Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology

Unit 3 - Circulation and respiration

Lesson 3.8 – Energy and oxygen

Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology
Lesson 3.8 Energy and oxygen

Step 1 – Energy for muscles

Energy (the capacity to do work) from the sun's rays is converted by plants into
chemical compounds, and these are consumed by humans, either directly or
through eating the flesh of plant-eating animals. So our food can be said to be
stored energy.

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed - only changed from one form into
another.

What we eat contains carbohydrate, fat or protein molecules. The body breaks
down these molecules through a process called oxidation, releasing the stored
energy and using it to power the human machine.

All the energy used by living organisms is derived ultimately from the sun.

Step 2 – Energy for muscles

Energy is measured in calories (cal) or joules (J). If we compare the relative

amount of energy that can be obtained, on average, from carbohydrates, fats, or
protein, we find that:

 Carbohydrates provide an average value of 4Kcal (17KJ) per gram

 Proteins provide 4Kcal (17KJ) per gram
 Fats provide 9Kcal (39KJ) per gram

However, for humans, proteins are less important sources of energy than
carbohydrates and fats.

A calorie is the energy required to raise the temperature of 1g of water through

1°C.

Step 3 - Proteins

Proteins are the main ingredients of cells and make up more than 50% of the dry
weight of humans and other animals. There are an estimated 30,000 different
proteins in the body.

Proteins consist of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. There are twenty
different amino acids required by the body. Eight of these cannot be synthesised
and must be provided in food and these are known as essential amino acids.

Amino acids are the building blocks we use to build and repair tissue and to
synthesise important enzymes and hormones. The long insoluble fibres of
connective tissue (such as cartilage) and hair are made from protein molecules. At
the other extreme, tiny soluble particles of protein can pass through cell
membranes and set off metabolic reactions.

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Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology
Lesson 3.8 Energy and oxygen

Step 4 – Proteins

Some important proteins are:

 Collegen - Collegen is the most abundant protein in the body; it is the main
component of bone, skin, tendons, and cartilage.
 Keratin - Keratin is the protein found in the outermost layer of human skin,
hair, and nails.
 Fibrinogen - Fibrinogen is a blood plasma protein responsible for blood
clotting.
 Myosin and Actin - Myosin and actin are two proteins mentioned in chapter
2 'Muscles of the body', which enable muscles to contract.

Step 5 – Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates and fats are the main foods from which we obtain energy.
Carbohydrates comprise the bulk of the average human diet.

After digestion and assimilation, all forms of carbohydrate are converted into a
sugar called glucose (or blood sugar). Fats and certain proteins are also
sometimes turned into glucose.

Glucose is the main source of energy for muscles and other parts of the body. It
can be found in every cell and in most bodily fluids; all the carbohydrates in the
body can be synthesized from glucose.

Step 6 – Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates include:

 Monosaccharides - Monosaccharides are single sugars such as glucose

and fructose
 Disaccharides - Disaccharides are double sugars such as lactose and
maltose
 Polysaccharides - Polysaccharides are many sugars, which include the
starches amylose and amylopectin
 Non-starch polysaccharides - Non-starch polysaccharides is the correct
scientific definition for fibre

These are all broken down in the digestive tract to become glucose. This is then
carried by the portal vein to the liver, where the sugar is converted into glycogen
(animal starch). Glycogen is stored in the muscles and the liver.

In the liver and muscles, glycogen is available at all times to be converted into
glucose. As we will see shortly, this is a very important source of available energy.
Excess carbohydrate can be stored as fat.

Note: The portal vein carries blood to the liver from the spleen, stomach, pancreas
and intestines.

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Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology
Lesson 3.8 Energy and oxygen

Step 7 – Lipids

Lipids can be described as fats and oils which are naturally occurring organic
compounds, comprised of three molecules of fatty acids and one molecule of
glycerol. Fats normally exist in the body as a mixture of several pure fats plus free
fatty acids.

Fats may be obtained from plants - vegetable fats are usually obtained by
extraction from seeds and fruit, or they may come from animals. Fatty acids in
foods are of three types:

 Saturated fatty acids

 Monounsaturated fatty acids
 Polyunsaturated fatty acids

However, there is a fourth fatty acid which is commonly found in processed foods
referred to as trans-fatty acids.

It is found that saturated fats in the bloodstream tend to raise the level of
cholesterol, whereas polyunsaturated fat tends to lower it.

Step 8 – Cholesterol

There is strong evidence to show that people with high levels of cholesterol are
more susceptible to coronary heart disease.

They may also be more susceptible to atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries).

However, although cholesterol is often labelled as being 'bad', it is an essential

part of every cell and is involved in the production of vitamin D as well as the
hormones oestrogen and testosterone.

