Turbo Machines

.I A Valan Arasu
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Thiagarajar Collcgt: of Engineering
Madurai

Scanned by: A. Ansari

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462 ,. Tl'RDO M"C'I/INES
F J
Fan losses. 209
Finite stage emciency. 8
First law oflhermodynamics, 1
Flow angle. 42
Flow coemcient. 42, 132
Francis turbine. 395
Free vortex design. 207
Froude's number. 295
Friction losses. 209
Fund amental dimensions, 292
G M
Gear pump, 347
Geometric similarity, 292
Gibb 's equation. 4
Gland leakage losses. 209
Guide vanes. 392.298
Governing:
reaction turbine. 197
Pelion wheel. 388
Kaplnn .urbin •. 400
H N
Head.
manometric, 331
SIalic. 330
Head developed. 330
Hydrau lic elliciency. 332
Hydraulic pump. 325
Hydraulic turbine. 383
Impeller. 1 J, 64. 325
Impeller efficiency. 333
Impu lse:
blading. 190
turbine, 383
Inlet guide vanes. 115
Inward now radial. 255
Ise ntropic
efficiency. 130
work. 130
I so~emcie ncy curves, 337
Pressu re compound ing, 191 StanilZ sl ip ractor. 69
Priming, 335 SIalic head, 330
Jet pump. 351 Propeller tu rbine. 397 Stator blades, . 116
Propagation. 137 Stator emciency. 135
K
Pro.orype. 29 1 Stator row. \ 34
Kaplan turbine. 400 Steady now energy equation. J
Kinematic simi larity, 293 R Stodola slip factor equation. 68
Radi<ll equi librium Submersible pump, 353
L
melhod. 137 Suction pipe. 327
Leading edge, 43 .heary. 138 Super-imposed velocity triangles. 134
Lift. 38.39 Range ofopernlion. 1~] Surge. 89. 136
Ljungslrom turbine. 263 Reaction ratio. 132.202 T
Re-heat f<lctor, I ~
Rel'Hive total enthalpy, Thoma cavitation parameter. 405
Mach number. 84,85.296 Residual velocity loss, 209 Torque converter, 444
Manometric head. 331,332 Reynold s number. 295 Total-to-stalic efficiency. 12
Mechanical efficiency. 332 Rotating stall, 137 Trailing edge. 43
Model analysis. 291 Rotor hub , 124 Turbine:
Multi-stage: Rotor loss coefficienl. 136 Francis. 395
axia l flow compressor. 141 . 144 Runner, 392 Kap lan. 391
cel1lrifugal pump. 337 Pelton. 384
Muhislaging. 144 5
Muschel curves, 336 Screeching, 90 u
Screw pumps, 348
Second law of thermodynamics, 4. Un distorted models. 29~
Net positive suction head. 334 Self-limiting characteristic, 81 Unit. 287
Newton's second law ormotion. 3 Servo motor. ~oo power. 304
Nozzle loss coefficient, 209 Shock wave, 88 quanrity, 303
Slip. 443
o v
Slip faclOr. 66.61
Overall efficiency. 3,333 Solid rotation wanes, 140 Van e pump. 348
p Solidi.)'. 12 Vaned diffuser, 78
Specinc speed. 291 Vandess diffuser. 77
Partial admission losses, 209 Spo uting velocity, 260 Ve locity compounding. 141
Piston pump. 350 Stage: Velocity now angles. 128
PilCh, 44 efficiency. 135 Vector angle, 132
Polytropic emciency. 6 loading. 13 1 Volute. 77
Positive displacement pumps. 346 work. 264 Volumclric efficiency. 333
gear. 347 number, 130 w
piston. 350 Stagger angle , 45
vane, 349 Slagnalion pressure. 138 Wake, 39
Power tfill1srnitting turbo machines, Stagnation temperature rise. 130 Weber's number, 296
441 Slnll. 136 Workdonc factor. 69, 130. 131
Pre-heat ractor. 9,205
Pre-whirl, 84
Pressure coemcient, 13 6
REFERENCES (
INDEX
Centrifugal compressor characteristic.
A 88
I . Ag:lfwal . S .K. Fluid Mec hanics and M ac hinery, Tatn Mc;:G raw Hill. New Delhi , Choking. 90
1997 . Aero foil section. 37 Chord. 44
, Anthony Espos ito , FluiJ Power wilh A ppli c.::ll ions. Prentice Hall. London. 1997 , Adiabctic flow, 1:::!8 ConservOltion of mass. 2
J. B' ll1 s a1. R.K. A Texthook of Fluid Mec hanics and I-Iydrnulic lvI:!c hincs. Ln xmi Air angles. 130 Continuity equation, 2
Publi c:ltiulls(P) LId .. New De lhi. I YYH. Air lift pump. 352 Critical.
~ . Di xllil. S .L .. Fluili Mechanics. Thl!rrlll1l1Yllilnlics ofTurho mllcllinery. Pagaillon Angle of incidence, 44, 45 cavitatiun. 344
Pn.:s :,> , 1975. Angular 1110menrum, 3 NPSH. 334
5. Kad :unhi , v.. and Man c har Prasad. Energy Con versi on - Volume III Turbo A'dal compressor, 125 Cumulative enthalpy drop. 205
Machin ery. New Age Intern ati onal(P ) Ltd .. New Delhi : 1997. char.::cteristic, 144
multi stage, 144 D
o. Khaj uria, P.R., and Duhey, S.P., Gns Turbin es and Propulsive Sys tems , Dhanpa!
Rai & So ns, New Delhi , 1992. Axial flow gas turbine rotor. 129 Delivery pipe. 327
7. Sayers, AT., Hydraulic and Compress ible Flow Turbo tvlachincs. McGraw Hill . Axial flow rurbine. 383 Derived dimension. 287
Lo ndo n. 1992. A'(iai pump. Diagram efficiency. 184
8. S hepherd. D.G .. Principles o f Turbo Machinery. Mnc millan Company, New characteristic. 343 Diffuser. 76
York . 1965. velocily triangle, 341 vaned. 78
I). Y~lh)'a. S. M .. Turhincs Compressors and Fans. Tal a McGraw Hill. New Delhi, work done. 342 vandess. 77
199 7. Dimensional analysis method. 290
B
III. Yunu s A. Ccn gel .md Michal !.! A. Boles. Thermodynam ics - A n En g ineering Distorted model. 294
Approach. McGraw Hill. New York . 1997 . Best efficiency point, 336 Double regulation, 400
Blade. 37 Dl1lft lUbe, 392.398.402
cascades. 49 Draft tub I! theory. ~03
chord. 49 Dl1lg.38
Buckingham PI theorem, 290 Drag coellicient. 39
Buseman slip factor equation, 68 Dynamic similarily, 293
c E
Camber angle. 43 Efficiency:
Camber line. 43 fmite stage, 8
Cascade. hydr.Julic. 332
blade angle. 43 impeUer. 333
curves, 52 isenlropic. 130
dr"g. 38. 39 polytropic. 6
nomenclarure, 43 static· to-static . 6
pressure loss, 48 total-to-total. 6, II
secondary losses. 53 total-to-stalic. 130
Casing, 326 volumetric. 333
Cavitation. 344 Euler
Centrifugal pump, 325 nwnber.295
multi stage. 337 pump equation, 4
vl!locity triHllgll!s, 341 turbine equation. 4. 183
Exit kinl!tic energy, 83
 ArPENDIX ...: 459
458 > TURBO MACIIINES

AXIAL FLOW TURBINE BLADE DESIGN C1 = X*C1m;

Cxl = X*Cx1m;
# include <stdio.h> Cal = X*Ca;
ff include <math.h>
printE ("Stator blade exit angle =%f \n", aIm);
ff include <conio.h> U = 3.I4*D*N / 60;
main ( ) Bl = atan «Cxl - U) ICal);
{ bl = 81.180 / 3.14;
doubleCa, Cx1m. Cx2rn, Cx2, i, j. k. I.A1. A2. 81, 82; print.E ("rotor blade inlet angle =~f \n ", bl);
float aIm. blm, aI, a2. bl, b2. b2m. Om. Dt. Dr, 0, N. Um. Ut, 82 = atan (U/Cal);
Ur, U. R. elm. X. Cl. Cx1. Cal; b2 = 82*lBO/3.14;
printE ("rotor blade exit angle =%E \n
R
b2); •
i nt x;
R = Cal,,(tan (B2) -tan (81)) I (2.U);
clrscr ( );
printf ("enter blade tip diameter (m) ="); printf ("degree of reaction =%f \n\n". R);
scanE ("'tf". &Dt); }
printE ("enter blade root diameter (m) ="); }
scanE ("'tE". &Dr);
printE ("enter mean rotor blade inlet angle (deg.) ="); INPUT
scanE ("%E". &blm);
printE ("enter mean root blade outlet angle (deg.) ="); enter blnde tip diameter (m);: .75
scanE ("%E", &b2m); enter blade root diameter (m) = .45
printE i"enter mean stator blade outlet angle (deg.) =H); enter mean rotor blnde inlet angle (deg.);: 0
scanf ("%E", &alm); enter mean root blnde outlet nngle (deg.);: 75
printf ("enter the turbine speed (rpm) ="); enter mean stator blade outlet angle (deg.);: 75
scanf ("%E", &N); enter turbine speed (rpm);: 6000
clrscr ( ) ; /*CONSTANT NOZZLE ANGLE BLADE DESIGN */
Om = (Ot + Dr) / 2; OUTI'UT
Urn = (3.14*Dm*N) / 60;
i alm*3.14/1BO; Blade root <Ingles (deg.):
j blm*3.14/18o; st310r blade e~il angle ;:75.000000
k tan (i) - tan (j); rotor blade inlet angle =57.821709
1 b2m*3.14 / 180; rotor blade exit angle ;:64.931801
Ca = Urn / k; degrec of rC3ction ;:().128160
elm = Ca*cos (i): Blade tip angles (dcg.):
Cxl~ = Ca*tan (i);
stator blade exit angle :;;:75.00Q(X)()
for (x=l: x<=2; x++) rotor blade inlet angle ;:·63.547230
rotor blade e~il angle ;:80.139671
{
iE(x==I) degree of reaction =0.675157
{printf ("blade root angles (deg.): \o\n");
o = Dr;
}
else
{printE ("blade tip angles (deg.): \n\o");
DDt;
}
X pow «Om / Dl. (sin (il * sin ( i ) ) ;
-156 ::.- T URno MACIiINES ApPENDIX ..t, 457

AXIAL FLOW TURBINE BLADE DESIGN Cx! = Cxl rn*Dm/D;

(FOR TURBINE PROBLEMS) Al = atan (Cx1/Ca);
• a1 = Al.180/3.14;
include <stdio_h> printE ("Stator blade exit angle =t f \n al); R
,

ff include <math.h> U = 3.l4*D*N/60;

n include <conio.h> 81 = atan (tan (AI) ~ U/Ca) i
main ( ) b1 = B1.180/3.14;
printi ("rotor blade inlet angle =%f \0-, bI);
doubleCa, Cxlm, Cx2m, Cxl, cx2, i, j. k. I,AI, A2, Bl. B2; Cx2 = Cx2m*Dm/D;
Eloiltalm, blm. al, a~, bl, b2. b2m, Dill. Dt, Dr. D. N. Urn. A2 = atan (Cx2 I Cal ;
Ut.Ur.U,R; a2 :: A2.180/3.l4;
int. x; printE ("stator blade inlet angle =%f \0-. a2) i
clrscr ( ); U = 3.14*D*N/60;
printf ("enter blade tip diameter (m) ="); 82 = atan (tan (Al) + U/Ca);
scanf ("%f", &Dt); b2 = B2*180/3.14;
printf ("enter blade root diameter (m) ="); printE ("rotor blade exit angle =%f \n-, b2);
scanf ("%f~, &Dr); R = Ca. Itan IB2) -tan IB1I) / 12.UI;
printE ("enter mean rotor blade inlet angle (deg.) ="); printE ("degree of reaction =%f \n\n-, R);
scanE ("%f", &blm): }
printi ("enter mean root blade outlet angle (deg.) ="); }
scanE ("%E". &b2mJ;
printE ("enter mean stator blade outlet angle (deg.) ="); INPUT,
scanE ("%f" &alm);
I

printE ("enter the turbine speed (rpm) =");
scanf ("%f~, &N);
clrscr ( );
Om = (Dt + Dr) I 2;
Urn :: (3.14*Dm*N) I 60;
alm.3.l4/1BO;
j blrn*3.l4/180;
k tan Ii) ~ tan (j);
1 b2m*3.14 I 180;
Ca :: .Um I k;
Cx1m = Ca*tan {il;
Cx2m = Ca*t.an (1) ~ Urn;
for (x=l; x<=2; x++J
if I x = =1 I
1 print E ("blade root angles (deg.): \n\n");
o = Dr;
else
lprintf ("blade tip angles
D :: Dt;
enter blndc tip dinmelcr(m) == 0.75
enter blade root diameter(m) = 0.45
enter mean rotor blade inlet anglc(dcg.):;:: 45
I!nlcr mean rotor blade outlct nngic(deg.):;:: 75
cnler mea n slalDr blade outlet anglc(dcg.} = 76
c:ntcf turbine speed (rpm)=6000.0
Blade root angles:
stator blade exit angle =79.418846
rotOr blade inlet angle:;:: 72.061981
stator blade inlet angle =43.9344555
rotor blnde exit angle =72.747986
degree of reuclion =0.028995
Blade lip angles:
staIDr blade exit angle ::;72.680054
rotor blade inlet angle =·28.855749
stator blade inl et angle =30.027699
(deg.): \ o\n "); folor blade exit angle =77.028351
degree of reaction =0 .650438
 API'ENOIX ....: 455

cnll.!r bludc lip speed (m/sec) = 250

if (x:::: = cn ler blaclc roOI ~pcc d (m/scc) = 150
1)
• rOlational speed (rpm) = 9000
r = rt;
U " Ut; OUTPUT
printE ("blade tip angles (deg.): \n\n");
} Melln blildc angles (deg.)
else inlel blnde angle" 45.783056
oul lc l blade angle" 17 .046410
r = r h; inlct air ang le = J7 .046410
U " Uh: outlet air angh.: = 45.783056
printf ("blade root angles (deg .. ): \n \n"); Blnde tip nnglcs (dcg.)
} inlct nir angle = 22.062051
Cxl = (Cxlm I rm)*r; inlet blndc ang le = 53.646092
Cx2 = (Cx2m I rm)*r: out let air angle = 5:'.646093
KI = (Ca*Ca) + 2* (Cxlm*Cxlm) ; out lCI blade <lngle = 22.062048
Cal = sqrt (Kl - 2*(Cxl*Cx1): degree or rC<1cti o n = 0.500000
K2 = (Ca*Ca) + 2* (Cx2m*Cx2m) - 2* ((Cx2m I rm) - (Cxlm I rmll Blade root angles (dcg.)
*w*nn*rm; inlel air angle = 12.465 110
Ca2 = sqrt (K2 -2. (Cx2.Cx2) + (2.(Cx2Jr) - (exl / r» inlct blade anglc = 36.532675
*w*r*r) 1 ; oUllel air angle" 36.532677
Al " atan IICxl/Cal)): oullel blade angle = 12.465107
al " 11BO.Al) I 3.14; degree or reaclion = 0.500000
printf ("inlet air angle = %f \n", all;
Bl " atan IIU - Cx l) I Cal);
bl " 11BOoBl) I 3.14;
printf (-inlet blade angle %f \n·, bl);
A2 " atan IICx2 I Ca2));
a2 = 11BOoA2) I 3 .14;
printf (Routlet air angle = %f \n R , a2);
B2 " atan IIU - Cx2) I Ca2):
b2 " 11BOoB2) I 3 . 14;
printE (Routlet blade angle = %f \n b2l; R
,

R= ((CalIco s (81) ).(Cal/cos (Sl) - (Ca2 /cos (82)*

ICa2/cos IB2))) I 120UoICx2-Cxl));
printf ("degree o f reaction = %f \ n\nR,R);
}
)

INPUT

cnler temperature difference = 20

~ntcr workdonc filC!Or::::: 0.93
cnrcr menn blnde speed (m/sec) = 200
cntcr nxia l ve locity (m/sec) = 150
 ApPENDIX .... 453
,t5~ .,. TURUO MAClIlNES

AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR BLADE DESIGN

INPUT
• ff include <stdio.h>
..:lIh:r h!mp..:rmUfl: dirfcn!ncc = 20 U incl ude <math.h>
l'nh:r wurkdonc. fnclOr = 0.92 # include <conio.h>
cn t..!r mean blade speed (m/sec) = 210 main (
l'llIcr a.x in l veloci lY lm/sec) = 157.5
l'lw,;r bl'ldl! lip spl!l!d (m/sl!c) = 262.5 double a1, a2, b1, b2, i, j, k, 1. A1, A2, 81, 82;
l'llIcr blilde root speed (m/SeC) = 157 .5 float td, WF, U, Ca, Cp=
l:llilstant reaction hlade '.' =n 1005.0, R, Urn, Ut, Uh, W, Cxlm, Cx2m, r, rh, rt, rm, N, Kl, K2.
exl, Cx2, Cal, Ca2;
OUTPUll in t x;
printE ("enter temperature difference =-);
Mean blade angles (dcg.): Scanf {"%t", &tdl;
inkl blade angle = 44.935090 printE ("enter workdone factor = ~);
outle t bladc angle = 18.601836 scanr ("%f", &WF);
inlct air angIe = 18.601836 printf ("enter mean blade speed m/sec) =");
llUt1ct air ung lc = 44.935090 scanf ("%f", &Um);
Blade tip <lng lcs (deg.): printf ("ente r axial velocity (m /sec) =");
inlet a ir angle:- 15.069767 scanf ('''fif", &Ca);
inlt! t hlade angle = 5-1.442540 printf I "enter the blade tip speed 1m/sec) =");
uull!,!1 air angle = 38.593851 scanE ("'iif", &Ut);
ou tlet hlilde ilnglc = 41.015080 printE ("enter the blade root speed 1m/sec) =-);
Jl.'grec of reaction = O.6ROOOO scanf ("%f", &Uh)i
Bblde HlO( ang les (dcg.): printE ("rotational speed (rpm) =");
Inl e t nir angle = 24. 16941 8 scanf ("%f~, &N);
inl e t blade anglc = 28.890525 clrscr l ); /*FORCED VORTEX BLADE DESIGN./
!lutlet air angle = 53.072789 i (td*Cp) / (\oJF*Um*Ca);
o lltlet hladc angle =.. -18.233801 j = (O.5*2*Um) / Ca;
dcgrt!c of reaction = 0. 11111 J < = atan {{i+jl /21;
b1 = I1BO.<1 / 3.14;
printE ("mean blade angles (deg . ): \n \n");
prin tE ("inlet blade angle =
%f \n", bl);
1 = atan {j - tan {kll;
b2 = 1180.11 / 3.14;
printE ("outlet blade angle = %f \n", b2) ;
princE ("inle t air angle = %E \ n ", al = b2);
printf ("outlet air angle = %f \ n \n", a2 = bl);
w = (2*3.1,hN) /60;
rm (Um*60) / (2*3.14*N);
rh = {Uh.601 / {2.3 .1hNI;
rt = {Ut.601 / {2.3 .1hNI;
Cxlm Ca.tan (1);
Cx2m Ca*tan (k);
for (x = 1; x < = 2; x++)
 AI'I'E ~ [}I'\ ...: ·151
450 ;;. TURBO MACIIINES

