Engineers Manual CORD PDF

Manual for Engineers on CSEB Green School Buildings in Nepal
Manual on Engineer
CSEB Green Buildings in Nepal
JULY 2012
Hari Darshan Shrestha
Government of Nepal
Ministry of education
Department of Education
Action Aid International Nepal
This manual is developed by

Centre of Resilience Development
(CoRD)
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project is an outcome of the years of effort and dedication of many people from different
walks of life. We would like to extend our deepest gratitude to the Action Aid International
Nepal (AAIN) and Department of Education (DOE) for its continuous support throughout the
project.
We greatly appreciate the participation of Mr. Sonam Wangchuk (Technical advisor), Mrs.
Indra Gurung(Project execution in-charge), Mr. Suresh Thapa (H.S Coordinator) and Mr. Bhim
Phunyal (Country Director) from Action Aid International Nepal (AAN), and Mr. Jhappar Singh
Bishwakarma ( Senior Division Engineer, DOE) for their contribution.
We indebted to Dr. Jishnu Subedi, Mr. Badri Rajbhandari and Ar. Sameer Bajracharya (Centre of
Resilience Development, CoRD) for their technical expertise and contributions in the project.
We would also like to thank the manual preparation team from Centre of Resilience
Development (Cord), Dr. Santosh Shrestha, Raja Ram Thapa, Binod Shrestha, Anjali Manadhar,
Sunil Khanal, Kanchana Nyaichyai and Rupesh Shrestha for their continuous effort.
It would not have been possible to continue the project without the support of the local people.
We express immense gratitude to the following local partners for their participation: Nepal
Muslim Samaj, Banke, Naari Bikash Sangha, Morang, Madan Bhandari Memorial Trust, Morang,
SSDC, Kapilvastu and BASE-Bardiya. Our greatest appreciation goes to all the local people of the
project areas for their interest and active participation in this green approach.
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PREFACE
With a very limited public infrastructure such as schools and health centres in rural areas,
Nepal’s literacy rate is still below 65 percent. The design of the school buildings has been highly
neglected as a result of which, every year these buildings are increasingly facing threats of the
multi hazards, which adversely affect o education of children. The most common disasters that
affect the school buildings are earthquakes, floods, fires, cold waves and heat waves. School
buildings in the Hilly and Himal areas are terribly cold and unusable for many month, schools in
the terai on the other hand are unbearably hot in summer. Hence there is an immense need of
efficient planning, designing and construction of resilient school building in order to mitigate
the adverse effects of natural hazards and to reduce the need for expensive retrofitting
measures in the future. It should also be kept in mind that this approach should necessarily be
cost effective so as to make it applicable in rural areas.
So, the Action Aid Internatonal Nepal (AAIN) and Department of Education, (DOE) with
Technical Assistant of Center of Resilient Development (CoRD) have adopted the CSEB Green
School building with two classrooms on construction of schools in Nepal. This building
technology is based on analytical approach and follows requirements for obtaining earthquake
resistant, hygiene, environmental friendly, climate responsive, cost effective, disaster risk
reduction as well as child safety features in school building design. This approach also focuses
on Community participation and empowerment. Currently the project covers 12 schools in
three districts namely Banke, Morang and Dolakha.
This manual is meant to be useful for both technical and non-technical persons who are familiar
with the building construction. The detail information of the CSEB, its contents, the
manufacturing process, and strength & quality cheking tools will be helpful for its production at
local level. Further, the manual explains the methods of building construction and acquiring
seismic resiliency.
The CSEB technology is not only ecologically and economically sound but also earthquake safe.
As it is labor intensive, this technique would be very useful in generating local employment and
community participation. This approach can be a major step towards a sustainable
development of buildings.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................ ii
PREFACE ................................................................................................................ iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................... iv
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................ vii
CHAPTER - I .............................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................1
1.1 School Buildings in Nepal................................................................................................ 2
1.2 Green School Features: .................................................................................................... 4
1.2.1 Climate Responsive ............................................................................................... 4
1.2.2 Environment Friendly ........................................................................................... 5
1.2.3 Earthquake Safe..................................................................................................... 6
1.2.4 Cost Effective ........................................................................................................ 6
1.2.5 Community Participation, Empowerment, Employment ...................................... 7
1.2.6 Child Friendly ....................................................................................................... 7
1.3 Scope of the Manual ......................................................................................................... 8
1.4 Aim of the Manual ........................................................................................................... 8
1.5 Target Groups ................................................................................................................... 8
1.6 Organization of the Manual.............................................................................................. 8
CHAPTER - II .........................................................................................................10
COMPRESSED STABILIZED EARTHEN BLOCK .............................................10
2.1 Earth Building Construction .......................................................................................... 10
2.2 Why CSEB? ................................................................................................................... 11
2.3 The Raw Material ........................................................................................................... 12
2.3.1 Soil ...................................................................................................................... 12
2.3.2 Soil Stabilizers..................................................................................................... 16
2.3.3 Water ................................................................................................................... 19
2.4 Selection of the Equipment ............................................................................................ 20
2.4.1 Production Cycle ................................................................................................. 21
2.4.2 Production Steps.................................................................................................. 22
2.5 Some limitations of CSEB ............................................................................................. 34
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CHAPTER – III .......................................................................................................35

SUB-STRUCTURES/FOUNDATION ...................................................................35
3.1 Rammed Earth Foundation............................................................................................. 35
3.2 Stone foundation in stabilized soil mortar...................................................................... 37
CHAPTER – IV .......................................................................................................38
SUPER STRUCTURES...........................................................................................38
4.1 Basement ........................................................................................................................ 38
4.2 Verandah ........................................................................................................................ 38
4.3 Walls............................................................................................................................... 39
4.4 Doors and Windows ....................................................................................................... 44
CHAPTER – V.........................................................................................................45
ROOFS .....................................................................................................................45
5.1 Types of roof .................................................................................................................. 45
5.1.1 Ferro cement Channel ......................................................................................... 45
5.1.2 Bamboo-mud roof ............................................................................................... 47
5.1.3 CGI Sheet Truss Roof ......................................................................................... 49
5.2 Roof Thermal Insulation ................................................................................................ 51
CHAPTER - VI ........................................................................................................52
EARTHQUAKE SAFETY FEATURES .................................................................52
5.3 ............................................................................................................................................ 52
6.1 Building Shape ............................................................................................................... 52
6.2 Ductility.......................................................................................................................... 52
6.3 Rigidity Distribution ...................................................................................................... 53
6.4 Simplicity ....................................................................................................................... 53
6.5 Foundation ...................................................................................................................... 53
6.6 Long Walls ..................................................................................................................... 53
6.7 Openings......................................................................................................................... 54
6.8 Structural Integrity (Box Action) ................................................................................... 54
CHAPTER – VII ......................................................................................................56
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................56
BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................57
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ANNEX – One .........................................................................................................58

Estimation ................................................................................................................58
ANNEX – TWO.......................................................................................................59
Drawings & Details ..................................................................................................59
ANNEX – Three ......................................................................................................60
Photographs ..............................................................................................................60
Annexure : Basic Data on CSEB (for 5 % Cement stabilized blocks) .................................... 61
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1 CONVENTIONAL SCHOOL BUILDING...........................................................................................................................2
FIGURE 3 PROTOYPE OF GREEN SCHOOL BUILDING ...................................................................................................................3
FIGURE 2 CLASSROOM DURING DAYTIME .................................................................................................................................3
FIGURE 4 DIRECT GAIN OF SUN LIGHT IN COLD REGIONS ..............................................................................................................5
FIGURE 5 PERCENTAGE PROPORTION IN GOOD SOIL .................................................................................................................13
FIGURE 6 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH W.R.T. PERCENTAGE OF CEMENT CONTENT .............................................................................18
FIGURE 7 TYPICAL SOIL PROFILE ...........................................................................................................................................22
FIGURE 8 SOIL FOR CSEB ................................................................................................................................................... 24
FIGURE 9 VISUAL IDENTIFICATION ........................................................................................................................................24
FIGURE 10 SMELL TEST ......................................................................................................................................................24
FIGURE 11 TOUCH TEST .....................................................................................................................................................25
FIGURE 12 SEDIMENTATION TEST ........................................................................................................................................25
FIGURE 13 ADHESION TEST.................................................................................................................................................25
FIGURE 14 WASHING TEST .................................................................................................................................................26
FIGURE 15 DRY STRENGTH TEST ..........................................................................................................................................26
FIGURE 16 WATER RETENTION TEST .....................................................................................................................................26
FIGURE 17 CONSISTENCY TEST ............................................................................................................................................27
FIGURE 18 COHESION TEST.................................................................................................................................................27
FIGURE 19 AERATE THE SOIL, REMOVE LUMPS STONES AND PEBBLES ..........................................................................................29
FIGURE 20 PROPORTIONING ...............................................................................................................................................30
FIGURE 21 MIXING ...........................................................................................................................................................31
FIGURE 22 MOULDING THE MIX ..........................................................................................................................................31
FIGURE 23 CURING ...........................................................................................................................................................32
FIGURE 24 RAMMED EARTH FOUNDATION.............................................................................................................................35
FIGURE 25 PREPARATION FOR RAMMED EARTH FOUNDATION ..................................................................................................36
FIGURE 26 STONE FOUNDATION ..........................................................................................................................................37
FIGURE 27 PLINTH RING BEAM ............................................................................................................................................38
FIGURE 28 FOUNDATION (UNDER VERANDAH WALL) ...............................................................................................................38
FIGURE 29 WALL SECTION..................................................................................................................................................41
FIGURE 30 FERRO CEMENT CHANNEL ...................................................................................................................................45
FIGURE 31 FERRO CEMENT CHANNEL AS ROOFING MATERIAL .................................................................................................... 46
FIGURE 32 MAKING FC CHANNEL ........................................................................................................................................46
FIGURE 33CURING OF FC CHANNEL .....................................................................................................................................46
FIGURE 34 BINDING FC CHANNELS ......................................................................................................................................46
FIGURE 35 CHICKEN WIRE MESH PLAN .................................................................................................................................47
FIGURE 36 PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF FC CHANNEL ......................................................................................................................47
FIGURE 37 RAFTER LAYOUT PLAN.........................................................................................................................................48
FIGURE 38 ROOF LAYERS DETAILS ........................................................................................................................................48
FIGURE 39 TRUSSED BEAM (FRONT VIEW) .............................................................................................................................49
FIGURE 40 TYPICAL TRUSS DETAIL .......................................................................................................................................49
FIGURE 41 ROOF PLAN WITH BRACING SHOWN ......................................................................................................................49
FIGURE 42 FRONT ELEVATION OF THE SCHOOL BUILDING ..........................................................................................................50
FIGURE 43 ROOF PLAN ......................................................................................................................................................50
FIGURE 44 SECTION OF THE TYPICAL SCHOOL BUILDING ............................................................................................................50
FIGURE 45 LAYERING ON ROOF FOR THERMAL INSULATION .......................................................................................................51
FIGURE 46 ROOF LAYERS IN DETAIL ......................................................................................................................................51
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FIGURE 47 CEILING GRID DETAIL .........................................................................................................................................51

