UNIT-V

IMPLEMENTATION AND ROBOT ECONOMICS

UNIT V IMPLEMENTATION AND ROBOT ECONOMICS 5

RGV, AGV; Implementation of Robots in Industries-Various Steps; Safety Considerations for
Robot Operations - Economic Analysis of Robots.

Rail-Guided Vehicle [RGV]

Daifuku’s Sorting Transfer Vehicle (STV) is a fast, flexible and easily installed material
transport system. STVs can be used to move loads of all sizes in a warehouse. For example, a
STV may be used as a sorting tool for goods coming out of storage and heading to shipping. STV
features sorting and collecting capabilities for multiple AS/RS aisle conveyor stations. It enables
picking by order line and sorting by destination Separate input/output stations enable the STV
to perform multiple tasks at one time. STVs are compact and move agilely over a track system,
enabling higher throughput than conveyors.
The STV track can be arranged in a loop or straight line to accommodate a variety of
applications, such as mixed SKU pallet picking, cycle counting, quality inspection, load sorting
and truck loading. Advantages of STVs include: fewer motors, no single point of failure, high-
speed, high-throughput and expansion flexibility to handle future growth. Daifuku's STVs are
designed for seamless integration with mini load and unit load AS/RS to effectively transport
raw materials, work-in-process and/or finished goods. STVs can also integrate with conveyor or
ergonomic workstations to facilitate efficient order picking for consolidation and shipping.
Features
• High speed
• Close order traffic control
• Multiple layout options (multi-vehicle loop or single-vehicle shuttle)
• Variety of models (carton and pallet handling)
• Microprocessor control with RF (Radio Frequency) communication
• Expandable by adding vehicles
• Easy maintenance
• Quiet operation
• Sort loads to different delivery stations without complex conveyor intersections

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• Accommodate a variety of building layout, space and performance requirements
• Bi-directional movement on single straight track for load pickup and delivery
• Modular layout simplifies system modification/expansion. Increase system capacity by
simply adding vehicles

Benefits
• Improved inventory control.
• Increased accuracy.
• Increased throughput.
• Eliminates of single-point failure; system can continue operating if a vehicle fails.
• Enhanced product protection - smooth transport of items or goods.

Specifications
• The STV family includes product variations such as load handling (tote/box vs. pallet), layout
(shuttle or loop), input/output/transfer mechanism (roller conveyor, chain conveyor, fork
top) and number of vehicles. STV track can be arranged in a loop or straight line to
accommodate a variety of uses such as mixed SKU pallet picking, cycle counting, quality
inspections, load sorting and truck loading. STV's advantages over conveyor delivery systems
include: fewer motors, no single point of failure, high speed, high throughput and flexibility
to expand to handle future growth.
• Standard load weight capacity: 50-1,500 kg (110-3,300 lbs.)
• Standard horizontal speed: 100-200 m/min. (323-656 ft./min.)
• Standard transfer speed: 12-30 m/min. (39-98 ft./min.)
• Standard load footprint: 300-1500 mm x -350-1500 mm (11.8-59.1 in. x 13.8-59.1 in.)

Primary Problems Addressed:

• Floor space
-Need more space for production
• Productivity
-Limited capacity in storage and production areas
-Lack of responsiveness to product orders
• Inventory
-Poor product accessibility
-No real-time product tracking (WIP buildup)
• Ergonomics

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 -Workers in hostile environments
-Workers walking long distances
-Excessive noise levels from material handling equipment
-Safety hazards
-Labor-intensive processes
• Disjointed Operations
-Multiple staging areas
- Product is often moved from one staging area to another
-Many Non-Value Added operations
• Labor
-High employee turnover
-High labor costs
-Small labor pool
-Low job satisfaction

Applicable Industries:
• Apparel
• Automotive
• Beauty & Cosmetics
• Book & Publication Distribution
• Electronics
• Food & Beverage
• Household Appliances
• Pharmaceuticals & Healthcare
• Retail
• Semiconductor
• Textiles

MATERIAL HANDLING AND AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLES [AGV]

1. INTRODUCTION

The flow of material through the processes is an important element in the

manufacturing system. Some type of automation is essential for handling of materials intra-shop
and inter-shop in order to reduce labour cost and fulfil many other functions. It is also required
to carry raw materials from stores to various work cells and the finished product to the
warehouse. The material handling element needs to be synchronized with work stations and

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different operations under a hierarchical computer control system capable of applying decision
logic to the movement of materials. Automated guided vehicles (AGV’s) may be considered as
one of the solutions for effective and economical material handling.

MATERIAL HANDLING

Material handling may be defined as the functions and systems associated with the
transportation, storage, and physical control to work-in-process material in manufacturing.
From a system approach, it can be defined as “using the right method to provide safely the right
amount of the right material at the right place, at the right time, in the right sequence, in the
right position, in the right condition, and the right cost.”

The purpose of material handling in a factory is to move raw materials, work-in-process,

finished parts, tools, and supplies from one location to another to facilitate the overall
operations of manufacturing.
The material control function is concerned with the identification of the various
materials in the handling system, their routings, and the scheduling of their moves. In most
factory o it is important that the origin, current location, and future destination of materials be
known. This function is achieved through the shop floor control system by maintaining accurate,
complete, and current records of all materials in the factory. This control is sometimes
augmented by means of automatic identification system whose purpose is to identify parts as
they are moved or stored.