81 = a t a n « U / Ca) - tan (AI»;

else b1 = (180 _S1) I 3.14;
prin t E (" i n let blade angl e = 'iif \n", bI );
U = Uri
A2 = atan ({Um / U). tan (k » );
printE ("blade root angles (deg.) :\n\n");
a 2 = (I8 0*A 2 ) ,. 3.14;
} print E (" o u tl et air a n g l e = 'h E \ n", a 2 );
i (td * Cp) / (toW'" U '" Ca);
j = (0. 5 >I< 2 ... U) / Ca;
82 =atan «V / Cal - tan (A 2» );
b2 = 1180_8 2 ) I 3.14;
k = atan {( i + j) .I 2);
printE ( "outlet blade angle = %E \n", b2) ;
b1 = (180 _ kl / 3.14;
%f \n", b11; R = Ca I ( 2* V) * (tan (81) + tan (8 2 )) ;
printE {~inlet blade angle
pr i ntE (" d egree of reac t ion = 'i.E \n \ n", RJ;
1 = atan (i - tan (kll;
b2 = (180 _ 11/3.14;
printE ("outlet blade angle = %f \n", b2);
,
)
)

printE ("inlet air angle = %E \n", a1 = b2);

printE ("outlet air angle = %E \n\n" , a2 = bl);
INPUT
}
) cntcr tempenllure difference::: 20
else cnt~r workdonc ractor::: 0.92
cntcr ITlcnn blClde speed (rnlsec) = 210
clrscr ( ); /",FREE VORTEX BLADE DESIGN * I
enter axial velocity (Ill/sec)::: 157 .5
~ (td '" Cp) / (WF '" Urn '" Cal ;
enter bladc lip speed {m/ser.:)::: 261.5
j = (0.5 '" 2 '" Urn) I Ca;
enter bl;]dc rOllt speed (m/sec)::: 157.5
k = a tan ( (i + j) / 2);
con stant reaction hlade ? ::: y
b1 = (180 _ kl / 3.14;
printE ("mean blade angles (deg.) :\n \n");
OUTPUT
printE ("inlet blade angle = %E \n", bl);
1 = a'tan (j - tan (k) };
Blade lip angles (deg .):
b2 = (180 _ 11 13.14;
inlel blade 'ngle = 47.687020
printE ("outlet blade angle = %f \n", b2);
outlet blade angle ::: 19.659747
printE (ninlet air angle = 'tE \n", a1 = b2);
inlet air angle::: 29.659747
printE ("outlet air angle = %f \n \n", a2 = bl);
outlet air ang lc::: 47.6R7010
for (x = 1; x < = 2; x + +)
Mean blnde anglc .~ (deg.) :
{ inlet blndc nngle::: 44.935090
if (x==11 oUllet blade angle::: [8 .6018:16
{ inlet air angle::: IR.601 8:16
U = Uti
\n \n" I; oUllet air angle::: -I 4 .l}:':'iOl)()
printE ("blade t1p angles (deg.)
Bladc root angles (dcg. ):
) inlt!l blade anglc::: 43.161696
else
outlet hlade angle::: :1...11 4 273
inlct nil' angle::: 3.4 I 4273
U = Uri outlet nir angle ::: 43 .261696
printE ("blade root angles (deg.) \n\n" I;
)
Al = atan ( (Urn I UI_ tan (111;
a1 = (180_A11 I 3.14;
printE ("inlet air angle = %f \n", al);
 ApPENDIX

AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR BLADE DESIGN

(FOR COMPRESSOR PROBLEMS)

fi include <stdio.h>
II include <math . h>
n include <conio.h>
main (

double aI, a2, bl, b2, i. j, k.. 1. Al, A2. 81. 82. q, r , S, t ;
float td. to.'F. U, Ca, Cp=l005 . 0, R. Urn, Ut, U['";
int x;
char Q;
print f I" enter tempera ture di f ference = ~ I ;
s ca nf ("%f" . &td);
printf ("enter workdone factor =M);
scanf ( "'!f ". &WF);
princE ( " enter mean b l ade speed m/sec) =");
scanf (~%f". &Um ) ;
printE ("enter axial velocity tm/sec) =n);
scanf ("%f", &Ca);
printE ("enter the blade tip speed tm/sec) = ");
scanf 1"%f", &U t ),
princE ("enLer t h e b l ade root speed (m/sec ) = ");
scanf ("!fiE", &Ur);
printE ("constant reaction blade? =" ) ;
scanf I"%c", &Q),
elrser ( I;
i f IQ = = 'y') I* CONSTANT REACTION BLADE DESIGN ./
(
for Ix=1; x <=3; x+~J

if (:;..: == 11
{
u = Ut;
printf {"blade tip angles (deg.) \ n\n" I ,
}
else if (x == 2)
{
U = Urn;
printf ("mean blade. angles (deg.) :\n\n~);

1
l
446 }> l'uRIlO MACHINES

r.uio. Thus the torque convertor is a more efricient power transmitting device at low
,, speed ral ios. while the fluid coupling is more dridcnl de vice at speed ratio nl!arer to
,, 0.950,.0.98.
, For automubiles. the speed mlio varies bl!lwccn 0 and 0 .98. TIlL. d are. il is usual
IU have: il eomhinal ion of fluid coupling and hydraulic convcnor. so as 10 avoid the
". +------'0..,.,------""
, , inefficie nt rilngl! of operation of each devi..::e: . At low spl!ed rali os. Ihe unit acl as a
torque t.:tlllvertor while at high speed rati O!>, Ihl! ~al1lt.: unit works as a lIuid coupling
with torque rat io of unity and its t.:fficien C)' increases to about 0 .98 with ,m increasmg
spt.:l.!d ratio.

EXERC'SES
11.5
10. 1. What i.H·t.: power transmitting lurhnm ;'H:hines'!
10.2. Wbat is hydraulic coupling?
10.3. E~pl;lin with a neat sketch. lilt.: working of fluid coupling.
u~________~__~____~ 10.4 . Derive the efficie ncy ofa fluid coupling.
o OJ (In; In 10.5. Dl!ri nc : Slip of a fluid coupling. Show that Slip a = 1·- '} wheft.:'1 is the Iluid
coupling crriciency.
NOrnA
10.6. In a Iluid coup ling. th e speeds of the driving and drivcn shafts arc HOD rpm
Figure 10.1 Torque COfH'Crler characteristics
and 7 80 rpm res pectively. rind .
(a) the e fli cic ncy of the hydraulic coupling and (b) the ~ lip of the coupling.
IAns: (a) 97.5% and (b) 2.5<;;-'
IHI51 - - - - - - - - - - ---,,'" 10.7. Whnt is a Torque covertcr?
10.8. How docs a torque converter differ from il fluid couplin g'!
10.9. Draw a l1l!a\ .sketch and c~plajn Ihe working , principle of a torque cOllwner'!
10. 10. Dl!ri vl! tile e:<.pn.!ssion for the efficicncy o f a torque converter?
10. 11 . What is the role of guide vnnes in a torque convl!rter'!
10.12. Compare torque convcrtl!r and fluid cOllpling on the basis of speed rati~l.
10. 13 . Write a nole on Ihe characteristics of iI nuid coupling.
10. 14. Di sc llss the chamc teristi cs of torque eonvcnnr.

O~________~-------L~
o 0.5 n.'J) I.n

NBINA
Figure 10.4 Fluid cOllp'i,,!: characrr-ri.ffics

But the efficiency of the nuid coupling increases continuously with speed rUlio.
reaching a ma xim um value of about 95% when the speed ratio is 0 .95. However,
the rise in efficiency of Ihe fluid coupling is not as fnst as that of th e torque con-
vertor during initial stages. Infact, lhe torque convertor, running at its design ratio
(0.65 - 0.7), has a higher efficiency than that of the fluid coupling at the samc speed
 Efficiency or IOrq ue convener
TORQUE CONVERTER
TIle hydruulic [orqu~ co nverter is n dc.:vicc used to transmit increased or decreased Power output
puwer from one shafl another. The torque lmnsmillcd at [he drive n shufl may be 'Iu'
(Q Power input
mon.: o r less thnn the lorq llc n\'~ilablc ill the driving shan. The lorquc al Ihe driven
wulT" + Tsl
shaft mny he incrcasc.:d hy <lbout li\'c limes the torque available at the driving shaft = wAT"
wIth an l.!flkicnc), of :Ihout 90%.
A torque (Ilnvcrtcr (Fig . 10.:!) t:ompriscs (11'(i) pump impclk.r coupled 10 the dri ving Wll
w"
(I + TATs)
slmft ( ii ) turninc runncrcnuplcd 10 Ihl.' driven sh:,f' a nd (iii) Si niaror lixcd guide vane
;I rrangcd bl.'IWCl! rl the pump impdkr and the lurhllll.! runner.
O bvlDusly. when there arc no guille VU Il!:S. torque converter red uces IU fhlnge cuupling.
bl!cuusc. whl!n

Thl!n ,

shari Further depending upon Ihe design and uril:ntali on or ,guilll! Vunl!S, thl! torque con-
vener may runctio n as a torque mulitiplier or torque diVider.
Torque converter acts as a torque muhiplier i.c .. w hen Ts is positive . To achieve th is.
Ihe guide vunes arc designed to receivt: u torque rrom the oi l in n direclion opposite
to thut t:xertcd on [he driven shun .
Figure 1(},2 Tnrqlll' {"o m'crle r
Ir the guide vanes are designed such that they receive u torque from the oil III thl!
Oi l fl owing from the pump impeller In the turhine nmncr exerts a IOrquc nn Iht.! samt: (iirt:clion as Ihut orthe driven shoft. then tht: torquccn nvcnc r w ill <Ictus a lorqut:
sIJli()nary V:lI1CS. Thcsc vant:s changl: the direction of now of oil, tht:reby l1l:lIdnl.! <I dividl.!r i.c. wh!'!:n Ts is negative.
possihle Inrque and speed lransformulion . ~ Usuully lhe torque converters are employed for torque augrnt:nlution i.e. ror lIlcrcas·
'1111! lorqul.! relationship is described as ing the torqut:. Large magnification nrc obtained by having tWt) o r mo re sets or turbi nt:
runner ilnd fi xed guide vanes .
Torque cnnVl: rters fiud application in diese l locomOliVt:~ . earth moving machinery
/ T/J=Ts+TAI
and automobile power transmilling units .
At low speed ratios. torque converters arc mort: econumical than nuid coupling.
Whl'r\!
Conve rsel y w he n the speed ratio approaches unity. the f1uid coupling is economical. .
T,\ - Torque at driving shafl
Far optimulll advantages in a system, the transmiSSion syslem IS 50 deslgncd thai
TI/ - Torque at driven shafl
the unit acts as a converter allow speed ra tios and as a coupling at high speed mlios
7~' - Torque at sta ti onary vanes
i.c. al speed r':Hias above 0.5.
TIle power at any shaft is proportional to the product o r torque and shan speed.
T hcll, powcr avai lah le a l shart A is
CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUID COUPLING & CONVERTER
The c haracteristics or nuid coupling Iln d Torque convertor arc shown in Figures
10.3 ifnd I DA. The efficiency and Torqut: ratio (TaIT,,) life runctions ofspccd ratio
:'lIld power .. vailab le al)ihaf! B is (N al N,I)' The torque raLio or a torque COnvenor riJlls with increasing s~l!d ralios.
while at the same lime the erfici~!1cy increases. At a speed ralio hl!twecn 0.65 and 0.7
(design value), Ill l! transmission effidl!lIcy reac hes ils muximum value of ahout 85%.
PIJ = wlJTu or
If the speed ratio exceeds the design value, the efficiency dt:crcasl!S qui le r:Jpid ly.
= wl/(T" + Tsl
 .....

(a) Working Principle Lt.:l.

In the beginnin g. both the ~harls ilfC ill rcst. When the driving shan is rotated. th e oil N" - Speed of c.Jri ving shaft
s tarts moving from the inner r.u..lim 10 the ouler radius o f the pump impeller as shown Nu- Spt.:cd ofdrivcn shnft
in th e Fi~. 10.1. The pressure energy and kinetic energy of th e oi l increase allhe o uter T" - Torque 01 driving shaft
radius of Ihe pump impclh:f. T,, - Torque at driven shaft
Then. powe r available at shaft A is

ill1U powc:r tmnsmitled 10 shaft B is

Pfl a Nil TIJ

TI1C t.:fficiency cqualion then becomes

N IJ x TIJ

l3u\ T,\ = Tl1 I.e thL: torque lransmiltc:d is the same.

Driven shnft spet.:d

Figure J0.1 Fluid (or) Hydrafdie coupling 'lFC = Driving shaft spL:ed
The energy-increased oi lthcn enters the runner of the reaction turbine at the OUlcf
radius and flows from the ouler radius to Ihe inner radius of the turbine run ner. The (c) Slip
oil while nowing through the runner, transfers its energy to the blades of the rullner Slip of fluid coupling is defined as the mtio of the dirferclIl;e of thl.! speeds of tht:
and makes the runner to ro tate. Thus. linally, the driven shan rotates. The oil then dri vi ng nntl driven shafts to IIle spced ur the tlriving sha rt. ~a lh c mati <:ally.
nows back into the pump impeller. Thus, a contin uous ci rcul ation of oil occurs and
I
hence eOnlinuous rotation or both shafts nrc maintained. N J1 - Nn
Slip

I
t7
The power is transmitted hydrau li cally rrom the driv ing shaft 10 the drivt.:n shaft anti N"
the driven shnn is rree rrom engine vibrations. Nil
The speed of thl! drivt.:11 shart is nlwoys kss Ihon thl! spl.!cd of the driving shnft by
about 2 pcr cenl. The efficiency or the power transmissiun by hydraulic cou pling is
I N,\
about 9R%. I or
\
(b) Efficiency
10 - 1- '1rc I
The efficiency of hydraulic coupling is derived in the following equation.
Power output The flu id coup ling efrects a smooth transfer of power from th t: enginl.! Iu the transmis-
'Inuid (oupling sion. All j~rk in g ilnd roughncss is eliminated by the usc or the nuid coupling. 111b
Power input
provides smooth (;.Ikc orf and reduces the wear and strain on the drivc trJ in .
Power tran smitted to the driven shaft
At high enginL: speeds, the coupling is vl.!ry efficient. Itgivcs ont: 10 one rati o hetween
Powcr avnilnble at l1u: driving shnrt
driven ilnd driving members. AI medium speeds. the coup ling is not quite as crfective.
But power at any shun is givc n by At low engine speeds there is little power tran sfer. When the engint: speed is low. there
2rrNT is flO power triln ... rcr. This is same as having a conventional dutch in the disengilgetl
Power = - --
60 position. This allows the coupling to act as a c1ulch. As the engine speed is increased.
powcr transfer hccomes morc e rfectivc.
(o r)
The Iluid couplillf! cannOI incrc;'lse the torque above that produced hy the crank shafl.
IPower a(Specd x Torque) I
 10_ _ _ _ ___
POWER TRANSMITTING
TURBO MACHINES

INTRODUCTION
Turbomachincs are crllcgoriscd as
(a) Power nbsorbi ng turbomachincs
Examp le PUlllpS. fa ns, blowers. and compressors.
(b) Power generat ing turhomachin es
Example Steam/gas turbines. and hydrauli c turbines.
(c) Power transmilling lurbomachincs
Example Fluid coupli ngs and torque convertors.
The power gcn cr.i.l!in g and power absorbing turbomachines are used respectively 10
product! and absorb power, the fluids fl ow in g throug h them experience a change in
enthalpy between the inlet and the outlet. In it power lIunsmiuing turbo mach ine. the
Ouid is totally conla in oo in a rigid c<:Is in g and docs not cross the sys lem boundary.
The power Iransmi ltin g lurbomnchines essentially serve the saml! purpose as mc-
chanica ltrnns mi ssion devices such us a gear truin and clutch assembl y. in transmitting
power between (wo dirrerent shafts. In a gear lrai n. the d rive is positive i.e. if the driver
shaft rotnlcs, th e driVl!1l shaft will necessarily rotate. In a power transmitting turbom a-
chi ne. th ere is no positive drive. since the driver and driven sha fts are not mechanically
coup led.

THE HYDRAULIC COUPLING

The nuid or hydrauli c coupling is a device used for rrnnsmitting power from driving
shon to driven s haft with th e help of fluid (generally oil). Gil is used as the working
flu id because or its Slabili lY, non-corrosive nalure and lubricaLing propcnics. There is

- no mechanic31 con nec tion between the two sh3fts.