FIGURE 48 HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL TIES FOR EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE .................................................................................52
FIGURE 49 REINFORCEMENT...............................................................................................................................................53
FIGURE 50 DESIGN OF WALLS FOR SEISMIC RESISTANCE ............................................................................................................54
FIGURE 51 CONNECTION BETWEEN WALLS ............................................................................................................................54
FIGURE 52 POSITIONING OF ANGLES AT L AND T JOINTS ...........................................................................................................54
FIGURE 53 SILL BANDS, LINTEL BANDS AND STITCHES ..............................................................................................................55
FIGURE 54 VERTICAL REINFORCEMENTS ................................................................................................................................55
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CHAPTER - I
INTRODUCTION
Nepali people are constantly exposed to two or more types of disasters at any given place and
time (MoHA and DPNet 2009). The most common disasters in Nepal are earthquakes, floods,
landslides, drought, fires, avalanches, glacial lake outburst floods, hailstorms, thunderbolts,
cold waves, heat waves and epidemics. Meantime studies have predicted that temperature
rises will occur in Nepal, as well as changes to the timing and amount of precipitation. In this
growing climate variability, it is likely to exacerbate the threat from the multiplicity of different
hazards and the existing pressures on the services especially energy for heating and cooling
through temperature increases and increasing variability in precipitation and water availability.
Arguably, these hazards are likely to become more significant in future years and so it has
become incumbent upon those responsible for planning, designing and constructing the built
environment today to take account of these threats as a core part of their professional activity.
It is the decisions taken now that will determine the burden that future generations inherit with
regards to their resilience to a range of hazards. Therefore, the efficient planning, designing and
constructing of resilience now will lessen the need for expensive retrofitted measures in the
future.
On the other hand, it is estimated that at least 600 million dwellers in Africa, Asia and Latin
America live in "life to health threatening homes". Increasing populations in the developing
world resulting in increased numbers of poor people coupled with decreasing timber resources
have compelled thinking about cheap and sustainable building materials. It is not only dwellings
that are in short supply in developing countries, but also public infrastructure such as schools
and hospitals. Governments often have limited ability to afford such structures in every village
causing many people deprive of basic needs of education and health. Any kind of locally
available, affordable, natural/sustainable building materials and easy local technology would be
a viable ideal alternative for developing countries as they require minimal processing. Ideally
the production of these building materials will contribute to improving development objectives
of Nepal by generating local employment, rural development and a reduction of imports
A range of natural building materials and methods are available, and in recent years,
researchers are continuously working and experimenting on the green construction techniques
with understanding that green projects increase the energy efficiency with high disaster
resistance. Compressed Stabilized Earth Block (CSEB) is the improved form of one of the oldest,
easy locally available and socially accepted earth materials used in building construction. It
satisfies most or all of the above mentioned requirements very well, especially in developing
countries like Nepal. It offers numerous benefits, including energy efficiency, the use of natural
non-toxic construction materials that are resistant to earthquakes, fire and pests. This
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construction is comparatively low cost and easy construction comparing with modern
conventional building methods.
1.1 School Buildings in Nepal
Nepal’s current literacy rate is below 65 percent. There are limited numbers of public
infrastructures such as school and health centres in the rural areas. Nepal needs to build 10,000
classrooms each year in order to meet the ‘Millennium Development Goal’ of education for all.
On the other hand, every year school buildings are increasingly facing threats of the multi
hazarads, which adversely impact to education of children. But design of school buildings has
been a highly neglected subject in the whole subcontinent whether it is India, Nepal or
Bangladesh.
Nepal has net enrollment rate at primary level at 93.7 percent, net enrollment rate at lower
secondary level at 63.2 percent and net enrollment rate secondary level i.e. grade 9-10
9 at 40.8
percent. By the year 2013, Nepal has target
target to increase the net enrollment rate at primary level
to 97 percent, net enrollment at lower secondary level to 72 percent and net enrollment rate at
secondary level at 46 percent (GoN, 2010). One of the major challenges of imparting education
in Nepall has been observed as fewer enrollments in higher grades. One of the main factors
which force the students to be absent from school is extreme indoor climate – hot and cold.
School buildings in the Hilly and Himal areas are terribly cold and unusable for many month,
schools in the terai on the other hand are unbearably hot in summer.
Most of the school buildings in the Nepal are open on

most sides and a tin roof (galvanized iron) on top, it is
hotter inside the class rooms during summer than
the outside. At the same time, although we associate
the Terai with the killing heat waves, we often forget
that the terai actually gets really cold in winter. And
when the cold breeze blows through all the openings,
it is as cold inside as outside, which can be a freezing
7° to 10° C. Then in monsoon, when the raindrops
Figure 1 Conventional School Building clatter on the tin roof, it becomes very difficult to
hear, let alone understand, what the teacher is
saying. Summer, winter and the rainy season - unfortunately these are the only three main
seasons that the Terai has. The recent academic research indicates that poor interior air quality
qu
can reduce a children’s ability to perform specific mental tasks requiring concentration,
calculation or memory. The study shows that most of the existing school building and
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construction practices do not considered the indoor comfort level to make classroom child
friendly.
As Government of Nepal is setting out to

construct roughly 50,000 classrooms in the next
few years it would definitely be a good idea to
test prototypes of various designs before
plunging into one. Action Aid Internatonal
Nepal (AAIN) and Department of Education,
(DOE) with Technical Assistant of Center of
Resilient Development (CoRD) have adopted
Figure 2 Classroom during daytime the CSEB Green School building with two
classrooms on construction of schools in Nepal.
This building technology is based on analytical approach and follows requirements for obtaining
earthquake resistant, hygiene, environmental friendly, disaster risk reduction as well as child
safety features in school building design. Currently the project covers 12 schools in three
districts namely Banke, Morang and Dolakha.
Figure 3 Protoype of Green School Building
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1.2 Green School Features:
1.2.1 Climate Responsive

The school is designed to be relatively more comfortable in all seasons. This is expected to have
effect not only on the comfort and health of the children but also on their attendance and
academic performance. International research has shown that classroom temperature directly
influence students academic performance. The classrooms have high ceilings with insulated
roof prepared of low cost locally available insulation materials like a panel of straw sandwiched
between bamboo mat (Chitra or Mandro). It is a thermal asset in the terai that the temperature
a few meters below ground remains constant and comfortable at 25° C in all seasons. When it is
42° C in summer this is a source for coolness and yet during winters the same 25° C can also be
a source of heat. Hence to benefit from this treasure, the building has a green earth skirt piled
up around it in order to better connect it to the underground. This also protects it from the
fluctuations of the outside temperature. Where there is no fear of flood the school building can
even be built 2 feet below ground level, this also becomes a good source of all the earth
needed for the block making etc. In addition to this, the building has most of its glass windows
on the south facing wall, which gets all the sunrays in winter but none in summer, as the
summer sun stays overhead except during mornings and evenings. Therefore there are no
windows on the east and west walls except ventilations in order to prevent overheating in
summer. To protect the building from the autumn sun and rain there are shades over all the
windows.
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Figure 4 Direct gain of sun light in cold regions
The heavy thermal mass in the earth walls act like magic. The hot afternoon heat travels
inwards and reaches inside the classroom with a time lag of some 12 hours i.e., after midnight
when there are no children. Similarly it captures the cool of the night in its mass and makes the
classroom cool and comfortable during the day. Earth is also said to have this magical capacity
to absorb and release moisture. at night when the temperatures fall the moisture in the air
condenses on the earth wall and gives of its heat thus saving it from getting too cold and yet
during the day as the temperature rises the reverse happens and the moisture in the wall starts
evaporating and thus cooling the walls.
1.2.2 Environment Friendly

Unlike conventional schools the CSEB schools need little transportation of material. The blocks
need only curing in water and no firing. Hence in the process 8 times less carbon is emitted
compared to country fired bricks. Since the building is climate responsive it would reduce or
eliminate the energy needed for cooling and heating. Very little (7%) cement is needed for
stabilizing and even this can be replaced by lime which Nepal is said to have in plenty. Lime is
carbon neutral and together with earth we get a very clean building material which is healthy
for the environment and could earn a significant amount of money in Carbon Credit if this
technique is employed at a large scale.
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CSEB has these advantages compared to fired bricks:

Pollution emission(Kg of 7.9 times less than country fired bricks
CO2/m2)
Energy consumption (MJ) 15.1 times less than country fired bricks
Ecological comparison of building materials
Product and thickness No of Energy CO2emission Dry
Units consumption compressive
(Kg per m2)
(per m2) (NJ per m2) strength
(Kg/cm2)
CSEB-24 cm 40 110 16 40-60
Wire Cut Bricks-22 cm 87 539 39 75-100
Country Fired bricks-22cm 112 1657 126 30-100
Concrete blocks-20 cm 20 235 26 75-100
Note: Wire cut bricks are also called Kiln fired bricks. (Source: Development Alternatives 1998)
1.2.3 Earthquake Safe

Nepal is located in an area that is very vulnerable to earthquake hazard. The building is
designed as per earthquake safety norms. It has five horizontal tie beams starting from the
foundation level ring beam. The others are at plinth level, window sill level, lintel level and
finally at roof level. These are made of Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) cast inside U shaped
CSEB blocks. It also has numerous vertical reinforcements - one at every 1.5 meters length of
wall and also on each side of all openings like doors and windows (see photo .
The five horizontal ring beams are tied together by the vertical ties. Together the horizontal and
vertical ties make a skeleton like network of reinforcement. The idea is that the metal
reinforcements bring ductility (flexibility) to the building and the building is able to absorb a lot
of energy before a major damage. In the event of an earth quake it should get cracks but should
not collapse and if it has to collapse then it should give enough time to the people to leave the
building.
1.2.4 Cost Effective

The cost of a CSEB school building of 80 meter square plinth area comes to roughly NRs 9 lakhs
at the end of 2008 (see Annexure), which is comparable to the DOE‘s cost for a conventional
school. In fact a significant part of the cost of this building goes towards the steel and cement
used for earthquake safety features, otherwise with lower earthquake safety features it would
easily be cheaper than the older school design. What is notable is that thanks to its labour
intensive nature, out of the NRs 9 lakh, it was possible for the villagers to contribute NRs 1.5 in
the form of voluntary labour and some wood, thus the actual cash requirement might be less
than in a conventional school.
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According to Auroville Earth Institute