Material Handling Systems

The material handling equipment may be categorized in many ways. One of the methods
is: the source of the motive force and the synchronization of the load movements. In path motive
handling equipment, the force applied to move the loads is provided by the transport path itself,
e.g. an escalator and cable car system. In vehicle motive equipment, the force applied to move
the loads is provided by a vehicle or load platform, e.g. trucks, trains, buses, and automobiles. In
synchronous transport system, all loads moving on the transport network or on a self-contained
segment of the network move simultaneously, at the same speed, and with a constant space
between loads. In a non synchronous transport system, the loads can move independently of
one another, up to the physical limits of the system, e.g. a system of trucks, trolley cars, and
taxis. The synchronous v non-synchronous classification is of most concern in assembly
systems.

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Material Handling Equipment

The material handling equipment can be divided as:

(a) Manually operated devices—hand trucks, powered trucks, cranes, monorails and hoists.
(b) Automated systems—conveyors, AGV’s.
(c) Miscellaneous systems—industrial robots, transfer mechanisms, elevators, pipelines,
containers, dial indexing tables, etc.
1. Hand trucks— These are platforms with wheels for manual movement of items, unit loads,
and bulk materials, e.g. wheelbarrows, two and four wheeled trucks, hand lift or manually
operated fork—lift trucks.
2. Powered trucks— These are powered vehicles with platform for mechanized movement of
items, unit loads, and bulk materials. They are driven by human beings, powered by
battery, diesel, or petrol, e.g. walkie trucks, riding trucks, forklift trucks, side loaders,
tractor trailer trains, and industrial crane trucks.
3. Cranes, monorails, and hoists— These handling devices are usually manually operated,
designed for lifting, lowering, and transporting heavy objects, e.g. bridge cranes, gantry
cranes, jib cranes, overhead monorails, hand and powered hoists.
4. Conveyors—. It is a large family of handling devices, often mechanized, sometimes
automated, and designed to move materials between specific locations over a fixed path,
generally in large quantities or volumes.
5. Examples include gravity conveyors (chutes, rollers) and powered conveyors (rollers, belt,
chain, overhead, in-floor tow, and cart-on-track).
6. Automated Guided Vehicles (AGV’s) Systems— These are battery-powered, automatically
steered vehicles designed to follow defined pathways. Some are capable of automatically
loading and unloading unit loads. They are usually interfaced with other automated
systems to achieve full benefits of integrated automation. Examples include driverless
trains, pallet trucks, and unit load carriers.

Principles of Material Handling

The principles for material handling are:
1. Unit load principle Materials to he moved should be aggregated into a larger unit size, and
the unit size should be the same for all materials. The materials are typically placed on a
pallet or other standard-sized container for convenience in handling. The materials and
container are referred to as the unit load. The unit load should be as large as practical.
2. Avoid partial loads: Transport the full unit loads whenever possible rather than partial
loads. Load the material handling equipment to its maximum safe limit.

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3. Shortest distance principle: Movements of materials should be over the shortest distances
possible. This depends on the plant layout design.
4. Straight-line flow rule : The material handling path should be in a straight line from the
point of origination to point of destination: This rule is consistent with the shortest distance
principle.
5. Minimum terminal time principle: Movement of a unit load consists of the move time plus
the time required for loading, unloading, and other activities that do not involve actual
transport of the materials. Minimize these nonmove times.
6. Gravity principle: Use gravity to assist the movement of materials to the extent possible, at
the same time giving consideration to safety and risk of product damage.
7. Carry loads both ways: The handling system should be designed and scheduled, to the
extent possible, to carry loads in both directions. Return trips with empty loads are
wasteful.
8. Mechanization principle Manual handling of materials should be avoided. The handling
process should be mechanized where possible to increase efficiency and economy.
9. Systems principles Integrate the materials handling system with other systems in the
facility, including receiving, inspection, storage, production and assembly, packaging,
warehousing, shipping, and transportation.
10. Systems flow principle Integrate the flow of materials with the flow of information in
handling and storage systems. The information for each item moved should include
identification, origination (pick up) point, and destination point.
11. Part orientation principle: In automated production systems, the orientation of the work
part should be established and maintained throughout the material handling process.

Selection of Material Handling Equipment

When selecting material handling equipment, due regard should be given to the following
1. Low maintenance costs— Few moving parts, sealed-for-life bearings and gear boxes,
accessibility for maintenance, controlled diagnostics for electrical and mechanical
components, use of standard, readily available components and equipment.
2. Compliance with safety standards— Adequate guarding, provision of emergency stop
facilities, incorporation of mechanical and control safety locks together with all necessary
audio/visual warnings.
3. Operational environment— In addition to temperature and humidity, consider the
functional impact on equipment of such things as abrasive dust, excessive oils and grease,
swarf, fire, floods and explosive hazards.

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4. Buffer storage— Consideration must be given to the possible need for “buffer storage” in
order to maximize production equipment utilization and ensure continuous operation.
5. Effective use of operating time— The maximization of operating time of high cost dedicated
units, e.g. robots, is an important factor in the development of an economic manufacturing
system.
Material Storage

Material storage is inescapable in the manufacturing system. Storage is required for work-in-
process parts and delivery of material taken in excess of our immediate needs. As the
complexity of manufactured products increases and as the number of options needed increases
due to competitive factors, storage needs increase geometrically.
Storage may be classified as static storage or live storage. Static storage systems provide only a
storage medium, without any provision for moving or handling the loads to be stored. Line
storage systems, on the other hand, integrate the storage medium with internal material
handling devices and possibly an interface to the work-in-process transport system. Generally
speaking, live line storage systems are more appropriate when space is at a premium andior
when the amount of work-in process and the storage/retrieval transaction rates are large.
(a) Static storage systems. Static storage systems provide only a storage space, thus requiring
that the items to be stored are inserted and retrieved by other means. The static storage
systems are: load location on the floor, load stand, shelves, bins, etc.
(b) Live storage systems. Live storage systems provide not only storage locations, but also the
mechanism for inserting and retrieving the storage loads. Some examples of live storage are :
automatic work changer, carousel conveyor, automated storage/retrieval systems (AS/RS),
microload AS/RS, flow rack.
(c) Automated storage/Retrieval systems (AS/RS). In the AS/ material is delivered to the door
of the factory, checked, entered into the inventory control system through readers, physically
transferred to the storage area by machine, and stored in the appropriate location without ever
having been touched by a human. When a shop order reaches the storage area, the proper
quantities of each subassembly or part are removed from their individual locations,
conglomerated (picked) and transported to the desired location, again with automated
machinery. The process of taking the individual parts or subassemblies and package them into
assembly units, is called kitting.