The hydraulic coupli ng consists of a radial pump impeller mounted o n a driving
shaft and a rOldio l now reaclio n turbi ne mounted o n the driven s haft 80th the impeller
and runner arc ide ntical in shape and together fonn a casi ng which is completely
enclosed and filled with oil.
 ·US ;.:. Tt JRDO M "" IIJI\IES
is L!qual to 1.8 m/s. Determin e (a) lii se hnrgc through th e runner and (11 ) width
at nutlet if the width at inle t is 20 cm. (MKU- April '97)
(Ans: (a) U6 m' / s. (b140 eml
9.18. A reaction turbine works lit 500 rpm under a head of 100 m. 11le dian1l!ler of
th e turbine al inlet i:- 100 em and the flow area is 0.35 m 2 . The angles made by
absolute and rela li ve velocities at inlet arc 15° and 60° respectively wit h the
tnngentinl \'e locity. Detcrmine (a) the volumc fl ow rate. (bl the rowerdcvdnJ1l!d
and (l' ) ef(icil!ncy. Assume whirl at ou tl et to be ze ro,
IAns: (a) 2.9 m' / s, (b) 2356 kW and (eI82.65% 1
9.1lJ. A Francis turllille wi th an ovcml1 efficiency of70% is required to producc 147
kW. It is working under a hcnd of R m. TIle rl!riphcml veloci ty = o.3....f2i7-i and
thl! rad iill vc lClci ty of now at inl et is O.96../IiiH. The wheel nlllS at 200 rpm ilnd
the hydraulic lossl.!s in the turbine arc 20% of the av<!i lable t.:nergy. Assuming
r<ldin l discharge. determine (n) the guide blade ang le. (b) the whed vane angle
at inle!. te) dimllcter of the wheel at inlet il nd (d) width of the wheel at inlet.
(Ans: (a) 35.45". (b) 42.54", (c) 36 em and (d120 em l
9 .20. An outward nnw rc;v.: ti on turbi ne has internal and external diameters or the
runner as 0.5 m nmJ 1.0 m respectively. TIle guide blade an gk is IS" <lnd
velocity tlf Ilow through the runner is conSlllnt and equa l to ::\ OIls. I r the speed
orl he tur bine is 250 rpm: hend on the turbine is 10 m and dischnrgc <It outlet is
radial. determine: (a) the runer vane angles 0.1 inlet and outlet. (b) work done by
the waler on the runner per second per kg or waler and (c) hydraulic cflicie ncy.
(Ans: (a) 32.5". 12.5". (b) 73.3 W/(kg /s) and (c) 74 .7% 1
9.2 1. An inward nuw reliction turhine has extcrnnl and interna l diameters as 1.0 m nnd
0.6 III respec ti ve ly. The hydraulic crficiency orthe turbine is 90% when tbe head
on the IUrbine is 36 111 , The velocity of Oow at ou tl et is 2.5 m/s and discharge
at ou tlet is r<ldin!. If the vane ang le at outlet is 15° and wid th or the wheel
is 10 em at inlet ilnd outlet. determine: (a) the guide blade angle. (b) speed or
th e turhine. (c) vane ang le at inl et. (d) vo lume fl ow rate and (e) power developed.
IAll" (a)4.2", (h) 297 rpm. (e) 17. 1", (d) 0.47 m' / s and (e) 150 kWI
9. 22. An inward flow reaction turbine has an exit diameter or J metre and its br..cildth
nt in let is 25 e m. If the velocity of flow ill inl et is 2 mIs, find (a) the milS5
of waler passing through th e turbine per second. Assume 10% of the area of
flow is blocked by blade th ickness. Ir thc speed of the runner is 2 10 rpm and
guide blades make an angle or log to th e wheel tan gent, draw the inlet velocity
Iri ilOgle and find (b) Ibe run ner vane ang le at inlet, (c) velocity ofwhecl at inlet,
(tI) the veloci ty of wa ter leaving the gu ide va nes and (e) the relat ive velocity of
willcr e nt ering th e runner hladc.
IAns: (a) 1413.6 kg/s. (b) 80. 1", (c) II mis, (d) 11.52 mls and (e) 2.03 mlsl
9.23, Draw OJ skctch of a Kap lan turbine and descri be the workin g principle of the
mil in P<lrts or the turbine.
9.24. Omw the veloci ty tri angles of n Kaplan axial now turbine and de rive the
expression for work done.
9.25. A Kap lan turbine working under a hcad or20 m develops 12,000 kW. The outer
diamcterofthl! runner is 3.5 III and hub diameter 1.75 m. The guide blade ang le
allhe entrance edge of the runner is 3So. The hydraulic and overa ll efficiencies
or the turbine <Ire 88 % and 84 % respectively. If the ve loci ty of whirl is i'.CTO;1t
oUl let, determine
( a) Runner in let and outlet vane ang les at the ex treme cdge of the runner
and (MU-Ocr. '9S, /JU-MII'. ' C)(n
(b) Speed orl he turbine. (MKU-Nm: ' 1)7)
{Ans; (a) 103.64° anLl40. 16" ant'! (b) hS ..\2 rrllli
9.20. A Kaplan turbine runnl!ris to he designed tOdcvclop 91 OOkW. The net avallilhlt:
head is 5.6 m. Ir the speed rati o = 2.09. flow rat io::;: 0.68, o\'erall efic len cy K6r:;,
and the diameter of the boss is 113 of the diamete r or the runn ~ r. Find (a) tilL:
diameter or the runner. (b) speed and (c) the spcciric speed of the tur],ine .
fAns: (n) 6.2 1 m (h) 67.5 rpm illlU (e) 7'\(11
9.27. The huh dia1T1t.:ter of a Kap lan turbine. working unul:r a heilu of 1'2 Jll , is (U5
times lhe runner diameter. TIIC lurbine is running at 100 rpm. If Ihe Vime "nl!k
or Ihe ex treme cdgt.: of the runner at outlct is 151'1 i\nJ now TOltH) 0 .6. find fal
diameter or th e runner. (b) diameter of the hub and l~) the ui~l,;h<lrge th rllu~ h
the runner. The velocit y of whi rl at Ihe ou tlct is assumed as zero.
(An." (aI6.55 m. (1112.3 m and (CI27I.K m ' / , 1
9.28. A Kap lan turbine has the hub diameter of 2.0 m and runner diamete r of 5.0 Ill.
If it devel ops 25,000 kW when running at 150 rpm under a head or '25 m, wllh
'11/ and 11" of90% and 85% respecti vely, detcmline the discharge through IhL:
turbine ami guide blildc angle at inlet.
IAns: (a) 11 9.93 m.l/s and (11) 52."9 I
9.29. A Kap lan turbine working under a ht.:ad or 4 m produces 11000 kW. Speed r;lI io
1.2 and now ratio 0.65. hub diameter is 0.36 times the outerdiametcr of runner.
T;lking overa ll efficiency as 85%, find the diameter and specd or ru nner.
IAns: (a) 9. 15 III and (hI 22. 19 rpm 1
9.30. A K<lpliln turbille has a specific speed of 450. If it develops 10,100 I.;W und..:r
a head uf:2O m. find the diilmeler of the runner. Take speed ratio as 2.
1Ans: 4 J111
9.3 1. What arc the hases of selection of a turbine at a panl(.:ular pl;u:e'!
9.32. Dcscrihc the theory or drart tuhe and dr;:tw the different Iypes '-If dr;lft tlJhl: ~ .
9.33. Exp lain Ih ~ phenomenon or cavitation in turhines.
9 .34 . Explain with a neat sketch the douh lc regulation go\'erning mcthod III all
impUlse lurbJlle.
9.35. With a neat diagram. expla in th e mcthod of governing il reaL:l1on turhJne .
9.16. Descrihe the govern ing method used for an ax ial now turb1l1e .
 ..L1!l :,.. TUfUJU M ,\OIlNES H YI)RAIIUc-TI JIUII NI:S """' -Ln

Y. f 7 . Odin!! hydraulic c f!l c iency. 9.6. Desig n a Pelton wheel for a head of80 m and speed 300 rpm . The PelIOn whc:c:1
l) . f R. J-Iydr;lUlic c nic ieney is 100% when thl! nng lc turned through by the jet in the devdops 140kW. TakeClI = 0.98. spced ralio =:0.45 and OVl!rallcfficiency=O.H.
horiwnta l plane is - - . IAns: (a) D;J.112m. (b) d;8.55em. (e) z;221
Q. 19. Ddille Ihe terms for a Pelton turb ine , 9.7. A Pelton wheel is to be desig ned for the following specifications . Power = 1000
(a) Nozzle Erfic icncy kW, head = 200 m, speed = 800 rpm, overaJi efficiency = 0.86 andje:t diame:te:r
(bJ Nozzle ve loc ity coe ffic ie nt is not to e:xcecd one-tenth the wheel diamcter.
9.20. ll1C n07.Zle efficiency and velocilY coe fficient are relatcd by Determine: (a) Wheel diameter. (b) Diameter of the je:L and (c) Number of jeLS
(u) 11N IC~ = I required. [AIlS: (a) 0.673 m. (b) 6.73 em. (e) 21
(h) 'iN = CII 9.8. A Pelton wheel has n mean bucket speed of 10 mls with ajl!l ofwatl!r flowing
(l!) C 1• = '7~ at the rate of 700 litrcs/sec under u head of 30 m. The buckets denect the jet
1) •.2 1. Ddin~ overull efliciency of u Pelton turbine. through an angle of 160°. Calculate the: power and efficiency of the: turbine .
9.22 . C la s~ iry radi nl now turbinl.!s. Assume C u = 0.98. eMU-April '98)
9.23. Dr;l\v th~ velocity trian g les for an inwa rd !l ow rodial turbine . IAns: (a) 187.110 kW. (h) 90.8%1
9.Z-' . What is a draft tub!.!? Why is il used in a radial now turbine '! 9.9. A Pelton wheel is having a mean bucket diamcter of I m nnd is running at 1000
11.25 . Ddin!.' tht.' hydrauli l! dficicncy of a rudiaillow turb in c. rpm . TI1C nct head o n the: Pelton wheel is 700 m. If the side clearance. angle is
9.::!fi. How t\OI.!S an ill ward now rmJiu lt urbinl! arJjus t uutomutici.llly In thl! load varia- 15° and disch arge through nozzle is 0. 1 m J Is. find (a) Power available at the
li nn'! nozz le, and (b) hydraulic efficiency of the turbine .
9.27. What is an <lx ial How hydmulic turb ine '! Gi ve EX<.lmph.:s. IAns: (a) 686.7 kW. (h) 97 .2%1
9.:!R. Difkrentiah! between propeller turbine and Kapl:m turbine . 9. 10. The three jet Pelton wheel is required to generate 10,000 kW under a net head
9.21). W hy mu st the blades of an ax ia l now turbines be lo ng? o f 400 m . The blade ang le at o utlet is 15° and the reducti on in relative velocity
9.:\0. Draw the inlet and o utle Lve lociLY triang les for a Kaplan turbine? while passing over the blade is 5%. If the overall eflicie ncy o f the wheel is 80%.
9J I. How arc the types of turbin e selected for a particular lIpplil";;Hi on? Cll = 0 .98 and Speed ratio = 0.46, find (a) the diameter o fuu:jet. (b) total fl ow
903:!. Gi ve the range of specific speed vu lu cs for the Pe lt on , Franc is and Kapl;ln in m 3 Is nnd (c) the forc e exerted by a sing le jet on the buckcLS in the tangential
IUrbinl.!s. direction . IAns : (a) 12.5 em (b) 3.1 B m'ls (e) 94.1 kNl
9.33 . What is a draft lube? 9 . 11 . A Pelton turbine develops 8 MW under 8 net head of 130 m at a speed of
9.34 . Why is a draft tube used in a react io n turbine? 200 rpm . Assuming lIle coefficient of velocity for the nozzle as 0.98, hydmulic
9035 . Li st the types of draft tubes . efliciency as 87% speed ratio as 0.46 and jel diameter to wheel diameter mtio
9.36. What arc the advantages of a draft tube? as 1/9. delennine. (a) the discharge required, (b) th~ diameter of the wheel .
9.37. Defin e Efficiency o f draft tube. (c) the diameter and number of jets required. and (d) the s pecific speed.
9.3R. What is th e pheno menon of cavitatio n in hydraul ic turbines? IAns: (a) 9.6 m'/s. (b) 2.22 m. (e) 0.25 m and 4 and (d) 40.81
9 .."\9. Compare the crfect o f cavitntion in pumps and hydraulic turbin es. 9. 12. A Pdton turbine develops 3 MW und~r a head o f 3oo m. TIle overall efficiency
9.-'0. Dl!line Tho ma cavi tation parameter. of the turbi ne is 83%. If speed ratio = 0.46, e ll = 0.98 and s pecific speed is
16.5. then find (a) diameter of the turbine and (b) diameter of lhe jet..
EXERCISES IAns: (a) 1.78 m and (h) 0. 14 ml
9. 13. Draw and Explain the main pans of a radial now reac ti on turbine.
9 . 14 . Draw the inlet and outlet velocity triang les for an in ward now reacton turbine .
9 . 1. Draw a ncat sketch o f a Pelion turbine and descri be the func ti o n of its main 9 . 15. De fine the following terms for a radial flow reaction turbine .
componc nl s. (a) Hydraul ic efficiency
9.1. Obtai n an expressio n for the workdone per seco nd by wa ter on the runner o f a (b) overa ll efficiency.
Pelto n whee l. 9. 16. An inward now reactio n turbine has ouler and inner diameters of the wheel as
9. 3. Draw inlet and ou tlct veloci ty tri ang les for a Pcllon turbine and explain them ! m and 0.5 m respec ti ve ly. The vanes are radi al at the inlet and the discharge
briefiy. is radial at th e oULlet.. TIle water enters Lh c vanes al an angle of 10° . Assuming
9.4 . Derive an exp ression for maximum efficie ncy of th e Pelion wh ee l giving the the ve loci ty of now to he constant and is equal to 3 mis, find (a) the speed of
re lati o nship between the jet speed and bu cket speeu. wheel and (b) the vane angle at outl et. IAns: (u) 325 rpm. (h) 19.43°1
9.5 . De fine the term s: speed rati o. jet rati o. and coeffic ien t of veloc ity. 9. 17 . An inward flow reaction turbine hilS external and internal diameters as 1.1 m
and 0.6 m respectively. TIle velocity of now through the runner is constant and
434 ;. T UlWO M ,\ CHIN ES

-I ( 6.95 ) 8t11.
l BO - PI = lun 33.5 _ 3.34 Q
;r "'
-yIO- - D ;; ) :.: C,
1

= 12.9B' If , ,
= :l ( V- - (0.30)') x C
PI = 167 .02"
4Q
(b) Mechanical efficiency =
;(I - O~l! ) x C

p = 30000 x 10' (3.34 x 33.5)

-
~ x 2Y9.5H
- --- -
'1m = --(:'-C-'~,U~)- 10' x 9.BI x 300 9.B I
=
if x 0.91 x 5.97
pgQ - '-g- o 8.~ X In

'I", 89.4 % (b) Speed

;rON
(c) Overall efficiency U =
nO
'10 '1m X '111 = 0.95 X 0.894 00 x I RA
N = -if x- 8.-3H
'/0 = B4 .9%
N = .J I. t) rplll
Example 9.20 Find the operating speed and diameter of lhc run ner of a Kap lan
turbil1!.! h;] ving the foll owing specifications.
Rah!d power = 11 500 kW. Average head =4 .3 m. SHORT QUESTIONS
Owrul1 efficiency =9 1%. Diameter of runner boss =0.3 x diameter of runner. speed
mtio = 2 Flow mtio = 0.65 Y. I . Delin!.!: Hydrau lic lurbine.
9.:! . DilTl!rclltia[!.: he[w!.!c ll turhinl.!s :md rulllp ..
Solution Y.3. How ilrc turhinc s da~s incd ':'
p H 4.3 m = 0.9 1 l) .4.Energy avui la bh!;I1 the impulsl! turbint: JIlI!.:1 is onIy Kin!.:lie Enl.!rgy. (Tl'udFabe )
1150 kW = '10
Spccd ratio 2 Flow ratio = 0.65 Y.S. Wh .. 1 is a rcw.;lion lur!linc '!
Dh 0.3 D
9.6. Classify hydraulic turbinl.!s al.:(';llrcling to lh~ cJirl.!ctioll of fl ow through runnt:r.
(a) Runner diameter Y. 7. Pellun wheel i ~ <.I high head turbinl.! . lTrut:lful sd
9.R . Low he<luturhinc!' arc
U = Speed ratio x JZg H (a) K~lplan lurhines
2 x .)2 x 9.B I x 4.3 (h) Propelkr turbincs
(0) Bol h (u ) and (b)
= 18.4 m/ s
lJ.9. hunci ... turhin!.! is n - - spl.!ci!it; specd turbinI.!' .
Flow ve loci ty. 9. 10. Thl.! Iluid J1 o\\'!'o in the - - direcliun through the PdlOn turhine.
9. 11 . \vh .1I is spear in a Pelion turbine'!
C, = Flow ratio x J2g Ii 9. 12. Describe bridly the huckciS of Pelton wlle!.!1-
0.65 x J2 x 9.BI x 4.3 9. 13. Th e jet uf watl'r is dcnectcd by the !luckels through an angk o f hdwct:n
=
(n) IOOand 12()"
= 5.97 m/s (b) 160 and 105'
(0) 130 a"d 140'"
Nnw.
9. 14. \Vh:)! is mc;}nl hy brcakingjcl'!
p 9.15 , Draw Ihl.! inlet aml outl et vcl o<.: ily tri ang les for a sing ll.! hucket n f Pelh III whl.!cI .
'/0
pgQH 9 . 16 . For t"bximul1l Ene rgy transfer. Ihl.! wht:d velocity is
11500 x 10' (:1) 2Ct
Q = ( b ) CI

I
0.9 1 x 10) x 9.81 x 4.3
(0 )CI / 2
= 299.58 m' /s whl.!rc C r is the velocity of jet ul nUL"kcl inkt.
,132 ;.. TURBO MACI-IlNES Ii Y nllAlJLlC T URD I NES .- 433

E x ample 9 .18 A propeller turbine runnin g al SO rpm has a runner di amell.:r C2 = Cr ! = 5.7 1 m/s
as 6 01 and efreclivc area of flow as :20 01] . The angle of Ihe ru nner bladcs al inlel 15.7 x 5.8 1 (5.7 1)'
li nd oull ct urc 1500 and 200 respec ti vel y wil h Ihe tangen t 10 Ihe wheel. Assu ming H = 9.8 1
+ 2 x 9.8 1
l:onSlan l ve locilYof now calc ul ate, (a ) discharge. (b) Ihcorc tici.l l power developed, and
(c) hydr<.lulic effic iency_
= 10.96m