CSEB blocks are most of the time cheaper than fired bricks. This varies from place to place and
specially according to the cost of cement and sand. The cost break up of a 5 % stabilized block
would be roughly as follows, for manual production with an AURAM press 3000:
Labour: 20 - 25 % Soil & sand: 20 - 25% Cement: 40 - 60 % Equipment: 3 - 5 %
In the context of Auroville the following cost comparison was found - A finished meter cube of
CSEB masonry is always cheaper than fired bricks: 19.4% less than country fired bricks and 47.2
% less than wire cut bricks (March 2004).
1.2.5 Community Participation, Empowerment, Employment

Being labour intensive technique it offers the possibility of creating employment for thousands
of masons and skilled labour provided the project is implemented at a large scale. In this regard
the school buildings later could inspire the local population to switch over from polluting and
costly materials and that could generate thousands of green jobs for rural youth in their own
regions. Due to the known material and technology, maintenance will not be a challenge to the
local communities as in other type of construction.
From the educational point of view it could be a process of engaging the community to
participate in education in the construction. The resulting sense of ownership is expected to
encourage the community to participate in the management of the school thereby ensuring
accountability in the education system itself.
Community contribution is encouraged mainly to make community to feel ownership and

reduce the overall cost of construction. For this reason the process of this participatory school
construction involved meetings, gatherings and orientation sessions with the community at
various stages of construction.
1.2.6 Child Friendly

A School should essentially be child friendly and so is this model of the green school. The single
storey building is as excellent design for the small children to reduce accidents in stairs. This is
further simplified by the provision of ramp in the exterior. The classroom sizes comply with the
standards specified. Due to the use of CSEB and innovative roof technology, the indoor comfort
level is enhanced by maintaining a temperature difference of at least 4 to 5 degree centigrade
from outside. In the interior, the board along the lower wall gives children spaces to draw.
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1.3 Scope of the Manual

This manual is based on the Green school building that was built in three districts- Dang,
Morang and Dolakha, Nepal. Some of the construction systems have been adopted from
AUROVILLE EARTH INSTITUTE in this building.
DOE and AAIN with the technical assistance from CoRD built an exemplary CSEB school in these
districts. AAIN supported the programme financially for the programme.
The manual may be useful for both technical and non-technical persons who are familiar with
the building construction. Although the manual is basically relied upon school construction in
Nepal, you can modify or adjust the system according to the local situations.
1.4 Aim of the Manual

The purpose of this manual is to provide detailed technical and economic information on the
production of compressed stabilized earth blocks and construction of disaster resilient green
school buildings with a view to making available our experience in the field to those who
produce or plan to manufacture blocks so as to improve production techniques and quality of
output.
1.5 Target Groups
This handbook is meant to make available information to different groups of individuals or

institutions concerned with building and construction in Nepal. For example housing
authorities, building research organizations, government officers, financial institutions, builders,
architects, and voluntary organizations.
1.6 Organization of the Manual

With the identification of hazards due to various disasters, Chapter 1 starts with the possible
future damages to the settlement and the system in the country. Increasing population around
the world has not just resulted in an increased number of urban poor and insufficient housing
stock, but also the deficiency of infrastructure, resources and services which has converted
many places as a death trap during any natural calamities. No wonder this problem is at its
highest in the poor developing countries like Nepal. So the focus should be on the efficient
planning, designing and constructing of resilience so as to lessen the need for expensive
retrofitting measures in the future. Hence this chapter gives the introduction of the energy
efficient design and construction technique for school buildings with the use of Compressed
Stabilized Earth Block (CSEB) to make it more economic, environment responsive and disaster
resilient. This is named as the “Green School Project”.
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The chapter 2 moves on to the details of Compressed Stabilized Earth Block (CSEB), as to how it
is better than the conventional materials in terms of economy, environment and society. The
required raw materials and a stepwise manufacturing process are elaborated in detail with
pictorial examples. It also gives methods for its strength test and quality check, hence enabling
local people to manufacture it by themselves.
The construction details discussed in chapter 3 is divided into two parts, viz. the sub-structure/
foundation part and the superstructure part. Three types of foundations are discussed with
their advantage/ disadvantages and their construction techniques. Similarly, the construction of
superstructure parts like basement, walls, verandah, door/ window etc. are discussed with
details of the reinforcement and earthquake resilient design like lateral bands and vertical ties.
Followed by the roof construction, chapter 4 talks about its three different types, i.e,
ferrocement channel, bamboo mud roof and CGI sheet truss roof, and details out their
construction techniques. A short discussion on “roof thermal insulation” is also included as the
schools in southern Nepal face a lot of problem due to extreme climate and noise pollution
during heavy rains as they use CGI roofs.
Earthquake safety in buildings plays a major role in reducing the casualties during earthquakes.
Chapter 5 points out these features, the building shape, ductility, simplicity, foundation,
openings, structural integrity, long walls and rigidity distribution and recommends the optimum
design of the building based on these identified features.
Finally chapter 6 concludes with the overall benefits of CSEB as being bioclimatic, economic
and at the same time a source for community employment.
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CHAPTER - II
COMPRESSED STABILIZED EARTHEN BLOCK
2.1 Earth Building Construction

There is no clear consensus about the date when man began to use earth construction. Some
studies mentioned that that the earth for construction has been used for more than 9000 years
and some studies mentioned it may have happened over 10,000 years ago. It is not very
relevant, whether the earth construction began more than 9000 or over 10,000 years ago but
its not far from the truth that the earth construction begin with the beginning with the start of
early agricultural societies, a period whose current knowledge dates from 12,000 to 7000 BC.
Recently, traditional earth construction technology has undergone considerable developments

that enhance earth’s durability and quality as a construction material for low-cost buildings.
Such methods include rammed earth and machine pressed compressed stabilized earth blocks.
Here is a good description of the history of evolution of CSEB up to the present status. This has
been excerpted from ‘A Manual of CEB Production’ developed by CRATerre in France, a world
leading Institute on Earthen Architecture.
The compressed earth block is the modern descendent of the moulded earth block, more
commonly known as the adobe block. The idea of compacting earth to improve the quality and
performance of moulded earth blocks is, however, far from new, and it was with wooden tamps
that the first compressed earth blocks were produced. This process is still used in some parts of
the world. The first machines for compressing earth probably date from the 18th century. In
France, Francois Cointeraux, inventor and fervent advocate of "new pise" (rammed earth)
designed the "crecise", a device derived from a wine-press. But it was not until the beginning of
the 20th century that the first mechanical presses, using heavy lids forced down into moulds,
were designed. Some examples of this kind of press were even motor-driven. The fired brick
industry went on to use static compression presses in which the earth is compressed between
two converging plates. But the turning point in the use of presses and in the way in which
compressed earth blocks were used for building and architectural purposes came only with
effect from 1952, following the invention of the famous little ClNVA-RAM press, designed by
engineer Raul Ramirez at the CINVA centre in Bogota, Columbia. This was to be used
throughout the world. With the '70s and '80s there appeared a new generation of manual,
mechanical and motor-driven presses, leading to the emergence today of a genuine market for
the production and application of the compressed earth block.
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2.2 Why CSEB?

Merits of CSEB
• A Local Material
Ideally, the production is made on the site itself or in the nearby area. Thus, it will save
the transportation, fuel, time and money.
• A bio-degradable material
But let's imagine a building fallen down and that a jungle grows on it: the bio-chemicals
contained in the humus of the topsoil will destroy the soil cement mix in 10 or 20 years?
And CSEB will come back to our Mother Earth!
• Limiting deforestation
Firewood is not needed to produce CSEB. It will save the forests, which are being
depleted quickly in the world, due to short view developments and the mismanagement
of resources.
• Management of resources
Each quarry should be planned for various utilizations: water harvesting pond,
wastewater treatment, reservoirs, landscaping, etc. It is crucial to be aware of this point:
very profitable if well managed? Disastrous if unplanned!
• Energy efficiency and eco friendliness

Requiring only a little stabilizer the energy consumption in a m3 can be from 5 to 15
times less than a m3 of fired bricks. The pollution emission will also be 2.4 to 7.8 times
less than fired bricks.
• Cost efficiency
Produced locally, with a natural resource and semi skilled labour, almost without
transport, it will be definitely cost effective! More or less according to each context and
to ones knowledge!
• An adaptable material
Being produced locally it is easily adapted to the various needs: technical, social, cultural
habits.
• A transferable technology
It is a simple technology requiring semi skills, easy to get. Simple villagers will be able to
learn how to do it in few weeks. Efficient training centre will transfer the technology in a
week‘s time.
• A job creation opportunity
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CSEB allows unskilled and unemployed people to learn a skill, get a job and rise in the
social values.
• Market opportunity
According to the local context (materials, labour, equipment, etc.) the final price will
vary, but in most of the cases it will be cheaper than fired bricks.
• Reducing imports
Produced locally by semi skilled people, no need to import from far away expensive
materials or transport over long distances heavy and costly building materials.
• Flexible production scale

Equipment for CSEB is available from manual to motorized tools ranging from village to
semi industry scale. The selection of the equipment is crucial, but once done properly, it
will be easy to use the most adapted equipment for each case.
• Social acceptance
Demonstrated, since long, CSEB can adapt itself to various needs: from poor income to
well off people or governments. Its quality, regularity and style allow a wide range of
final house products.
2.3 The Raw Material

The basic materials required for the production of compressed stabilized earth building blocks
are soil, stabilizer, and water.
2.3.1 Soil
Soil is the main ingredient of the CSEB. Soil characteristics and climatic conditions of an area
must be evaluated before manufacturing soil building blocks.. All soils are not suitable for every
building need particularly CSEB. The basic material, however, required to manufacture CSEB is a
soil containing a minimum quantity of silt and clay so as to facilitate cohesion. It should be
much more sandy than clayey.
Good soil for CSEB contains the following proportion of the four components: gravel, sand, silt
and clay
Gravel Sand Silt Clay