Automation Equipment
For the modern factory we need programmable equipment. The easiest challenge is to
make equipment to transport the same part to the same place forever. To state the
requirements for different configurations and options, it is necessary to build versatility and

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flexibility into the system. For this purpose, we rely on the computers to do much of the job. The
equipment must be versatile, programmable, and must be able to fit into the computer network.

AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLES - AGVs

An AGV is a computer controlled, driverless vehicle used for transporting materials from point-
to-point in a manufacturing setting. They represent a major category of automated materials
handling devices. They are guided along defined pathways in the floor. The vehicles are
powered by means of on-board batteries that allow operation for several hours between
recharging. The definition of the pathways is generally accomplished using wire embedded in
the floor or reflective paint on the floor surface. Guidance is achieved by sensors on the vehicles
that can follow the guide wires or paint. When it arrives at the proper destination, the material
is off loaded onto another conveyor or the workstation. The vehicle is then dispatched to the
next location or to home to await further orders. A computer controls its motion.

The key terms in AGV are

Guide path — The term guide path refers to the actual path the AGV follows in making its
rounds through manufacturing plant. The guide path may be of the embedded wire type or
optical devices.

Routing — It is the ability of the AGV to make decisions that allow it to select the appropriate
route as it moves across the shop floor.

Traffic management — This is the method to prevent collisions and to optimize traffic flow and
traffic patterns of the AGV. The devices used for this purpose are: shop signs, yield signs, caution
lights, and stop lights.

Types of AGV’s
1. Towing vehicles — These are the most widely used type of AG V’s and are called the work
horse. They are most commonly used for transporting large amounts of bulky and heavy
materials from the warehouse to various locations in the manufacturing plant, e.g.
driverless train.

2. Unit load vehicles — They are used in settings with short guide paths, high volume, and
need for independent movement and versatility. Warehouses and distribution centres are
the most likely settings for these vehicles. They can operate in an environment where there
is not much room and movement is restricted.

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3. Pallet trucks — They can be operated manually and are used most frequently for material
handling and distribution systems. They are driven along a guide path from location-to-
location and are unloaded as they go. Their frequent use is to move palletized loads.

4. Fork trucks — They are used when it is necessary to pick materials up at the shop floor
level and move it to a location at a higher level and vice versa. They travel along a guide
path.

5. Light load Vehicles— They are used in manufacturing settings where the material to be
moved is neither heavy nor bulky (1kN). The most common application of the light load
vehicle AGV is in electronics manufacturing settings.

6. Assembly line vehicles — This type of AGV’s are used in conjunction with an assembly line
process, like automobiles, to transport major subassemblies.

Guidance of AGV’s

The guidance of AGV’s may be of the following types:

1. Manual guidance.
2. Computer/optical guidance.
3. Self guidance.

The optically guided AGV’s rely on sensing devices that follow a highly reflective line along
the shop floor. The line may be painted on the floor or a special reflective tape may be used. In
either case, the line is liable to be obstructed by dirt, debris, or normal wear, and the system
becomes unreliable. Self-guidance represents the optimum in AGV technology. When self-
guidance of AGV’s is accomplished, this technology will have achieved its fullest potential.

There are two approaches used for steering AGV’s:

1. Differential speed steer control.
2. Steered-wheel steer control.
An AGV with a differential speed steer control system uses two independent fixed wheel
drives on either side of the vehicle. This allows the drive on one side to operate at a faster speed
than the drive on the other side, thereby causing the vehicle to turn. The amplitude detection
guidance sensor feeds required data to the drive systems so that they know when to turn. An
AGV using the differential speed steer control system has left and right sensing devices mounted
on the front of the vehicle. These sensors receive information for left or right turns. The
amplitude detection guidance sensor balances the signals received from the left and right

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sensing devices. This is used with assembly line vehicles, unit load vehicles, fork trucks, and
light load vehicles.

MATERIAL HANDLING AND AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLES

The AGV’s using steered-wheel steer control have a single front wheel that rides along
the paint or tape strip that marks the guide path along the shop floor. A phase detection
guidance sensor detects whether the wheel is on course, steering to the left or right of the guide
path, sends data back to AGV, and the front wheel turns to compensate so that the AGV is in
phase. This is used with assembly-line vehicle towing vehicles, unit load vehicles, pallet trucks,
fork trucks, and light load vehicles.

AGV System Management

There are three key issues in AGV system management. These are traffic control, vehicle
dispatch, and system monitoring.
1. Traffic Control
There are three methods for traffic control.
(a) Zone control - The zone control system is the most widely used in which the guide path
areas of the shop floor are divided into zones. Only one AGV is allowed in a given zone at
a time.

