipitation being as
critical as those of evaporation, the ratio of these two factors forms the crucial
factor in determining the distribution of particular types of ecosystems.
b. More water evaporates from the ocean than that returns to it via rainfall and
conversely less water evaporates from land and more returns to it via rainfall.
This indicates that a part of the rainfall which supports land ecosystem comes
from the water evaporated from the ocean. It has been estimated that in
Mississippi valley as much as 90% of the rainfall comes from the ocean.
c. There is about 0.25 geogram of water in fresh-water ponds, lakes and rivers.
The run-off is 0.2 geogram per year and the annual rainfall is 1.0 geogram.
Thus the annual recharge rate of ground water is 1 0—0 2 geogram or 0.8
geogram.
d. The circulation pattern of atmosphere determines the pattern of precipitation
distribution. The trade wind may be cited to explain this. The trade winds
move from cooler latitudes towards the equator carrying moisture and
depositing the moisture in the equatorial region. This makes the equatorial
region very wet whereas the coast line to the north and south of the equator
remains relatively dry. The other example that may be cited is that of Rain
shadow. When moist air moves over a mountain range it rises and cools to
supper saturation. Precipitation occurs in such cases on the windward side of
the range. As the moisture depleted air continues to move it comes down,
warms and picks up moisture by evaporation from ground and water surfaces.
This region thus receives less moisture than the wind ward region forming the
rain shadow. Examples of rain shadow region are Rocky mountains and south
side of the Himalayas.
e. In the hydrological cycle the H2O atmospheric compartment is small and
it has a more rapid turnover rate and shorter time of residence in the
atmosphere than CO cycle.
2.Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen is essential to life because it is a key component of proteins and
nucleic acids. Nitrogen occurs in many forms and is continuously cycled
among these forms by a variety of bacteria. Although nitrogen is abundant in
the atmosphere as diatomic nitrogen gas (N2), it is extremely stable, and
conversion to other forms requires a great deal of energy. Historically, the
biologically available forms NO3- and NH3 have often been limited; however,
current anthropogenic processes, such as fertilizer production, have greatly
increased the availability of nitrogen to living organisms. The cycling of
nitrogen among its many forms is a complex process that involves numerous
types of bacteria and environmental conditions.
In general, the nitrogen cycle has five steps:
1. Nitrogen fixation (N2 to NH3/ NH4+ or NO3-)
2. Nitrification (NH3 to NO3-)
3. Assimilation (Incorporation of NH3 and NO3- into biological tissues)
4. Ammonification (organic nitrogen compounds to NH3)
5. Denitrification(NO3- to N2)
Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrogen fixation is the process by which gaseous nitrogen (N2) is converted
to ammonia (NH3 or NH4+) via biological fixation or nitrate (NO3-) through
high-energy physical processes. N2 is extremely stable and a great deal of
energy is required to break the bonds that join the two N atoms. N2 can be
converted directly into NO3- through processes that exert a tremendous
amount of heat, pressure, and energy. Such processes include combustion,
volcanic action, lightning discharges, and industrial means. However, a greater
amount of biologically available nitrogen is naturally generated via the
biological conversion of N2 to NH3/ NH4+. A small group of bacteria and
cyanobacteria are capable using the enzyme nitrogenase to break the bonds
among the molecular nitrogen and combine it with hydrogen.
Nitrogenase only functions in the absence of oxygen. The exclusion of oxygen
is accomplished by many means. Some bacteria live beneath layers of oxygen-
excluding slime on the roots of certain plants. The most important soil
dwelling bacteria, Rhizobium, live in oxygen-free zones in nodules on the
roots of legumes and some other woody plants. Aquatic
filamentous cyanobacteria utilize oxygen-excluding cells called heterocysts.
Nitrification
Nitrification is a two-step process in which NH3/ NH4+ is converted to NO3-.
First, the soil bacteria Nitrosomonasand Nitrococcus convert NH3 to NO2-,
and then another soil bacterium, Nitrobacter, oxidizes NO2- to NO3-. These
bacteria gain energy through these conversions, both of which require oxygen
to occur.
Assimilation
Assimilation is the process by which plants and animals incorporate the NO3-
and ammonia formed through nitrogen fixation and nitrification. Plants take up
these forms of nitrogen through their roots, and incorporate them into plant
proteins and nucleic acids. Animals are then able to utilize nitrogen from the
plant tissues.
If biological assimilation of NH3 is not occurring at a sufficient rate, NH3 may
accumulate and cause detrimental effects to aquatic life.
In soils, NH4+ ions are strongly sorbed by clay particles and organic matter,
which have a net negative surface charge. In alkaline soils, NH4+ will be
converted to NH3 gas, and lost to the atmosphere. Under warm growing
conditions, NH4+ in the soil will be transformed to NO3- via nitrification.
NO3- is very soluble, and can easily be leached from soils under wet
conditions.