Step 9 – Energy currency

Before we can utilise carbohydrates, fats and proteins to produce energy, they
must first be converted to a usable energy source.

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Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology
Lesson 3.8 Energy and oxygen

ATP is referred to as the 'energy currency' and is the body's main immediate
source of usable energy. This molecule is composed of adenosine and three
phosphate units (triphosphate).

Every time a muscle contracts, or the heart beats, or our brain cells 'think', the
body mainly expends ATP to provide the immediate energy for the action. ATP
continues to be produced by breaking down glucose through a complex series of
chemical reactions (glycolysis, the Krebs (TCA) cycle and the electron transport
system). These will be explained later.

The ATP molecule contains high energy bonds between the adenosine and
phosphate. Energy is released when it drops one of its phosphate groups to
become adenosine diphosphate (ADP).

Step 10 – Energy currency

So, when energy is required in the cells, ATP is split to release this energy.

This process also works in the opposite direction. As ATP is reconstructed, energy
is stored.

The amount of ATP in a muscle at any one time holds only enough energy for 1-2
seconds of hard work. The muscle must therefore replenish its ATP store
continuously. This is done so rapidly that it is very difficult to detect any change in
the amount of ATP in the muscle as a result of contraction.

Step 11 – The synthesis of ATP

The synthesis of ATP can be achieved via three metabolic systems or pathways:

1. The phosphocreatine system

2. Anaerobic glycolysis
3. The aerobic system, which includes glycolysis or beta-oxidation, the
Krebs (TCA) cycle and the electron transport chain

Step 12 – The phosphocreatine system

Within our cells, there is a compound that assists in energy production: creatine
phosphate (CP). Creatine is produced in the kidneys and liver and is absorbed into
the cells where it combines with phosphate to form CP. Creatine phosphate is able
to regenerate ATP by donating its phosphate group, hence assisting in energy
production.

No oxygen is required in this process, which is represented below.

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Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology
Lesson 3.8 Energy and oxygen

There is enough CP stored in the body to supply energy for 4-6 seconds of
intensive muscular activity. This means that for more prolonged forms of muscular
activity, alternative energy pathways need to be employed. As was the case with
ATP, CP is not depleted when the body is resting or engaging in moderate activity.

Every cell has its own store of ATP and CP. Thus, when any energy-demanding
activity is required - such as muscular contraction or structural repair, it can start
immediately if necessary.

Step 13 – Anaerobic and aerobic energy

Note: Anaerobic means 'without oxygen'.

Anaerobic glycolysis
Anaerobic glycolysis takes place in the muscle cell and involves the breakdown of
glucose into pyruvic acid, which in the absence of oxygen is then converted into
lactic acid. This process involves approximately nine stages, each being controlled
by specific enzymes. During the process, two molecules of ATP are used up, but
four are synthesised, giving a net gain of two molecules of ATP. However, due to
the accumulation of lactic acid causing an increase in acid levels in the cell, the
anaerobic production of ATP cannot be used for prolonged periods of time and
therefore the primary means of generating ATP is via the aerobic system.

The aerobic production of ATP

The aerobic system provides the muscles with a continuous supply of ATP and as
it implies, it requires oxygen. As mentioned earlier, it can be divided into three
stages:
1. Glycolysis (in the case of glucose) or beta-oxidation (in the case of fats)
2. Krebs cycle or TCA cycle
3. Electron transport chain

Let's take a closer look at each of these three stages.

Step 14 – Anaerobic and aerobic energy

Glycolysis
The process of glycolysis has already been discussed. However, if sufficient
oxygen is available, the pyruvic acid that is produced by glycolysis is converted
into acetyl coenzyme A rather than lactic acid. The acetyl coenzyme A can then be
further metabolised to produce more ATP via the Krebs (TCA) cycle.

Beta-oxidation
Fat can also be metabolised aerobically to produce ATP. However, its initial
metabolism is different to that of glucose. Fatty acids are a major energy source,
which the body utilises both at rest and during exercise. They are initially broken
down via a process called beta-oxidation. The product of this process then goes
through a series of chemical reactions, resulting in acetyl coenzyme A, which then
enters the Krebs cycle.

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Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology
Lesson 3.8 Energy and oxygen

Krebs cycle or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle

The Krebs cycle occurs within the mitochondria of the cell, and follows on from
glycolysis. It is a process of nine biochemical reactions. For each glucose
molecule, the Krebs cycle is considered to produce two ATP molecules. By-
products of this system then enter the next stage of the process, the 'electron
transport chain'.

Step 15 – Anaerobic and aerobic energy

The electron transport chain

The electron transport chain involves a sequence of stages through which the by-
products of the Krebs cycle pass. At various stages, ATP is produced and for one
glucose molecule a total of 34 ATP molecules are produced.