(b) Forward sensing control - This is a traffic control system that works well when most of
the guide paths are straight. With this traffic control system each AGV has one or more
sensing devices mounted on its front. There is a specified range or distance that must be
maintained between AGV’s. The sensing devices continuously “look” forward to sense
any object that falls within the specified range. If one vehicle gets too close to another
vehicle, the sensors will direct that vehicle and cause the one in the rear to stop.

(c) Combination control - It is used when the guide path system contains long stretches of
straight guide path but still has intermittent curves and/or intersections.

2. Vehicle Dispatch
There are five methods for dispatching an AGV
(a) Onboard dispatch - In this approach, each AGV has a control panel mounted on it. A human
operator uses this control panel to program the AGV stops along the guide path. The
control panel can also be used to program the AGV activities at each stop.

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 (b) Off board Call Systems - These systems are used in situations where the process of
transferring materials from the AGV to a stop location is automated.
(c) Remote terminal - In this method, a human operator moves the AGV’s around the shop
floor, using the computer as an aid in doing so.
(d) Central terminal vehicle dispatch is called central computer dispatch. In this method, the
M are programmed by computer to move along the guide path and make the necessary
stops.
(e) Combination dispatch - In this method, two or more methods described above are
combined to dispatch the AGV.
3. System Monitoring

An ideal monitoring system is one that gives human operators instant, real-time feedback, on
the following

1. Location of all vehicles within the system.

2. Location of malfunctioning or inoperative vehicles.
3. Movement of vehicles.
4. Amount of time vehicles spend at each stop and enroute between stops.
5. Status of all vehicles in the system, loaded or unloaded.
6. Destination of all vehicles within the system.

7. Status of the batteries in all vehicles within the system : charged, charging, or week.
There are three types of systems widely used for monitoring AGV systems ; as described
below

(a) Local Panel Monitoring

The panel is a series of lights within zones on the panel that correspond with zones on
the shop floor. When an AGV enters a given zone, the light on the panel corresponding to that
zone illuminates. When the AGV moves out of that zone, the light goes out and the light for the
next zone illuminates. This monitoring method does not tell which AGV, whether the vehicle is
loaded or unloaded, what the vehicle destination is, or whether the battery of the vehicle is
charged or getting week.
(b) Computer Display Monitoring
In the computer display system, the monitoring data can be displayed on a computer
terminal in two forms : graphic or alphanumeric. This method gives the human operator all the
information needed to take necessary action when a breakdown occurs.
(c) Performance Reports Monitoring
Performance reports are logged records of the type of information displayed on the

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computer terminal with computer display monitoring of AGV systems. These reports give the
historical record of the performance of each AGV within the system.

Components of an AGV
• The essential components of an AGV are:
• Mechanical structure
• Driving and steering mechanism actuators
• Servo controllers
• On board computing facility
• Servo amplifiers
• Feed back components
• On board power system.

Applications of AGV’S
The applications of AGV’s are in the following categories:
1. Driverless train operations—for movement of large quantities of materials over relatively
large distances.
2. Storage/distribution systems—unit load carriers and pallet trucks are used in these
applications by interfacing with AS/RS in a distribution system. This can also be applied in
light manufacturing and assembly operations.
3. Assembly live operations. Between the workstations, components are kitted and placed
on the vehicle for the assembly operations that are to be performed on the partially
completed product at the next station.
4. Flexible manufacturing systems. The AGV’s are used as the materials handling system in
the FMS. The vehicles deliver work from the staging area to the individual work stations in
the system and between stations in the manufacturing system.
5. Miscellaneous applications—such as mail delivery in office buildings and hospital
material handling operations.

Advantages of AGV’s
The important advantages of AGV’s are:
• AGV’s represent a flexible approach to materials handling as they can be computer
controlled.
• They decrease labour costs by decreasing the amount of human involvement in
materials handling.
• They can operate in hazardous environments.

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 • They are compatible with production and storage equipment.
• They can handle and transport hazardous materials safely.
• Reduction in downtime of machines due to timely availability of materials.
• Improvement in productivity and profit.
• Continuous work without interruptions.

INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS AND ROBOT SYSTEM SAFETY

I. INTRODUCTION.

Industrial robots are programmable multifunctional mechanical devices designed to

move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through variable programmed motions to
perform a variety of tasks. An industrial robot system includes not only industrial robots but
also any devices and/or sensors required for the robot to perform its tasks as well as
sequencing or monitoring communication interfaces.

Robots are generally used to perform unsafe, hazardous, highly repetitive, and
unpleasant tasks. They have many different functions such as material handling, assembly, arc
welding, resistance welding, machine tool load and unload functions, painting, spraying, etc.
Most robots are set up for an operation by the teach-and-repeat technique. In this mode, a
trained operator (programmer) typically uses a portable control device (a teach pendant) to
teach a robot its task manually. Robot speeds during these programming sessions
are slow.

This instruction includes safety considerations necessary to operate the robot

properly and use it automatically in conjunction with other peripheral equipment. This
instruction applies to fixed industrial robots and robot systems only.

A. ACCIDENTS: PAST STUDIES.

1. Studies in Sweden and Japan indicate that many robot accidents do not occur under normal
operating conditions but, instead during programming, program touch-up or refinement,
maintenance, repair, testing, setup, or adjustment. During many of these operations the
operator, programmer, or corrective maintenance worker may temporarily be within
the robot's working envelope where unintended operations could result in injuries.

2. Typical accidents have included the following:

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 • A robot's arm functioned erratically during a programming sequence and struck the
operator.
• A materials handling robot operator entered a robot's work envelope during operations
and was pinned between the back end of the robot and a safety pole.
• A fellow employee accidentally tripped the power switch while a maintenance worker
was servicing an assembly robot. The robot's arm struck the maintenance
worker's hand.