Ammmonification .
Assimilation produces large quantities of organic nitrogen, including proteins,
amino acids, and nucleic acids. Ammonification is the conversion of organic
nitrogen into ammonia. The ammonia produced by this process is excreted into
the environment and is then available for either nitrification or assimilation.
Denitrification
Denitrification is the reduction of NO3- to gaseous N2 by anaerobic bacteria.
This process only occurs where there is little to no oxygen, such as deep in the
soil near the water table. Hence, areas such as wetlands provide a valuable
place for reducing excess nitrogen levels via denitrification processes.
Common Forms of Nitrogen
The most common forms of inorganic nitrogen in the environment are
diatomic nitrogen gas (N2), nitrate (NO3-), nitrite (NO2-), ammonia (NH3),
and ammonium (NH4+). The species that predominate depend on the
chemical, physical, and biological environment.

In aquatic environments, the presence of nitrogen as unionized ammonia

(NH3) or ammonium (NH4+) is dependent on the pH and temperature.
3.Carbon cycle
When the pH is below 8.75, NH4+ predominates. Increases in pH signify
increases in the hydroxyl ion (OH-) concentration of the water, meaning the
• Carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants for
above reaction will shift to the left in order to reach equilibrium. Above a pH
photosynthesis.
of 9.75, NH3 predominates (Hem, 1985). NH3 is a more toxic to aquatic life.
 • These plants are then consumed by animals, and carbon gets
bioaccumulated into their bodies.
• These animals and plants eventually die, and upon decomposing,
carbon is released back into the atmosphere.
• Some of the carbon that is not released back into the atmosphere
eventually become fossil fuels.
• These fossil fuels are then used for man-made activities, which pumps
more carbon back into the atmosphere.
Carbon Cycle on Land
Carbon in the atmosphere is present in the form of carbon dioxide. Carbon
enters the atmosphere through natural processes such as respiration and
industrial applications such as burning fossil fuels. The process of
photosynthesis involves the absorption of CO 2 by plants to produce
carbohydrates. The equation is as follows:
CO 2 + H 2 O + energy \(\rightarrow\) CH 2 O +O 2
Carbon compounds are passed along the food chain from the producers to
consumers. The majority of the carbon exists in the body in the form of carbon
dioxide through respiration. The role of decomposers is to eat the dead
organism and return the carbon from their body back into the atmosphere. The
equation for this process is:
CH 2 O +O 2 \(\rightarrow\) CO 2 + H 2 O
eventually broken down by the waves and compacted under enormous
pressure, forming limestone.
When these limestone rocks are exposed to air, they get weathered and the
carbon is released back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
Importance of Carbon Cycle
Even though carbon dioxide is found in small traces in the atmosphere, it plays
a vital role in balancing the energy and traps the long-wave radiations from the
sun. Therefore, it acts like a blanket over the planet. If the carbon cycle is
disturbed it will result in serious consequences such as climatic changes and
global warming.
Carbon is an integral component of every life form on earth. From proteins
and lipids to even our DNA. Furthermore, all known life on earth is based on
carbon. Hence, carbon cycle, along with the nitrogen cycle and oxygen cycle,
plays a vital role in the existence of life on earth.