15 % 50 % 15% 20 %
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Figure 5 Percentage proportion in good soil
Soils are variable and complex materials, whose properties can be modified to improve
performance in building construction by the addition of various stabilizers. For example if the
soil is too clayey, it may have to add some sand or sandy soil. It is not only important to
measure the optimum proportion of ingredients, but also to mix them thoroughly. Mixing
brings the stabilizer and soil into direct
direct contact, thus improving the physical interactions as well
as the chemical reaction and cementing action. It also reduces the risk of uneven production of
low quality blocks. Various types and sizes of mixing equipment are available on the market.
All soils consist of disintegrated rock, decomposed organic matter and soluble mineral salts. Soil
types are graded according to particle size using a system of classification widely used in civil
engineering. This classification system based on soil fractions
fractions (see Figure) shows that there are
4 principal soil fractions - gravel, sand, silt and clay.
Table : Soil classification according to particle size
Soil Type Name of fraction Diameter size ranges of particles(mm)
Gravel Course gravel 20.000

20.000-60.000
Medium gravel 6.000

6.000-20.000
Fine gravel 2.000

2.000-6.000
Sand Course sand 0.6000

0.6000-2.000
Medium sand 0.2000

0.2000-0.6000
Fine sand 0.060

0.060-0.200
Silt Course silt 0.020

0.020-0.060
Medium silt 0.006

0.006-0.020
Fine silt 0.002

0.002-0.006
Clay Clay Less than 0.002
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Soil Types in Nepal

In Nepal the main soils are classified as following five types based on the percentage of the four
components,
• Black cotton soil

• Gravely soil
• Sandy soil
• Silty soil
• Clay soil
1. Black Cotton Soil
Black Cotton Soil have the following common characteristics:

• the colour ranges from dark grey to dark brown,
• pronounced volume change upon wetting and drying, i.e. extreme expansion and
shrinkage properties,
• high (35%) clay content (clay is defined as soil fraction containing particle sizes less than
0.002mm). This clay fraction is composed mainly of montmorillonite, a group of soils
often found in drier tropics. Its structure allows water molecules to enter between the
layers causing expansion or shrinkage,
• the liquid limit (LL) ranges between 47% and 93%,
• the plastic limit (PL) ranges between 26% and 50%,
• the plasticity index (PI) ranges between 13% and 58%,
• the linear shrinkage ranges between 8% and 18%.
Due to the high plasticity of these soils they can be difficult materials to handle when mixed
with water. Nevertheless, black cotton soil is a popular building material since it covers large
areas in Kathmandu Valley. However, due to the high clay content and the presence of
expandable clay minerals in this soil type, the life span of buildings made from black cotton soils
is normally short (approximately 15 years on average), and so there is continuous need for
repair. In recent years it has been recognized that further study of the properties and
characteristics of black cotton soils and their potential for use in the building industry is
necessary.
2. Gravely Soil
It is composed of unconsolidated rock fragments that have a general particle size range and
include size classes from granule- to boulder-sized fragments. A coarse-grained soil is classed
as gravel if more than half the coarse fraction by weight is retained on a Number 4 sieve.
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Gravely soil have the following common characteristics:

equivalent diameter size (mm) : > 2 mm
Sieving, with mesh size # 8 to 10 mm, is indispensable to remove coarse gravel.

- A maximum of 15% to 20% by weight of gravel passing the screen will be allowed.
- The maximum size for the gravel passing through the sieve will be Ø10 mm.
- If the soil is too gravely, mix with it another soil, which is more clayey.
- The minimum cement stabilization will be 4% by weight, if the clay content is not less than
15 %.
- The average cement stabilization will be 6% by weight.
3. Sandy Soil
Sand is naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral
particles. The composition of sand is highly variable, but most common constituent of sand is
silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2, usually in the form of quartz.
Sandy soil have the following common characteristics:
Equivalent diameter size (mm): 0.05 - 2 mm

very coarse 1 - 2 mm
coarse 0.5 - 1 mm
medium 0.25 - 0.5 mm
fine 0.1 - 0.25 mm
very fine 0.05 - 0.1 mm
Sieving, with mesh size # 10 to 12 mm, is only required to loosen, aerate the soil and break
up lumps.
- Do not sieve in a very windy area, especially if the soil is dry, so as not to loose the fine
clay.
- The minimum cement stabilization will be 5% by weight.
- The average cement stabilization will be 6-7% by weight, if the clay content is not less than
15%.
4. Silty Soil
Silt is granular material of a size somewhere between sand and clay whose mineral origin
is quartz and feldspar. Silt may occur as a soil or as suspended sediment (also known as
suspended load) in a surface water body.
Silty soil have the following common characteristics:
equivalent diameter size (mm) 0.002 - 0.05 mm
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A slight crushing might be required and sieving, with mesh size # 6 to 10 mm, is required.
- Adding some coarse sand (10 to 20 %) might be needed to give more skeletons to the soil,
only if the clay content is not less than 20%. When the silt content is high (more than 25-
30%) and the sand very fine (0.06 to 1mm), adding coarse sand and a clayey soil will
improve the structure.
- The minimum cement stabilization will be 6% by weight.
- The average cement stabilization will be 7-8% by weight.
5. Clayey Soil
Clay is a general term including many combinations of one or more clay minerals with traces of
metal oxides and organic matter.
Clayey soil have the following common characteristics:
equivalent diameter size (mm): < 0.002 mm
Crushing might often be required and sieving, with mesh size # 6-10 mm, is required.
- Adding a lot of sand (30 to 40 % ) is most the time needed to reduce the plasticity and to
give some skeletons.
- The minimum cement stabilization will be 7% by weight and the average cement
stabilization will be 8%.
- Lime stabilization can be used instead of cement. The minimum will be 8 % and the
average will be 9% by weight of lime. Then, the adjunction of sand will be reduced.
- A combination of cement-lime stabilization, can give good results.
For example: 3% cement + 5% lime + sand as needed.
2.3.2 Soil Stabilizers

Modifying soil properties by adding another material to improve its durability is called soil
stabilization. When a soil is successfully stabilized one or more of the following effects will be
evident strength and cohesion of the soil will increase, permeability of the soil will be reduced,
the soil will be made water repellent, the durability of the soil will increase, soil will shrink and
expand less in dry and wet conditions.
The chemical admixtures such as lime, cement, and/or fly ash are widely used as a mean of
chemically transforming unstable soils into structurally sound construction foundation. In clay-
bearing soils, those stabilizers induce a textural change in greater ease of compaction and
handling as well as moderate improvements in the resulting strength.
There are several methods of soil stabilization widely used to improve construction quality.
Some of the major stabilization techniques are described in this section.
16 | P a g e
Mechanical stabilization
This involves tamping or compacting the soil by using a heavy weight to bring about a reduction
in the air void volume, thus leading to an increase in the density of the soil. The main effects of
compaction on the soil are to increase its strength and reduce its permeability. The degree of
compaction possible, however, is affected greatly by the type of soil used, the moisture content
during compaction and the compression effort applied. Best results can be obtained by mixing
the correct proportions of sand and clay in a soil. More recent developments for roads and
embankment construction have led to compacting soil with vibrating rollers and tampers.
Tampers and block-making presses are also used for single storey constructions. The major
drawback of mechanically compressed stabilized earth blocks is their lack of durability
especially in places of moderate to high rainfall.
Manual stabilization or compaction methods vary from foot treading to hand tamping
equipment, with compacting pressures varying between 0.05 to about 4MN/m2. Mechanical
equipment may achieve compacting pressures of several thousand MN/m2.
Cement stabilization
Ordinary Portland cement hydrates when water is added, the reaction produces a cementitious
gel that is independent of the soil. This gel is made up of calcium silicate hydrates, calcium
aluminate hydrates and hydrated lime. The first two compounds form the main bulk of the
cementitious gel, whereas the lime is deposited as a separate crystalline solid phase. The
cementation process results in deposition between the soil particles of an insoluble binder
capable of embedding soil particles in a matrix of cementitious gel. Penetration of the gel
throughout the soil hydration process is dependent on time, temperature and cement type. The
lime released during hydration of the cement reacts further with the clay fraction forming
additional cementitious bonds. Soil-cement mixes should be compacted immediately after
mixing in order not to break down the newly created gel and therefore reduce strengthening.
The basic function of cementation is to make the soil water-resistant by reducing swelling and
increasing its compressive strength.
With respect to the general processes of cementation, penetration and binding mentioned
above, many factors must be considered. Processes may also vary between different types of
soils. Cement is considered a good stabilizer for granular soils but unsatisfactory for clays.
Generally cement can be used with any soil type, but with clays it is uneconomical because
more cement is required. The range of cement content needed for good stabilization is
between 3% and 18% by weight according to soil type.
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Findings have shown that there is a relationship between linear shrinkage and cement content
need for stabilization. Figure 7 shows that
that the cement to soil ratio ranges between 5.56% and
8.33% for measured shrinkage variations of between 15mm to 60mm.
Figure 6 Compressive strength w.r.t. percentage of cement content
It may be noted that for a given shrinkage the cement to soil ratio is function of the compaction
effort exerted. For example, a CINVA Ram machine exerts a compaction pressure of about
2MN/m2 (see Chapter 4) by increasing this pressure to about 10MN/m2 the cement content
can be reduced to between 4% % and 6% for soil with shrinkage of up to 25mm. Over this
shrinkage value, 6% to 8% cement would need to be used for effective stabilization
Lime stabilization
By adding lime to the soil for stabilization, four basic reactions are believed to occur: cation
exchange, flocculation and agglomeration, carbonation, and pozzolanic reactions. The
pozzolanic reaction is believed to be the most important and it occurs between lime and certain
clay minerals to form a variety of cementitious compounds which bind the soil particles
together. Lime can also reduce the degree, to which the clay absorbs water, and so can make
the soil less sensitive to changes in moisture content and improve its workability. Lime is a
suitable stabilizer for clay soils. Lime is more widely
widely available than Portland cement in Sudan
and is produced locally in traditional kilns. However, some improvements still need to be made
in its production and processing.
The advantages that lime has over Portland cement are that it requires less fuel to manufacture
and requires relatively simple equipment to make. It is therefore more suitable for village scale
production and use.
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It has been reported that when lime is used as a stabilizer instead of cement, the quantity
needs to be doubled. However, research by the author, Dr. E.A. Adam, at the United Kingdom
Building Research Establishment shows that such doubling is not necessary if a sufficiently high
compacting effort is applied on a high clay content soil. The reduction in the volume of air voids
brings the lime and soil particles into closer contact and the stabilizing reactions can take place
more easily. Tests show that wet compressive strengths of between 3MN/m2 and 3.5MN/m2
may be achieved with compacting efforts in the range of 8 to 14MN/m2.
Other stabilizers
Traditionally, many stabilisers such as animal dung, ant hill materials, bird droppings, plant
extracts and animal blood, have been used for the manufacture of compressed stablised earth
building blocks. These waste materials generally consist of nitrogenous organic compounds
which help bind together soil grains. Chopped straw, grasses and natural organic fibres,
although not active stabilisers, are used as reinforcement materials to reduce linear shrinkage
problems which occur with soil that has a high clay content.
In addition of these, there are other stabilizers- Bitumen, Gypsum and Pozzolanas which are not
included in this manual.
Suitability of stabilizers and their percentage
Stabilizer SUITABILITY MINIMUM % AVERAGE % MAXIMUM %