I ROBOT SAFEGUARDING.
1. The proper selection of an effective robotic safeguarding system should be based upon a
hazard analysis of the robot system's use, programming, and maintenance operations.
Among the factors to be considered are the tasks a robot will be programmed to
perform, start-up and command or programming procedures, environmental
conditions, location and installation requirements, possible human errors,
scheduled and unscheduled maintenance, possible robot and system malfunctions,
normal mode of operation, and all personnel functions and duties.

2. An effective safeguarding system protects not only operators but also engineers,
programmers, maintenance personnel, and any others who work on or with robot
systems and could be exposed to hazards associated with a robot's operation. A
combination of safeguarding methods may be used. Redundancy and backup systems
are especially recommended, particularly if a robot or robot system is operating in
hazardous conditions or handling hazardous materials. The safeguarding devices
employed should not themselves constitute or act as a hazard or curtail necessary
vision or viewing by attending human operators.
II. HAZARDS.
The operational characteristics of robots can be significantly different from other
machines and equipment. Robots are capable of high-energy (fast or powerful) movements
through a large volume of space even beyond the base dimensions of the robot The pattern and
initiation of movement of the robot is predictable if the item being "worked" and the
environment are held constant. Any change to the object being worked (i.e., a physical model
change) or the environment can affect the programmed movements.

A ROBOT’S WORK ENVELOPE.

Some maintenance and programming personnel may be required to be within the

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restricted envelope while power is available to actuators. The restricted envelope of the robot
can overlap a portion of the restricted envelope of other robots or work zones of other industrial
machines and related equipment. Thus, a worker can be hit by one robot while working on
another, trapped between them or peripheral equipment, or hit by flying
objects released by the gripper.

A robot with two or more resident programs can find the current operating program
erroneously calling another existing program with different operating parameters such as
velocity, acceleration, or deceleration, or position within the robot's restricted envelope. The
occurrence of this might not be predictable by maintenance or programming personnel
working with the robot. A component malfunction could also cause an unpredictable
movement and/or robot arm velocity.

Additional hazards can also result from the malfunction of, or errors in, interfacing or
programming of other process or peripheral equipment. The operating changes with the
process being performed or the breakdown of conveyors, clamping mechanisms, or process
sensors could cause the robot to react in a different manner.

TYPES OF ACCIDENTS:
Robotic incidents can be grouped into four categories: a robotic arm or controlled tool
causes the accident, places an individual in a risk circumstance, an accessory of the robot's
mechanical parts fails, or the power supplies to the robot are uncontrolled.

1. Impact or Collision Accidents. Unpredicted movements, component malfunctions, or

unpredicted program changes related to the robot's arm or peripheral equipment can result
in contact accidents.

2. Crushing and Trapping Accidents. A worker's limb or other body part can be trapped
between a robot's arm and other peripheral equipment, or the individual may be
physically driven into and crushed by other peripheral equipment.
3. Mechanical Part Accidents. The breakdown of the robot's drive components, tooling or end-
effector, peripheral equipment, or its power source is a mechanical accident. The release of
parts, failure of gripper mechanism, or the failure of end-effector power tools (e.g., grinding
wheels, buffing wheels, deburring tools, power screwdrivers, and nut runners) are a few
types of mechanical failures.

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4. Other Accidents. Other accidents can result from working with robots. Equipment that
supplies robot power and control represents potential electrical and pressurized fluid
hazards. Ruptured hydraulic lines could create dangerous high-pressure cutting streams or
whipping hose hazards. Environmental accidents from arc flash, metal spatter, dust,
electromagnetic, or radio-frequency interference can also occur. In addition, equipment and
power cables on the floor present tripping hazards.

II. SOURCES OF HAZARDS.

The expected hazards of machine to humans can be expected with several additional variations,
as follows.

1. Human Errors. Inherent prior programming, interfacing activated peripheral

equipment, or connecting live input-output sensors to the microprocessor or a
peripheral can cause dangerous, unpredicted movement or action by the robot from human
error. The incorrect activation of the "teach pendant" or control panel is a frequent
human error. The greatest problem, however, is over familiarity with the robot's
redundant motions so that an individual places himself in a hazardous position while
programming the robot or performing maintenance on it.

2. Control Errors. Intrinsic faults within the control system of the robot, errors in
software, electromagnetic interference, and radio frequency interference are control
errors. In addition, these errors can occur due to faults in the hydraulic, pneumatic, or
electrical subcontrols associated with the robot or robot system.

3. Unauthorized Access. Entry into a robot's safeguarded area is hazardous because the person
involved may not be familiar with the safeguards in place or their activation status.

4. Mechanical Failures. Operating programs may not account for cumulative mechanical part
failure, and faulty or unexpected operation may occur.

5. Environmental Sources. Electromagnetic or radio-frequency interference (transient signals)

should be considered to exert an undesirable influence on robotic operation and increase
the potential for injury to any person working in the area. Solutions to environmental
hazards should be documented prior to equipment start-up.

6. Power Systems. Pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrical power sources that have

malfunctioning control or transmission elements in the robot power system can disrupt
electrical signals to the control and/or power-supply lines. Fire risks are increased by

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 electrical overloads or by use of flammable hydraulic oil. Electrical shock and release of
stored energy from accumulating devices also can be hazardous to personnel.

7. Improper Installation. The design, requirements, and layout of equipment, utilities, and
facilities of a robot or robot system, if inadequately done, can lead to inherent hazards.

III. INVESTIGATION GUIDELINES.

MANUFACTURED, REMANUFACTURED, AND REBUILT ROBOTS.