Oceanic Carbon Cycle

This is essentially a carbon cycle but in the sea. Ecologically, oceans take in
more carbon than it gives out. Hence, it is called a “carbon sink.” Marine
animals convert carbon to calcium carbonate and this forms the raw building
materials require to create hard shells, similar to the ones found in clams and
oysters.
When organisms with calcium carbonate shells die, their body decomposes,
leaving behind their hard shells. These accumulate on the seafloor and are
4.Oxygen cycle :
The atmosphere contains about 21% oxygen. The atmospheric oxygen enters
the living organisms, as a gas required in respiration.
During this process carbon dioxide and water are formed.
C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 —–> 6 CO 2 + 6 H 2 O + energy
ADVERTISEMENTS:
The metabolic water thus formed is added to all other water present in living
organisms and as such it may undergo three possible fates. Some of it may be
excreted and so added to the water content of the environment. Another part
may be used as a building material for the formation of more living matter. A
third possible fate of the water within organism is its consumption as a
fundamental raw material along with the carbon dioxide in photosynthesis.
In this process the oxygen is liberated as shown by the following equation:
6 CO 2 + 6 H 2 O + light energy
Such free oxygen may now again be used in respiration or it may be returned
to the environment as molecular atmospheric oxygen, completing the cycle
(Fig. 5.7). Thus oxygen enters organisms only through respiration and leaves
through photosynthesis. In intervening steps the oxygen is incorporated in
water, and in this form it can interlink with the water cycle or indirectly with
carbon cycle.
The oxygen is the atmosphere is the source of ozone (O 3 ). The Ozone layer
protects organisms by preventing most of the ultraviolet and X-ray from
reaching the earth’s surface. The most recent factor affecting the oxygen cycle
of the biosphere and the oxygen budget of the earth in the man himself. In
addition to inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide, man decreases the
oxygen level and increases the carbon dioxide level by burning fossil fuels.
5.Phosphorus Cycle:
Phosphorus is a necessary and important constituent of protoplasm. It has been
evaluated that the ratio of phosphorus to other elements in organisms is
considerably greater than the ratio of phosphorus in the available and primary
sources. Ecologically phosphorus is very significant as it is the limiting or
regulating element in productivity. The reservoir of phosphorus is the rocks or
other deposits that have been formed in past geological ages. Erosions of these
reservoirs release phosphate to the ecosystems. But in the process much of the
phosphate escapes into the sea, where part of it is deposited in the shallow
sediments and part of it is lost to the deep sediments. sea-birds play an
important role in bringing back phosphorus to the cycle through their ‘guano’
deposits. Man also harvests a lot of marine fish and this aids in the return of
some phosphorus to the cycle.
Plants take inorganic phosphate as orthophosphate ions. This phosphorus is
transferred to consumers. After death the protoplasm of plants and animals is
acted upon by decomposers (phosphatizing bacteria) to make it available again
as dissolved phosphate. The excreta of animals also return some phosphorus to
the cycle. The bones and teeth of animals being very resistant to weathering
account for some loss of phosphorus.
 sulphur is also reduced directly to sulphides in cluding hydrogen sulphide by
bacteria specially the Escherichia and Proteus. Inorganic sulphate (SO ) is the
source ofelemental sulphur in the ecosystems. Under anaerobic condition the
sulphate is reduced to elemental sulphur or to hy drogen sulphide by bacteria
under the genus Desulphovibrio, Escherichia and Aerobactor. The presence of
a large amount of hydrogen sulphide occurring in the anaero bic or deeper
portion of aquatic ecosystem is inimical to animal life. The H S rises to
shallow sediments and is acted upon by other organisms. Colourless sulphur
bacteria such as species of Beggiatoa oxidize hydrogen sulphide to elemental
sulphur. Species of Thiobacillus oxidize elemental sulphur to sulphate and
other species of Thiobacillus oxidize sulphide to sulphur. At the global level
the regulation of sulphur cycle is dependent upon the interaction of
geochemical and meteorological processes (erosion, sedimentation, leaching,
rain absorption), and biological processes (production and decomposition).
The interdependence of air, soil and water also aids in the regulation.

