ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

Centrifugal filtration combines the centrifugation and filtration to separate a solid

and liquid mixture. The main idea behind centrifugation is rotating the mixture and in

doing so, the mixture would then exert an equal and opposite force, namely ​centrifugal

force directed towards the walls of the container (Geankoplis,1995). The rotating baskets

have perforated walls which are covered with a filter medium.

Some examples of filter medium used are canvas or metal cloth. The centrifugal

force created by the rotation creates a pressure onto the cake which forces the liquor out

through the filter medium Usually, the feedstock in centrifugal filters are mixtures

wherein the solids forms a cake when separated from the liquid (McCabe, 2005). A cake

of solids would then build up on a screen and then deposited into a rotating basket and

then spun “dry” (Geankoplis, 1995). When the motor is turned off, the remaining liquid

in the cake that did not go through the filter medium would tend to drain from the cake

due to gravity leaving the cake much “drier” than if it went through other equipment like

filter press or vacuum filters. Using a centrifuge filter is an economical choice especially

if the cake is to be dried afterwards (McCabe, 2005). Figure 1-1 shows the general

diagram of a filtration centrifuge set-up. R1 is liquid, r2 is inner radius of basket and ri is

inner radius of cake face.

Figure 1-1. General diagram of filtration centrifuge.
Source:​ Geankoplis (1995)

There are three main types of filtering centrifuges which are the suspended batch

machines, the automatic short-cycle batch machines, and the continuous conveyor

centrifuges. The suspended batch machines are spun at speed of 600 up to 1800 r/ min.

The cycle stops when the cake is 50 to 150 mm thick inside the basket. The motor is shut

off and brakes are applied and when the rotating speed reaches 50 to 30 r/ min an

unloader knife is used to remove the cake. Figure 1-2 shows a suspended batch machine.

Figure 1-2. Top suspended batch centrifuge.

Source: ​ McCabe (2005)
 Automatic batch centrifuges rotate at a constant speed at a horizontal axis. At

appropriate intervals for long lengths of time, the feed slurry, the wash liquid, and screen

rinse are sprayed in succession. These centrifuges employ cycle timers and any part of

the cycle may be adjusted according to the need of the user. Figure 1-3 shows the

automatic batch centrifuge.

Figure 1-3. Automatic batch centrifuge.

​ cCabe (2005)
Source: M

The last main type is the continuous filtering centrifuge. In this type the feed

enters a small funnel fed to a rotating basket with a slotted wall. The funnel is designed to

make to feed accelerate as smooth and as gentle as possible. The feed would then exit at

the same speed and direction as the wall. The cake is removed via a reciprocating pusher

which moves the crystals slowly towards the lip of the basket which also opens a space

for more cake when the pusher retracts. Washers and filtrates that are used in this

operation leave at separate outlets (McCabe, 2005). The continuous centrifuge is shown

in figure 1-4.
 Figure 1-4. Continuous centrifuge.
​ cCabe (2005)
Source: M

Filter media is considered as any material that is permeable to one or more

components of a given mixture, solution, or suspension and would retain the remaining

components under the operating conditions of the filter set-up. The components in which

the medium retained is may be solids, colloidal material, or ionic species. The filtrate

would usually be the suspending fluid or solvent (Sutherland, 2008). The basic

requirements in choosing a filter medium is that it must give reasonably clear filtrate, it

must not plug nor blind, the chosen medium must be resistant to the chemicals that would

be used on it and physically sturdy in order to withstand the process conditions, clean and

complete discharge of the cake must be allowed by the media, and must be economically

priced. The main materials of construction are the natural, synthetic, and metal (McCabe,

2005).

In centrifugal filtration, cake build-up is the main factor. Once the cake builds up,

the resistance of fluid to flow would increase resulting in a flow rate decrease or a

pressure drop rise. Flow and driving force in a centrifugal filtration set-up are
proportional to the radius. The theoretical predictions involving the behavior is much

more complicated than compared to pressure and gravity filtrations (Perry, 2007). These

two parameters are the main parameters in assessing the centrifugal filter set-up. In

performing the experiment, some assumptions could be made to help in obtaining the

equations.