1. All robots should meet minimum design requirements to ensure safe operation by the user.
Consideration needs to be given to a number of factors in designing and building the robots
to industry standards. If older or obsolete robots are rebuilt or remanufactured,
they should be upgraded to conform to current industry standards.

2. Every robot should be designed, manufactured, remanufactured, or rebuilt with safe design
and manufacturing considerations. Improper design and manufacture can result in hazards
to personnel if minimum industry standards are not conformed to on mechanical
components, controls, methods of operation, and other required information necessary to
insure safe and proper operating procedures. To ensure that robots are designed,
manufactured, remanufactured, and rebuilt to ensure safe operation, it is recommended
that they comply with Section 4 of the ANSI/RIA R15.06-1992 standard for Manufacturing,
Remanufacture, and Rebuild of Robots

INSTALLATION:

1. A robot or robot system should be installed by the users in accordance with the
manufacturer's recommendations and in conformance to acceptable industry standards.
Temporary safeguarding devices and practices should be used to minimize the hazards
associated with the installation of new equipment. The facilities, peripheral equipment, and
operating conditions which should be considered are:
• Installation specifications;
• Physical facilities;
• Electrical facilities;
• Action of peripheral equipment integrated with the robot;
• Identification requirements;
• Control and emergency stop requirements; and

ME6010 : Robotics - Notes of Lesson – Page 134 of 160

 • Special robot operating procedures or conditions.

2. To ensure safe operating practices and safe installation of robots and robot systems, it is
recommended that the minimum requirements of Section 5 of the ANSI/RIA R15.06-1992,
Installation of Robots and Robot Systems be followed. In addition, OSHA's
Lockout/Tagout standards (29 CFR 1910.147 and 1910.333) must be followed for
servicing and maintenance.

IV. CONTROL AND SAFEGUARDING PERSONNEL.

For the planning stage, installation, and subsequent operation of a robot or robot system, one
should consider the following.

RISK ASSESSMENT. At each stage of development of the robot and robot system a risk
assessment should be performed. There are different system and personnel safeguarding
requirements at each stage. The appropriate level of safeguarding determined by the risk
assessment should be applied. In addition, the risk assessments for each stage of development
should be documented for future reference.

1. SAFEGUARDING DEVICES. Personnel should be safeguarded from hazards associated

with the restricted envelope (space) through the use of one or more safeguarding devices:
• Mechanical limiting devices;
• Non mechanical limiting devices;
• Presence-sensing safeguarding devices;
• Fixed barriers (which prevent contact with moving parts); and
• Interlocked barrier guards.

2. AWARENESS DEVICES: Typical awareness devices include chain or rope barriers with
supporting stanchions or flashing lights, signs, whistles, and horns. They are usually used in
conjunction with other safeguarding devices.

3. SAFEGUARDING THE TEACHER. Special consideration must be given to the teacher or

person who is programming the robot. During the teach mode of operation, the person
performing the teaching has control of the robot and associated equipment and should be
familiar with the operations to be programmed, system interfacing, and control functions of
the robot and other equipment. When systems are large and complex, it can be easy to
activate improper functions or sequence functions improperly. Since the person doing the
training can be within the robot's restricted envelope, such mistakes can result in accidents.

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 Mistakes in programming can result in unintended movement or actions with similar
results. For this reason, a restricted speed of 250 mm/§ or 10 in/§ should be placed on any
part of the robot during training to minimize potential injuries to teaching
personnel.
Several other safeguards are suggested in the ANSI/RIA R15.06-1992 standard to reduce the
hazards associated with teaching a robotic system.

4. OPERATOR SAFEGUARDS. The system operator should be protected from all hazards
during operations performed by the robot. When the robot is operating automatically, all
safeguarding devices should be activated, and at no time should any part of the operator's
body be within the robot's safeguarded area.
For additional operator safeguarding suggestions, see the ANSI/RIA R15.06-1992
standard, Section 6.6.
5. ATTENDED CONTINUOUS OPERATION. When a person is permitted to be in or near the
robots restricted envelope to evaluate or check the robots motion or other operations, all
continuous operation safeguards must be in force. During this operation, the robot should be
at slow speed, and the operator would have the robot in the teach mode and be fully in
control of all operations.
Other safeguarding requirements are suggested in the ANSI/RIA R15.06-1992 standard,
Section 6.7.

6. MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR PERSONNEL. Safeguarding maintenance and repair personnel

is very difficult because their job functions are so varied. Troubleshooting faults or problems
with the robot, controller, tooling, or other associated equipment is just part of their job.
Program touch-up is another of their jobs as is scheduled maintenance, and adjustments of
tooling, gages, recalibration, and many other types of functions.
While maintenance and repair is being performed, the robot should be placed in the
manual or teach mode, and the maintenance personnel perform their work within the
safeguarded area and within the robots restricted envelope. Additional hazards are present
during this mode of operation because the robot system safeguards are not operative.
To protect maintenance and repair personnel, safeguarding techniques and procedures
as stated in the ANSI/RIA R15.06-1992 standard, Section 6.8, are recommended.

7. MAINTENANCE: Maintenance should occur during the regular and periodic inspection
program for a robot or robot system. An inspection program should include, but not be
limited to, the recommendations of the robot manufacturer and manufacturer of other

ME6010 : Robotics - Notes of Lesson – Page 136 of 160

 associated robot system equipment such as conveyor mechanisms, parts feeders, tooling,
gages, sensors, and the like.
These recommended inspection and maintenance programs are essential for minimizing
the hazards from component malfunction, breakage, and unpredicted movements or actions
by the robot or other system equipment. To ensure proper maintenance, it is
recommended that periodic maintenance and inspections be documented along with the
identity of personnel performing these tasks.