No technical maximum
Cement Mostly for sandy soil 5% 7% Economic maximum: 9 -
10 %
Lime Mostly for clayey soil 5% 8% 10%
Other stabilizers are: Fibers (natural or synthetic), fly ash, natural products (straw, fur, juice of
plants, latex, etc.), resins, and synthetic products.
2.3.3 Water
Water is one of the important elements in CSEB production but people still ignore quality
aspect of this element. The water is required for preparation of CSEB and damp curing during
production work. The quality and quantity of water has much effect on the strength of CSEB.
The water used for mixing and curing should be clean and free from injurious quantities of
alkalis, acid, oils, salt, sugar, organic materials, vegetable growth and other substances that may
be deleterious to bricks, stone, concrete or steel. Potable water is generally considered
satisfactory for mixing. The pH value of water should be not less than 6.
19 | P a g e
2.4 Selection of the Equipment

Many attempts were tried to use concrete equipment to produce CSEB. All failed, as the
requirements of the materials and the working conditions are different. Today one can find
manual presses, light or heavy, motorized ones where the compression energy is given by an
engine. One can also find mobile units, which also integrates a crusher and a mixer in the same
machine.
A cheap manual press, thus light and attractive in price, will not be so long lasting. A motorized
press will present the advantage of a high productivity, with a better and more regular quality.
But it will require energy and a more complicated maintenance, and its cost will have no
comparison with a manual press. Besides a press, one should not forget all the other equipment
required: sieve, maybe a crusher, wheel barrows, maybe a mixer, quality control devices, all
small tools, PVC sheets, etc.
Therefore, it appears that in the context of Nepal, manual and heavy presses are better
adapted than motorized ones, as they would employ more people and would produce quality
materials at cheaper rates.
Aurum 3000
Aurum 3000 machine is hand press machines. The machine consists of a frame, an
interchangeable mould, a reverse toggle lever. Other accessories include scoops and bottom
plates. The machine is mounted on the ground and secured in position using sand bags or
stones. Measured quantity of this mixture is poured in the die of predefined shape and
dimensions and is compressed by pulling the lever by hand. Then the compressed block is
ejected from the die. The wet compressed blocks are stacked in rows.
Special Features of Aurum press 3000:
• High output from the automatic opening: 1000

strokes/day.
= 125 Blocks/Hour (plain full size blocks)
• Handling of the press with 3 men. Mix preparation and
block stacking with 4 men.
• High and adjustable compression ratio from 1.6 to 1.83
(1.77 for 9 cm height)
• Micro adjustment of compression ratio.
• Double compression with the folding back lid.
• Rollers to move the press on site. Only 2 men are
needed.
• Block height adjustable with ring spacers: 2.5 cm and
from 5 to 10 cm.
• Micro adjustment of block height: 0.5mm accuracy.
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• Interchangeability of moulds
• Moulds are provided for making 4/4, 3/4 & 1/2 sizes.
• Self-stability with the adjustable braces.
• Very easy maintenance with grease nipples and grease gun.
Block Production process
2.4.1 Production Cycle
Soil
identification
and
Selection
Curing
Material
Collection
Quality Moulding
Control
Breaking
up Soils
Mixing
Sieving
Proportioni
ng
21 | P a g e
2.4.2 Production Steps
1. Soil Identification, Selection and Material Collection

The basic materials required for the production of
compressed stabilized earth building blocks are soil, stabilizer,
and water. The stabilizer, whether lime or cement or some
other material, is usually available in powder or liquid form,
ready for use. The soil may be wet or dry when it is first
obtained, and will probably not be homogeneous. In order to
have uniform soil, it is often necessary to crush it so that it
can pass through a 5 to 6mm mesh sieve. Different soil types
may also need to be used together so as to obtain good
quality products. For instance, heavy clay may be improved
by addition of a sandy soil. It is not only important
important to measure the optimum proportion of
ingredients, but also to mix them thoroughly. Mixing brings the stabilizer and soil into direct
contact, thus improving the physical interactions as well as the chemical reaction and
cementing action. It also reduces
reduces the risk of uneven production of low quality blocks. Various
types and sizes of mixing equipment are available on the market.
Typical Soil Profile
Soil is the result of the transformation of the underlying parent rock; it is transformed into
smaller components
omponents and aggregates by weather, the water, biological process and by animal
plant life.
Layer I:
Known as topsoil, the soil in this Layer is likely to
contain organic matter and is usually dark in color
Layer II:
Soil in this layer is likely to bee beige in color and will be
very sticky if it has high clay content. Under wet
Conditions, puddles of water will form on clay soils and
the texture will be slippery and greasy to touch
Layer III:
Soil in this zone usually contains sandy soil which is
much easier to excavate. It retains no free water, and will Figure 7 Typical soil profile
feel gritty.
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Soil collection Soil testing Soil screening
Mixing of soil, sand and cement
23 | P a g e
Figure 8 Soil for CSEB
The soil for the CSEB is collected after removing the Layer I – top soil. Generally it is the soil
about one and half feet below the surface.
2. Soil Testing
Laboratory analysis of the raw material is always necessary for large-scale
large production of
compressed stabilized earth blocks.
blocks For small-scale
scale production, however, it is not essential to
employ sophisticated tests to establish the suitability of a soil. Simple field tests can be
performed to get an indication of the composition of the soil sample. Such tests are discussed
briefly below.
a) Visual Identification:
Dry soil is examined with the naked eye to estimate the relative propertions of the sandy and
fine fraction. Large stones, gravel and coarse sand are removed in order to facilitate the
evaluation.
Look a humid or dry soil
A gravely soil contains big pieces
A sandy soil contains coarse particles
A silty soil is thin, with small lumps
A clayey soil is very thin, with big lumps
Figure 9 Visual Identification
b) Smell Test:
The soil should be smelt immediately after removal. If it
smells musty it contains organic matter. This smell will
become stronger if the soil is heated. For the soil
identification in field the following point should be
considered
• It should not smell rotten
• It should not smell musty Figure 10 Smell test
24 | P a g e
• It should smell agreeable
c) Touch Test:
After removing the largest grains, crumble the soil
rubbing it between the fingers and the palm of the hand.
The soil is sandy if a rough sensation is felt and has no
cohesion when moist. The soil is silty if it gives a lightly
rough sensation and is moderately cohesive when
moistened. The soil is clayed, if, when dried, contains
lumps or concretions ns which resist crushing and if
becomes plastic when moistened. Figure 11 Touch test
d) Sedimentation test
To obtain a more precise idea of the nature of
each soil fraction, a simplified sedimentation test
can be carried out in the field. The apparatus
required is straight forward:
- A transparent cylindrical glass bottle with a

flat bottom and a capacity of at least one
liter with a neck wide enough to get a hand
in and a lid to allow for shaking.
Fill the bottle to one-third

third with clean water. Add
approximately the same volume of dry soil passed
through a 6mm sieve and add a teaspoonful of
Figure 12 Sedimentation test
common salt.
Firmly close the lid of the bottle and shake until the soil and water are well mixed. Allow the
bottle to stand on a flat surface for about half an hour. Shake the bottle again for two minutes
and stand on level surface for a further 45 minutes until the water starts starts to clear. The finer
particles fall more slowly and as a result, it will get deposited on top of the larger size particles.
Two or three layers will emerge, with the lowest layer containing fine gravel, the central layer
containing the sand fraction and
and the top layer containing silt and clay. The relative proportions,
and hence percentages, of each fraction can be determined.
e) Adhesion test
Compact a ball of moist soil so that it does not
stick to the fingers and insert a spatula or knife.
If the spatula penetrates it with difficulty, and
soil sticks to it upon withdrawal, the soil is
extremely clayey. If the spatula can be pushed
Figure 13 Adhesion test
25 | P a g e
into it without great difficulty but a bit of soil remains on the knife
knife upon withdrawal the soil is
moderately clayey. The spatula can be pushed into the mass without encountering any
resistance at all, even if the spatula is dirty upon withdrawal the soil contains only a little clay
f) Washing Test
Wash the hands with the slightly moistened soil. The soil is
sandy if the hands easily rinse clean. The soil is silty if it
appears to be very sticky and the hands can be rinsed clean
with difficulty. The soil is clayey if it gives a thin film and the
hands can be rinsed clean quite easily.
Figure 14 Washing test
g) Dry strength test
• Form two or three pats of soft soil,
• Place the pats in the sun or in an oven until
they have completely dried,
ed,
• Break a soil pat and attempt to pulverize it
between thumb and index finger,
• Observe how easy the pat is to pulverize.
Implications
• If the pat pulverizes easily, the soil is silty or fine Figure 15 Dry strength test
sand and has a low clay content,

• If the pat can be crushed to a powder with a little effort, the soil is silty or sandy clay,
• If the pat is hard to break and will not pulverize, the soil has a high clay content.
h) Water retention test