Smiles ​et al ​(1999) wrote that the flow of the slurry in the chamber is assumed to

laminar so the porosity of the liquid is also constant and to eliminate the flux of water.

Geankoplis (1995) assumed that cake has already been deposited upon starting

calculations, the centrifugal force was way stronger than inherent kinetic forces of the

slurry and the gravitational forces in the system making the two forces negligible in

calculations, and that the resistance of the filter medium is constant. The derivation is as

shown below,

(Equation 1-1)

Where:
v = velocity
q = volumetric flow rate
A =area

Substituting Eqn 1-1 to 1-2 gives Eqn. 1-3.

(Equation 1-2)

(Equation 1-3)
For a hydraulic head of

dp = ​ρg dz (Equation 1-4)

Substitution of g = rω​2 ​and dz is turned to dr. The equation 1-4 is turned to eqn. 1-5 which
is,

dp = ​ρ rω​2​ dr (Equation 1-5)

Further substitution gives equation 1-6 which would be used in getting the pressure drop.

(Equation 1-6)

For centrifugal filtration, the following necessary assumptions are considered for

the rate of slurry flowing through the filter cake to be predicted (McCabe, 1993):

1. the influence of gravity and kinetic energy on the liquid is not considered;

2. the pressure drop due to centrifugal force equals the fluid drag;

3. the cake is completely filled with liquid;

4. the slurry moves in a laminar condition;

5. constant resistance by the filter medium is considered; and

6. an “average specific resistance” of the cake can be considered since it is

“nearly incompressible.”

The Carman-Kozeny equation relates the pressure drop of the liquid and the cake

porosity and is only valid for laminar flow (Lorida, 1999).

(Equation 1-7)
 where:

The cake porosity, on the other hand, can be calculated using Equation 1-8.

(Equation 1-8)

where:

The equation for the mechanism of filtration is represented by Equation 1-9 where

the rate of filtration is being related to the driving force and resistance of the system.

(Equation 1-9)

where:

The specific surface area of the particle can be calculated using Equation 1-10

where ρs is the density of the solid.

 (Equation 1-10)

The filter cake resistance can be calculated using Equation 1-11.

(Equation 1-11)

where:

Equation 1-12 presents the filtration efficiency which can be used as a parameter

in evaluating the performance of a laboratory scale batch centrifugal filter.

(Equation 1-12)

where:

Moreover, equation 1-13 relates the raw sugar, massecuite feed, and saturated

sugar solution.

​
(Brix x weight)massecuite​ = (Brix x weight)​sat’d sugar sol’n​ + (Brix x weight)​raw sugar ​ (​ Equation 1-13)
 The significance of the study is to be able to better understand the relationship

between the brix of massecuite to the plot of change in time per change in volume filtrate

by visualization, to be able to determine the most suitable set of parameters for a more

effective separation, and to know the efficiency of the process used.

The objectives of the experiment are to illustrate the effect of massecuite Brix on

the plot of change in time versus the change in volume of filtrate; to calculate and

compare corresponding filtrate volume equivalents, specific cake resistances, cake

porosities, and cake specific surfaces; and to evaluate the sugar recovery based on the

amount of sugar in the cake.

 METHODOLOGY

Materials

The most important equipment used in the experiment is the batch centrifugal

filter. The sample used is brown sugar of 66°brix. A refractometer is used in measuring

the brix of the samples prepared and the filtrate from the experiment. Graduated cups are

used in measuring and collecting the separated filtrate during the batch process. Other

materials and apparatus used are water, beakers, stirring rods, basins, and stopwatch.

Methods

Preparation of the massecuite feed

The massecuite feed was prepared by mixing raw sugar with a saturated sugar

solution. The saturated sugar used was prepared by dissolving raw sugar in hot water.

The brix concentration of the raw sugar and saturated sugar solution was first determined

using a refractometer. Afterwhich, the amounts of raw sugar and saturated sugar solution

needed to achieve the desired brix concentration for the massecuite feed was computed.

2000 kg of massecuite feed with brix concentration of 87, 89, and 91 were prepared.

Batch centrifugal filtration experiment

Prior to the experiment, the batch centrifugal filter was cleaned up by letting the

equipment run with water. Afterwich, the massecuite feed was loaded into the centrifugal

filter and the equipment was turned on. The filtrate was collected for every 20mL, 10mL,
and 5mL for brix concentration of 87, 89, and 91, respectively and the time was recorded.