6.Sulphur cycle
Only a few organisms meet their sulphur requirements in such forms as amino
acid and cystein. The source of biologically significant sulphur is inorganic
sulphate. The reservoir of sulphur lies in the soil and sedimentary rocks. The
atmosphere is a minor reservoir formed by fuel combu tion. The centre wheel
of the sulphur cycle rotates round the activity of a group of specialized micro-
organisms which function as a relay team, each carrying out a particular
chemical oxidation or reduction. The sedimentary aspect of the cycle involves
the precipitation of sulphur in the presence of iron in anaerobic condition.
Ferrous sulphide is unsoluble in neutral or alkaline water and as a result the
sulphur has the potential for being bound up under these conditions to the
limits of the amount of iron present. The biologically incorporated sulphur is
mineralized by bacteria and fungi in ordinary decomposition. Some such
 A good fraction of gross primary production is utilized in respiration of green
Productivity: plants. The amount of energy bound in organic matter per unit area and time
The relationship between the amount of energy accumulated and the amount that is left after respiration in plants is net primary production (N.P.P.) or plant
of energy utilized within one trophic level of food chain has an important growth. Only the net primary productivity is available for harvest by man and
bearing on how much energy from one trophic level passes on to the next other animals. Net productivity of energy = gross productivity—energy lost in
trophic level in the food chain. The ratio of output of energy to input of energy respiration.
is referred to as ecological efficiency. Secondary Productivity:
The rates at which the heterotrophic organisms resynthesize the energy
Different kinds of efficiencies can be measured by the following yielding substances is termed as secondary productivity. Secondary
parameters: productivities are the productivities of animals and saprobes in communities.
(i) Ingestion which indicates the quantity of food or energy taken by trophic The amount of energy stored in the tissues of consumers or heterotrophs is
level. This is also called exploitation efficiency. termed as net secondary production and the total plant material ingested by
(ii) Assimilation indicates the amount of food absorbed and fixed into energy herbivores is grass secondary production. Total plant material ingested by
rich organic substances which are stored or combined with other molecules to herbivores minus the materials lost as faeces is equal to Ingested Secondary
build complex molecules such as proteins, fats etc. Production.
(iii) Respiration which indicates the energy lost in metabolism.
Primary Productivity:
The fraction of fixed energy a trophic level passes on to the next trophic level
is called production. Green plants fix solar energy and accumulate it in organic
forms as chemical energy. Since it is the first and basic form of energy storage,
the rate at which the energy accumulates in the green plants or producers is
known as primary productivity.
Primary productivity is the rate at which energy is bound or organic material is
created by photosynthesis per unit area of earth’s surface per unit time. It is
most often expressed as energy in calories / cm / yr or dry organic matter in g /
m / yr (g/m x 8.92 = lb / acre). The amount of organic matter present at a given
time per unit area is called standing crop or biomass and as such productivity,
which is a rate, is quite different from biomass or standing crop. The standing
crop is usually expressed as dry weight in g/m or kg/m or t/ha (metric tons) or
10 g/hectare. Primary productivity is the result of photosynthesis by green
plants including algae of different colours. Bacterial photosynthesis or
chemosynthesis, although of small significance may also contribute to primary
productivity. The total solar energy trapped in the food material by
photosynthesis is referred to as gross primary productivity (G.P.P.).