- Form a ball of fine soil, 2 or 3cm in diameter,
- Moisten the ball so that it sticks together but does not
stick to the fingers,
- Slightly flatten the ball and hold it in the palm of the
extended hand,
- Vigorously tap the ball with the other hand so that the
water is brought ht to the surface. The ball will appear Figure 16 Water retention test
smooth, shiny or greasy,
- Press the ball flat between thumb and index finger,
- Observe the number of taps required for a reaction as well as the consistency of the soil.
Implications
- If a rapid reaction is achieved
ved (5-10
(5 10 taps) and the flattened ball crumbles, the soil is very fine
or a coarse silt,
26 | P a g e
- If a slow reaction is achieved (20-30 (20 30 taps) and the flattened ball does not crumble but
flattens, the soil is slightly plastic silt or silty clay,
- If a very slow reaction is achieved (over 30 taps) and the flattened ball does not change
appearance on pressing, the soil has high clay content.
i) Consistency test
• Prepare a ball of fine soil approximately 3cm in
diameter,
• Moisten the ball so that it can be modeled but
Figure 17 Consistency test
does not stick to the fingers,
• Roll the ball on a flat clean surface to form a thread,
• If the thread breaks when it is thicker than 3mm, the soil is too dry - add water,
• The thread should break when approximately 3mm thick,
• When the thread breaks, make it into a small ball again and crush it between the
thumbs and index finger,
• Observe what happens when the ball is crushed.
Implications
• If soil crumbless before forming a ball it has a high silt or sand content,
• If the ball cracks and crumbles, it has a low clay content,
• If the ball is hard to crush and does not crack or crumble, it has a high clay content,
• If ball feels spongy, it contains organic matter.
matter
j) Cohesion test
• Roll soil into a sausage with a diameter of

approximately 12mm,
• The soil should not be sticky and it should be
possible to roll it into a continuous thread, 3mm
in diameter,
• Place the thread in the palm of the hand,
• Starting at one end, carefully flatten it between Figure 18 Cohesion test

index finger and thumb to form a ribbon of 3 and
6mm wide,
• Measure the length of ribbon before it breaks.
Implications
- No ribbon, shows a negligible clay content,
- 5-10cm ribbon, shows a low clay content,
- 25-30cm
30cm ribbon shows high clay content.
27 | P a g e
3. Breaking up Soil
In order to obtain a uniform mix of the mineral components, water and stabilizer, lumps more
than 200mm in diameter after excavation must be broken up. Grains with a homogeneous
structure, such as gravel and stones, must be left intact, and those having a composite structure
(clay binder) broken up so that at least 50 percent of the grains are less than 5mm in diameter.
The soil must be dry as wet soil can only be handled by certain mechanized systems.
a. Grinding followed by screening
The material is pressed between two surfaces - a rather inefficient and tedious process in which
bigger stones are broken up, however, only simple machinery is required. The broken up lumps
of soil are then passed through a screen.
b. Pulverization of soil
The material is hit with great force so it disintegrates. The machinery required is complex but
performs satisfactorily. At the delivery end, any large pieces left can be removed by means of
screen.
4. Sieving
Soil contains various sizes of grain, from very fine dust up to pieces that are still too large for
use in block production. The oversized material should be removed by sieving, either using a
built-in sieve, as with the pendulum crusher, or as a separate operation. The simplest sieving
device is a screen made from a wire mesh, nailed to a supporting wooden frame and inclined at
approximately 45º to the ground. The material is thrown against the screen, fine material
passes through and the coarse, oversized material runs down the front. Alternatively, the
screen can be suspended horizontally from a tree or over a pit. The latter method is only
suitable in the case where most material can pass through easily otherwise too much coarse
material is collected, and the screen becomes blocked and needs frequent emptying.
28 | P a g e
Figure 19 Aerate the soil, Remove lumps stones and pebbles
5. Proportioning
Before starting production, tests should be performed to establish the right proportion of soil,
stabilizer and water for the production of good quality blocks. The proportions of these
materials and water should then be used throughout the production process. To ensure
uniformity in the compressed stabilized earth blocks produced, the weight or volume of each
material used in the block making process should be measured at the same physical state for
subsequent batches of blocks. The volume of soil or stabilizer should ideally be measured in dry
or slightly damp conditions. After establishing the exact proportion required of each material, it
is advisable to build a measuring device for each material. The dimensions of each measuring
box should be such that their content, when full, is equivalent to the proportion which should
be mixed with other materials measured in other gauge boxes. Alternatively, a simple gauge
box may be used for all materials. In this case, the amount of material for the production of a
given batch of blocks may be measured by filling and emptying the gauge box a number of
times for each separate material. For example, a batch of blocks may require ten gauge boxes
of soil for one gauge box of stabilizer. Water may be measured in a small tank or container. It is
advisable to mix enough materials to allow the block-making machine to operate for
approximately one hour. Thus, the volume of the mixed material will depend on the hourly
output of the block making equipment.
29 | P a g e
Figure 20 Proportioning
Measure all components directly in containers (wheelbarrows for soil, buckets for sand and
cement)
Fill the containers with accuracy as per specification
6. Mixing
In order to produce good quality blocks, it is very important that mixing be as thorough as
possible. Dry materials should be mixed first until they are of uniform color, then water is
added and mixing continued until a homogeneous mix is obtained. Mixing can be performed by
hand on a hard surface, with spades, hoes, or shovels.
It is much better to add a little water at a time, sprinkled over the top of the mix from a
watering can with a rose spray on the nozzle. The wet mix should be turned over many times
with a spade or other suitable tool. A little more water may then be added, and the whole
mixture turned over again. This process should be repeated until all the water has been mixed
in.
A concrete mixer, even if available, will not be useful for mixing the wet soil, since the latter will
tend to stick on the sides of the rotating drum. If machinery is to be used for mixing, it should
have paddles or blades that move separately from the container. Hand-mixing methods are
often more satisfactory, more efficient and cheaper than mechanical mixing, and are less likely
to produce small balls of soil that are troublesome at the block moulding stage.
30 | P a g e
Figure 21 Mixing
• Pour in order, soil, sand and stabilizer

• First Mix dry , 2 times
• Add water and mix wet, 2 times
7. Moulding CSEB
To manufacture blocks of uniform size and density, special precautions must be taken to fill the
mould with the same amount of mix for each compaction by using a small wooden box as a
measuring device.
To facilitate development of the pressed blocks and to ensure good neat surfaces it is advisable
to moisten the internal faces of the machine mould with a mould releasing agent (reject oil)
which can be applied with a rag, brush or spray.
(Mould immediately the mix: within 20 minutes)

minutes
Figure 22 Moulding the mix
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8. Curing
To achieve maximum strength, compressed stabilized earth blocks need a period of damp
curing, where they are kept moist. If the block is left exposed to hot dry weather conditions, the
surface material will lose its moisture and the clay particles tend to shrink. This will cause
surface cracks on the block faces.
In practice, various methods are used to ensure proper curing. Such methods include the use of
plastic bags, grass, leaves, etc. to prevent moisture from escaping.
The required duration of curing varies from soil to soil and, more significantly, which type of
stabilizer is used. With cement stabilization, it is recommended to cure blocks for a minimum
of three weeks. The curing period for lime stabilization should be at least four weeks.
Compressed stabilized earth blocks should be fully cured and dry before being used for
construction.
Figure 23 Curing
• The pile must remain covered 2 days with a plastic sheet

• Stacking the fresh block
• Cover immediately every row with a plastic sheet.
9. Quality Control
Compressed stabilized earth building blocks are usually larger in size than traditional burnt
bricks. A typical block size is 240 x 140 x 90mm. The exact amount of stabilizer necessary must
be established
tablished for any particular project. The fraction of cement usually varies between 5% to
8% by weight.
Golden rules
- To create a joyful atmosphere where everybody is conscious of the quality required and check
the blocks.
- Check the production at every stage (see the production cycle).
32 | P a g e
- Check the quality of the compression with the pocket penetrometre, always for the first block
of every mix.
- Check the height with the block height gauge, always for the first block of every mix.
- Follow the production daily. Record the outputand dates...
- Check weekly or monthly, the production with the field block tester (after 28 days).
• During the production
STAGE WHAT TO CONTROL MEANS

Soil supply • The topsoil must be removed. • Sensitive
• Check the regularity of the supply. analysis.
• Check the depth of veins.
• If the supply is with lorries, check before unloading.
• Check the root contents.
• Adapt the mix if there are some changes in soil supply.
Sieving • Angle of the sieve. • Visual
• Size of the lumps. Observation
• Percentage of waste.
Measuring • Check that containers are filled according to the • Visual
requirements. Observation
• Check that 1 bag of cement is poured in buckets at
once.
Dry mixing • Move 2 times minimum the piles (the best is 3 times). • Visual
• Check the uniformity and homogeneity of the mix. Observation
(Especially the colour)
• Check if there are big lumps and crush them.
Wet mix • Move 2 times minimum the piles (the best is 3 times). • Visual
• Check the uniformity and homogeneity of the mix. Observation
(Especially the colour) • Sensitive
analysis.
• Check the lumps and crush them, if any.
• Check the moisture content.
Pressing • Check the strength with the pocket penetrometre. • Block height
• Check the height with the block height gauge. gauge.
• See the texture (loose or dense). • Penetrometre
• Visual
• Have an external look.
Observation
(Edges, corners, difference in colours, etc.)
Initial curing • If the stacking is according to requirement. • Visual
And • If the ground is cleaned regularly. Observation
First stacking • The blocks are properly covered with plastic sheets.
• The quality of the edges after stacking.
33 | P a g e
• Check the spaces left in between blocks.

Final curing • Care for the transport. • Visual
And • Care for stacking. Observevation
Stacking • If the stacking is according to the requirement.
• Good protection of the piles’ top with coconut leaves
straw or any material for the sunshade.
• Water during 4 weeks, minimum twice daily (according
to the weather). The blocks must not dry during 4
weeks!
• Drying for 4 weeks before use.
2.5 Some limitations of CSEB

Like all other techniques of construction CSEB also has its own limitations.
• Proper soil identification is required; some soils may not be suitable.
• Ignorance about the need to manage resources.
• Ignorance of the basics for production & use.
• Wide spans, high & long building are difficult to do.
• Low technical performances compared to concrete.
• Untrained teams producing bad quality products.
• Over-stabilization through fear or ignorance, implying outrageous costs.
• Under-stabilization resulting in low quality products.
• Bad quality or un-adapted production equipment.
• Low social acceptance due to counter examples (By unskilled people, or bad soil &
equipment).
34 | P a g e
CHAPTER – III
SUB-STRUCTURES/FOUNDATION
There are different types of foundation in practices. In green school project, only the following
types of foundation are used.
1. Rammed Earth,
2. Stone foundation with soil mortar
Apart from the above mentioned types, other foundations can also be used according to the
building structure and conditions.
3.1 Rammed Earth Foundation