The experiment was done by batch for 2 minutes. The brix concentration of the last drops

of filtrate were measured and recorded. After separating the filter cake from the filtrate,

its dimensions were measured using a ruler and recorded. The filter cake was then

collected and weighed. The equipment was purged with water after each run to make sure

that no residue remained from the previous run. After gathering the necessary data, the

specified parameters were then computed.

 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Effect of brix of massecuite on the plot of Δt/ΔV versus V

Massecuite feed with brix concentrations of 87, 89, and 91 were prepared and

subjected to batch centrifugal filtration. The filtrate was collected for every 20mL, 10mL,

and 5mL for brix concentration of 87, 89, and 91, respectively and the time was recorded.

A plot on the change in time per change in filtrate volume versus filtrate volume

was obtained in order to calculate the other filtration parameters needed for the

experiment. Figure 1-5 presents the linear plot for the different brix concentrations that

were considered.

(a)
 (b)

(c)
Figure 1-5. Linear plot of change in time per change in filtrate volume versus filter
volume for (a) 87 brix, (b) 89 brix, and (c) 91 brix.
 As shown above, the three graphs presented a negative slope which indicates that

the equivalent volume of the filtrate is inversely proportional to the brix concentration.

Figure 1-5 (c), which has the highest brix concentration, exhibits a much steeper slope at

0.0208 s/ft^3 as compared to Figure 1-5 (a) and Figure 1-5 (b). This reinforces the

relationship stated earlier that at higher brix concentrations, there will be lower

equivalent volumes. Higher brix concentrations have more saturated solutions making the

separation harder which will yield smaller equivalent filtrate volumes.

Determination of the filtrate volume equivalent, specific cake resistance,

cake porosity, cake specific surface, and sugar recovery

In order to determine the considered parameters for the experiments, some

parameters needed for the calculation such as the density of solution, density of filtrate,

and viscosity of the filtrate for each brix concentration were assumed constant at 30​⁰C

and 85% purity.

Table 1-1. Solution and filtrate constants at assumed 30​⁰​C and 85% purity
Parameters Brix concentration

87 ​⁰​Bx 89 ​⁰​Bx 91 ​⁰​Bx

Density sol’n, kg/m3 1318.2 1318.2 1318.2

Density filtrate, kg/m3 1324.4 1336.8 1336.8

Viscosity of filtrate, mPa-s 104.912 159.542 159.542

​ ww.sugartech.co.za/density​ and w
Gathered from w ​ ww.sugartech.com/viscosity

According to the data above, it can be determined that the density of the solution

will not change on the variation of brix. However, the density of the filtrate varied at 87
⁰​Bx but remained the same at the latter brix measurements. This pattern continued on the

filtrate viscosity with 87 ​⁰​Bx at 104.912 mPa-s and both 89 ​⁰​Bx and 91 ​⁰​Bx at 159.542

mPa-s. According to Toledo (n.d.), the density of the filtrate should be directly

proportional to the brix concentration. A source of error that might have affected the

constant density at the latter concentrations could be the consequence of the assumptions

made at Equation 1-6.

By using Equation 1-14, the equivalent volume was obtained. The obtained value

for the filter volume equivalent for each brix concentration is presented in Table 1-4.

y−intercept
Ve= slope
(Equation 1-14)

The values of y-intercept and slope used in calculating the volume of the filtrate

for each brix concentration were presented in Table 1-2.

Table 1-2. Values for calculating the equivalent volume of the filtrate.
87 ⁰Bx 89 ⁰Bx 91 ⁰Bx
V, mL dt/dV, s/mL V, mL dt/dV, s/mL V, mL dt/dV, s/mL

40 0.4225 40 0.663 10 3.122

60 0.4965 50 0.589 15 3.064
80 0.343 60 0.891 20 2.376
100 0.294 70 7.069 25 3.698
120 0.34 80 0.709
140 0.505 90 0.982
160 0.502 100 0.73
180 0.573
200 0.639
220 0.837
 Other parameters needed for the computation of the specific cake resistance were

obtained and presented in Table 1-3.