In summary, therefore, each molecule of glucose which is broken down via the
aerobic system produces a total of 38 molecules of ATP: 2 from glycolysis, 2 from
the Krebs cycle and 34 from the electron transport chain.

Other by-products of this process are water and carbon dioxide.

Step 16 – Anaerobic and aerobic energy

Let us now consider what happens during the first few minutes of moderate
exercise. Look at the image below.

 For the first few

seconds, energy
comes from the ATP
already present in the
cells
 Almost immediately,
ATP is regenerated
by CP, which donates
its high energy
phosphate to ADP

 After about 30 seconds, the stored glycogen in the muscles and liver is
hydrolysed to release glucose. Glucose then becomes the main source of
energy used to regenerate ATP from ADP and phosphate
 Glucose metabolism then takes place in the pathways already mentioned;
in the absence of oxygen through anaerobic glycolysis and in the presence
of oxygen through the aerobic system (glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and the
electron transport chain)

Note: A substance is hydrolysed when it reacts chemically with water, resulting in

decomposition.

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Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology
Lesson 3.8 Energy and oxygen

Step 17 – Exercise and energy production

In the absence of oxygen, only two molecules of ATP are produced from one
molecule of glucose, together with lactic acid. We will discuss the effects of lactic
acid shortly.

In the presence of oxygen, the production of ATP is much more efficient with 38
molecules of ATP being produced for every molecule of glucose.

Within approximately two minutes following the start of moderate exercise, over
95% of the body's energy supply is provided by aerobic metabolism.

Step 18 – Exercise and energy production

Question: When you perform anaerobic exercise such as sprinting, you are
limited to less than a minute of high intensity exercise. On the other hand, many
people are able to perform aerobic exercise, such as jogging, at a moderate rate
for an indefinite period of time. How would you explain this?

Explanation: During aerobic exercise, such as swimming, jogging and cycling, the
demand for energy is at a much lower rate than it is, say, with sprinting. There is
more time to transport oxygen from the lungs to the muscles, and for glucose to
generate ATP in the presence of oxygen.

At the beginning of a period of exercise, the body's need for oxygen is not
immediately met. ATP, CP and glucose are used up in glycolysis, and this leads to
the formation of lactic acid. Once the demand for oxygen is satisfied, a steady
state is achieved, and the body can continue to exercise as long as it is able to
meet its fuel and oxygen requirements.

Step 19 – Energy pathways

Here is a summary of the energy pathways.

Primary energy pathways

CP system Lactate system Aerobic system
O2 dependent? Anaerobic Anaerobic YES
Speed that Very rapid Rapid Slower
energy is
produced
Energy source Phosphocreatine Glycogen Glycogen and fats
needed
Energy accessed Very limited ATP Limited ATP Unlimited ATP
By-products None Lactic acid CO2 and water
Duration of Short 0-10 secs 1-3 mins Long duration
energy supplied High intensity at High intensity at Up to 90%
95-100% 60-95%
Fibre type T2b T2a Type 1
utilised

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Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology
Lesson 3.8 Energy and oxygen

Examples of Heavy weight lifting 400 m sprint 2,000 m row

activities 100 m sprint 800 m run 1,500 m run
Golf and tennis Basketball 400 m swim
swings Baseball Marathon (100%
100m swim aerobic)
Tennis
Hockey

NB: This table is a simplistic representation of where the human body acquires its
energy during exercise. There is usually a combination of energy pathways with
one or more becoming more dominant depending on the intensity of exercise or
the type of activity.

Step 20 – Summary

Energy is the capacity to do work. For supporting life, energy comes ultimately
from the sun. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed - only changed from
one form into another.

Proteins are the main ingredients of cells and make up more than 50% of the dry
weight of humans and other animals. They consist of amino acids linked together
by peptide bonds.

Our bodies are only able to manufacture some proteins; the rest, called essential
amino acids, must be obtained from food.

Carbohydrates and fats are food from which we obtain energy.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the body's main immediate source of usable
energy. It releases energy by losing one of its phosphate groups to become ADP.
Creatine phosphate (CP) is a secondary source of energy.

ATP is regenerated from glucose (stored in the muscles and liver as glycogen), in
a series of processes or pathways. During the first 30 seconds or so of moderate
exercise, glycolysis takes place anaerobically and forms lactic acid as a by-
product. It takes about a minute for oxygen to become available; glycolysis, the
Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain then take place aerobically, and are
much more efficient at producing ATP from glucose.

Fat can also be metabolised to produce ATP via a process called beta-oxidation.

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Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology
Lesson 3.8 Energy and oxygen

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