8. SAFETY TRAINING. Personnel, who program, operate, maintain, or repair robots or robot
systems should receive adequate safety training, and they should be able to demonstrate
their competence to perform their jobs safely. Employers can refer to OSHA's publication
2254 (Revised), "Training Requirements in OSHA Standards and Training Guidelines."

9. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS. To ensure minimum safe operating practices and safeguards for
robots and robot systems covered by this instruction, the following sections of the
ANSI/RIA R15.06-1992 must also be considered:

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS FOR ROBOTICS

In addition to the technological considerations involved in applications engineering for a
robotics project, there is also the economic issue. Will the robot justify itself economically? The
economic analysis for any proposed engineering project is of considerable importance in most
companies because management usually decides whether to install the project on the basis of
this analysis. In the present chapter, we consider the economic analysis of a robot project. We
discuss the various costs and potential benefits associated with the robot installation, and we
describe several methods for analyzing these factors to determine the economic merits of the
project.

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS: BASIC DATA REQUIRED

To perform the economic analysis of a proposed robot project, certain basic information
is needed about the project. This information includes the type of project being considered, the
cost of the robot installation, the production cycle time, and the savings and benefits resulting
from the project.

ME6010 : Robotics - Notes of Lesson – Page 137 of 160

Type of Robot Installation

There are two basic categories of robot installations that are commonly encountered.
The first involves a new application. This is where there is no existing facility. Instead, there is a
need for a new facility, and a robot installation represents one of the possible approaches that
might be used to satisfy that need. In this case, the various alternatives are compared and the
best alternative is selected, assuming it meets the company’s investment criteria. The second
situation is the robot installation to replace a current method of operation. The present method
typically involves a production operation that is performed manually, and the robot would be
used some how to substitute for the human labor. In this situation, the economic justification of
the robot installation often depends on how inefficient and costly the manual method is, rather
than the absolute merits of the robot method.

In either of these situations, certain basic cost information is needed in order to

perform the economic analysis. The following subsection discusses the kinds of cost and
operating data that are used to analyze the alternative investment projects. The methods by
which the analysis is accomplished are explained later in the chapter

Cost Data Required for the Analysis

The cost data required to perform the economic analysis of a robot project divide into
two types: investment costs and operating costs. The direct costs associated with robot project

A. Investment costs
1. Robot purchase cost—The basic price of the robot equipped from the manufacturer with
the proper options (excluding end effectors) to perform the application.

2. Engineering costs— The costs of planning and design by the user company’s engineering
staff to install the robot.

3. Installation costs— This includes the labor and materials needed to prepare the installation
site (provision for utilities, floor preparation, etc.).

4. Special tooling— This includes the cost of the end eflector, parts position and other fixtures
and tools required to operate the work cell,

5. Miscellaneous costs—This covers the additional investment costs not included by any
of the above categories (e.g., other equipment needed for the cell).

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B. Operating costs and savings
6. Direct labor cost—The direct labor cost associated with the operation of the robot cell.
Fringe benefits are usually included in the calculation of direct labor rate, but other
overhead costs are excluded.
7. Indirect labor cost—The indirect labor costs that can be directly allocated to thc
operation of the robot cell. These costs include supervision, setup, programming, and
other personnel costs not included in category 6 above
8. Maintenance—This covers the anticipated costs of maintenance and repair for the robot
cell. These costs are included under this separate heading rather than in category 7
because the maintenance costs involve not only indirect labor (the maintenance crew)
but also materials (replacement parts) and service calls by the robot manufacturer. A
reasonable ‘rule of thumb” in the absence of better data is that the annual maintenance
cost for she robot will be approximately 10 percent of the purchase price (category I).
9. Utilities—this includes the cost of utilities to operate the robot cell (e.g., electricity, air
pressure, gas). These are usually minor costs compared to the above items.
10. Training—Training might be considered to be an investment cost because much of the
training required for the installation will occur as a first cost of the installation. However,
training should he a continuing activity, and so it is included as an operating cost.
11. Costs include the purchase cost of the robot and the engineering costs associated with its
installation in the work cell. In many robot application projects. the engineering costs
can equal or exceed the purchase cost of the robot. The operating costs include the cost
of any labor needed to operate the cell, maintenance costs, and other expenses
associated with the robot cell operation. The table lists most of the major operating costs
for a robot application project. In the case of the operating costs, it is often convenient to
identify the cost savings that will result from the use of a robot as compared to an
existing method, rather than to separately identity the operating costs of the alternative
methods. Material savings, scrap reductions. and advantages resulting from more
consistent quality arc examples of these savings. Items 6 through loin Table 12-I should
he interpreted to allow for this possible method of declaring cost savings between the
alternatives.
At the beginning of the project, the investment costs are being paid into the project with no
immediate return. When the installation is completed and the project begins operation, the
operating costs begin. I leveller, there is also a compensating cash 11 representing revenues to
the company which should exceed the amount of the operating cost. The difference between the
revenues and the operating costs is the net cash flow. At the beginning of operations, there are
usually start-up problems to be solved and “hugs” to he worked out of the system. These

ME6010 : Robotics - Notes of Lesson – Page 139 of 160

difficulties often prevent the net cash flow from immediately reaching the steady-state value
anticipated for the project.
If the robot project is a good investment, the net cash flow will allow the company to recover
its invest costs in the project in a relatively short period of time. The point at which the
investment is recovered is displayed in as the payback period, and this payback period
represents one of several methods for evaluating investment alternatives The pa period method,
as well as several other methods for analyzing the economics of robot projects are discussed in
the following section.