Table 1-3. Intermediate values for the calculation of the specific cake resistance.

Parameter Brix concentration

87 ​⁰​Bx 89 ​⁰​Bx 91 ​⁰​Bx

Slope, s/ft3 0.002019775075 0.002879679314 0.02079768394

Gc, lbmft/lbfs 32.2 32.2 32.2

A (Lorida, 1999), ft2 2.159844949 ft2 2.159844949 ft2 2.159844949 ft2

Pressure drop, lb/ft3 9489235.344 9578080.496 9578080.496

w, lb/ft3 191.8944284 270.5914715 411.4677124

Equation 1-15 is used in calculating the filter cake resistance.

2
slope x gc x A x (−ΔP )t
α= μw
(equation 1-15)

As shown in Table 1-3, the slopes increases as the brix concentration increases.

Furthermore, the pressure drop at 87 ​⁰​Bx was measured 9489235.344 lb/ft3 while it

remained constant from 89 ​⁰​Bx and 91 ​⁰​Bx at 9578080.496 lb/ft3. Again, this constant

behavior could have been a consequence of the former assumptions made. Lastly, the

weight of the solids in the feed slurry per volume of liquid in the slurry, w, exhibited a

direct relationship with the brix concentration. This is explained by the increase in the

amount of solids as the brix concentration also increases.

Table 1-4 Values of required parameters​ ​for the experiment.

Parameter Brix concentration

87 ​⁰​Bx 89 ​⁰​Bx 91 ​⁰​Bx
Filtrate volume equivalent (Ve), mL 8.9281 11.6895 9.9812
Specific Cake Resistance (α), 155.769820 169.5463 171.1453
ft/lbm
Cake Porosity (ε) 0.3744 0.2896 0.1593
Cake Specific Surface (So), solids 7965253.4578 1354687.5210 989784914.9876
% Efficiency 84.1126 87.9205 87.9127

According to Table 1-4, the specific cake resistance values determined exhibited a

direct relationship with the brix concentration in terms of magnitude. The negative values

on the cake resistance were probably because of the miscalculated equivalent filtrate

volumes. However, the cake porosity showed an inverse relationship with the brix

concentration. The ε values from 87 ​⁰​Bx, 89 ​⁰​Bx, and 91 ​⁰​Bx were 0.3744, 0.2896, and

0.1093 respectively. This was caused by the increase in mass of solid present in the cake

which was a consequence of higher brix concentrations. Consequently, the increase with

the amount of solids makes the sample more compact resulting to a lower porosity. The

cake specific surface was more difficult to be provided a trend since the value fluctuates

at 89 ​⁰​Bx. An error such as calculating S​o with exponents involved in the equation might

have caused the value to propagate. As for the efficiency of the separation, it can be seen

that it is directly proportional to the brix concentration. Therefore, larger sugar

concentrations will yield a much more efficient separation process.

 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The combined principles of centrifugation and filtration is employed during a

centrifugal filtration process. During this process, the liquid - that is the filtrate, is being

separated from the solids called the filter cake. The quality of both the filter cake and

filtrate from the experiment was evaluated by considering and computing for different

parameters such as the the filter volume equivalents, specific cake resistance, cake

porosity, cake specific surface, and recovery efficiency.

All the specified parameters affect the brix concentration of the feed. The

obtained specific cake resistance for 87, 89, and 91 brix were -788229560412 ft/lbm,

-2827671161690 ft/lbm, and -67650503485283 ft/lbm, respectively. As for the cake

specific surface, the values obtained for 87, 89, and 91 brix were 1002818.776,

2421429.436, and 892484.9224, respectively. The % sugar recovery obtained for 87, 89,

and 91 brix were 92.18214286%, 97.00508607%, and 98.22100356%, respectively.

Based on the results, specific cake resistance, cake specific surface, and recovery

efficiency is directly proportional to the brix concentration of the feed.

On the other hand, filtrate volume equivalent and cake porosity are indirectly

proportional to the feed’s brix concentration. The obtained values for filtrate volume

equivalent for brix concentration of 87, 89, and 91 were 2075.862069mL,

139.1891892mL, and 69.15422886mL, respectively. For the cake porosity, the obtained

values for 87, 89, and 91 brix were 0.3502, 0.2044, and 0.0824, respectively. The cake

resistance increases as the amount of solids increases thus, the filtrate volume equivalent
decreases. Moreover, the increase in the amount of solids causes the compating of the

cake which results to the decrease in porosity.

 RECOMMENDATIONS

To further improve the experiment, it is recommended to increase the number of

trials for each massecuite brix specified. Increasing the number of trials can help in

achieving a more consistent experimental data thus, providing a more reliable result.

Wider range of brix concentration can also be used to further evaluate its effect on the

specific parameters considered for the experiment. As for the batch centrifugal filter, it is

recommended to install a switch to avoid the plugging and unplugging of the equipment

during the experiment. Since the floor gets wet upon cleaning the centrifugal filter after

each experimental run, plugging and unplugging of the equipment to the electrical outlet

might cause electrocution. The centrifugal filter belt should also have a cover to avoid

causing harm to students such as snagging clothes. Moreover, another modification of the

batch centrifugal filter can be the detachment of the basket from the body of the

equipment for a better filter cake recovery and measurement of its dimension.
 REFERENCES

LORIDA, E. U. (1999). Fabrication and preliminary testing of a laboratory batch

centrifugal filter. Unpublished undergraduate thesis—Chemical Engineering:
University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna.

TOLEDO, M. (n.d.). Brix - sugar determination. Retrieved from

https://www.mt.com/dam/Analytical/Density/DE-PDF/BRIX-Sugar_Determinatio
n.pdf

GEANKOPLIS, C.J. (1995). Transport Processes and Unit Operations (4​th​ ed.)

MCCABE, W.L., J.C. SMITH & P. HARRIOT. 2005. Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering. 7th Edition. Singapore; McGraw-Hill.

PERRY, R. H., & GREEN, D. W. (2008). Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook.

SMILES, D. E. (1999). Centrifugal filtration of particulate systems. Chemical

Engineering Science, 54(2), 215–224. doi:10.1016/s0009-2509(98)00229-2.
Obtained last Jan 26, 2019.

SUTHERLAND, K. 2008. Filters and Filtration Handbook. 5th Edition. New York:
Elsevier Science, Inc.pdf
APPENDICES
 APPENDIX A
Sample Calculations

Calculation for the equivalent volume of the filtrate

y−intercept 0.602 s/mL

Ve = slope
= −2.9x10−4 s/mL−mL
= − 2075.862 mL

Calculation for the specific cake resistance

slope = − 2.9x10−4 x1000mL/L x 1000L/m3 x (0.3048m/f t)3 =− 8.2119 s/f t3

2 2 2 2 3 3
pf w2 (r2 −r1 ) 1.32g/cm3 x 178.0236 rad/s x (13.97 −13.17 )cm2 x 2.2 lbm/kg x 100 cm3 /m3 x (1m/3.2808f t) x 1kg/1000g
− ΔP = 2gc
= 2 x 32.2 lbmf t/lbf s2

− ΔP = 9489235.344 lbf /f t2

3
weight of sugar x density of molasses 1400 g x 1.3182 g / m3 lb / f t
w = weight of molasses
= 600.38 g
x 62.4280 g/m3
= 191.8944 lb/f t3

Calculation for the cake porosity

Ws 1400 g
ε= 1 − ρsV c
= (1.55 g / cm3 ) V c
= 0.3502

Calculation for cake specific surface

3 3 3 3 3
αρsε 1/2
S o = [ 5(1−ε) ] = [ 788229560412 f t/ lbm x 1.55 g/cm x 2.2lbm/1000g x (100cm/1m) x (0.3048m/f t) x 0.3502
5 x (1 − 0.3502)
)]0.5

S o = 1002819 solids
APPENDIX B
Documentation
APPENDIX C
Raw Data
 CERTIFICATION OF CONTRIBUTION

NAME CONTRIBUTION SIGNATURE

Pedri​ña, Nicole Abstract

Aquino, Ralph Vincent Introduction

Salvaleon, Xylux Methodology

Acasio, John Benedict Results and Discussion

Contaoi, Allan Results and Discussion

Reyes, Maica Angelica Summary and Conclusion,

Recommendation

Reyes, John Adriel Appendices, Sample

Calculations