Chapter 04 Biodiversity
Biodiversity, or Biological Diversity, is the sum of all the different species
of plants, animals, fungi and microbial organisms that live on Earth, including
the various ecosystems in which they live on. Biodiversity also includes the
genetic information that these organisms contain.
Therefore, on a smaller scale, you can use biodiversity to describe the
variation in the genetic makeup of an organism. On a larger scale, you can use
it to describe various types of ecosystems.
Biodiversity plays an integral role in the way ecosystems work and in the
benefits they provide. Some of the benefits of biodiversity include:
• Regulating elements such as climate, water quality, disease, and
pollination
• Provisioning resources such as food, clean water, industrial raw
materials, and genetic resources
• Cultural promotion such as recreational, aesthetics, spiritual
benefits
Biodiversity is normally approached at three levels, which work
interdependently to create the complexity of life on Earth. Shall we look at
the 3 levels of biodiversity?
Biodiversity is wide-ranging and is normally divided into three types or levels:
• Genetic Diversity
• Species Diversity
• Ecological Diversity
Let’s have a detailed look at them:
1. Genetic Diversity
All species on Earth are somewhat related through genetic connections. And
the more closer a species is related to another, the more genetic information
the two species will share. These species will also look more similar.
The closest relations of an organism are members of its own species. Members
of a species share genes. Genes are the bits of biochemical information that
partly determine how an organism looks, behaves, and lives.
Moreover, members of a species share intricate mating behaviors. These
behaviors help them to identify each other as potential partners. Virtually
every species in an environment has a similar and closely related species in a
neighboring environment.
Western and Eastern gray squirrels are great examples in this case. Western
gray squirrels, which inhabit the west side of the Rocky Mountains, have more
similarities than differences with the eastern gray squirrels. However, these
two types of squirrels don’t share a common mating behavior.
Even when placed in the same environment, eastern and western squirrels
don’t mate because they are two different species.
Additionally, every species has other, more distantly related species. These
two species share a more general set of traits. The squirrel family, for example,
encompasses chipmunks, prairie dogs, and gray squirrels.
These animals share various features such as muscle anatomy, number of
teeth, as well as shape and details of the skull. And all of them are rodents,
which are in turn related to a broader group known as mammals.
Mammals share characteristics such as hair, three bones in the middle ear, and
breastfeeding their young. Likewise, all mammals are distantly related to
vertebrates.Vertebrates are animals with backbones.
Every animal has the same cell structure as fungi, plants, and some
microorganisms. Lastly, all organisms have ribonucleic acid (RNA)
molecule. Moreover, most of them have deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
All these imply that species have come from one, common ancestor. However,
they diverge and develop distinctive attributes with time, and hence promote
biodiversity in their own unique way.
2. Species Diversity
A wide variety of species exists in an environment. And that’s what is referred
to as species diversity. Species are the standard measure of biological diversity
in light of the fact that they are the basic units of biological classification.
The number of various species in a given ecosystem or environment is
described as Species Richness. The total number of species in the world is
about 10 million. However, only 1.75 million species have been named
scientifically to date.
Some regions have many species. Tropical North and South America, for
example, have approximately 85,000 flowering plants. Tropical and
Subtropical Asia have at least 50,000 while tropical and subtropical Africa has
about 35,000.
Conversely, all of Europe has about 11,300 vascular plants. Other
environments such as a polluted stream, have incredibly low numbers of
species.
3. Ecological Diversity
Ecological or ecosystem diversity is the variety of ecosystems in an area. It
involves the complex network of various species present in the ecosystems and
the dynamic interactions between them. An ecosystem is made up of
organisms from several different species living together in an environment and
their connections through the flow of nutrients, energy, and matter.
An ecosystem can cover a small area, like a pond, or a large area, like an entire
forest.The primary source of energy in virtually every ecosystem is the sun
whose radiant energy is transformed into chemical energy by the plants.
Animals eat the plants, allowing the energy to flow through the systems. The
animals are, in turn, eaten by other animals. Fungi decompose organisms to
obtain energy and in the process recycle nutrients back into the soil.
Hence, an ecosystem is a collection of living components and non-living
components that are connected by energy flow. It is difficult to measure
ecological diversity because every ecosystem on earth merges into the
surrounding ecosystems.
Significance of biodiversity:
1. Biodiversity indicates variations of life forms (species, ecosystem, biome)
2. Biodiversity indicate the health of ecosystem
3. Biodiversity is in part a functioning of climate
4. Biodiversity provides services like: Air quality and purity, Climate and
seasons, Water purification, Pollination and seed dispersal, Prevention of
erosion
5. Non material benefits of biodiversity are: Spiritual values, Aesthetic values,
Education and knowledge systems. In agriculture biodiversity assist in the
recovery of major cultivar when it is under sever attack of disease or pests