A soil can be compared to an earth concrete. A cement concrete is composed of gravel and
sand with cement, acting as a binder. Likewise soil is composed of Gravel, Sand, Silt and clay
which acts as binder. The main difference between the both is the strength and the stability
when wet. Hence to get a stable material when wet and lasting strength, one needs to stabilize
the silt and clay. For a Stabilized Rammed Earth Foundation one must use only cement to
stabilize the soil and not lime which needs air for the carbonation. Do not use bitumen, which
decreases the strength.
Figure 24 Rammed earth foundation
The construction steps of Rammed Earth Foundation are:-

i. Identify the quality of soil
ii. Add more sand than for compressed earth blocks (2 times more): to
reduce the shrinkage and give more strength: easily 25 to 30 % of dry
weight.
iii. Add an average of 5% of cement by weight of dry raw materials.
iv. Mix 1 bag cement at a time to be rammed within 20 min.
v. Pour layers of 15 cm. of loose mixed of soil to be rammed up to 10 cm.
35 | P a g e
Advantage/ Disadvantage
This foundation acts as base isolation. Since earth is available everywhere, it proves to be
convenient option along with being cost effective at the same time. However, this type can be
suitable only in natural ground and moreover, limiting to dry land region. The construction
period is comparatively long compared to other types of foundations. Another disadvantage is
that since it is labor intensive, a lot of workers should be available for tits completion.
Figure 25 Preparation for Rammed Earth Foundation
36 | P a g e
3.2 Stone foundation in stabilized soil mortar
They were analyzed taking seven factors into consideration such as cost, cement requirement,
possibility of unequal settlement, moisture penetration control, workmanship control, sturdy
formwork on side and construction period. On these bases and also due to special
consideration of the site being in doubt of water logged, it was decided to use stone work in
Stabilized Soil. The foundation sized 70cm depth and 75cm width, and the position, size and
number of reinforcement are still to be detailed out.
Figure 26 Stone foundation
The construction steps of Stone Foundation in stabilized soil mortar are:-

i. Identify the quality of soil and stone
ii. Dig a perimeter trench along the boundaries
iii. Prepare stabilized soil mortar by mixing 1cement: 3 sand: 8 soil
iv. Set in the largest stones in bottom
v. Pack it tight
vi. Cover with mortar and tamp
vii. Repeat the procedure from step iv to vi
Advantage/ Disadvantage:
This type of foundation can bear higher load and is more suitable for those places where stone
is easily available. The construction period is relatively short and it is suitable in wet land region
but is might be expensive in the place where availability of stone is short. This foundation is also
less stable than other.
37 | P a g e
CHAPTER – IV
SUPER STRUCTURES
4.1 Basement
A RCC ring beam is embedded at the top of the foundation and a plinth beam at the floor level
should always be cast.
- At the top of the foundation is laid a first a reinforced concrete ring beam, 1cement: 1.5 sand:
3 gravel, in which are anchored the vertical ties.
- It is essential to locate very accurately the vertical ties in the first reinforced concrete ring
beam.
- A plinth beam is laid on the basement and its top level will be the floor level. This plinth beam
is cast in U blocks with 1cement: 1.5sand: 3gravel.
All courses of the basement are laid in stabilized earth mortar, SEM: 1cement: 1 soil: 3 sand.
The mortar thickness is everywhere 5 mm thick, for the horizontal and vertical joints. Note that
on top of the plinth beam will be laid a damp-proof course of 1 cm thick with CS 1: 2 and
waterproofing compound.
Figure 27 Plinth ring beam
4.2 Verandah
Verandah is independent structure that stands in
front of class rooms. There is no tie beam below
as no severity was realized from earthquake
viewpoint. The pillars of the verandah are two-
third CSEB and one-third bamboo or timber with
strut that supports the roof verandah above. Figure 28 Foundation (under verandah wall)
Ramp has been provided for differently-abled
38 | P a g e
children to go to the class-rooms.
4.3 Walls
Masonry technology is Reinforced Masonry with Compressed Stabilized Earth blocks. The wall is
constructed out of CSEB blocks applying Auroville’s technology. It consists of wall built out of
24cmX24cmX9cm. Compressed Stabilized Earth Blocks made out from Auram 3000 Press. The
wall system has vertical ties at every corner: L-joints and T-joints. Also these are provided on
the sides of each fenestration. The continuous wall has vertical tie in every less than 1.5 meters.
This is meant for avoiding lateral buckling due to long continuous wall.
There are ring beams in plinth level, sill level, lintel level and roof level. These are connected to
the vertical ties to give rigid box effect during earthquake. The ring beams are cast in situ out of
U-blocks. The lintels are precast before they are made continuous with the lintel band during
actual construction.
39 | P a g e
Wall Construction Works

BLOCK WORK AT FIRST LAYER
AT SECOND LAYER LAYING OF U-BLOCK FOR PLINTH BEAM
ARRANGEMENT OF REINFORCEMENT AND CONCRETING OF PLINTH BEAM
40 | P a g e
The vertical ties and the ring beams consist of reinforcement of 2-10mm diameter bars whereas
the lintel consists of reinforcement of 2-12mm diameter bars owing to more flexure that it has
to bear from the above wall. The bands, at corners and T-joints, consist of extra bars of 10mm
extending 50cm along each adjacent wall for additional reinforcement. The stirrups of 8mm
bars are arranged in all case at spacing of 25cm.
Figure 29 Wall section
41 | P a g e
All courses should be bound by cement stabilized earth mortar 1 cement: 1 soil: 3 sand. It
should be plastic and not too liquid. The soil should not have more than 20-25 % of clay. All
joints, horizontally and vertically, are 5 mm thick. Note a cement sand mortar (i.e. 1: 4) will
have a very low workability as the mortar thickness is only 5mm.
Note for all courses: The blocks must be soaked before being laid and a well-laid block is
impossible to remove with one hand because it sticks well to the cement sand mortar.
All the holes, with or without reinforcement, and all ring beams, are filled with plain cement
concrete 1: 1.5: 3. The plasticity of the concrete for the holes is rather fluid, but not liquid. It
should flow well in the holes without being a soup. It is essential to compress very well the
concrete with a steel rod.
Wall work up to sill level

PLACEMENT OF DOORS THIRD LAYER FROM PLINTH LEVEL
SIXTH LAYER FROM PLINTH LEVEL ARRANGEMENT OF U-BLOCK FOR SILL BEAM
42 | P a g e
ARRANGEMENT OF RENFORCEMENT CONCRETING OF SILL RING BEAM
INSTALLATION OF WINDOWS
BLOCK WORK AT CORNER TIE PREPARATION OF LINTEL
COMPLETION OF LINTEL RING BEAM
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4.4 Doors and Windows

CSEB construction offers a secure and stable wall system. The blocks are stacked using the
binding material for the construction of the wall. Provisions for the doors and windows are
made as per the requirements in the room.
Casting of Doors and Windows

FRAME OF DOOR AND WINDOWS AND BASE PLATFORM FOR IT
PREPARING OF REINFORCEMENT
CASTING OF DOOR AND WINDOWS
44 | P a g e
CHAPTER – V
ROOFS
5.1 Types of roof

Three different options for the roofs are proposed. They are:-
1. Ferrocement Channel
2. Bamboo Mud Roof
3. CGI Sheet truss Roof
5.1.1 Ferro cement Channel

Ferrocement is a versatile technology in which there is a more uniform distribution of
reinforcement by use of chicken wire mesh and welded mesh encapsulated in rich cement
mortar. This composite provides a more uniform distribution of strength properties as
compared to RCC. This also enables drastic reduction in section thickness and reinforcement
required. This technology does not require stone aggregates. It however uses rich cement:
coarse sand (or equivalent material) mix.
What are Ferrocement Roofing Channels?

Ferrocement Cement (FC) Channels are precast
shell units made with rich cement mortar (1:2 to
1:3) reinforced with a `jali' of chicken wire-mesh
reinforcement and steel bars. Ferrocement
elements are durable, versatile, light and
waterproof These shell units are cast either
manually on a masonry mould or mechanically
on steel moulds mounted on table vibrator. A
(FC) channel is a longitudinal element of a Figure 30 Ferro Cement Channel
curved section (often semi-cylindrical). It is
precast using moulds. It uses less cement and steel while having the same strength as the same
RCC. It is primarily designed for roofing purposes, either basic roof or intermediate floor. The
FC roofing channels in almost all the building centers are produced manually in a brick masonry
mould, production process of which is a highly skill oriented job. A simple and cheap
manufacturing set up is needed but the areas for prefabricating and curing need to be quite
large. A constant quality control is needed during the manufacturing process and a proper
curing is needed for one month. If the channels are not manufactured on site, transportation
has to be organized while taking care against damage. Ferro cement channels are lifted into
place and can immediately be joined together in order to provide a shelter.
45 | P a g e
Figure 31 Ferro Cement Channel as roofing material
Figure 32 Making FC channel Figure 33Curing of FC channel
Figure 34 Binding FC channels
46 | P a g e
Figure 35 Chicken Wire mesh plan
Figure 36 Perspective view of FC channel
5.1.2 Bamboo-mud roof
In this roofing technology all the materials and labor used are local except small quantities of
cement and polythene sheet. Cement will be used for the soil stabilization which will be coated
over the roof. The technology is labour intensive.
The roof built at IOE, Pulchowk spans to 5.5 meters without use of truss that would otherwise
invite costly non-green steel truss or heavy timber-consuming wooden truss. The solution to
this problem is proposed as Trussed Beam. A Trussed Beam consists of rafter sizing 7.5 cm
X12.5cm with 12mm diameter rod or high tensile steel wire pulling the rafter ends to be
supported in form of triangle at the middle by 60cm long 7.5cmX15cm timber strut. The
structural concept behind this is: the timber takes only compression and the steel takes
tension. So small cross-section of rafter is sufficient; otherwise flexure beam has to take both
compression and tension that demands large cross section. There are several Trussed Beams
spaced 120cm center to center that would support bamboo purlins above without deflection.
Architecturally this gives single pitched roof.
The purlins are spaced 35cm center to center above which there are bamboo strips touched to
one another. Above this is plastic sheet for water proofing. This is followed by bamboo mesh
that supports thick layer of mixture composed out of soil, cow-dung and straw that provides
47 | P a g e
insulation to the roof. Above this is thin slurry of stabilized mud that supports Compressed
Stabilized Earth Tiles (made from the same Auram 3000 machine). This completes the roof
construction.
Figure 37 Rafter layout plan
Figure 38 Roof Layers details
48 | P a g e
Figure 39 Trussed beam (front view)
5.1.3 CGI Sheet Truss Roof
Lattice steel trusses are fabricated from tubular steel sections that are cut, mitered and
welded. CGI sheet roof as we all know has advantages like maintenance free, leakage free, fire
resistance etc. But it has many defects too. It is extremely hot during summer and scorching
cold during winter. Hence false ceiling are provided to maintain indoor comfort level.
Figure 40 Typical Truss Detail
Figure 41 Roof Plan with bracing shown
49 | P a g e
Figure 44 Section of the typical school building
Figure 43 Roof Plan
Figure 42 Front elevation of the school building
50 | P a g e
5.2 Roof Thermal Insulation
Most of the school buildings’ roof in Nepal is tin roof (galvanized iron). It is hotter inside the
class rooms during summer than the outside and gets really cold in winter. Then in monsoon,
when the raindrops clatter on the tin roof, it becomesbecomes very difficult to hear, let alone
understand, what the teacher is saying. To minimize the three problem of CGI sheet roofing, a
false ceiling with locally available, affordable, natural/sustainable building materials and easy
local technology is required.d. In the green school, CoRD has proposed a false ceiling panel of
bamboo mat and straw. In the panel, two layer of straw – dry straw and straw with mud on
the top are sandwiched between the two locally available bamboo mats called Chitra or
Mandro. Using ng straw as a insulated false ceiling is increasing used in strawbale Housing in
Europe and USA. The details of the panel is as shown in the following figure and photos
Figure 45 Layering on roof for thermal insulation
Figure 47 Ceiling grid detail Figure 46 Roof layers in detail
51 | P a g e
CHAPTER - VI
EARTHQUAKE SAFETY FEATURES