Now. uC.•,/g ( 15.7 x 5.8 1)/9.81

Solution 1/11 -,-1- = 10.96
= 50 rpm , d=6mA rffl'crt'l'1' ='20m 2, /31 = 150 0 Q
N • fJ2 =20 , Crl = C r :! 1111 84.84%
(a) Discharge
JrDN
/I
.
=- - = JTx660x 50 = 15.7 m/,
60
Example 9.19 A Kaplan turbin e has an ou tcrd iumctcrof S m and lnncrdiamr.:tcr
as 3 m and deve loping 30,000 kW al 80 rpm under a head uf 12 m. 111e discharge
Ihroug h Ihe runn er is 300 m3 /s. If hyd raul ic cflici r.:ncy is 95%, dctcrm inl! (a) inlel
As in K<.Ip lan IU rhi ne, VI = U2 = u.
and outle l hladc angles. (b) mecha nical efficiency and (cl overall cffi cicnl:Y·
:. U:! = 15.7 m/s
Solution
From outl et veloci ty tri angh: (Refer Fig. 9. 10 1 D = 8 m. Dh = 3 m, p = 30.000 kW . '111 = 0.95
N = 80 rpm . H = 12 m. Q = 300 m) /s
tan /J]. = u'). 15.7
(a) Blade angles at inlet and outlet
15 .7 x tan 100 :;;: 5.7 1 m/s
In Kap hm IUrbines V t = U'). as now is ax ial and erl = e,~
Giv!.!n Cr'!. :;:: e = Cr
rl Now,
Discharge Jr DN 1fx8x80
Q At/ft.c /jllt X Cr U 60 = 60 = 33.5 m/ s
'20 x 5.7 1 rr , ,
Discharge, Q ;j(D- - Db) x C,
Q 11 4.2 m'/,
300
(b) Theoretical power developed rr = 6.95 m/s
- (8' - 3' )
From in lel veloci ty Iriangle lRdcr Fig. 9. 101 4
From oullel vt!loci ty tri angle IRefer Fig. 9. 10}
t"n( 180 - fil) =
c,'
U -cx, 6.95
-C"' = - -
tan fJ2 =
5.7 1 U~ 33.5
to,,( 180 - 150)
15.7 - ex, fi, = 11.720
CXI 5.8 1 m/ s
Using Ihe hydraulic efficiency rclatio n
Pow!.!r developed pgQ (U~x , ) 111/ x gH
C.\·, = U
10' x 9.81 x 11 4.2( 15.7 x 5.8 1) 0.95 x 9.8 1 x 12
9.8 1 = 33 .5
10,1 16.98 kW = 3.34 mls
(c) Hydraulic efficiency Now, from inlet velocity tri angle [Refer Fig. 9. 101

H tan (I 80 - fill =
C,'
 l-huRAt !u(' TtJlUII~E5 -i 431
430 r Tunno MACHINES
l
From inlet velocity triangle (Fig. 9.18(a))
0.88D2 34.38
:. D = 6.22 m
= ~
C'l l lan 35°
TIle speed of the turbine is given by 9.92
rrDN = tan3S n
U,
60 = 14 .17m/s
60 x 21.91
.·. N Figure 9./8(a)
" x 6.22 Wq V I - C.I •
::;:
N 67.3 rpm Using the rdation for 'III
'1l1C SpcL'itic speed is given hy '111 x H x 1-:
U,
N,jp C,rl
N, 0.88 x 20 x 9.81
H ·V 4
67. } v'mo 14 . 17
12.1811\/s
(5 .6)'/"
N, 745.25 tV.!'1 = 12.18-14.17::;:-1.99m/s

Example 9.17 A K.pl.n turbine working undcr • he.d of 20 m develops The negalive sign indic:ltes that the Wq is in th!.: negative X -axis direction .
I J 800 kW. The outer diameter of the runner is 3.5 m and hub diameter 1.75 m.
The guide blade angle at the exlrcmc edge of the runner is 35°. TIle hydraulic and (i) (a) Runner inlet angle,
overall efficiencies of the turbin e arc 88% and 84% respectively. If the veloci ty of
C"
whirl is zero at outlet delcnnine. [.n(180 - fi,) =
Wq
(i) Runner inle t and ou tlet vane angle~ at the extreme edge of the runn er and 7R.66
180 - ~,
(ii) Speed of the turbine.
iJl = 101.34°
Solution
(i) (b) Runner outlet angle.
Givcnlf =20m. P=IIBOOkW. D=3.5m. Dh=1.75m
Guide blade nngle Q'1 = 35", '11/ = 0 .88. '111 ::;: 0.B4 and, C.Q ::;: 0 From out let velocity triangle (Fi.g. 9. 18(h»
For a Kap lan turbine
TIle dischargc through (he runner is VI = V1 andCq ::; Cq
P
'I" = PRQH tanfh u,
IIROO x 10'
Q = 10] x 9.81 x 20 x 0.H4 130 Figure Y./8(b)

Q = 71.598 m'/s ~, = 39.2°

Q is given by
(ii) The Speed of turbine
rr, ,
Q = 4'(D- - Db) x C" U, X 60
71.598 N = rrD
"- ,
x (3.5- - 1.75-)
, 12.18 x 60
4 = rr x 3.5
9.92 m/' N = 06.46 rpm
 HVDRAUUc TURBINES "'" 429
-I~ 8 ;. TUlU10 M AClUNF.S

Availab le r ower = pcQ /./ . Hcnc~ flow rate But w.r! equals Vm s ince eX! is zero . Hence
8.21
27 x 106 tan R, := -
Q I'. 26.5
1000 x 9.81 x 23
Out leI blade angle
= 11 9.7m'/,
fl, = 17.2"
RCIIor spel!J r.l t mean di~lIne(l.!r
Example 9.16 A Kap lan turbine runner is to bl! designed 10 develop 9100 kW.
Ird... N
V'" = The net availah le. head is 5.6 m . If the speed r.l.lio = 2.09. now ratio = 0 .68 . overall
60 eflicil!l1cy 86 % and the diam!!ler of the hess is If) the diumele r of the runner. Find
Jr x 3.375 x 150 the diameter o f the runner. its Spel!llllnd thl! spt!ei fi c speed of the turbine.
=
60
26.5 m/s
Solution
=
Given
Power given 10 runne r Power available x '111 P = 9 100kW H=5 .6m Spoou,atio=2.09
= 27 x 106 x 0.93
Flow ralio = 0.68 Ove rall EfficiencY'111 = 0.86
= 25.llmW I
Db = - D
BUllheoretical power given 10 runner is 3
D-DiamClcr of runner Db-Diameter of boss.
IV = pQVmCx1 (C,r~ = 0) . VI
Now, speed rallo =
25 . 11 , 106
fii"":Tj
= 1000 x 11 9.7 x 26.5 x C.I I v~gH
,
= 79 m/+ V;;'] II = VI =
=
2.09 x (2 x 9.81 x 5.61'
21.91 m/ s
A xial veloc it y
Q . C,'
Flow rat io = - - -
c" = ~(D2_d2)
J 2gf/
4 ,
= O.6H x (2 x 9.81 x 5.6p
119.7 x 4
= 7f x (4 .75 2 - 22)
7.13 m/,
= 8.21 m/ s The Overall efficie ncy is given by
From Ihe inkt veloci ty triangle rRefer Fig , 9. 1OJ. eu = Cr , P
'10 pgQH
lan( 180' -illl = c" 9 100 x 10'
:. Q = 0.86 x 9.81 x 5.6 x 10'
= 26.5 - 7.9 192.6 tn ] /s
Inlet blade angle The discharge through a Kaplan turbine is given by

#1 = 156.2' Q =
At o utlct
192.5
Ia n fh = ell I \VX~
"
 HYIlll,\ULlCTUItUINES '" 427
426 > TURBO MACHINES

Detenninc Hence. fJ I = 24.B2C.

(i) TIle runner vane angles aL the inleL and oULlet. Lan{3, = - '
C"
(i i) Work <..lone by Ihe water on the runner per kg of water and - (/,

(iii) Hydraulic efficiency

or
Solution 13, = lan-I (_4_) 12.57
Given Dl = 0.6 m. D2 = 1.2 m, 0'1 = 15°, CrJ = Cr~ = 4 m/s
N = 200 rpm. Ii = I qm. 0'2 =90°
Hellct.!.lh = 17 .65
0

(ii) Work done

lV / m
= 6.28 x 14.93
93.76 W I (kg /s)

(iii) Hydraulic efficiency

VI C., 1
gH
93.76
9.81 x JO
~1/ = 95.58%

Figure 9.17 Example 9.15 An axial flow hydraulic turbine has a net head of 23 In <.Icross it .
and, whcll running at a spced of 150 rpm, develops 23 mW. The bll.ldc lip and hub
(i) Inlet and outlet vane angles diameters are 4.75 and 2.0 m respectively. Ir the hydraulic efficiency is 93 per cenl
"DIN and the overall efficicncy is 85 per cenl, cakulalc the inlet and oullel bladc angles ilt
(/, = the mcal1 radius assuming axial now at out lc!.
fiG
" x 0.6 x 200
= = 6.28 mls Solution
60
rrD2N Mean diameter
(/, =
60 D+d
1T x 1.2 x 200 dm
= 12.57 m/s. 2
=
60 4.75 + 2
W'I"J = C-"l -UI
2
C,' 4 = 3.375 m
cx, tan 15° = Ian 15°
= 14.93 mls Overall efficiency I
... Wt l 14.93 - 6.28 = 8.65 mls
Power developed
Ian fJl C" '10 = Power availablt.:
\VAl
2) x 10'
{3, = Lan -
I
(~)
8.65
Power available = 0.85
= 27 mW
 HYDRAULIC- TuRBINES 4: 425
.1 :!.I ., T! !;l.IJO M",' IIINF.S

Fn lll1 hyurau ic dficiency relm ion Solution

J-I :::: 30 m . D\ = 1.2 m , D"! = 0.6 m. fjl :::: 90~. al = 15°. C~! = 0, Crl ::; C'1 '
'111 x gH
C'II V, (a) Speed of the wheel Ir thc.:rc.: is no loss or energy in the guide and runner
0.94 x 9.81 x 70 vanes. Iht! working head.
C:! C"l
23.05
28m/s
H = Euler's head + -.-l
2g
::; £ + ---.l
2g
Since. C.I·~ = 0, C"l = Crz
From inlet veloci ty tri angle. Guide blade ang le I Refe r Fig. 9.6]
£= U I C r l
g
C"
= CX I H=
UIC\!
--
C;VIC"'I
+~=--+-
C~
g 2g g 28
"I tan _ I (5.56)
-- Si nce p[ = 90". C x ! = VI
2R
Uf C;,
f/ = - + --
"I = 11.23"
g 2g
From in ll.:t velocity triangl e, (Re rer Fig. 9. 16)
Runn.:r V: H1C angks:1\ inl..:! nnd out let
-U1=C"1
5.56 ta ncq = -
C" al PI
C"
tall P I -=----""---
C.1I - V I
=
2B - 23.05
Vt
c
C
I
WI=Crl
V I = Cd / tana l = Cd/ Ian 15
fit 48.32°
= 3.732C"
From outle t veloci ty tri angle. I Refer Fig. 9.61 Cr~. and
But C r! ::; V[:::: 3,732 Crl ' "
Inn fh C"
H=
(3.732C )1 r, + -
C;I
.
V, g 2g
D,N I
30 = I A2C;,, + 0.051 C'"
IT
liD D, = 2DI = 0.2935 m
C" =4.51 6m/s
IT x 0.2935 x 750
= 60 = 11.53 ml' Then V, = 3.732 x 4.516 = 16.854 ml'
60 x V, 60 x 16.854
tan _ I ( 5.56
-)
- Speed N = ~ = rr x 1.2
1 1.53 Figuu 9. /6
25 ,74" N = 268.24 rpm
(b) Vane angle at exit
WiJt h 4lt ou tle t.
C" 4. 516
D ,b , 0.5R7 x 0.0587 tan P2 =
-- = V; = U2
D, 0.2935 "D,N IT x 0_6 x 268.24
0 . 1174 m V, 60= 60
Example 9.13 A Francis turbine working under a head of 30 m has a wheel 8.43 m/ s
di:.lmctt:r (If 1.2 In n L th e en trance and 0.6 m at the exi t. The vane angle alth e en tran ces /3, = 28 .18°
is I)()" and guide blade angle is 15". The woter a[ th e exi t leaves the vanes without any
IiIng.cn ti i.!I vc locity and the veloc it y of flow in the runner is cons tant. Neglecting the Example 9.14 An ou.\ward flow reacti on turbine has internal and external diam·
cffcci of draft tube, and losses in the guide rind runner passngcs determine [he speed Clers of the runner as 0.6 m and 1.2 m respectively. The guide blade angle is 15" and
IIr thl.! whed in rpm ilnd vane angle at exit. tBV-April '96) ve loc ity or flow through th e runner is constant and equa.1 to 4 mls. If the .spcc~ of
the turbine is 200 rpm. Head on the turbine: is 10 m and di scharge at outlet IS mdml.
 .....,

HYDRAULIC TUltiUNES ~ 423

422 ;. T URBO M ACHINES

(v) Width of runner at outlet The discharge through a radial now rcaclion Example 9 .12 Design an inward now Francis turb ine whose power output is 330
kW under a head 0[70 m running at 750 rpm. 1}1J :;:::: 94%. '10 :;:::: K5%.111C flow ratio
turbine is gi\'cn by
ill inlet is 0.15 . The breadth rali o is 0. 1. TIle OUh:r diameter of the runner is twice Ihe
inner diameter of runner. The th ickness of the vanes occupy 6% of Ihe: circumtiill area
(or) of lh e runner. Flow velocity is constant and discharge i.Ci radial at oullct.
Dlbl = D2b1
D]111 Solution
b, =
D, P = 330 kW /I = 70 m N = 750 rpm ~lf 0.94 '10 0.85

=
0.9 x 0.2 Flow ratio = 0. 15 Bre ad lh ratio = 0 . 1 D, ;:::: 2D1·
0.45 Flow veloci ty
b, = 0.4 m
Flow ratio x .fiiH
(vi) Mass of water flowing through the runner per second
0.1 5 x J2 x 9.81 x 70
TIl pQ = 5.56 mls
Q = IT D,b, C" = IT x 0.9 x 0.2 x 1.8
Discharge at outlet
= 1.018 m'/s
P
n, = 10' x 1.018 Q =
pg H x ~o
1;1 = 101 8kg/s
))0 X 10'
(vii) Head at the turbine inlet (H) 10' x 9.8 1 x 70 x 0.85

Ii
PI
- + -and
v? = 0.565 m'/s
pg 2g
But.
/I _ v'
-1- [·:c., = OJ
2g
Q :;: : Ac tu al area of now x Velocity of flow

f{ = VIC. ]
- - f +-
Vl O.94rr D1iJl x C,.

g 2g
Since, breadth ratio
9.425 x 10.208 1.8 2
= - -::-=-- + 2x9.8 1 ~~ 11 ,
9.8 1
D, = 0.1 b, =O. ID ,
Ii 9.973 m [·:V2 = C2 = C..,J
Q = 0.94 x rr x 01 x O. ID] x Cr ]
(viii) Power developed Q 0.565
D'I = 0.94 x rr x 0.1 x 5.56
lV m(VICx ])
0.94 x rr x 0.1 x C r1
= 1018(9.425 x 10.208) D, = 0.587 In

IV 97.942 kW and
(ix) Hydraulic efficiency h, = 0. 1 X D, = 0.0587 m

V tC.'1 Tangential speed of the runner at inlet

~lf =
gli
9.425 x 10.208 rrDIN rr x 0.587 x 750
=
9.81 x 9.973 60= 60
= 98.34% 23.05 mls
 HVPRAlJl.lcTI!KttlNES ..;{ .;21
-I~O ~ Twwo M ,\CHI NES

From inkt velocity triangle

But.
PI - P,) +(ZI - sin lOa = Cq
_ __- Z2} = 62 m CI
( pg
1.8
l-h!ud loss in runner C,=~
sin lOa 0.1737
= 62+ (33.8' - 7') _ (31.5 x 32.4) CI = 10.366 m/s
2 x 9.R I 9.8 1
(b) The velocity of whirl at inlet
:;::: 1 3 . 6 ~) In

tun IOn =
Example 9.11 An inward now reaction turbine has externa l and internal diam~
clers as 0.9 III nnd OA5 m respec tively. The turbine is running nt 200 rpm nlH.1 the C.l:! = tan 10"
w id th or turbine 111 in.!.:t is 20 em. The ve loc ity of flow through the runner is constnnl
C'TI = 10.208 ml'
anti is equal to 1.8 m /s. TIle guide blndcs mnkc an ang le of 10° 10 thc wngent o f the
wheel anti the di~clt .. rgc at the out let of the turhine is radial. Draw the inlet and ou tlet (iii) The relative velocity at inlet
vcJocil Y trian gles and detcnnine
(i) The abso lute vc loci ty of water at the inlet of runner.
WI fW11+C;I
Iii) The velocity or wh irl at the inlet WX t = C.q -VI
(i ii) llle rcla!i"e velocity ul th e inlet rrD,N rr x 0.9 x 200
VI = --=
l iv) The rlln ncr blade angles 60 60
(v) Width of the runner ut the outlet . VI 9.425 m/s
(v i) Mass or water flowing through the runner per second
(v ii) Head at tht.! turbine inlet Wfl = 10.208 - 9.425
t viii } Powcr developed and hydrauli c cfllc icncy of the turbine = 0 .783 m/s

WI (0.783' + 1.8')l
Solution
WI 1.963 m/s
Given D\ = 0 .9 In D2 0.45 m N = 200 rpm b l = 0 .2 m
C'I Cr != = I.S m/s at 10° 012 = 90° (iv) The runner blade angles

(a) The absolute velocity of water at inlet of runner "lc l ) /31 (an - I (S)
W.XI
= tan -le --)
8
0.783
iJl . 66.49 0

/3, = tan - I (~~)

7f D1N Tf x 0.45 x 200
V, = - --= 60
60

I
V, = 4.712 m/s

<-- u--->
Fjglln~ 9. JS
I /32
/32 =
(an _ ( ( -1.8

20.91 0
-)
4.712
 l
418 :;:. TUltrJo MACIIINF_"i "I YOnA"uc T u flOiNES " 419

(or) (a)(i) Guide vane angle

125 x IOJ
pgQH = oq
0.74
Hence. now rale
125 x UP
Q = 0.74 x 1000 x 9.8 1 x 5.5
163 "
= 3.13m' /s
(ii) Inlet velocity
BUI also
C, = (C 2 +C 1f] );
r.
Therefore. = (9.5 2 + 32.4');
3. 13
= , 33. 8 m/s
" x 0 .836 x 0.4(2 x 9.81 x 5.5)!
(b) Runner blade entry angle
= 0.287 m
C"
Hence, height ofrunner= 0.287 m. Ian f31 =
e. . . - VI
r' _ 1 Example 9.10 A Francis turbine has a diameter of 1.4 m and rotates al430 rpm. 9.5
=
\Vater enters the runner without shock with a now velocity (C r !) of9.5 m/s und leuves 32.4 - 31.5
the runner without whirl with an absolute velocity of 7 m/s. The difference between = 10.55
the su m of (he s tatic and potential heads at entrance to the runner and at the exit from
the runner is 62 m. If the turbine develops 12250 kW and has a now rate of 12 m J / s Hence .
o f waler when the net head is 115 m. find fl, = 84.6'
(a) the abso lute vel oc ity of the water at entry to the runner and the ang le of the inlet
guide vanes. (C) Total head across runn er
(b) the entry ang le of the runner blades and = Energy (head) transferred 10 runnt.!r + Head lost in rUl1nr.:r
(c) the head lost in the runner
At inlet.
Solution
PI Cr
Runner tip speed If, = -
pg
+ -2g + Z,
rrDN
V,
60 At outkt.
Jr x 430 x 1.4 p, C;
60 H, = .-:. + -= -I- Z,
- pg ~J: -
= 31.5 m/s
Now. for l..:ro wllirl at outlet
Power given to runner

