EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE D.
Living Things Respond to Stimuli
Creation Theory - the concept of divide creation is that all life forms
existing today on Earth have been created by a supreme being
Theory of Abiogenesis – also called spontaneous generation theory
states that states that living things were naturally created from
nonliving things such as simple organic compounds
Theory of Biogenesis – states that living things come from living
things
Theory of Catastrophism – supported by French scientists Georges
Cuvier and Orbigny that is said to be a modification of the creation
story of the Bible
– states that there have been several
living creations from God, each encountered a catastrophe that
completely destroyed them
– each new creation consisted of new life
forms, which happen to be different from the previous one
Characteristics of Life
 Made up of cells
 They metabolize
 Grow and develop
 Respond to stimulus
 Adapt to their environment
 Reproduce
A. Living Things are Made up of Cells
- Cells are the basic building blocks of living things
- Each cell contains materials that carry out the basic life
processes such as respiration
- Francesco Redi disapproved the theory that all living things
come from nonliving things
Prokaryotes – single celled organisms that lack a membrane-bound
nucleus, mitochondria, and all other organelles
– its name comes from Greek words “pro” which
means “before” and karyon which means “nut or kernel”
Eukaryotes – organisms with cells that contain membrane-bound
nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles
Cell Theory
1. All living things are composed of one or more cells
2. The cell is the basic unit of life
3. All cells arise from preexisting cells
The discovery of the cell is largely attributed to Rober Hooke
- Upon examining a piece of cork using a microscope that he
built, Hooke observed tiny compartments that he called
“cells” (from the Latin word cella, meaning “little room”)
B. Living Things Metabolize
 Chemical reactions in life can be best described as building
up (anabolism) and breaking down (catabolism)
 Anabolism – the substances needed by organisms to grow,
store energy, and repair tissues are synthesized
 Catabolism – some complex substances are broken down,
releasing the energy stored in their molecules
 This chemical building up and breaking down processes are
collectively called metabolism (Metabole meaning change)
C. Living Things Grow and Develop
 In all living things, growth involves the increase in one’s
size or height
 Growth is not just an increase in physical structure, it also
involves complex changes in an organism
 Growth and development occurs rapidly from younger
stages of life to maturity
 Humans have average life expectancy of 60 to 70 years
while plants, such as narra trees can live more than 100.
 All living things respond to stimuli in the environment, this
responsiveness increases survivability
 Stimulus – any signal or change in the environment of an
organism that produces a response or reaction from that
organism
 Homeostasis – the internal balance of a body system
E. Living Things Interact
 No living thing can live alone, interaction among
organisms is simultaneously
 An ecosystem is formed when a community of organisms
interacts with another community and with their
environment
F. Living Things Reproduce
 Reproduction – the ability of living things to produce
offspring of their own kind
G. Living Things Adapt and evolve
 Adaptation – any response or reaction toward a stimulus
that helps in the survival of an organism
 Evolution – gradual change in organisms over a long
period of time in response to changing environment
H. Living Things are Organized
 Atom – smallest unit of matter
 Molecules – combination of atoms
 Cell – basic unit of life
 Tissues – cells are grouped to perform a specific function
 Organs – includes heart, brain and lungs
 Organ Systems – when organs are formed
 Organisms – when organ systems are formed
Two Types of Energy-Giving Molecules
1. Glucose – made during the process of photosynthesis
– With the help of light energy from the sun,
water, and carbon dioxide, plants create glucose where chemical
energy is stored in a concentrated and stable form
– In human body, glucose is transported by the
blood and taken up by the cells as energy source
– The stored energy in glucose is released in a
reverse reaction of photosynthesis called cellular respiration
2. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) – molecules store smaller
amounts of energy, but each molecule releases enough
energy to do the work within the cell
 ATP is made during the first half of the photosynthesis