As already discussed, Nepal faces a high frequency of seismic hazards. However, it can be well
seen that even the basic norms for its prevention has not been implemented in the built
structures. Through this project, the criteria that has to be taken into consideration for an
earthquake proof building are highlighted so as to create an awareness among the local people
regarding their safety in the buildings.
The five horizontal ring beams are tied together by the vertical ties. Together the horizontal and
a
vertical ties make a skeleton like network of reinforcement. The idea is that the metal
reinforcements bring ductility (flexibility) to the building and the building is able to absorb a lot
of energy before a major damage. In the event of an earth quake it should get cracks but should
not collapse and if it has to collapse then it should give enough time to the people to leave the
building.
Following eight features are considered for the Green School Project as the earthquake
features:
6.1 Building Shape

The building is proposed as rectangular in shape which is the best shapes for earthquake
resistant buildings due to regular shapes and perfectly symmetrical in two axes. In this case the
centers of gravity and rigidity will be the same and therefore there will not be any torsion in the
building.
6.2 Ductility
Masonry components are most of the time brittle ones. Reinforcements are added to make a
structure more ductile with these brittle materials. Ring beams at various levels, which are
linked together with vertical
ertical ties, will reinforce the structure very well and make it ductile.
Figure 48 Horizontal and Vertical ties for earthquake resistance
52 | P a g e
Figure 49 Reinforcement
6.3 Rigidity Distribution

The centre off gravity of the plan lies on the centre of rigidity of the vertical masses. This would
avoid torsion of the building. The vertical rigidity of the building is well distributed.
6.4 Simplicity
Simplicity in the ornamentation is the best approach. Large cornices, vertical or horizontal
cantilevered projections, cladding materials, etc are dangerous during earthquakes. They are
avoided.
6.5 Foundation
Certain types of foundations are more susceptible to damage than others. Isolated footing of
columns can easilyly be subjected to differential settlement, particularly when they rest on soft
soils. Mixed foundations in the same building are also not suitable. What works best in most of
cases is trench foundation.
6.6 Long Walls

They are designed as shear walls to resist
resist the ground motion in the plane of the wall. To resist
the bending moment occurred by the ground motion perpendicular to the wall, they are braced
either by a buttress or by a cross wall. Any opening in a wall should follow the specifications
mentioned inn the next paragraph.
53 | P a g e
Figure 50 Design of walls for seismic resistance
6.7 Openings
Doors and windows reduce the lateral resistance of walls to shear. Hence, they should
preferably be small and rather centrally located. The specifications
specifications mentioned in IS 4326: 1993
are followed.
6.8 Structural Integrity (Box Action)

Past earthquakes have shown that damage to masonry buildings is significantly reduced when
building components are well connected and the building vibrates like a monolithic
monolith box. There
is a need to provide additional elements to tie the walls together and ensure acceptable seismic
performance. Structural integrity of a building can be achieved by developing a box action by
ensuring good connections between all building components-foundations,
comp foundations, walls, floors, and
roof. Key requirements for the structural integrity in a masonry building are:
• Stiff foundation
• Good connection between wall and foundation
• Good connection at wall corners
• Ring beam
• Vertical ties
• Small openings
• Good connection between wall and roof
Figure 51 Connection between walls Figure 52 Positioning of angles at L and T joints
54 | P a g e
Figure 53 Sill bands, lintel bands and stitches
Figure 54 Vertical reinforcements
55 | P a g e
CHAPTER – VII
CONCLUSION
Since earth and labor are two of the most abundant resources in Nepal, this cost effective
technique, if applied on a large scale, is expected to generate local employment and save the
country millions of dollars worth of foreign currency. Besides the environmentally clean CSEB
technique can replace fired bricks and save the nation‘s precious forest resources as well as
enormous amounts of CO2 emission.
The design is based on Climate Responsive (also called bioclimatic) principles to naturally
maintain a relatively comfortable temperature in all seasons. Again this would reduce tons of
energy resources and carbon emission that would otherwise have gone into heating and
cooling of schools, something which would happen more and more with rising prosperity. Over
the last decade earthquake safety has become a big issue in the entire Himalayan belt. Thanks
to the cost effective earthquake safety measures possible with CSEB technology the future
school buildings of Nepal can be not only ecologically and economically sound but also
earthquake safe. Finally being labor intensive, this technique would generate local employment
as also provide opportunities of volunteering (Janshramdaan) and participation to the village
communities irrespective of their financial status. It has been observed that such participation
in concrete and tangible processes like construction helps promote the more abstract ideas of
community ownership in government schools, which go on to ensure quality and accountability
in the system much after the building is built.
56 | P a g e
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. GoN : Government of Nepal, 2010. The Approach Paper to National Plan 2011-2013. Kathmandu,
Nepal
2. Daylighting in School – An Investigation into the Relationship into the Relationship between Day
lighting and Human Performance Heschong/ Mehone, August 20, 1999
3. Report on Green School, To promote education for all in Nepal, Deprtment of Education,
Government of Nepal, Sonam Wangchuk, MS Nepal, Febraury 2009
4. National Environment Guidelines for School Improvement and Faculty Management in Nepal, 2004
5. A manual of CEB Production “developed by CRATerre in France, a world leading Institute on Earthen
Architecture.
6. Thomas Neilson, HVAC bladet number 8, 2006 – http://www.techmedia.dk/
7. Development Alternatives 1998
8. Document on CSEB of Auroville Earth Institute
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ANNEX – One
Estimation
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ANNEX – TWO
Drawings & Details
59 | P a g e
ANNEX – Three
Photographs
60 | P a g e
Annexure : Basic Data on CSEB (for 5 % Cement stabilized blocks)

PROPERTIES SYMBOL UNIT CLASS A CLASS B
28 day dry compressive strength (+20% after 1 d28 MPa 5 -10 2-4
year)
28 day wet compressive strength (after 24 w28 MPa 2-3 1-2
hours immersion)
28 day dry tensile strength (on a core) 28 MPa 1-2 0.5 - 1
28 day dry bending strength 28 MPa 1-2 0.5 - 1
28 day dry shear strength S28 MPa 1-2 0.5 - 1
Poisson‘s ratio  - 0.15 - 0.35 0.35 - 0.50
Young‘s Modulus E MPa 700 - 1000 -
Apparent bulk density  Kg/m3 1900-2200 1700-2000
Coefficient of thermal expansion - mm/mC 0.010-0.015 -
Swell after saturation (24 hours immersion) - mm/m 0.5 - 1 1-2
Shrinkage (due to natural air drying) - mm/m 0.2 - 1 1-2
Permeability - mm/sec 1.10-5 -
Total water absorption - % weight 5 - 10 10 - 20
Specific heat C KJ/Kg ~ 0.85 0.65 - 0.85
Coefficient of conductivity  W/mC 0.46 – 0.81 0.81 – 0.93
Damping coefficient m % 5 - 10 10 - 30
Lag time (for 40 cm thick wall) d h 10 - 12 5 - 10
Coefficient of acoustic attenuation (for 40 cm - dB 50 40
thick wall at 500
Hz)
Fire resistance * - - Good * Average *
Flammability * - - Poor * Average *
NOTES
- 1 MPa = ~ 10 Kg / cm2
– These values are the result conducted in laboratories by recognized authorities. They give an
idea of what can be reasonably expected of a product made in accordance with the rules of the
art.
– The soil quality, the nature of stabilizer, the percentage of stabilizer and the compression
pressure influence a lot these values.
– These value can be obtained with 5 to 10 % cement stabilization and a compression pressure
of 2 – 4 MPa.
– Source: ―Earth Construc`on, a comprehensive guide‖ – CRATerre, Hugo Houben and Hubert
Guillaud
* No scientific tests on fire resistance have been conducted till now.
61 | P a g e

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Manual for Engineers on CSEB Green School Buildings in Nepal

Hari Darshan Shrestha

Action Aid International Nepal

This manual is developed by

CHAPTER – III .......................................................................................................35

ANNEX – One .........................................................................................................58

FIGURE 47 CEILING GRID DETAIL .........................................................................................................................................51

1.1 School Buildings in Nepal

Most of the school buildings in the Nepal are open on

As Government of Nepal is setting out to

Figure 3 Protoype of Green School Building

1.2 Green School Features:

1.2.1 Climate Responsive

Figure 4 Direct gain of sun light in cold regions

1.2.2 Environment Friendly

CSEB has these advantages compared to fired bricks:

1.2.3 Earthquake Safe

1.2.4 Cost Effective

According to Auroville Earth Institute

1.2.5 Community Participation, Empowerment, Employment

Community contribution is encouraged mainly to make community to feel ownership and

1.2.6 Child Friendly

1.3 Scope of the Manual

1.4 Aim of the Manual

1.5 Target Groups

This handbook is meant to make available information to different groups of individuals or

1.6 Organization of the Manual

COMPRESSED STABILIZED EARTHEN BLOCK

2.1 Earth Building Construction

Recently, traditional earth construction technology has undergone considerable developments

2.2 Why CSEB?

• Energy efficiency and eco friendliness

• A job creation opportunity

• Flexible production scale

2.3 The Raw Material

Gravel Sand Silt Clay

Figure 5 Percentage proportion in good soil

Table : Soil classification according to particle size

Soil Type Name of fraction Diameter size ranges of particles(mm)

Gravel Course gravel 20.000

Medium gravel 6.000

Fine gravel 2.000

Sand Course sand 0.6000

Medium sand 0.2000

Fine sand 0.060

Silt Course silt 0.020

Medium silt 0.006

Fine silt 0.002

Clay Clay Less than 0.002

Soil Types in Nepal

• Black cotton soil

1. Black Cotton Soil

Black Cotton Soil have the following common characteristics:

Gravely soil have the following common characteristics:

Sieving, with mesh size # 8 to 10 mm, is indispensable to remove coarse gravel.

Sandy soil have the following common characteristics:

Equivalent diameter size (mm): 0.05 - 2 mm

2.3.2 Soil Stabilizers

Figure 6 Compressive strength w.r.t. percentage of cement content

Suitability of stabilizers and their percentage

Stabilizer SUITABILITY MINIMUM % AVERAGE % MAXIMUM %

2.4 Selection of the Equipment

Special Features of Aurum press 3000: