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Joy Iris-Wilbanks
TSOL 531
Seattle University
Introduction
A filter is something that acts as a way to strain or block material from reaching a
container. For example, a coffee filter is placed above the cup, where placed inside are coffee
grounds. When hot water is poured over the grounds the filter acts as an intermediary turning
the dense bitterness of the material into a savory liquid. An affective filter can be thought of
in a similar way. Where for example, the “cup” is the language learners themselves, however
they aren’t simply empty vessels waiting to be filled. They have linguistic devices that are
accomplishing feats of language acquisition. The “filters” in this sense are a number of
variables (such as their emotions) that either allows input to pass through, or stands in the
way, thus filtering out certain input. This is a very simple visual of the affective filter in
language acquisition but it illustrates an important point that instructors need to be reminded
of, that their students have a layer of variables that can either hinder or help second language
acquisition. Students of all ages come to their language classes with various filters in action,
whether they are feeling anxious to take a test or are feeling excited to speak. These factors
will affect the way they interact with the instruction, but most importantly what will be
Is there evidence that lowering the affective filter can aid in effective language
acquisition?
The goal of answering these questions is to understand how the Affective Filter
Hypothesis can point to ways of providing meaningful instruction so students can acquire
language better.
TSOL 531 RESEARCH PAPER 3
Theoretical background
The affective filter comes from the idea that there is an intermediary source that
hinders the processes of language acquisition. Aligned with Krashen’s (1982) theory of
comprehensible input is the thought that no matter how much input is provided the affective
filters stands in the way of effective acquisition. In Krashen’s (1982) work “Principles and
Practice in Second Language Acquisition” he posits, “The filter hypothesis explains why it is
possible for an acquirer to obtain a great deal of comprehensible input and yet stop short…of
the native speaker level” (p. 32). The following figure from Krashen’s article (1982)
Figure 1. Affective Filter diagram. This figure illustrates the affective filter.
The degree to which the filter is high or low can determine its strength in blocking certain
input. Krashen (1982) also believes that it determines the level of accomplishment in
“Those whose attitudes are not optimal for SLA will not only tend to seek less input,
but they will also have a high or strong affective filter – even if they understood the
messages, the input will not reach the part of the brain responsible for language
acquisition.” “Those with attitudes more conducive to SLA will not only seek and
obtain more input, they will also have a lower or weaker filter” (Krashen, 1982, p.
31).
In a sense what Krashen (1982) is saying is that if someone’s filter is too thick than the input
will have far more trouble reaching the devices of language acquisition, but if the filter is thin
So then what are the variables that make the consistency of one’s affective filter?
Before going in depth about this, first a brief description of Krashen’s (1982) variables will
be considered. The three main variables Krashen (1982) identifies are “motivation”, “self-
confidence” and “anxiety” (p.31). It is important to keep these main variables in mind when
analyzing the Affective Filter Hypothesis because for the most part “anxiety” is what has
When thinking of what is making the filter weak or strong it is important to consider
that there is not just one variable occurring at a singular moment. Instead, the filter consists
of many variables and across varying contexts. A closer examination of these variables can
serve as a way to narrow down which ones need the most attention when instructing.
What is anxiety? When thinking about language learning one might think that anxiety
only comes up for students when they will be evaluated. However, anxiety occurs in
language learners in diverse ways. In MacIntyre and Charos’ (1996) study “Personality,
Attitudes, and Affects as predictors of Second Language Acquisition” they say that language
anxiety “…is the situation-specific apprehension generated in second language contexts” and
that “With respect to communicating it has been shown that speaking in the second language
can be especially anxiety provoking” (p. 6). We all know that speaking is a major part of an
ELL’s learning career. Even the most advanced and skilled ELL can still show signs of
However, speaking is not the only realm in which anxiety can be provoked. In Kilic
and Ucken’s (2012) study “Listening Text Type as a Variable Affecting Listening
Comprehension Anxiety” they examined the influence of a certain kind of listening exercise
TSOL 531 RESEARCH PAPER 5
on its relationship to anxiety. They argue that “…FL listening may provoke anxiety, for it
may sometimes be incomprehensible for the learner” and that “When listening
comprehension becomes harder, listening anxiety present in the learner becomes more
prevalent. This creates a cycle which needs to be broken to allow for the proper
comprehension…” (p. 55). It makes sense that both speaking and listening would be a form
of anxiety for the ELL and thus create a thick filter. That’s because one of the major
functions of language learning is listening and speaking. Furthermore the “listening text-
types”, which are recorded scripts of spoken dialog, do create anxiety in the learners. The
study showed this by using 130 participants who were adult students in intermediate classes.
Here they gave them different types of passages, which were lectures, radio talk shows and
informal dialogs. To account for their anxiety they gave students something called an
“anxometer” where they were “asked to grade their anxiety levels on a scale of 1 – 10 after
listening to texts of different types (p. 58). The following figure illustrates the anxometer
The findings shows evidence for listening anxiety but most importantly that a certain type of
listening-text causes the most results. “While lecture and radio talk show created the higher
levels of anxiety…informal dialog…caused the least anxiety…” (Kilic and Ucken’s, 2012, p.
61). This finding points to that anxiety can present itself during the lesson according to what
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activity is occurring. Understanding what types of listening exercises can provoke anxiety in
to communicate in the ESL / EFL classroom” it was noted, “High apprehensives tend to
which people tend to avoid communication acts…” (p. 36). In this case anxiety towards
communicating causes the ELL to not participate thus hindering the amount of practice they
experience. This study compared communication apprehension and anxiety between formal
and informal contexts and between L1 and FL contexts. The results show that using L1 can
lower the filter, depending on the context. This may be helpful to instructors where by
incorporating the L1 in the classroom can help lower student’s filters. Galajda (2013) states
“As communication in formal contexts seem to be hard for the students, they prefer to choose
There are other aspects that create filters for students, such as within the context of
classroom learning. The area of learning grammar can be a major part in provoking high level
present a lesson on a very complicated grammar point, or to answer random and obscure
questions about grammar from students. In the study “Communication apprehension and
second language acquisition among Vietnamese and Mexican immigrants: a test of the
affective filter hypothesis” by McCann, Hecht and Ribeau (1986) it was reasoned that “since
a second language learner is overtly criticized for grammatical errors in the learning model
but not in the acquisition mode, the latter mode should reduce anxiety about
communication…” (p. 35). In other words, students are being criticized for their poor usage
of grammar in the “learning model” or in class, and this raises their affective filter. Thus,
TSOL 531 RESEARCH PAPER 7
lowering the filter or being mindful that grammar correction can cause anxiety in students
can make way for better acquisition processes. Krashen (1982) also supported this viewpoint
that grammar instruction has an affect on one’s filter by saying it puts students “on the
defensive” also that “A sure method of raising the filter is attempting to correct errors…” (p.
75 & 129).
These are only a few examples that show evidence of variables for a high affective
filter in language learners. Since these variables are complex and can be triggered in different
ways, the task of lowering these filters might seem daunting. The following will be an
examination of what instructional means can be done to aid in the process of lowering
student’s filters. Overall, lowering the filter begins with looking at the environment students
learn in and our goals for instruction. Krashen (1982) points this out by saying “The
Affective Filter hypothesis implies that our pedagogical goals should not only include
supplying comprehensible input, but also creating a situation that encourages a low filter” (p.
32).
When considering how to lower student’s affective filter the role of the instructor, the
methods of instruction and the learning context become very important. Krashen’s (1982)
suggestions for lowering the filter include considering these roles, but he also provides
several techniques that can be quite useful. Other studies will be presented that will show
there are a variety of means to lower the filter. In addition, a final study will be presented that
suggests it’s not only the student’s filters that should be considered but also the instructors.
If a heightened Affective Filter were in place, then wouldn’t it be the assumption that
it is the instructor’s role to lower this? Krashen (1982) says, “In the second language
comprehensible input…that will encourage language acquisition” (p. 58). Therefore the role
TSOL 531 RESEARCH PAPER 8
of the instructor is to provide input and execute it in a manner that keeps filters low or
perhaps in better control. Generally, the input provided should be made comprehensible but
also less anxiety provoking. “If the topic being discussed is at all interesting, and if it is
comprehensible, much of the ‘pressure’ normally associated with a language class will be
‘off’, anxiety will be lowered, and acquisition will result (p. 74). The following are three
approaches to language instruction that Krashen (1982) suggests for successfully lowering
1.) The Natural Approach: In this approach the goal is to “enable students to talk
about ideas, perform tasks and solve problems” in a way that is not pressured onto
them (Krashen, 1982, p. 138). In other words it’s a way of easing the lesson material
onto the students instead of bombarding them with loads of input. An example would
2.) TPR: Total Physical Response is posited as a great tool to lower language learner
anxiety because it is based upon that students do not have to produce (speak) the
language. It aids in lowering the speaking anxiety (as mentioned before) and also in
helping students become comfortable with listening. Krashen (1982) encourages this
technique by saying “TPR makes one very important contribution to lowering student
anxiety: students are not asked to produce in the second language until they
filter. Basically providing realia, natural forms of speech, games and even music or
exercise during the lesson can reduce the filter. “Practically every feature of
Krashen’s (1982) instructional suggestions for lowering students affective filter can
be quite useful and in some cases demonstrate direct effects on the student. But the following
study, “The Affected Filter and Negotiated Interaction: Do our language activities provide for
both?” by Schinke-Llano and Vicars (1993), show us that there are specific forms of activity
that can either provoke a high filter or create a lowered filter. Their study “was designed to
determine learners’ levels of comfort with language activity types allowing different degrees
in the language learning class. This study shows us that there are varying degrees of
interaction that have an effect on student’s filters. There were four activity types used in this
study and presented to a group of first year undergraduate students at a university in Illinois.
Looking at these four activities it can be assumed that ones that weren’t “teacher fronted”
created the best results for lowering student’s affective filter. Indeed, their study found that
“…activity two is never ranked highest, and activity three (provides a great deal of negotiated
interaction) is never ranked lowest” (p. 327). This shows that students enjoyed the interaction
that took place in activities 3 and 4, meaning they felt less stress or hindrance on their
learning. From this study we can see that the different types of interaction have an effect on
lowering student’s filter, and the best formula would be for more student-to-student activity.
However, exactly when can an instructor know student’s filters are high or low? Does
the instructor spend a lot of time keeping an eye on student’s body language or facial
expressions? Even still a student could be feeling anxious but still fake a smile to get through.
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What if there was a form of technology that could tell the instructor, in real time, whether or
not a student’s filter is showing signs of being too high? The following study, “Emotion
based one-to-one synchronous learning environment” by Chen and Lee (2011) attempts to
use technology to see if the affective filter can be both detected and also lowered at the same
system based on human pulse signals for detecting three human emotions –
417).
The gist of this study is that the researchers created their own hardware and software to detect
emotions, which align with the variables associated with a high filter. Then they used this
technology during real-time chat sessions between students and an instructor. During the live
chat, the student is wearing a device to capture their pulse rhythms and this is being
processed into emotional output readings, which are shown to the instructor on the other end
of the monitor. The interaction took place via the software “JoinNet” and done so with voice
“The user interface can synchronously convey real-time learner emotions of peace,
nervousness and joy to teachers during English conversation training via the audio
channel of JoinNEt…” “The teacher can then refer to the emotions of individual
learners and provide appropriate feedback or guidance to assist learners and reduce
The study was implemented with four students and one English teacher at a senior high
school in Taiwan. These students took questionnaires before and after the experiment. All of
the participants “were asked to wear an ear microphone, sit in two different language-
learning rooms and speak to each other in English via the JoinNet audio channel” (p. 430).
The results of this study point to that high affective variables are real and also that
lowering them are very much possible. The results show that learner number 4 experienced
the most nervousness. “Learners no.1 and no.3, which had good English speaking skills, had
lower percentages of nervousness than…no.2 and no.4, who had poor English speaking
skills” (p. 433 – 444). This shows evidence that nervousness correlates with one’s skills at
speaking English. The following example of the conversation had in this study with learner
no. 3 demonstrates both when the nervousness takes place (the filter is heightened) and how
Teacher: When you were four years old you started to dance?
In this example, learner no. 3 “became nervous when the teacher misunderstood the meaning
he was trying to convey” (p. 435). The teacher reduces this anxiety by offering guidance to
help in the communication. The instructor responded to these signs of anxiety by looking at a
real time output of the student’s emotion on their computer monitor, which looked like the
following image:
TSOL 531 RESEARCH PAPER 12
Figure 3. Monitoring of emotions display. This figure shows what the instructor sees using
Also, the teacher commented on using this platform “that the embedded human emotion
recognition system could aid in her comprehension of student emotions, thus allowing her to
provide appropriate learning feedback…” in the context of online learning (p. 437).