METHODS OF ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

We shall describe three methods for analyzing investments and comparing investment
alternatives that are in common use in industry. The three methods are:
1. Payback (or payback period) method
2. Equivalent uniform annual cost (FUAC) method
3. Return on investment (ROl) method

Each of the methods accomplishes the analysis using a slightly different twist. Ideally, the
same decision should be reached no matter which method is used; however, this is not always
the case. We assume that the reader has some familiarity with the principles of engineering
economy.

1. Payback Method
The payback period is the length of time required for the net ac- cumulated cash flow to
equal the initial investment in the project. Under the assumption that the net annual cash flows
are equal from year to year. This notion can be reduced to the following simple formula.

Where n = the payback period

IC = the investment cost
NACF = the net annual cash flow
In most investment projects it would be unlikely that the cash flows would be exactly equal each
year. When there are year-to-year differences in the cash flows, Eq. (12-t) must he altered
slightly to account for the differences. The subscript i is used to identify the year in the following
In this equation, the value of n is determined so that the sum of the annual cash flows is equal to
the initial investment cost. In the special case when the net annual cash flows are equal, Eq. (12-

ME6010 : Robotics - Notes of Lesson – Page 140 of 160

2) can he recast as

This is equivalent to Eq. (12-1).

The reader should note that we have adopted the logical convention that costs are
treated as negative values and revenues or Savings (as well as profits) are treated as positive
values in these equations. The NACF is assumed to be a positive cash flow since revenues
derived from the robot project would he greater than the operating costs (we hope). We have
also assumed that all cash flows occur either at the beginning of the year or at the end of the
year. Any investments are assumed to be transactions that occur at the beginning of the year,
while the net annual cash flows ate assumed to be end-of-year transactions.
Most companies today require paybacks of no more than two or three years. An investment
whose cash flow pays back the investment in less than one year is considered excellent. Let us
illustrate the payback method by means of the following example.

Example 12-1 Suppose that the total investment cost is estimated to he $100,000 for a particular
robot project The total operating costs (labor, maintenance, and other annual expenses) are
expected to be $20,000 per year, and the anticipated revenues from the robot installation are
$65,000 annually. It is expected that the robot project will have a service life of 5 years.
Determine the payhack period that is expected of the investment.
The net annual cash flow for the robot project is $65,000— $20,000 = $45,000. Using Eq.

One of the disadvantages of the payback period method is that it ignores the time value
of money. It does not consider the objective of the company to derive a certain minimum rate of
return from its investments. The other two methods to be discussed do include this
consideration.

Equivalent Uniform Annual Cost Method

The equivalent uniform annual cost (EUAC) method converts all of the present and
future investments and cash flows into their equivalent uniform cash flows over the anticipated
life of the project. It does this by making use of the various interest factors associated with
engineering economy calculations. We present a tabulation of these interest factors in an
appendix to this chapter, and we save a considerable amount of explanation by assuming that
the reader is familiar with their use.

ME6010 : Robotics - Notes of Lesson – Page 141 of 160

 To begin with, the company must select a minimum attractive rate-of-return (MARR)
which is used as a criterion to decide whether a potential investment project should be funded.
Today, MARR values of 20 to 50 percent are not unusual for robot projects. Using the interest
factors for the MARR to make the conversions, the uniform annual cost method then sums up the
EUAC values for each of the various investments and cash flows associated with the project. If
the sum of the L is greater than zero, this is interpreted to mean that the actual rate of return
associated with the investment is greater than the MARR used by the company as the criterion. If
the FUAC sum is less than zero, then the project is considered unattractive

Example 12-2 We will illustrate the EUAC method using the same data from Example 12-1. The
company uses a 30 percent MARR as a criterion for selecting its investment projects. As
mentioned in Example 12-1, the robot project is expected to have a 5-year service life, and that is
what we shall use in determining the values for any interest factors required in our calculations.

The annual operating cost ($20,000) and the annual revenues ($65,000) are already expressed
as uniform annual cash flows. The initial investment cost ($100,000) must he converted to its
equivalent uniform annual cash value using the capital recovery factor from the appendix. The
sum of the annual cash flows would he figured as follows.

Return on Investment Method

The return on investment (ROl) method determines the rate of return for the proposed
project based on the estimated costs and revenues. This rate of return is then compared with the
company’s minimum attractive rate of return to decide whether the investment is justified. The
determination of the rate of return involves setting up an equivalent uniform annual cost
equation similar to the one used in Example 12-2. The difference is that the EUAC sum on the
left-hand side of the equation is made equal to zero. Then the values of the interest factors (and
correspondingly, the interest rates) are found that make the right-hand side of the
equation sum to zero. The following example will illustrate this procedure.

Example 12-3 Again the same data are used from our previous two examples. The company’s
MARR is 30 percent as before. The EUAC equation would be set up as follows.
Looking through the interest factor tables for a match of the A/P factor for n = 5 years,
we find the following values:
By interpolation, the rate of return for our problem turns out to he = 34.94 percent. It
can he seen that our calculated value of (A/P. i,5) = 0.15 is very close to (A/P. 35°/o. 5) =
(1.45046, so it stands to reason that the rate of return for our problem should he close to 35

ME6010 : Robotics - Notes of Lesson – Page 142 of 160

percent.
In Example 12-3, the determination forward computation. However, many
calculation procedures because there is must be used in the FUAC equation. We will
demonstrate this procedure In Example 12-4. Indeed, there are several complications that are
encountered in the economic analysis of robot applications problems

These complications are not necessarily unique to robotics problems. But we will discuss them
in the context of robotics.

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