But C.l1 is zero , s ince Ihen~ is zero whirl at outlet. Hence

Hence. loss of hr.:ad in the runner

C'tl =
=
12250 x 10' x 60
1000 x 12 xrr x 1.4 x 430
32.4 m/s
P,_P,) + (CI- C;)
= ( ___
~
V,C-..,
- +( Z,-Z,j- -
~ .
 416 ~ TURBO MACHINES f-1\'uItAuucTUItOlNF_" -l. "'1 7

Now flow veloci ty C rl , is given by Solution

Q/A Hydraul ic effic iency
0.5/0.113 Power givcn to run ncr
= 4 ...n m/s 'III Powe r avai lab le
rn(V t C'cJ - U2 C x)
f-rom inl et ve loci ty triang le
pgQN
C rJ tan PI
-1.42 x (an(72° )
But s ince lhe How is radial at outle t. eXl is zero and 'm' equa ls pQ . Therdon:
13.6 m/s V[C,C,
ql/ = gfl
Suhst iluting for C.q gives ,
Q.97(2g flP cx,
T = -300 x 13 .6 0.82 =
gli
= -4080 Nm
hence ,
This is the torque t.:xertcd on the fluid. TI1C to rque exerted by the fluid is + 4080 Nm ,
c'11 = OAn(2gHP
and is thl! torq ue cxent.:d on the runner.
Torque exerted by water on runner = 4080 Nm Now. from inlel velocity triangle lRefcr Fig. 9.61
Power ~xc rt ed

IV = TO) = 0.4 / 0.423

= 4080 x C" ~~ 260)
From which, in le t guide va ne angle 0'[ = -l3.4°
= 538 kW
tan .8\ = Cr,f\V x1

= e c,'- VI
Hydraul ic Efficie ncy, 'If{
Power Exerted XI
= 0.4
Power av'li labll!
538 x 10'
= 0.423 - 0.97
pgQN = -0.731
538 x 10' [rom wh ich , 13, = -36 .20 '0 give the blildc a ngle PI as ( ISUO - 36.2" ) = 1-13 .8"
= 1000 x 9.81 x 0.5 x 124 w ilh V, > ex,
0.885 Runner speed
= SK.5%
"DIN "
=
60
f- .~ Example 9.9 An inward now radinl turbine has an overa ll dficiency of 74 per 60 x 0.97 x (2 x 9.8 1 x 5.5)l
cl.! nt. T he nI.!l head 1/ across the turhine is 5.5 m li nd the required power output is
, = IT x 230
1:!5 kW. The runner [angentia l veloc ity is O.97('J..gHP wh ilt.: the flow ve loci ty is
, Runncr inlet diame te r = 0.836 m .
O.4(lg fI) r[ the speed of thl! runner is 230 rpm w ith hydraulic losses accounting
2.
[or 18 per cent of thl! energy avai lab le, calcu latt.: the inle t guide vane ex it ang le, the Ovcrilll efficiency
i nk [ anglt.: of the runner vane, the runner diilnlCler ;11 inlet and the height of the ru nner ,.
Power O ut put
al inlet. Assume Ihatthc discharge is radial. 1],. =
Powe r avai lable "'I
 HVDR,\U u c Tu IUl INES ...: 41 5
4 14 :;:. TuneD M ACUINES

(b) Diameter of the jet (d)

:. d ~
j;;. ~ 4 x 0. 1999
rr x 33.62
d ~ -
1
x D
IZ
x 1.59
d 0.087 m IZ
d ~ 0. 133 01
(c) Num b er o f buckets
(c) Quantity of water required
D 1.47 IT ,
z 15 + Zd ~ 15 + Z x 0.087 Q ~ '4d- X (" 1

~ 23.45 n ,
~ 4" x 0.13 3- > 53.16
z Z4
Q 0.739 m·l / s
(d) Size of b uckets
(d) Power develop ed
Width of buckets 5d ~ 5 x 0.087
p 1"/0 x Power avai lab le at the nonle
~ 0.435 III
ryO x (pgQH)
Deplh of buckets I.2d ~ 1.2 x 0.087
0.84 x (1000 x 9.81 x 0.739 x 150)
~ O. I04m
p 91 3.5 kW
1'- (
Example 9.7 A Pelton wheel is be designed 10 run al 300 rpm under a head
10
Exam ple 9.8 An electric ity generating installation uses a Franc is turbine with a
o f 150 m. The nozzle diameter is not to exceed one-twelfth lhe wheel .diametcr.
rOLOt io nal s p'ced of 1260 rpm. The net head across Ihe turb ine is 124 m and th e vo lume
The oycrall e ffi cie ncy is 0.84. Determine the diameter of the whee l. dia meter of
no w rate is 0 .5 mJ/ s. TIle rad ius o f the runner is 0.6 m. the height o f the runner vanes
jet. qua niLily o f water req uired and power developed . Take C II 0.98 and speed = al inlet is 0.03 m and the ang le of thl! inlet g uide vanes is se t at 72:) fro m the radial
ratio = O .4~. direc tion. Ass umin g that the abso lu te now veloc it y is radial at the exi t. fin d the torque
So lution and pow~r exerted by lhe wale r. Calcu late the hydraul ic efficie ncy.
d 1
N = 300 rpm H = 150 m - = - 'Iu = 0.84 C l ,
D IZ
= 0.98 Speed ratio = 0.46. Solution
Fro m the ang ular momentum equ ati on
(a) Diameter of the wheel (D) Torqu e.
Veloc ity of jet C I = CII J2g li T = m (rlC X1 - rI C.I I )

0.98 J"'Z""x'"'9'.8"'I' xC""7l ,,"

50
But Cx ] = 0, si nce the now is md ial at ou tlet. a nd therefore
53 .16 m/s
T = -mrtC.q
- pQrl C q
Velocity o f the wheel (U) Speed ratio x .ffiH
- I OJ )( 0.5 x 0.6Cx,
0.46J2 x 9.8 1 x 150
~ 24 .96 m/s
= -300Cl " Nm

The inlet area

But,
rrDN
U ~

60 where bl is the inl et run ner he ight

60 x Z4 .96
D
rr x 300
= 2Jr x 0.6 x 0.03 ,
D ~ 1.59 m ~
 HVDltAUuCTuRBlNe.S .q: 413

412 ;.. TURBO M ,\CIUNP.S

and hence

lllcrcforc. 143.5 x 4
d'
Theoretical Hydraulic Efficiency 1000 x 102 x rr
= 1.792 x 10-) m'
0.465 / 0.5
= 0.93 d = 42.3 mm

AClual HyJrualic Efficiency is Example 9.6 Desig n a Pehon wheel ror a head of 60 m and speed 200 rpm .
The Pelton wheel develops 100 kW. Take Cu = 0.98, Sp~ed ratio;:: 0.45 and overall
0.9 x 0.93 efficiency;: 0.85.
0.837
Solution
H = 60 m N = 200 rpm P = 100 kW C, = 0.98 5p.:<!<l ratio = 0.45 qo = 0.85.
U = 0.47 x 102 (a) Diameter of wheel (D)
47.94 m/ s Velocity of jet
Whl!d rOlational spr.!ed CI = C,J2gH

U x 60 = 0.98 x J2 x 9.81 x 60
N =
lTD = 33.62 m/s
47.94 x 60
= Velocity or (he buckels
IT x 0.9
= 1017 rpm
U = speed ralio x J2g H

= 0.45 x J2 x 9.81 x 60
Actual power developed = 15.44 m/'
AClual Hydraulic Efficiency
Energy available in jet
BUI rrDN
1250x 10'
0.8 37 = U = 60
( t /2mC~)
60 x 15.44
SUhSLiluling for Ct and so lvin g for the mass now rate
:. D = Jr X 200

1250 x 10]
D = 1.47 m
11/ =
0.837 x 0.5 x 102' (b) Diameter of the jet (d)
= 287 kg/s Overall cfliciency
P
Ht.:l\ce for one noulc, qo =
pgQH
m = 143.5 kgj s P
Q = pgH " 10
Also rrom co ntinuity equation
100 x 10-'
= 10] x 9.81 x 60 x 0.85
where A is the nozzle area = 0.1999 m) /s
rr ,
II = -d-
4
BUI,
Q = Area of jel x velocity of jet
whae d is Ih~ noz.zle diamcler rr ,
= '4d- XCi
pCITfi2
111=-- -
4
 -
H YDRAULlCTUlIfIINES ...; 4 11
410 ):> T URno MACIIINf.S
l
Solution Solution
Number of jel' =Z. Shaft power =ZO.OOO HP. I HP =0.736 kW nle Fi g. 9. 14 illustrates the system wi th the veloci ty triangles.
hence. Shaft power = 14.720 kW. D =
0. 15 m. H 500 m. C, = = 1.0.
Velocity of each jet C u j2gH
I. 0 J"'z-x--'9".8"'I'--x-"50""0
C, = 99.05 m /s

Area of t!<lch jet, A

=
Figure 9.14
= 0.0177 m'

:. Discharge of each jet Power ou tput

Hydraulic efficiency Energy available in jet
= A xC ,
IV
= 0.0177 x 99.05
(1 / 2mCi)
1.75 m) /5
At entry to nozzle
:. Total dischargeQ = 2 x 1.75
fI = 600 - 48
3.5 m3/s
= 552m
Power at the turbine inlct
Nozz le vel ocity coe fficient
= pgQH
C,
10) x 9.81 x 3.5 x 500/10)
Theoretical velocity
17198.75 kW C,
Ovt:r311 Efficiency (28 H)It'
ShaftPowcr 14 . 720
1l1US,
pgQH 17198.75
0.98(2 x 9.81 x 552)' 1'
0.856
102 m/ s
85 .6%

Example 9 .5 The buckets of a Pelton wheel denect the jct through an angle of Now,
170" while the relative velocity oflhe water is reduced by 12 percent due to the bucket
WI lli UIC.'"! - U2C~ ~
friction . Calculate the theoretical hydraulic efficiency from the ve locity triangles for
a bucket/jet speed ratio of 0.47 . Under a gross head of 600 m the wheel develops V[(V + IVtl - (V - lV,cos(180" - a»]
1250 kW, when the loss of head due to pipe friction between the reservoir and the = V[(C, -V)( I-K co, a ) [
n07.7.le is 48 m. The bucket circle diameter of the wheel is 900 mm. and Ihere arc Iwo
jets. 11le nozzle velocity coefficient is 0.98 . Find the speed of rOlalion of the wheel wh ere W2 .:: 1\ Wj. Substituting th e values,
and the diameter of the nozzles if the actual hydraulic efficiency is 0.9 limes at that IV/m = 0.47C,(C, - 0.47Ctl(I·-0.88cosI70·'
calculated ahove .
IV = 0.465 meT
 4(}R ,. Tunuo MACHINES HVORAuuCTuRBINES 4. 409

In :tctual practice, maximum efficiency takes place when thl! velocity of [he wheel is Hence, Power avai lable at the nozzle
0.46 Jimes th~ veloci ty of Ihe jet.
i.e. = ~2 x 150 x 91.06'
U = 0.46.C = 621.903 kW
= 0.46 x 97.06 Power availab le :n lhe nozzle = 621 .903 kW.
U = 44.65 m/s
(b) Hydraulic efficiency
The; whee l diameter is E
U x 60 C;/2g
D = rrxN where E Wlmg
44.65 x 60 W = U(C X1 + C.l"2)
= IT x 430 C,' C, = 91.06 m/s
D = 1.98 m
From the inlet velocity triangle [Refer Fig. 9.2]
(c) Diameter of the nozzle (d)
IV, = C,-U=91.06-41.89
discharge through the nozzle
TIle! mUSl be equal 10 lhe discharge of the turbine .
IV, = 49.17 m/s
Therefore.
Assuming no loss of relative ve locity
Q = C x Gd') IV, = IV, = 49.17 m/s
d
(~ X;~)'" From the outlet veloci ty Lriangle [Refer Fig. 9.2)

(3.12 x ~ ) 'I' W.l! = WJ.· cos 15°

= 49.17 x (0.97)
97.06 rr
47.49 m/s
d 0.202 III or 202 mm
Then
Example 9.3 A PelIon wheel is having n mean bueke! diameter of O.R m and is IV" - U = 47.49 - 41.89
running al 1000 rpm . The nel head on the Pchon wheel is 400 m. If the side clearance 5.61 ·m/s
ang!..: is IS" and discharge through the nozzle is 150 lillsec. find (a) Power available
at the noi'.l.ic and (h) hydraulic efficiency of the turbine: .
(MKU-No". 1996. April·1998) Wlm = U{C X1 + C.(2)
41.89(91.06 + 5.61)
Solution
4049.5 1 W I kg/s
Given D = 0 .8. N = 1000 rpm . H = 400 m. Q = 0.150 m) Is
(4049.5)/9.81)
(a) Power available at the nozzle = ~I1ICi
:. 1JH = (91.06'/2 x 9.81)
111 = p Q = 10) x 0.150 = 150 kg I s - 4)2.79
c 1 =Jet velocity = 422.63
Assumin g U ;:;: 0.46 ela nd = 97.7%

- rr DN rr x 0.8 x 1000

I
U = 60= 60
Example 9.4 1\.0 jelS Slrikc a' iIle buckelS of n Pelion wheel. which is having
shaft horse power as 20.000. The diameter of each jet is given as 15 COl. If the net
41.89 m/s
head on the turbine is 500 m, find the overall efficiency of lhe turbine. Take CIt = 1.0.
:. C, 9 1.06m / s (MKU-April '97)
406 ;. T UiUJo MI\CIUNI:"'1

and jct diDmetcr

SOLVED PROBLEMS

Example 9.1 A gcnenllor is to be driven by a smal l Pelton wheel wi th a head

d (~) 'I'
of 91.5 m at the in let to the nOlzle an d di sc harge of 0.04 m) Is. The wheel rotates
at 720 rpm and the veloci ty coefficient of th e nozzle is 0.98. Ir the eHki ency or lh e
wheel. based on the energy ava il able at cnlIy to the nozzle is 80 per cent and the ralio
of bucket speed to the jet speed is 0.46, dctcnnine the wheel-to-jel-di ameter ratio al
the ce ntre-li ne or the bucke ts, and the speed of the wheel. What iS,the dimension less
power specific speed of th e wheel? Diamclcr ratio
D 0.507
S"olution =
d 0.035

Overall effir.::iency,)O
Power devclopt:d = 14.5
Power avai lable
p Dimensionle ss power specific speed is given by eq uation
pgQH~o

= 1000 x 9.8 1 x 0.04 x 9 1.5 x 0 .8 I/2

N I'
pl/2(gH)5/4
Power developed = 28. 72 kW
Velocity c·ocfficicnt 'I'
720 x (28 .72 x 10)) - x
I ) l/'

C,
= 60 10) ( 9.8 1 x ~1.5
Cv
(2g H) '/2
= 0.0131 rcv
= ,.d
I
0.0 13 1 X 2rr
C, 0.98(2 x 9.81 x 91.5) ' /'
= 41.52 m{s Hence. Power spec ific speed = 0.082 rad .

Therefore, Example 9 .2 A Pellan wheel working under a head of 500 mclc rs. ~roduccs
13 ,000 k W ul 430 rpm. If the efficiency of the wheel is 85% deternllllc (U) dlschargt:
I
U 0.46C, of th e tu rb ine (h) diumCler of th e whee l (c) diamelcr or the nozzle. Takt: C!. = 0.9H
(~.JU-OC I . '96)
0.46 x 41.52 and speed ratio as 0.46.
= 19.1m{s
Solution
Also . Given Ii = 500 m . P = 13. 000kW. N = 430 rpm . l1u = O.R5 I
wD (a) Discharge of the turbine

where D is wheel diameter

U= -
2
Q
p
fJgH )( '10
II
2x19. l x60 13,000 x 10]
D = 720 x 2rr 10) x 9.8 1 x SOO x 0.85
0.507 m 3. 12m){s ,
Jet area

A = Q{C ,
(b) Diameter of the wheel We know the ve loc ity of jct

C = Cv j2gH
ii
0.04 = 0 .9 8 x .;r-2-x-9~."'8I"-x----:CSO"'O .!
= I
4 1.52
0.963 x IO- J m'
97.06 m/s
1
 -W4- ;.:. TURIlO MA CHI NES

EFFICIENCY OF DRAFT TUBE

r---t----.--------,,--(i) It is defint:d as the ratio the of actual conversion of kinetic energy into pressure I!nc:rgy
in the draft tube 10 the kinetic energy available at the draft lube inlet.