and is used during the second half where glucose is
made
 It is also used for energy by the cells for other
important cellular processes
 The energy from ATP is released when it gives up one
of its three phosphates
ATP TO ADP
ATP + WATER ADP + Inorganic Phosphate + Energy
 The flow of energy through living things begins with
photosynthesis in producers, this process stores the energy
from the sun in the chemical bonds of glucose molecules
 These bonds stored are released to create ATP in a process
called cellular respiration
 The products of one process are the reactants of the other,
the two processes store and release energy in living things
 Both processes are essential in the recycling of oxygen on
earth
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Often regarded as the most important life process on Earth
 Through this, more than 99% of the energy used by all
living things is provided
 Photosynthesis converts light energy from the sun into
chemical energy, and releases oxygen
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
carbon dioxide water light glucose water oxygen
Stages of Photosynthesis
1. Stage I: Light-dependent reactions
 Directly uses light energy to produce ATP and NADPH
(another energy-carrying molecule) that power the light-
independent reactions
 Oxygen is also released as a waste products
2. Stage II: Light-independent reactions
 Also called Calvin cycle
 The ATP and NADPH from light reactions are used to
created glucose
 The reactions do not stop with glucose
 The end product glucose and other simple sugars are
bonded together to form starch, sucrose, fructose and other
carbohydrates
 Those carbohydrates are considered as the true end
products of photosynthesis
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
 Means by which cells release the stored energy in glucose
to make ATP
 The primary goal is to convert the stored energy into a
usable form, such as ATP, for the cells to carry out their
functions
 Has three stages: Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, Electron
Transport Chain
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
glucose oxygen carbon dioxide water energy
Glycolysis – process that breaks down one molecule of 6-c glucose
into 3-C pyruvates or pyruvic acids
– also releases four molecules of ATP that occurs in the
cytosol of the cell; enzymes are involved in this process
– A single glucose molecule that undergoes the process of
glycolysis produces two molecules of pyruvic acid, four molecules of
ATP, two molecules of NADPH, and two molecules of H2O
– Only two molecules of ATP are counted as net products
since two molecules of ATP are spent though out the process
Sexual Reproduction in Plants
 Involves the fusion of the parents’ gametes
 This fusion gives rise to an individual that has genes of
both of her parents
 The offspring is not genetically identical with either or both
of the parents but carries combined genes
Asexual Reproduction
 Type of reproduction that creates genetically identical
offspring
 The offspring that arise from asexual reproduction can be
considered clones
Flower – consists of highly specialized male and female reproductive
organs
 The female reproductive part of the flower, called pistil,
has stigma, style and ovary (contains the ovule that has the
egg nuclei)
 The stamen is the male part of the flower that has anther
that produces pollen grains which contain sperms
Pollination
 Where the sexual reproduction in plants start
 It is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of
the flower
 The pollen grains absorb moisture in the stigma and
sprouts, producing a pollen tube that burrows deep into the
style of the pistil until it reaches the ovary
 The two male gametes travel down the pollen tube into the
ovary
 Once inside the ovary, the two sperm nuclei enter the ovule
 A single sperm fertilizes the egg and becomes the embryo,
a diploid
 The other sperm fertilizes the two polar bodies and
becomes the endosperm, a triploid (called Double
Fertilization)
 After the fertilization, the ovule becomes the seed and the
matured or ripened ovary becomes the fruit
Reproduction in Animals
 During sexual reproduction, a haploid sperm cell and a
haploid egg cell unite to from a diploid zygote
 Fertilization is when the sperm and egg unite
 The zygote divides and differentiates into an embryo, the
embryo then grows and develops until the time or birth or
hatching
 Cross- Fertilization involves two separate individuals of
the same species in reproduction (Note: Even earthworms
do this fertilization)
 Self-Fertilization is when no other organism is in vicinity
or the union of egg and sperm is not possible (Ex.