6. Biodiversity also act as a store house of germplasm of commercially
important plants
7. About 80% of humans’ food supply comes from 20 kinds of plants, but
human uses at least 40,000 species, all of them are the part of biodiversity
8 There are more plant products to be discovered from diversity, they are kept
hidden in the depth of species richness
9. Biodiversity also support in drug discovery for modern diseases.
10.Most of the drugs which are now in commercial trade are derived directly
or indirectly from biological resources. About 50% of drugs used in US are
derived from biodiversity
11. According to WHO, 80% of world population depends on medicines from
nature (biodiversity is the integral part of nature)
12. Many industrial materials are deriving from biological sources. These
include building materials, fibbers, dyes, rubber and oil
13. Biodiversity provide security of resources such as water, timber, paper,
fibre and food
14. Biodiversity support leisure activities such bird watching and trucking
15. Biodiversity also inspires musicians, painters and writers
16. Gardening, fishing & specimen collecting are depends on biodiversity
17. Biodiversity supports many ecosystem services that are not readily visible
18 Biodiversity has immense role in the regulation of the chemistry of our
atmosphere and water supply
19 Biodiversity Helps in water purification, recycling nutrients and providing
fertile soil
Threats to the biodiversity:
1. Climate change: Changes in climate throughout our planet's history have, of
course, altered life on Earth in the long run — ecosystems have come and gone
and species routinely go extinct. But rapid, manmade climate change speeds
up the process, without affording ecosystems and species the time to adapt.
For example, rising ocean temperatures and diminishing Arctic sea ice affects
marine biodiversity and can shift vegetation zones, having global implications.
Overall, climate is a major factor in the distribution of species across the
globe; climate change forces them to adjust. But many are not able to cope,
causing them to die out.
2. Deforestation and habitat loss: Deforestation is a direct cause of extinction
and loss of biodiversity. An estimated 18 million acres of forest are lost each
year, due in part to logging and other human practices, destroying the
ecosystems on which many species depend.
Tropical rainforests in particular, such as the Amazon, hold a high percentage
of the world's known species, yet the regions themselves are in decline due to
humans
3. Overexploitation: Overhunting, overfishing and over-harvesting contribute
greatly to the loss of biodiversity, killing off numerous species over the past
several hundred years. Poaching and other forms of hunting for profit increase
the risk of extinction; the extinction of an apex predator — or, a predator at the
top of a food chain — can result in catastrophic consequences for ecosystems.
4. Invasive species: The introduction of non-native species into an ecosystem
can threaten endemic wildlife (either as predators or competing for resources),
affect human health and upset economies.
5. Pollution: From the burning of fossil fuels (releasing dangerous chemicals
into the atmosphere and, in some cases, depleting ozone levels) to dumping 19
billion pounds of plastic into the ocean every year, pollution completely
disrupts the Earth's ecosystems. While it may not necessarily cause extinction,
pollutants do have the potential to influents species' habits. For example, acid
rain, which is typically caused by the burning of fossil fuels, can acidify
smaller bodies of water and soil, negatively affecting the species that live there
by changing breeding and feeding habits.
6.Natural calamities: natural calamities like cyclones, earthquake , floods etc
may destroy biodiversity.
7.Domino effects: It occur when two or more species are highly
interdependent on each other.
Types of Biodiversity Conservation Methods
There are two types of biodiversity conservation methods:
• In-situ conservation
• Ex-situ conservation
1. In situ Conservation
In situ conservation refers to the conservation of species in their natural
ecosystem or natural habitat. It involves protecting and maintaining the natural
environment or ecosystem so that all constituent species are conserved. The
factors that endanger the existence of species in the environment are
eliminated by an appropriate mechanism.
In situ conservation is advantageous in several ways, including the following:
• It is an economical and convenient way of conserving biodiversity
• It provides a way for preserving numerous organisms at the same
time
• In a natural habitat, living organisms have the opportunity to adapt
to different environmental conditions as well as to evolve into a
better life form.
However, in situ conservation is not without a shortcoming. It requires an
extensive area, which can be difficult due to increasingly growing demand for
space. In situ conversation of biodiversity can be done in protected areas such
as:
• National parks
• Sanctuaries
 • Biosphere reserves

2. Ex Situ Conservation

The conservation of biodiversity outside of their natural environments or

ecosystems is known as ex-situ conservation. It involves conservation of wild
and cultivated species as well as genetic resources.

Ex-situ conservation utilizes a wide range of techniques and facilities and it

can be accomplished in the following ways:

• By establishing gene banks, where sperm, ova, and seeds are stored
at controlled temperatures and humidity
• Forming zoo and botanical gardens. These can be beneficial for
research purposes and for promoting public awareness of various
organisms.
• Collecting microbial culture and in vitro plant tissue
• Artificial propagation of plants and captive breeding of animals,
with the possibility of reintroducing them back into the wild.

Ex-situ conservation is an excellent way of averting the stresses on living

organisms as a result of competition for resources such as food, water, and
space.