(V,' - Vl/2g) - lid

TId, = (1','/28 )
or

CAVITATION IN TURBINES
Turbine cavitation occurs on the suction surfaces of the blades, at the runner outlet,
where the static pre:.sure is a minimum and the absolute velocity high. It should be
avoided although it has little effect on the performance of the turbine since it occurs
x after the runner.
-----L------+------~~~0 Applying the energy equation between the runner outlet and tail-ract! gives

vl- Vl/2g = (PJ - P2)/pg - 22 + ZJ + hd

Figure 9.13 Drafr Tllbe PUlling ZJ = 0, and as the outlet velocity V2 increases, p:! decreases and has its lowest
value when the vapour P,. is reached. At this pressure, cavitation occurs (begins) and
and hence putting PJ equal to Plltm and P:! equal to P uup • the ahove equation becomes

pg
Atmospheric Pressure Head +X (Vo' - vl) /2g -lid = (Pm", - p,,,,,) /pg - 2,

P" Dividing this equrHion by the net helld across the turbine giV!.!s the 'Thoma cavila/ioll
= --\-X
pg parameler ror the turbine
..·· p, a [(POlitI - Pullp)/pg - Z2l!H
~S ub sillullng
Ihls vnluc of ---=. in equat ion 9.4, we get
pg = (NPSII)/H
P, 1','
- -\- -2 -\- (H, -\- X) =
( -P" -\- X
) V,'
-\- ~ -\- II" The critical value of NPSH at which cavitation occurs is determined from a lest on
PI: g pg 2;: a model or full size machine in which P:! is decreased until the minimum value al
0] which cavitation begins or the efficiency suddenly decreases is found. Knowing 22
and H it is easy to compute the critical value SigT1lD c , which is the value below a. as
given by rhe above equation, for any other similar machine of the same homologous
series must not fall.
The above equatio n shows that rhe maximum elevation of the turbine above the
P, p" ( V,' 1',' ) tail-race is given by
pg = pg - fls - 2g - 2.~ - lid
Z2 = (Patm - PUll p )/ pg - acH
-nle above equation shows lhat tbe inlet prt;ssun; at the draft lube- inlet is less than
atmnsphcrir.: pres sure. This equation implies Ihat, as the net head is increased, the turbine elevation above
(he tail-race must be decreased. For an excessive head, 22 mighl be negalivc, which
implies that excavation would be needed to place the turbine below the level of the
tail-race.
 H YOR,\ULlC TIJlUIINF.!' ...:. ·W3
4()2 ;:. TultDo MACHINI:.S

The advarllagcs of draft tube are

turbine tyre is also selected based on head of water available at the turbine inlet. This
I . The pn:ssurc at the runner ex it is below the atmospheric pressure anLi the turbine
method is based on experience and observatio nal fact ors only.
operates efficie ntly as if it is pl aced at the tail -race.
fJead a/ warer iI/metres Type a/Turbille 2. The kinetic energy (Ci/2g) of waler at the turbine runner outlet is converted
0-25 Kaplan turbine into useful pressure energy.
25 - 50 Kaplnn or Francis (preferably Francis) 3. The turbine m<ly be inspected easily and properly as it is phll.:ed ahove the
50 - 250 Francis turbine wil-racc.
250 and above Peli on LUrbine.
TYPES OF DRAFT TUBES
DRAFT TU BE 1llere arc rour types of draft lu bcs, used in rrae\icc . depending upon the nnw
Thl! UV:.lllllhk heud is high in an impulse turbine like the pelton wheel and there is nol co ndition s and Ihe heig ht of the turbine above th e tail-race and so on. Thcy arc
muc h loss in the overall turbine output nlthough the turbine is placed a metre or two namely,
away from the level o f thc tail-race. Whereas, in the case of reaction turbines, the head I. ConicJi draft tu bl!
availi\ble is low and a considerable fraction o f thi s available head would be wasted, 2. Bell mo uthed or moody spre ading tuhc
if the IUrbines arc placed above the tail-race level <lnd lhe w<ller from the IUrbine just 3. Si mplc clhow or bent tube
ex.hausted :.It the atmospheric pressure. But, both the output and the overall turbine 4. Elbow drafttuhc wi th circular inlet and rec tangul ar outlet.
efficiency may be consiuerably improved by placing the turbine above the tail·race The fina form is the. straight concialtypc stretching frol1l the turbine wthe ta il -race.
The seco nd type is also a straight drafttubl! exceptlhat it is bell-sltapl!d. ThIS type
of dmfltube has an advantage that il can allow now with whirl component to occur
Run!lt!r with very smu ll losses at the turbine exit. In any lurbine. the exit absolute velocity
eXIi
usui\lIy has a whirl ct:Jmponenr espccially at part load ope rat io n, the bdl-shaped dmft
25-
tube may b~ preferred where the operatio n is at pari load for long pL!rinLis of time.
3D . The third form is the bent draft tub!!, is used when till: lurbine must he located
very close to or below the tail- ra ce leve l for so ml! uther c.:onsiLiermions. Howevl!r. the
efliciency o f bent draft tube is usually no t as great ,IS th at of the IIrs l IWO ty pe s. 10":
Tnjl·rnce
fourth form o f drJft tube (Elbow dra fltube) is similar {o the third one except thatlh.:
2
exit shape is squ<lre or rectangular instead o f cylindrical as in the henl dr.tftluhe.
111e hl!ight of the d raft lube is governed by two factors. TIlc first is cavitation. whidl
~ D ~ Runncr exit
requires thai th e pressure at the turbine exit o r draft tube entry. should not bl! Icss thiln
one-third of an atmosphere . The second factor is separation. which occ urs if the draft
tube hCls too large an angle ofnare . ln pnlclicc. the angle sho uld no t be more than 10"
to prevent separation. Draft tube e ffi ciencies ran ge generally from 0.7 to 0.9 for the
first two types w hil e Ihey arc 0.6 to 0.85 for the bent tube lypes .
Tail-rDce
2-
2_5D DRAFT TUBE THEORY
Conside r the draft tube shown in Fig. 9.13. TIle turbine exit is at a hei~ht n
abovc
the tail -race leve l. LeI subscript I denote the conditions at the rotor ex.it .tnd s ubsc.:ripl
2 denote the cond it ions at the out let. Applying Bernoulli's equation to inlct and outlet
o f the drafltube taking the draft tube. exit as the datum line we get,
Figure 9. 12 Types oj drafllllbes
P V2 p, V;
~ + --.!. + (H, + X) = ~+~+O+"" (9.'1)
It.:vel and leading th e wJter from the turbine outlet to thc tail mce by a tube such Ih;)1 p~ 2g PK 2N
the wilter"reilches almo::;phcric pressure o nly at the tail race. The pipe of grad ually
whe re x is the dis t<lnce of bottom of draft tube from tail-rael! and lid is head loss ;n
increasing area which is used for discharging water [rom the turbine exil to the t<lil
tilt,; draft tubt,; .
race is called as 'dra/llllbe' .
 ~oo ;.. ThRlm M ACH1 NES

and therefore.
I COMPARISON OF HYDRAULIC TURBINE EFFICIENCIES
HYORAULlCTURBtNfS " 401

The characteristic curve (Fig.' 9, 11) for the axial now Kaplan turbine is similar to
E = (U ' + v eil COI/J, l/K that of the radial How turbine. The maximum efficiency is lower and lhe efficiency
curve is much Halter for the impul se turbine. The Francis lurbine pcuks at the highest
Ir £ is con s tant ul o ng the hlude: rndius. and C{/ is con stl1nt OVL'r the cro ....~-se:c[i n nal crtieiency but falls off rapidly at pan load. The Kaplnn turbine has a much nalter
area , then ,I S U 2 inL're3sc.'i rrom hub (0 tip, Ucm fh IllU St decrease [ 0 kl.:ep £ con stanl. curve man the Francis turbine and exhibits a similnr mnximum dficiency of the two
Hence , P1 mu st inc rea se rrom hub to lip and Ihl.: hladc musl thcrdorc hI.! Iwist ed . important ax.ial now turbines, Dnd hence it has constant average maximum dficiency
while the propeller turbine efficiency increases as load increases. Afler reaching a
GOVERNING OF KAPLAN TURBINE peak value, it fall s off al the maximum load .
Kaplan lurh illl.! ,l;!llVL'rning I.: mploys IwO servo motors a Be: for \lpl.!ruung gllilk vallr.:s
(as in f-rallcl s turhin..:) and the other ror operating runner vunl.!S (Figufl.!s lJ. lOlill & 100
Ch» ). Buth the servo Il1 OlOr dis tribution vu lvc:s arc interconnected . There hy, the runn er Frands
Kaplan
vanes and guide vanes arc simultaneous ly opermed 5111hal w,lIer pusses Ihrou !! h the
hlades with oul s hod ill all load co nJiti ons. This sys te m of g ov"a ning is kno~vn as 90
'Oo uhle regul at ion' . 1]
%
80
Gc nC{;Jtor
shaft
Gencrat or
shalt 70

Servo m OlOr
IM::?tL Servo mOlor 60
Rel!ula tioll
rod Propeller (fi xed blade)
"" Turbin!! shan
50

O pCrallll !; rutl
Turbinc Sh;lJ\
20 40 6() 80 100 % of power

Figure 9, J1 Characterislic ClIrl'i!SJo r hydraulic lurbinl!

Bl ud c .~
1
Runner SELECTION OF HYDRAULIC TURBINES
blade
The type o f turbine requ ired for a specific purpose can be selected on the basis of me
value of {he specific speed. The typl! of turbine for different specific speeds is given
Fignre 9.10(b) Sel"l'o IIIOfor 1I1t't..:'Ulll islII below.
" p e rtl/ i ll}; r lfllJlt' r VlJIl/',f (lJ Specific Speed Type a/Turbine
kap/all tII r /Ji lll' , SIrOIl"I/ ;" st'cf i(JII
5- 35 Pelton wheel with single jet.
alld Oil redllced .fca/£'
35 - 70 Pelton wheel with two {or} more jcts_
Servo mOlor ror the runner v,mes, con sis ts o f a cylindcr with a pi sto n o p e r~Hed hy Francis turbine .
70 - 450
high pressure nil wh ic h is s upplied by distrihu[i o n valuL' (not shown in fi!!ure) . The Kaplan turbine.
450 - IODD
servo motor p is tun is co nnected with nn opcr;lIing rod whi ch moves up an d~dow n and
passl.!S through the turhine sha n whic h is made hollow for Ihis purposc. TIle o pcratin g
rod trans mit s the mOli on 10 Ih e runner hlades wilh an appropriate! link m e chani ,~ m Selecti on of turbine is a highly technical job and rt!quires great experience. SeJl!Clion
l'ncl nsed in th e fUnn el' hub. bast!d on specific speed is a scientific method and gives n precise inronnation . The

.....
 H VDRAuuc T uKIIINES -i 399
398 ,. T URBO MACHINES

Ir IhcII_vancso·arc fixed 10 th c hub and arc not adJ·uslable,

then
.tl,e
.tu,
r" "nCls
. ",nownas
,. Waler from the pc nslock en tcrs the guide vanes through sc roll casing. TIl e in lel gu id e
~r7e cr lur me on Ihe otb~r hand ir the vancs on the hub arc adjustab lc lhe [ urbjn~ vancs are fixed and arc situated a[ a plane hig. hcr than thc runner blades such Iha[ the
nuid mu st turn throu gh 90° to enter th e runner in the a"jal din.:c lion. Ll)rtd cha ngcs
KIS nowlb . . ruriJmt:. Il is named afler V. Kaplan , a n A usln
n as· a Kaplan . .an engmeer
.
. ap a.nl tur me IS s uit ab le, whcre a large quan tity of wale r <I t low heads (upto 400 m) ' arc effected by ndj ustll1cnt of the runner blade anglc . Thc fun elio n of the guide vane~
I S ::IVai able . . is to im pnrt whirl to Ihe nu iu so lh at the radi;:)\ distribution of velocity is the same a.o; in
The mai n parts of a Kaplan tu rhin e are (Fig. 9.9) n frec vorl ex. Since this Iype or tu rhinc is useu for low heads and high now rates. the
I . Scroll cnsing blades must be long i\lld have large chords so that they arc strong enough to transmit
th e vcry high torques th at arise. Pitch/Chord rat ios o f 1-1.5 are typ ical for aXIa l !low
2. Guide v:mcs
J . Huh wilh va nes turbines and thi s resu lt s in fou r, five or six·bladcd ru nner.
~. Draf! tube
VELOCITY TRIANGLES AND WORK DONE
Tlte velocit), tri nngles <.IfC usuall y urawn at the me;!n radius . S Ul CI.! conditions change
from hub to tip and arc shown in fig urc 9. 10. The now vd ocit y is a"ta l 011 Ihl.! Inlel
Guide blades and outlet. I'-{c nce, C q :; Cq == CfI . The bladc velocity vector Vt is substraclcd
from th e abso lutc vc lnci ty vector. CI which is at angle G'I to VI to yield the relative
ve loci ty vec tor W t . For shock free cntry ont o the ru nner WI is til the hlildt.: ang le /3t·

--=-0 - For max imum dficienc), the whi rl componenl ex! is 7.ero. in wh ich ense th e absolute
- velocity nt exit is axial. and then C:! :; Cr~.
,--",-r- Inle t U,
V11T1 C ti p
\VA X

Boss Runner ~,
vanes
Outlet
vane lip
Toil rn

Kaplan turbine
Fig ure 9. 10 Vdocir.\' ,riellllgeJ for (In axial Jlow hytlrouUc ,urbilll'
Shaft
~ Euler' s Lurhine eq ual ion gives
Draft tube.
E = U(C x , - Cx,l/g

and for 7.Cm whirl at ex it

E = UCx,!8

No\\',
Cx , = U-Cacot( IBO' -/itl
Figure 9.9 Kaplan Tlfrbine :; U + Co cOL fJ l
 I-IVDltAUl.lc TURIUNE..o; ..;,; 397
:\96 ;... Tunoo r...I AC IIIN ES

ring is rOlaled [0 decn!1Isc the flow area between II . ' . . ' "
vn ne angles 111U " II" q , r Ie.:: gU ide vanes by chang ing gUide Efficiency
' , I " ',. c uanllly 0 waler rcael,', ng IIle runner blades 'IS rcd ' d n
, , 11C speed IS bruu!!ht
Iorc, to nonn"l
~" gr.l Uil y and then new'lI
'd II u(.:t:, lcrc-
' I
dlstrlhution valve •,HI'lil'
• II,c,'r no rm~ I POSHIOIl .' . A' rell·f
. I ,' . ' or, .mUlIl, ever and
stock h) pre vcnt w~llcr hnmmer which m' " , .,. ,I t; va Ve.:: IS provided In Ihe pen -
.. y ,In:-;c uUC 10 Lhe sudd 'n d " , I
n
. ow passage bel ween Ihe guide hlades. lis fune Lio " . , t; rc ueL lon In (Ie Water power
III pelion turhine. When there is n sudden dce . !~ lSI SI;i1nr to Ihal ~f a (h:fleclor input
valve npens ilnd diverls lhc water 10 Ih '1 rease In Oil on the turblnc, Ihe relief
pressure) is achil'wd in reae;ion lurt.."c ~sal Sr~ce:ITI,1US dhOUblC rcgublion (spcl.!d and \-Ielld
. I I ne.: . 1m! ar y \Y en Ih e load I I'
lIlcrr.:ases i.e. when [Ill' .srcc:d I,',"
, ." "'"e lCIelH:y 10 In ' crease r 'g ] . " . on ,lie tur lJOC
[hI.! ol'rnsi1e dirccti'"
~
ll'"O "" 10 "' ".... rl,!.lsc
.• '" .' l IIC pUSS'ln ' • b' e.: u aung ring IS moved in
allowing more water It) strike the ru~ner hlad~~':'c urea etween till.! gu ide hl;Ldes nnd

CHARACTERISTIC CURVES FOR A REACTION TURBINE

Curves of waler power input I .
hrake power OUlput for conSI 'II1~lgq,U,cC oexc,fI~d by th,e whc~1. I~ow ratc ef(icit.;llcy and Brake power output
. ' _, penlng arc s 10wn III Fig 97
A I full op!.!'[llng, th e flow rnle as shown in F, 97 ' ',. . . , .
11 0 longer independent of the wheel s ced ~~~ '. v.lr.res with the run,nl.!r speed. It is
Figure 9.8 Reaction tIIrbilie characteristics tJl CO/1SitJIII spud

speed is of must int erest sine' Ih c p " bchavl~ur of the turbine al consl<..IOl When a reaclion turbinc opcrnting at constanlspced cxp!!rienccs a loaddr.:crense, thc
. ' r.: gcner.lwr runs al a fixed s 'd A,. I '
load chall"cs S0 Ih. ' no,v r',,"
C ' . , . . . . 11 ,r.::lsc lanuedbyv·lr' .·I·
I fl pee .. Si. ll' dectrlcnl cross scclionnl aren betwc!cn the inlel vanes changes and nngh: 0'1 decreascs. The inlt:1
frnm lite Fiu 9 R ,1,'" ",c I" . 1 ' e . • 1<1 Ion 0 lIe gil lt! opt:.lllng. It is secn runn cr urerl is constanl and lhereforc to salisfy the continuity the relative vdoci ty \VI
;" • . r.: au mcreJses slight] . h i d
fric tion head loss TI"',, ,'" ro 0 I'
,
I ' "J
.' '-' p p r lona 10 Q- wi ' I . I
Y us t e on decreases'
due 10 Ihe. must decreasr.: . The result is thaI the flow onlO the runner is no Innge r shock free and
also he nOied Ihatthe cnic""ne . lI C I IS ess at li gh ter 10LlJs, It wi ll atl!xit C;! may incrcusc. This givcs n higher kinelic energy loss ul the runner exit a!o
lurbine. . . Y curve at conS lunt spe"d r.: I's not as nal as III
' nn Impul
, se well as an im;reLise in the whirl component Cx~ down the draft tuhe, TIle now is Ih!.!1l
spiral in nature, which decn:ascs the draft lUhe dticiency. Thc dflclency of u n::.u; tiun
Torque turbine al lighl loads thererore tends to be le ss than thai nf thl.! pelton wheel. although
the design maximum efficiency may be greater.
TIIC advanlage or an in\lJard fl ow reaction turbine over <In outward !low reaclion
FluiLl power input turbine is that the former adjusts automatically according to the load on the lurbine,
.j, Whenever Ihe load on the turbine is decreased, it causes the shaft to rolatt! al a highcr
speed. The centrifugal force, which increases due to higher speed, lends to reduct! the
quantity of waler flowing over lhe vanes , and thus lht! velocily of wate r at the entry
is also re duced. It will uitimntely It!nd to reduct! the power produced by the turbi ne.