Tapeworms)
 External Fertilization is the meeting of gametes outside
the body or in the open environment
Human Reproduction
 Most of the fertilization happen inside the body of female’s
species, wherein the male deposits the sperm in the
female’s reproductive organ during mating
 Also called Internal Fertilization
Asexual Reproduction in Animals
 Budding – involves the splitting of new individuals from
an existing organism by forming a small projections, called
buds, from the parent’s body
 Fragmentation (Regeneration) – type of asexual
reproduction wherein a single parent break into parts that
give rise to new individual
 Parthenogenesis – form of asexual reproduction in some
animals that give rise to the growth and development of an
embryo without fertilization
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)
 Genetic engineering alters the genetic code of chosen
organism by artificial means and is therefore different from
traditional selective breeding
 This results to genetically modified organisms and other
products such as proteins
 GMO bacteria were first generated in 1973 and GM mice in
1974, bacteria that produce insulin were first
commercialized in 1982, GMO food were introduced in the
market in 1994
 CELL PARTS ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Stages the customer goes through before making a purchase:
a. Recognizing a need or want
b. Seeking or retrieving information
c. Evaluating choices
Attitude – a settled way of thinking or feeling about
someone or something, typically that is reflected in a
person’s behavior
d. Making a purchase
e. Assessing the product or service experience

Customer Equity – refers to the total lifetime value (or estimated

lifetime revenues less expenses) a company can generate from all of
its customers
a. Value equity – customer’s objective assessment of the
utility of a product or service based on his perception of
what he is giving up for what he is receiving
b. Brand equity – customer’s subjective and intangible
assessment of the brand, above and beyond its objectively
perceived value
c. Relationship equity – customer’s tendency to stick with
the brand, above, and beyond his objective and subjective
assessments of the same

Ways to build customer loyalty:

1. Frequency Programs – designed to reward customers who
but often and in substantial amounts
2. Personalize customer relationships
3. Add structural ties with the customer
Nucleus Regulates all cell activities
Brand is a category of products that are all made by a particular
Cell Membrane Is made out of phospholipids and proteins company all having a particular name (Merriam-Webster).
Mitochondrion Site of cellular respiration "power house" Brand Elements are things that make a brand distinct, it includes
Lysosome Suicide Sacks that contain digestive brand names, logos, symbols, mascots, jingles, and mascots. Brand
enzymes elements should be:
Rough Endoplasmic Contains Ribosomes, transports proteins  Memorable – as a general rule, short brand names are easy
Reticulum and other materials to recall
 Meaningful – must be credible and must also communicate
Smooth Endoplasmic Contains no ribosomes, stores proteins
the distinction of the brand
Reticulum
 Likeable – must be visually and verbally appealing to
Gogi complex Processes and packages proteins
customers
(apparatus)  Humorous – a recognizable theme in the brand building
Nucleuolus Dark spot of chromatin in the nucleous efforts of Filipino companies
where ribosomes are produced
Cytoplasm Colloid that contains water and nutrients Emerging Marketing Practices
and supports the organelles  Buzz Marketing – a viral marketing technique that is focused
Organelles The parts of a cell with a particular function on maximizing the word-of-mouth potential of a particular
Prokaryotic Cells with no true nucleus and no campaign of product, whether that is through conversations
membrane bound organelles among consumers’ family and friends or larger scale discussions
Eukaryotic Cells that contain a true nucleus and on social media platforms.
membrane bound organelles  Social Media Marketing – a major component of buzz
Centrioles Only in animal cells, aid in cell division marketing, an act of maintaining presence in social media
platform such as Facebook and Twitter.
Ribosomes Produce Proteins
Chloroplast Found only in plants, site of photosynthesis Operations Management
Vacuoles Large storage sacks found mainly in plants Business Function: responsible for planning, coordinating and
Cell Wall Structure in plants made of cellulose that is controlling the resources needed to produce products and services
outside of the cell membrane for a company
- A management function
Chromatin Thin strands of DNA and proteins found in
- An organization’s core function
the nucleus of a cell.