human emotions and pinpoint where it happens in the instruction, it can’t be expected that
this is a practical tool for the classroom. The reality is that instructors can mostly guess as to
what affective filter variables are occurring in their classroom, but this study could show us
Another area of instruction that can reduce high levels of affective filters is to
consider more closely the role of the instructor. For example, if an instructor is having
personal problems outside of class and arrives with a downtrodden face and a poor attitude,
will this not have an affect on the students? Li’s (2012) study, “The improvement of Foreign
Language Teacher’s affective variables in Universities for ethnic minorities” takes on this
point of view saying that, “Teacher’s affective variables will influence students’ affective
variables directly in class. Thus influencing students’ learning results” (p. 71). By
interviewing 40 English majors in a Mongolian class utilizing five questions this researcher
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was able to make the conclusion that change within the instructor’s affective variables is just
The results show that these students do believe that if their teacher’s are showing a positive
attitude that they felt more welcomed to learn. It also found that “If teachers show poor
affective variables in class, it may lead to students’ fully losing interest of the subject and
even have a negative feeling about language learning” (p.72). Students can feel more
comfortable in class, and have a lowered affective filter, if the instructor projects this positive
However, this study suggests that teachers should be like “actors” and as an
experienced instructor this is quite disturbing. “Teachers are like actors, sometimes. No
matter you are happy or not… when you enter the classroom you must behave happily” (p.
73). Certainly projecting a depressing attitude onto students is not useful, but “acting” happy
is a different thing. Instead, instructors should project genuine motions, which just might be
happiness. It might be that they are having a hard day, but instead can show an emotion of
courage or optimism for the class ahead. That’s not really acting, that’s providing a positive
attitude. In the end, this study is a useful reminder that as instructors we need to keep in mind
that our manner of being has an affect on students’ own affective filters.
Contradictions
The Affective Filter hypothesis would be moot if it weren’t for the account that
certain variables create a high filter and when you reduce them you create a low filter. These
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variables for the most part are a language learner’s emotions. It is often thought of that just
the negative emotions are what impact a student’s affective filter. But what if we considered
both negative and positive emotions and that they work together to aid in the process of
language acquisition. The study “Emotions in SLA: New Insights From Collaborative
Learning for an EFL Classroom ” by Imai (2010) wants us to take a closer look at emotions
individual’s inner cognitive functioning; rather, they can in any forms mediate development,
especially when learning is embedded in interpersonal transaction…” (p. 278). From this
point of view one must consider better the role of emotions in the Affective Filter Hypothesis
and that the filter (which consists of these emotions) isn’t really meant as a blockage device.
This point of view takes on that emotions are a response to the social world around
emotion, and behavior within social interaction and with their environment” (p. 281). By
examining a group of Japanese university students doing group work outside of class, this
researcher looks for how emotions come into play when students work on and reflect on
teacher instruction. The group work was done in their native language. The results of this
study show that, “various emotions, such as confusion, boredom, frustration, regret, and
empathy were verbally manifested” as the participants talked about their tasks and learning
experiences from class (p. 288). Also the observations point to that the emotions manifested
themselves in a way that “led them to exercise their agency as readers and regulators of the
information in setting a new goal in their activity” (p.288). Through showing the dynamic
way emotions play out, in-group conversations, this research shows that affective variables
are part of the phenomena of conversing and being a part of the learning process.
might display or verbalize them in different manners due to their differing backgrounds. This
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is important towards understanding the affective filter because one’s assumptions and
personal views of the students’ emotional signals might not accurately match what they are
emotions by users of English as foreign language” it was stated “emotion concepts and their
linguistic expression may vary across languages and cultures” (p. 154). This study aimed to
find out how students express their emotions linguistically and it found that “advanced adult
learners…as a foreign language…are able to decode, name and express emotions” (p. 162).
This reminds us that the lower level students might not be equipped to express their emotions
in the L2 and that it is essential to keep this in mind and incorporate instruction that teaches
Conclusion
Whether the variables of the affective filter are definite or not this research shows that
learning within the ESL / EFL context is an emotional task. Understanding this shows that
students not just have their own emotions towards language learning but factors within the
learning process can create filters too. The affective filter hypothesis shows that considering
these variables in instruction is important, but furthermore knowing that certain areas, such as
certain listening contexts or error correction can create even more hindrances towards
acquisition. Instead of constantly trying to keep an eye out for anxiety, for example,
developing lessons and materials with the filter in mind can be of more use to lower student’s
filters. This research thus shows evidence for the affective filter and important pedagogical
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Li, Kun. (2012). The improvement of foreign language teacher’s affective variables in
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