AXI AL FLOW REACTION TURBINE

III axial now reaclion lUrbinc, waler nows parallel to the aX Is of rotalion orlhe shah.
output In a reaction turbine. Ihe head at thl! inlcL of the lurbine is Iht! sum of pressun: energy
and kint!lic energy and .. part of the pressure energy is converted into kinetiC energy
,tS thc wilter fl ows through the runn er. For the axial now reaclion lurhine. thl! !ohaft of
the turbine is ven icul. The lower cnd of the shan which is made larger is known as
'hl/h' or ·bm's'. The vanes are fixed on th e hub and hence the hub aC ls as a runnt!f for
N (r,p.m)
thl.! axial fl ow reaction turbine, The lWO important axial now reaction turhines arc
Figure 9.7 Rt'(/Cl iOIl (IIrbille c/mrrlcreris/I'cs filII Opt''';'''£:
(If I. Propeller Turbin!.! and
2. Kaplan Turhine
 HnlRAUU C T u IUIlt-:ES ...; ws
J94 ; TI JRI)O MAClIINt:.S

Power H~CCIVl!d by runnl.!r

where Ird is the hend loss in the draft tube . Putting PJ ".... n d Z J cqua I to zero
(b) Hydrnulic cfficiencY(I7I1) = Fluid power availilhle at in lt':l l1angc
P2 , , E
pg = (\',- - 1',-)/2g - Z, + Ii"
= (P, + P",)/pgQN = - -
p~QfI