- In every organization whether service or manufacturing, profit
Cell Smallest unit of life
or non-profit
Cytoskeleton Long protein filaments in the cytosol that
support the cell. Role of OM
1. Transforms inputs to outputs
2. Inputs are resources such as people, material, money
3. Outputs are goods and services
 Manufacturers vs. Service Organizations
 Exchange Transformation – takes place when a commodity
Manufacturers Service Organizations is transmitted from the supplier to its buyer
Tangible Products Intangible Products
 Extractive Transformation – happens when a natural
Product is inventoried Product cannot be inventoried
resource is taken out from its habitat
Low customer contact High customer contact
Long response time Short response time
Capital intensive Labor intensive Output refers to the result of the production process. Examples:
 Outputs from physical transformation: food grains,
Similarities canned food, bread, furniture, gasoline, construction
Both use technology materials, cars, electronic gadgets and other manufactured
Both have quality, productivity, and response issue goods
Both must forecast demand  Outputs from locational transformation: taxi services,
Both have capacity, layout, and location issues train services, sea transport, air transport, postal services,
Both have customers, suppliers, scheduling, and staffing issues telephone services, and other telecommunication services
 Outputs from information transformation: educational
Operations Manager is also responsible for managing activities that
services, health services, legal services, consultancy
are part of the productions of goods and services. Their direct
services, auditing services and other professional services
responsibilities include managing both the operations process,
 Outputs from exchange transformation: retail services of
embracing design, planning, control, performance improvement, and
sari-sari stores, groceries, supermarkets, and department
operations strategy. stores, and wholesale services of large distribution outlets
 Outputs from extractive transformation: gold ores,
Planning Organizing Controlling Directing
copper ores, timber, logs, sand, seafood, and other products
Capacity Degree of Inventory Issuance of
derived from natural resources
Location centralization Quality work orders
Products Process of Costs Job
Services selection Productivity Assignment Value Chain – input adding to the value of raw materials
Layout Incentive plan Input: labor, capital, land, technology
Projects Value Stream – design, produce, deliver good services to the market
Scheduling
Product Service
Performance Effectiveness – doing the right thing raw material suppliers
Performance Efficiency – doing things right manufacturers technology
distribution of network service producers
distribution

Input Process Output Two financial function of a company consist of the acquisition of
funds and the optimal use of funds.
10 Guiding Principles
Resource Inputs (5Ms) 1. Risk Return Trade Off
1. Materials – semi processed goods that will be subjected to 2. Time Value Money
further transformation in the production goods 3. Cash not Profit is King
2. Manpower – human resource input used in the production 4. Incremental Cash Flow
process 5. The Curse of Competitive Markets
3. Machinery – all man-made physical capital used in the 6. Efficient Capital Markets
production process 7. The Agency Problem
4. Method – denotes the process of combining raw materials 8. Taxes
and how these are going to be transformed using the other 9. All risks are not equal
factor inputs of production 10. Ethical Behavior
5. Money – a financial resource used to purchase all the
resources needed by the firm for its operations Challenges on Financial Management
 Need to convince the lenders and investors that the firm is a
Process refers to the various forms of transformation that factor creditworthy business enterprise
inputs perform on the material  A business venture should recognize the perspective and
Various forms of Transformation interests of lenders and investors
 Physical Transformation – occurs when the processing of  Need to understand alternative venues for financial
raw materials convert them into significantly altered new intermediation
product
 Locational Transformation – arises when product changes Crowdfunding makes use of social ties, connections, and networks
its location through various means of transportation and
in raising funds for an emerging company
communication
 Donations – the crowd contributed money to support a
 Information Transformation – happens when knowledge
worthwhile program
and specialized skills of providers are transmitted to their
 Reward-based – the crowd puts money into the company in
customers
exchange for a product or service
  Equity-based – contributions from the crowd make them part Integral Human Development – anchored on the principles of
owners of the business venture human dignity and the common good
 Credit-based - the crowd extends loans to the firm with the Common Good – the sum total of social conditions which allow
expectation of being repaid in the future people, either as groups or as individuals, to reach their fulfillment
 Main advantage of equity financing: huge amount of money more fully and more easily (as defined by Second Vatican Council)
that can be accumulated
 Disadvantage: the complexities of preparing and issuing bonds,
Various facets of IHD
securities, stocks, and other commercial papers in the capital
1. Bodily development
market
2. Cognitive development
3. Emotional development
Sources of Capital for Entrepreneurs 4. Social development
o Self-financing 5. Aesthetic development
o Borrowing from local credit market 6. Moral development
o Borrowing from commercial banks 7. Spiritual development
o Governments grants, credit, and incentives
o Venture and capital and business angles Training – helps employees to do their current work better
 Business Angel – uses his own personal funds to acquire
Development – prepares individuals for future positions or
private equity in the company
responsibilities within the business
 Venture Capitalist – uses the funds of a group of
individuals or a company to purchase equity in a start-up
company Three Kinds of Organizational Commitment
1. Continuance Commitment – refers primarily to the costs of
Social Bricolage – refers to the behavior of social enterprises leaving. (second thoughts because he will be away from
friends)
that improvise in an environment of merge resources
2. Affective Commitment - refers to the person’s positive
feeling towards the company and its core values
Functions of Human Resources Management
3. Normative Commitment – refers to an employee’s feeling of
Managerial Functions Operative Functions obligation to others (a manager who served as a mentor)
Planning Procurement
Organization Development
Ansoff Matrix – guide in charting the growth for their companies.
Staffing Compensation
Direction Maintenance
Controlling Motivation Growth Strategies (According to Ansoff Matrix)
Mitigation a. Market penetration
b. Market development
Selected Tasks of HRM c. Product development
 Recruitment – involves activities related to the development of d. Diversification
a pool of applicant for jobs in the organization
 Selection – related to the decisions on who to hire from the pool Market Penetration Strategy – selling more of the company’s
created by recruitment task existing products or services to its customers on a more frequent
 Training and Development – involves the continuous basis, through discounts, aggressive promotion, and distribution
development of the workforce efforts, or modest product improvements
 Performance Appraisal – the measurement of an employee’s
performance Market Development Strategy – selling the company’s existing
 Reward System Design – includes the plans for monetary and products to new markets
fringe benefits of employees  New geographical market – selling existing products to
customers in new locations
Job Analysis – the procedure through which the duties of a given job  New demographic market – offering the same product to a
positions and the characteristics of people who should fill them are segment of a market that has a different set of characteristics
determined Demographics – statistical characteristics of human
Job Description – list of what the job entails populations
Job Specification – list of the kind of people for the job  Expanding to industrial buyers – selling their products to
 Work activities  Performance standards individuals, but later graduate to servicing industrial buyers
 Human Behavior  Job Context
 Tools  Human requirements Product Development Strategy – creating new products and
services targeted at the firm’s existing markets
o Job analysis information is used to decide or determine:
1. The person to hire Diversification Strategy – growing the business by introducing new
2. The compensation for the job products in new markets
3. Job standards as basis for actual performance Vertical Integration – expanding the scope of business
4. Training and Development Programs operations by either moving backward or forward the value chain
5. Unassigned tasks and duplication of assignments Horizontal Integration – occurs at the same level of the
value-added chain
 Exit Strategies
A. Succession in a family-owned business – transfer of ownership
of their business to family members
B. Selling the business
 Management buyout – offering the business to top
managers, who are not co-owners of the business
 Employee stock ownership (ESOP) – giving employees
shares in the company as a bonus, depending on the
profitability of the company
 Sale to outsiders – sold to people not involved in the
company
C. Bankruptcy – happens when a company cannot pay its debts. It
lacks to resources to meet its existing obligations.
Signs of bankruptcy
1. Sudden departure of top people
2. Supplies and materials needed are lacking
3. Large and increasing discounts to customers
4. Payroll taxes are not promptly paid
5. Demands from creditors that payments be made in cash
6. Growing complaints from customers about poor service
and product quality