There ~s a limit for the: extent of VJ reduction because of the tube lenot
Icn~th ~~' ~s the
•
Increases "II also increascs. The draft tube could be vcr I , ,'
TIll~ tcrm (P. + Pm ) / pg QH is the theoretical energy transfer pe r uJlit weight of

~~~:"~~~~:~:~h~~I~ n?1 e;eeed abouI8~.IO ensure Ihal separalranO;fb~:~~a~I~~!::

I

fluid now. The maximum hydraulic cf(iciency is

elTec t , erc a so an upper 11 mil on the value of Z::! due
IS the cavi ta-tion 10
'III =

RADIAL FLOW TURBINE LOSSES

GOVERNING OF REACTION TURBINES
The losses in teml S of energy balance through the turbine is given by
The quantity of water flowin g to th e reaction turbine is controlled by rotnllng the guide
P = Pm + Pr + Pc + P, + PI (9.3) blades, These blades are pivoted and connecled by levers and links to the regu laun g
ring (Fig, 9 .6(01» , The regulating ring and lever are connected by tWO regulating rods .
where
P _ P.I, -- shand power o utput, Pili ;::; mechanical power loss, Pr ;::; runner power loss This regulating lever in turn in connected with regulating shaft. which is operated by
c - casing an draft I,ube loss, P, ;::; leakage loss and P ;::; water power availabl •
the pist on of the servo motor.
Pr + Pc: + PI together IS the hydraulic power loss. c. ..... ·-Guide vanes
Runn~r power loss Pr is due 10 friction. shock at the im e ll er entr 'lnd
~i~~"10n." r~le Ihrougl;l~e ru~~;
open
resullS in a head loss Ii, associnled wilh Ihe now --Guide vanes
closed

Pr = pgQrhr

n~te~~~~ ~~~~~~~o~~ ~~!S r~anuns;: !ri:~snow rale q leaking past the runner and thererorc
t + Disuibulion
Q = Q, +q Ir--,_I-' Valve

and with a total head lir ~1C ro ss the runner. the lellkage power loss becomes From Turbinl! Shaft
t
P, = pgqHr

Casing power loss P. is due I II r ' .

casi ng and the dr<lft lube , 0 Ie net Ion eddy a nd now sepa ralion losses in the

If this head loss is Ill' then

= pgQh,
Pc Regulating Ring
I
I
TIle total energy balance of equation 9.3 thus becomes
Figure 9.6(a) FrtwciJ Tllrbiflt: Col't:rning
pgQH = Pm + pg(h,Q, + h, Q + H,q + f,) When the load on Ihe turbine increases. the speed increa<;es , The lly hJlIs of actuator
Thus.
move a way frollllhc ax.is and the s le eve raises. The dislribution valvc rod is pushed .,
down, Pnrt.2 is open and port-I is c\O!;Cd . TIle high pressurc oil crHers the servo motor J;
ShJft output power Ihrough port-2 nnd pauses the piston to move towards right. The oi l in Ihe right sidl: '!
(a) Overall efficiency
Fluid power available at inlet nang c or tbe piston is pushed back inlo the oil sump through port- I and uppcr past the or
P,/(pgQH) distributing valve. When the piston of the servo motor moves to the right. regulating
 HYDRAlh.JcTURBJNES ... 393

III fa~ili[;lh': \~ :J1l.:r

Ilnw :1I ":(ln s [ant veloc ity Ihrought)utlh~ cin;umrer~ncc oflhe runner. AI the OUIh!I. (radius r~), the water h.:avcs the blade al an angle tho 10 the langt:nlial
The ..:asing J:-. u:·awlly l11ad~ of Cllncretc, casl steel or platt: stt:c1.
velocity vector. The absolute outlet velocit), C2 is the resultant of IV:!, and U~. The
now ~clocitjes err and C r2 are directed towards the axis ofroliJtion ant.! an:: given by
2. Guide vanes The st~lIion;1ry guide van~s arc fix~d on a stiltionary circular Q jJ.rrl'II)[ and Q12n ,.~b2 respectively, where b is the height of the runner.
wheel which surrounds the runner. The guide vanes allow the water 10 strike the vanes Euler's turbine equ;.Iuon gives
lix~d on the r~nncr without $hock at the inlet. This fixed guide vanes are followed by E = W/lllg = (U,c." - U,Cx,)/g
ilJ.lustabh: gUJde vaneS. The (ross sectional area between the adjuslilble vanl.!s c,m be and E is a max.imum when eX} is zero, that is when LIlt: absolute and !low velocitlC:s
\'aricd for !lnw control al pari load. ;.Ire. equal at the nutlet or a], = 90"
3. Runner It i. . . a circular whed on which a series of radial curved vanes are !ixed.
The waleI' passl's inln lhe ro!l)r where it moves radially through thl!- rOlor V<lnes and NET HEAD ACROSS REACTION TURBINE
h.'. avcs Ihe rotor hlacks a[ a smulh:r diamet~r. Latcr, th~ watl'r turns through 90" inlo The net head' H' across the turbine is the difference in the tutal head bl.!tween the
the t.!rafl tubt' . inlet nange nnd tht! tail water level. The net heud H is different from the gross head
4. Draft tube The pressure ill the ex il of the rotur of 11 reaction turbine is generally H[. TilliS
kss II~an Ihe atmospheric pressure. The water at ex.it cannot be directly discharged to Turbine totnl inlet head =
the !;.It!. race. A will:. or [lire of gradually increasing mea is used for discharging the Po + Vr~ + Z"
water 1mlll tht.: turhIDe exit to Ihe lail race. In other words, the draft tuhe is a tuhe pg 28
(If ir~l.:rcas~n~ cross sectillnal area which conwrts the kinetic energy of wa[er al the
and turbi nc. loull outil't head =
rllrbllle c."'JI rntO pressurl' energy.

VELOCITY TRIANGLES AND WORK DONE

where the pn.!ssures arc gauge pr~ssurc.
The inkl :lI1U uutkl velocity trianglc.s for a. runner are shown in tigure 9.6.
Total head across IUrbine (H)
Water enle rs the runner frolll the inkl guide vanes (at radius TIL with absolute
\-clnt lly. al an angll'rtl tn Iho..: uirection ofrnwlion. The tangential vclocitv at the inlet
h VI. The relalive velucity vcctor 1V1 oblaind by substfacting VI from CI'at inlet, is al
an angk tl[ to Ihe direction of rOiation. /11 is also the inlet blade angle fur shock-free But ill the tnil-race P-, is atmospheric and 23 is zero. Therefore
elltry.
I-l = (P,,/pg + V;/2g + 2") - V{/2g

Ur Wx" Also,
II = II, - hlp - V,'/2g

where II j (l is the pi[le friction head loss and the energy given to the runner by the:
waler pcr unit weight of now is

HI /mu = H - lid - II}: - Ii,

If the water is discharged directly into the wil-race from Ihe mnner outlet, the kinetic
energ.y lost would he high. By fitting a draft tube between the runnerout!et and tailrace.
a continuous stream of waler is fanned between the two. The tail·race velocity is
reduct.:d because of the increase in cross sectional area of thl!- draft tuOc and, because
the wi·lr.lce pressure is atmospheric the runner outlet pressure must now be below the
atmospheric pressure. Applying the energy cyuation between the runner outlet and

- tail-race gives

P],
_ +
V; +2, =
~
p]
--'- +~
vi+ 2,. + hd
Figllf'(' 9.6 \le/llcir), l/'irlJl~/eJ for a Francis lurbillt' pg 2g, • pg 2g
 390 };:> TURBO MArlIlN(;S

The nozzle outJctllrca is redu ced. Hence. the area of jet and the rate of now of water
HYllllAI ! UcTI Ill IIINI ;S ....: 39 1
l
~ trikin g the huckets is reduced . Consequen tly. the speed which was incre<lsing with
the decrease in load is brought under control and remains constant.
1110
When the load on the turbine increases. the speed of the turbine decreases. Thi s
causes the ny balls o f the actuator to come down and thus the sleeve moves downward.
causing the bell crank lever to rotale clockwist!. TIle distributi on value rod moves
."
11( % ) (,(1
upw:Jrd. Now. port· I is open and porl·2 is closed. TIle high pressure o il entcrs the
Se rvo motor through pan· I to lht! ri ghl side of thl.! piston . The pi ston movcs to Ihe len ,
causi ng the spear to move Qut of the nozzle. The nozzle oUllet area is now increased . 20
Hence Ih e am ount o f water striking the buckets is increased. lllUs the speed of th e
turbine is controlled ami kept constant. Under Ihi s condition. Ihe deflec tor is moved o 25 50 75
aW<lY rrom tht! jet and there is no obstructio n to the jet. 1011
'ii: nl" Full LOIl<j
Wht!n the turbine is running at normal load. pi ston in the dist ributi on valvc and the
'Ictuator occupy their nonnal positions as s hown in figure. Bot h the port s I and 2 arc Figure 9.4
\vrimiflfl
_ o!pe lfOIi fllr"ill~ tiJicit'fI( '". wifh I (IIUI
closed. No now of oil to the servo motor and the spear value is at its norma l position.
RADIAL FLOW REACTION TURBINE
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IMPULSE TURBINE
Reac li o n lurbine means lhal the waler at the inl . .
The chartlcteristic curves of an impulse turbine for tl constant head are shown In en ergy as we ll ilS pressurc energy A II net of lhe: turbine pOssesses kint!L.ic
. s le waler ows through Ih
figure 9.3(a) & (b). In Fig. 9.3(a) il is seen thaI the peak values o f efficiency do not pressure l!nt! rgy gocs on changing' I k ' . t! runner. a part of
. 111 0 lnl!lIc energy Thu II
v;1ry much ror various gate openi ngs. In Fig. 9.3(b). it is seen that the peak power rUnner, s under pressure The ' . S lC water thruugh thc
.. . runner 15 completely ene/os 'd ' .
occurs JI the ~a mc speed irrespect ive of the noz7.1e settings. This is due to the nOZl. le both the <:<lsi ng Clnd the rUnne I C H1 an alr- tight c<lSing and
r arc a ways full of water Rad -' I fl h'
velocity remain ing cons tant in magnilUde direction ns the now rate changes. giving IhC Wa ter flow s in the radial direct ' R d' I " . la ow tur In ... mt.: ans that
· Ion . a la nuw turbln '
an optimum value of U je , a l a fi xed speed. Windtlge and mechanic:J1 losses and ra d lal flnw turbincs ilnd Outwa d d' In ' I.: S an: groupt.:d as Inward

variations in loss coefficienls cau se the s nwll variations.

fl ' r ra lil ow lurhm c!\
ow lurhlncs r<lnge rrom about 30 to 500 m.
n.
t II
. . 11.: \lta 1caJ or the radial
COlIsla nl H ead
MAIN PARTS OF A RADIAL FLOW REACTION TURBINE
Th e m;un components o r d' I n
p . a ra la ow reactio n turhine arc (Fig. 9.5)
9n

T
.0
~IT Srira l casin g Waler frorn
PcnslOd;

/,//<,- ~ I :;
\ -----------
• 'Noi~lc
/ : : ~cll ing
511 , I

77"--1--+- RUllfler

--
7'~'--f--- Gllicle
Figure 9.3 Efficicl/cy alld po u'a O/lt{1/1i \·er.!f/S speed if! an illipulse turbine wheel

In praclice, one is usua ll y more interested in the fixed speed condition since the
gcneralors run at conslnnl speed. The Fig. 9.4 shows that Ihe variation of efficiency
wilh load is slight. except al low loads. where the decrease is due 10 changes in Ihe Figure 9.5 Radinl flaw fIIrhill~
nozzle effic ienc),. and at high loads the increased jet diameter gives ri se to higher
1, Casing
.
Th e W' I' C I
,I er rom t IC pen s tocks elller II. , .' . . .
buckct losscs.
sh<lpt.:. rhl: arC;j of cross section of tl • .. . IC C.I.'iHlg. willell I S ur .~ rir;jl
. Ie Glsmg " oes on de .
cas mg completely surrounds th • eo • Creil:-ilng gradUiJl/y. Die
. e runner of tbe turblllc. TIle Cusing is spin)' ill s haDe.
 r!YDRAUUcTt IHHlNES '" 3H9
So, nou.i L' a nd pipL'lmL' troll smission dlicienr.:y

(:;)
of the .nozzle must change. This is accomplished by a spear valve. The position of Ihe

c~,)
spear IS controlled by a servo-mechanism th at senses tht! load changes.
= (Z:) DOUBLE GOVERNING OF PELTON WHEEL
c'
= -2gH
-'-l All modern pelto.n turbines use Double regul ati on method . nlis mt:thod or governing
con tr~ l s Ihe turbllle speed and pressure (i.e . water hammt.:r) in the penstod by the
;md comb lllt:d spt.:ar and de n ector control. Opt.:rated by the oil prt:ssure governor (Fig.
9.2(a)).
(c) Nozzle Velocity Coefficient
Actual jet vcloL:ity
= Theoreti cal jet velocity
C,
JlgH
ThcrL'(ore ..thc n07.7ole cflicicncy bl.!COllll.! S

C~
11<"11
'IN = I".~n.
I..,'t.
(d) Number of Buckets "mOl TUfhin.:
"'1\;0 S,,~U

NUlllhL'r o f bUl:kds O il a runner is given by

D
N = 15+ -
2(/

where 'D' is the pitch diameter of the pellon and d is the diameter of th e jet. )
The ralio Did is called thejet ratio. +--

li~ar _ ( ")
(e) Overall Efficiency l' UII1 I1 .

Power produced
'11' = Actual energy supplied
P,
= pg QH _ N ulolkOpc::n

--- - - No,,~ Clow:,J

\\'hL'n: H is thL' head <lIthe nozzle ink! OInd
'I" b a mC;l surt.~ of tl;e pe rfonn nnce o r the turhine. Figuu 9.2(0) Double HegllimiolJ

GOVERNING OF PELTON WHEEL TURBINE
HyJraulic lurhine s a rc usunlly coupled direct ly 10 an elcctricnl gen~ral or il nd s in~c
the gCllcr<'lIor must nm at a co nstnnl speed, the speed U of th e turb~ne must .re.mmn
constant when th e load changes. II is also desirable to run auhe ma )()nlUm c.fll clc ncy
,lIld thadorc the ralio U I e I, must remain lhe same . 111<1t is the jet velocity must not
c han gt:. The only way kfl to adjust to the change in th e turbine load is to c hange the
inpu t wata powcr.
The input powe r is given by the prnduct pgQlr where fr is L:onstant (a nd hcm;e
CI) ane! the o nly v:lriahle is Q. The eh,lJ1ge in now rate is cfrt:eted by n ~l ing that
Q ::; Cl A. whe re A is the nna lc area . Si n!.:1.! CI is constan t, th e cross sec tHlOal area
The ce ntriruga l governor (or) actuillor is flllachcd to the main shaft of tht: turbine .
When the load on Ihe turbine decreases, Ihe speed of the lurhine incrt:a~es and the
nyba~ls o f Ihe govc rnor rotate at higher speed and move away fro m the axi s by the
cenlTlf~ga l force. TIlcrefore, the sleeve moves upward. TIle motion of tht! fly balls b
transmlll~d to the bell crunk le ver and it rotates anuclockwi se. The roller on Ihe cam
is raised and the deflector is brought between the nozz le nnd Lhc buckets. Attht: samc
limc, t~c double pi.s ton in the distribution value moves down . Now, porr-2 is open and
port· I. IS closed. High pressure oil from the sump enters the distributing value through
the middle pan and nows down to servo motor striking the len fa ce of the: piston. So
the pi ston moves to the righL forcing the spear to more to the right i.e . into the: nozzle.
 . tt YIlH ,\II1 .IC T , ruJl~ I - S ....;: J H7
3M6 ... T URnO MA<"" II NES

If the hucket is brought to res t. then suh trhcli ng thc buckct speed V, from the jet Hydraulic Efficiency
ve loci ty C 1 gives th l.! rel ati ve !luid velocity WI on lO the bucket. Thl.! angle turned
Tbe hydruu li e cniL'iency is defin ed ,15
th roug h hy the je t in th e 110rl7.0lltal plane during its passage over the buc.ke\ surface
IS 'ri ' and th e relative t!x.i l vduci ty is WI . If tbe bucket speed vet:lU r U2 IS added to E ne rgy tra nsfern.:u
i\/2 in the upproprialc di rec ti on. the absolute veloc it y al exit C2 \~·i.lI hI.! ohtain.cd. '! =
Ene rgy 3"Jilahle in jet
should he reali zed tha t the c ompone nt C.r~ o r c,
can be in the p OSlllVC ur negative X
E / (Ci!2g)
di rec lion depending o n the magnitude o f U .
Fro m Euler's turbine equation if 0' = I ~ O -' , the m;u(imum hydraulic c ffi cic ncy is 100 pL'r cenl. In practice. th e
dc neclIorJ angle is in the ordcror J 60'·· - 165': to a voi d interrerence with the o nco ming
.leI and 1111 i!-. :u': l:nrdin~ly n:Juccu . The rn'l.~ imurn hyuraulk ef'ficiency j:-.

ilnJ sinct: in this cusc C rl is in the negative x . . dircction

W Illi = U I(u + IVtl + ( IV,c()J(IHO° - a) - U)I

Assuming no Ioss of r--I'

'- u ,,' v".. v"loc,
...
' ,y due to rri c Lion across the bucket s urface PELTON WHEEL LOSSES AND EFFICIENCIES
(Wt =
lV2). then
He1ld losses occur in the pipelines con\'eyi ng the water to the non lt: a nd are ctllllpn.-.et.!
Wlm = U(\V! - W!cosa) o f i'ric ti ll n and hend lnsses. L osses also ()t:cur in the noo.lt: and these ilre e\pn: ssed
In lerms of i.I \·t:loc it y I:odricient C 1• (varies fwm D.9S to 0.99). f-ma ll y. tht:re art:
Therefore. windage ilnd friction losses in the whee l it sel f The water suppl y is fr om a reservoir
IV al il ht:ad III J oove the nozzle. As Ih e Iluiu mcwt! s through th e press ure tunnel anu the
E = U((C, - U)( I - cosa)J/g N.S (9. 1)
pt:nstoc k upto the I.!nlry 10 the nou.le . a frict ional head loss 11 / occ urs. A further heJd
loss h ill duc to losses in the nozzle takes place so that the head availab le fll r rower
The above equation can be optim ized by dirrerentiating with respect to U . ,gcnermio n '- II ex. il fro m the no zzle is /1 '. T ha t is

dE
_ =(I - co,aHC , - 2U) lg =0 H' II , - (I, ( + hl/l)
dU = Cr/2g
For a maximum, a nd th e n
(a) Pipe-l ine Transmission Efficiency
C, = 2U
Energy al 1.!ild o r pipe lim:

(or)
Energy a vailiJble at rese rvoi r
(H , - " 1 ) II
U = C , /2 (9.2 )
H, H,
BUI in practicc, maximum energy is tran s ferred when the wheel veloci ty is 0.46t imcs (b) Nozzle Efficiency
the velocity of je t.
Suhstitu ting e quati o n 9.2 in equ ation 9. 1, we have Energy al nozzle out let
liN
E nergy al nozzle inlet
£01<1:0. = ef(\ - cosa)/4g H' H'
In pr;ll:ticc s urface fric ti on o f the bucket is prese nt and Wz f. WI· TIlen equat ion 9. 1 H, - ", H
beco mes C; / 2g
= H
E = U(C , - U)( I - Kcu.,a)18
(or)
where K is lhe rdati ve \'l.!loci ty rati o W2 / \V , .
'IN
C'
= __..L. .
2g H
 Table 9.1
1. Nozzle and flow contrr,>1 arrangement (Spear) The waleI' from Ihe
Pa ral/li'/l" Pl'lroll wheel Francis IItrbilll! Kaplall TttJ"/Jilll! reservo ir nows through the penstoc ks al the outl et of \vhll.:h " nou le is liltcd . The
nozzle conven s the 10tal he ad at the inlct .Ill thc nOl.7.1 c into ki netic energy. l11e 'Hnllu nl
j-kaJ (111) 100- 1700 80-500 UplO ·100 of wa ler striking thl! curved budets of the run ne r is co nt ro lled hy proviJlIlg a !'!peur
Max . power (k IV) 55 40 .10 in Ihe nlll.zlt.:. Thc spl!or is'l co nical needl e which is operated e ither hy a hand wheel
Best dJici cncy ('Ie) 93 94 Y4 or autonl:lIH.:all y in lin axial direction. dependi ng upon the si/.l! of Ihe un it.
2. Runner and buckets Therolating whee l orcirculardis..: iscJl led th..: runner.
On Ih e periphery of Ihe runner J number of bucke ls. even ly spact!d . arc fi xed. TIll:
3. According to the head at the inl et of turb in e shape of the buckets is of a double hemispherical cup or bowl. Each budel is dividt:d
into two sy mmetrical pans by a dividing Willi whic h is kn ow n as the spfirtt'r. The Jt:t
(a) High head turbine (2S1J-1800 m) Example : Pelton whed
of waleI' stri kes on Ihe sp litter. The splitter th en divides the jt:t illlo two equal parts
(b) Medium head turbine (51J-2S0 m) Example: Francis and the water comr.:s oul 01 the Outer edge of th e buckct. lllCSC huckcls denet:1 thc
(e) Low head turbine (Jess than SO m) Exam ple: Kaplan and propel ler jet through all ang le between 160 and 165C. in the sa me plane as Ih t: JCI. Duc 10 thi S
dCneclion o f the jet. Ihe mome nlum of the fluid is changed reacl ing on Ihe buckels.
4. Accor ding to the specific speed of the turbine A bucket is tht:rcrore pu shed away by the jct.

(a) Low specific speed turbine « SO) Examp le: Pe ll nn wheel 3. Casing T he casing prevents (he splashing or the waler "nd di sc harges tht: waler
(0tilil r<lec. The spellt water falls Vt!rtically into tht: lower reservoir or ta ilrace and the:
(b) Medium specific speed turbine. (50 < Ns < 2Sp) Exa lllpk: Francis whole energy transfer from the nozz le outlel to Inil race tJkes place 'lI a conslanl pres
(C) High specific speed turbine. (> 2S0) Exnlllple: Kaplan and propdlcr sure. The cas in g is madl.! of cast iron or fa bricated steel pl:lIl!s.
4. Breakingjet To Slop Iht! run ner with in a short lime. a smull nozz)t: IS provided
PELTON WHEEL whi ch direct s the jet of water on to Ihe hack of the van es. The jet of W<lll.!r IS L·.dlcd
The pe lt on wheel turbine.: is a pure impulse turbi ne in w h icl~ n jet of fluid leaving the hrellkillg jf!f. If there is no hrenki ngje t, the runncrdul! to incrt iu goes on rc\'olv mg
for a long lime .
the IHlnlc slrikcs Ihe hudclS lixcd to Ihe pcriphay of a rotating whee l. Th~ energy
avai lab le allhe ink:1 "f'h..: IUrbine is onl y kinetic e ne rgy. T he pressure at the Inlet and
out kl of the turhine is Jtmospheric. The.: turbine is used for high hC::Jds rang in g from VELOCITY TRIANGLES AND WORK DONE FOR PELTON WHEEL
15010 2000 tn. TIle turbine is named after The WOller supply is from a consta nt head rescrvoir al an el~l'atioll HI. Dbo\,c the
L. A. Pelton. an 3nlcrican engineer. The fluid fl ows in the tan ge ntia l dir~c ti on. ce ntre-line of the jet. The nozzle at the pen stock end. converts the lota l head JI the
in let to the noa h:. into a water jet \. . jth veloc it y Ct. at atmospheric pressure.
PARTS OF THE PELTON TURBINE The veloci ty tri angle for the flo w of nuid onlO and olT a singl e bucket arc shuwn in
Fig. 9. 2.
TIle main parts of th e Pdt o n turbine are 3S !-Ihawn in Fig. 9. 1.

Casing

Buckl:t
(Vam:s)

L
Shape: 1)( bu!:kel
Figllre 9.1 Pt'lrvn II/rhifle
Figure 9.1 Velocity rriutlglt!J Jo r u rdron rurbjn ~
)82 ~ TURno MACIIlNES

the impeller develops a head of 68 m. Find (a) pump speed, if the im~c\l~r
efficiency is 70% (b) the manometric head, assuming 50 percent of. the kmetlc
energy at the impeller is wasted and the head 105s in the impeller IS 5 I~. ,and
(c) the lowest speed to startlhe pump if VI = 0.5 U2 (MU- Apnl 96)
9_
IAns: (a) 1500 rpm (b) 42.3 In and (e) 1270 rpm I
8.20. Water is required to be lifted through 110m height from a well. ~umbcr of
identical pumps having speed 1000 rpm. specific speed 25 rpm: with a ri~ted HYDRAUUcTuRBINES
discharge of 6 kl/min arc available . Determine how many pumps Will be n:qul.rcd
and how they should he connected. [Ans: (a) 4 and ~h) Series I
8.21. Centrifugal pumps delivering 10 m) Imin of liquid against n hC<ld of:1O m ha!'i
4 sluges in pllralkl. Diamctcr of imrclkr is 2~ em .lntl spel!J .15~).O. rp~l: .. ~
geometrically si milar pump is to be made up with number o f st<lges I~ .sene~
(0 deliver 15 mJ/min against 11 head 200 m and to run;lt 1000 rpm. Calculate

the impeller diameter and the number of stages required in the second case.
INTRODUCTION
IAns: (a) 6 (b) 0.41 mJ Hydraulic turbines convert the hydraulic energy into elcclri"cal energy. The main Iypes
8.22. A single st age centrifugal pump with impeller diameter as 300 mm rotates at of turbines uscd in these days arc the impulse and reaction turbines. Th e predominant
2000 rpm and lifts 3 m J of water per sec 10 a hci~ht of30 m with:lO e ffici e ncy type of impul se turbine is the pelton wheel. Reaction tur.bines arc of two lypes I.
of 75 per cent. Find the number of stages and dmmcter Of. each Impeller of a Radial or Mixell now 2. Axial now. Two types of a,:;j;ll now turhincs exist, one is
similar multistage pump 1O lift 5 m] of water per sec to a height of200 m when propeller turbine and the other one is Kaplan turbine . The former has fixed blades
rotating a[ 500 rpm. . IAns: (a) 7 and (b) 0.39 m] whereas the latter has adjustable blades. Francis turbine is an example for radial How
8.23. The impeller of an axjal flow pump is 1.2 m in dlam~ter while the boss 15 0.6 turbines. The foll ow ing table su mmarizes the head, power and efficiency values for
m in diameter. Find the most suitable speed to proVide a hea~ of 2.5 m. !he each type of turbine .
velocity of flow through the impeller is 4.5 m/s and the spec~fic ~peed 01 the
pump is 335 rpm. Find also the vane angle at inlet at the extenor lipS :nd ncar CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC TURBINES
the boss. Assume no whirl at inlet. {Ans: (a) 340.8 rpm (b) 11.5 and (c)
The important classification of hydraulic turbines arc
22.5"J
8.24. Ajet pump is fitted at 3 m above the suction reservoir a~d 19 m belo~v the supp~y 1. According to the type of energy at the inlet
reservoir Ii fts water through a total height of 4m. If the Jet pump dellvers.8 ~/mlO
of water while using 2.5 lis from the supply reservoir, determine the efhclt.::ncy (a) Impulse turbine (Pelton wheel) Energy available at the turbine inlet is only
· IAns: 48.9 % ) killeri c energy and the pressure is atmospheric from inlet to the turbine outlet.
o f Jct pump. . .
8.25 . Describe the following with the help of a lme diagram. (b) Reaction turbine Energy available at the turbine inlet is both kinetic energy I
(a) Je[ pump (b) Air lift pump . . and pressure energy. Example: Francis, Kaplan and propeller turbincs.
8.26. Enumerate the advanatages and disadvantages of air lift pump as compared
1
with the centrifugal pump. 2. According to the direction of flow through the runner .j
8.27. Describe the construction and working of a submersible pump. (a) Tangential flow turbine Water nows along the lungent of the runner.
8.28. Explain the construction and working of the following pumps with a n~~tsketc h Example Pelton wheel
(a) Gear pumps OJ
I
(b) Vane pump (b) Radial flow turbine Water nows. in the radial direction through the runner. ,t
(c) Piston pumps If the water nows from outwards to inwards radially, the turbine is called the
'In ward radial flo IV turbine' . On the other hand if water nows ratiilllly rrom inwards
to outwards, the turbine is known as 'Ollfward radiolflow turbi"e.'
I
(c) Axial flow turbine Water flows through the runner along the dirccLion
parallel to the axis of rotation of the runner. Example Kaplan and propeller.
(d) Mixed flow turbine Water flows through the runner in the radial direction
and leaves in the direction parallel to the a,:;is of rotation of the runner.
II
 J~n ;... TIII Ul() l'VI ., C II I:-J FS H \, UH. AU I.IC PUt, u'S " -'H I

~.fl. St:llll.' hl.!ad is [hl.! s LIm of sc t hack at an angle of 45 <:1 10 Ihe outer rim and the cnlr), of the pump is radl~1.
[:11 <.:uc tion hl.!acJ :lnu mall lllnL: tri l: hl.!acJ.
The pump run s at 1000 rpm and thl! ve locity of fl ow through the impeller is
conS\il nt al 3m/s. Also, calcu late thc workdone by rh e wall!r pcr kg of wa ler
(h) m:lIwmcuir.: hcnu an d dclivl.!ry hl.!ad.
and thl! vl!locity and direction of watl!r at out let. (MV-Ap ril '<;7)
(,-' J suction hl!:Ju and dcli'!l.!ry ht:au.
IAns: (a) IU .8° (b) R92.9 l/kg and \<12K.52 ml, and 6 ' 1
S.7. Ot!linc: Ilwnolllclric head .
R. I J. A cen!rif u£al pump dd iVl!rs wa la agai nst a net head of 14.5 ml!lers and at a
S.M . Dl!fine th e fo llow in g for it centrifuga l pump
designcJ spccd of 1000 rpm . The vancs arc c urved back aLan angl\! of :ur wit h
(al Manolllcl l;C e ffic iency
the pcriphcry. Tht! impcllt!rdiametl!r is 300 mm and th e outlet width is 50 mm .
(h\ MecllLlnica l cfficl cm:y
D":lcrmillc Ihl! dischargc L)f the pump, if manometril: dficil.!ncy is 9)lih .
tel Overa ll cmc icncy [Ans: U.1 6ij m'\/s l
!'i. L) . W hat is l11l.'anl hy ulluimulll slUriing speed lIf i.Il.!c lH ri rugul pumr'.' 8. 12. A ccn tri fuga l pump dd ivers 30 litfl!sofwalcr per sccond [0 a hCIghtof I H mctcrs
R. )il. Whal is NPSI/,! Ih rough u pipc of 90 m Ions and 100 mm diameicr. If thc ovc rall efficiency of
X. II , WlllI t is pri ming "!
the pump is 75 % find the powc r rl!quired to dri ve the pump. Takl.! f = 0.0 12.
~ . 12 . Pumrs :Irl! CnOll l.!CICU in para lid 10
IAns : 2U kWI
(a) Jcvdnp:1 high hc.:ad B. 13. The di ,lIncters llf nn impeller of a ccn tri fugal pump;(1 inkt ;IIIJ outlet arc 30..:m
(h) dl.!vclop a high Jischargl! anu 60 c m rl!spcclivel y. Delcnnine the mimmum slD I1ing sp..:..:d, of the pump jf
(c) devdop a hig h power it works ug<.linst u head of 30 rn. [Ans: 8Y 1.8 rplIl)
8. 13. Pumps arc COnlll!CICU in - -- [0 develop a high Ih!.. d, 8. 14 . A fou r slagc centrifugal pump has four ide nll cnl impe ller kl!ycd to Ihe same
S. l"}. Ddi nc thl.! rhcn omcnon c;}viwl iofl shan . The shafl is running al 400 rpm and the lotill mal1oml!tri~ hl!ad dl!vclopcd
8. [5. Til e e:.lvilari un panlm Clcr is ddi lH.:d as hy [h c multi sl<lgc pump is 40 m. The discharge throu gh the pump is 0.2 m.1/s.
(al a = lilt/IN P Sf! The vnnes of each impeller arc having an oUlle! angle of 45 ·' . Ir (he width <.Ind
(hi n = ( NPSI1I > 11." diam cter of each im pell er at ou tlet is 5 cm and 60 cm respectively, finJ the
lC ) a::;; NP5 lf j H m
mililometric efficie ncy. IAns: 7--1 .7'''11
R,16. Cnn cnv illl li on he preve nted in thl! ce ntri fuga l pumps'! How'! 8. 15. The diame ter of an impeller of a centrifugal pum p nt inlet and oUII\!t arl! ,,0":111
and 60 cm respectively. The veloci ty of now ill oUllet is 2.5 m/s and vanes arl.!
EXERCISES SI!I back ill an angle of 45 u ilt ou tlet. Dctt!rlllinc thL! minimum starting speed of
th l! pump. if the manometric effic iency is 75%. tAns: 159.3 rpml
8. I. Explain tht: worki ng of a sin gll! osla.gl! cen trifugal pump with skl!lchcs. 8. 16 . A th ree siage centrifugal pump has impeller 40 Clll in diaml!tcr and 2.5 em
8.2. Differenliatc hetween thl.! voluw L:a!'> in g and vortC K cosing for the cl!ntrifugal wide ilt outlet. TIle vanes arc curved back at the ou tll! t al 30':) and rcduce the
pump ? circumfert!nce area hy 15%. The manoml!tric efficie ncy is M5% and m'er ... 11
~ . J . Ohta in:"ln I.! xprl.'ssion fu r lhe \\'\lrkdollc p..:r kg of wa ter, hy the impdler of a dlicicncy is 75%. DL! lcrmine the head generated by the pump whl!n runn ing at
':":lltnfll!!al pump. 12.000 rpm and discharging 0 .06 mJ I s. Find alsll the shaft power.
SA , Dclin..: thc terms: Suction hcml. Jdivc l) ' hl.!ad , Sialic head and manoml.!tri c hcaJ . IAns: (oj 13K.B m and (b) 109 kWI
S.5. Dcn\'c the ..: xpr..:so; ioll for lhe min im um spcL:d for sturting a cen trifugal pump. 8. 17. A c~ ntrifu ga l pllmp has an im pdlt.:r of I!xtl!rnal diamcter 60 em and intefTl<.IJ
S.fl. Draw and disc uss the pe rformnncl! curves of i.l cen trifugal pump. diullletl!r)O Clll. The vane angles al inlet and ou tl el an.: ) O und --15 <> respectivel y.
X.7. Whar is a lllultl -s[agt! pum p? Dt!scribe muhi stagt! pump wi th The ve loc it y of /l ow is constant at 2.5 mls and thL! veloci ly nt inlet is radial.
(a) impe ll er.-; in pura Hd ... nd (11) impd lcrs in scries. Find th e pn.:ssurl! rise th rough the impeller, if the pump spel!d IS 276 rpm .
tl.H. E.,=plain ·lht! phenome non uf caviW lion. What nrc the effects of f.:ilv itation: How IAns: 5...15 m of water]
G i ll e:lviuHion hl! pr..:\'entcd'! 8. 1R. A cl! ntrifugal pump is working agai nst a hcad of 20 m while rotaling ut thl! nUe
8.9. A centrifu ga l pu mp has eXlerna l :lIld intern n) impe ller dinmt! te rs :IS 60 e m and of 600 rpm . If the blades arc cu rved back to an angle of 45 ° 10 the tangenl allh c
30 em respeclive ly. The vane angl..: at inlet and outlet arc 30<:1 ,lIld 45 respect- Q outl Cll ip and Vl!loci ty of now remains constunt at 2 m/s. Calcul atc the Impeller
ive ly. If th e water enters the impL: lle r at 2.5 meters/sec. Find diameter when allihe kinetic e nergy at impe ller uu tlet is W41Sh.:d .
(a) speed of th e impdlers in rpm. (b) work done per kg of watCf. IAilS: 0.6)4 JIll
8. 19. A cent rifugal pump handlin g wilte r has backwilrd curved vanes. The impdlc! r
IAns: (a) 275.66 rpm and (b) 53.34 llkgJ
H.IO. Cu iL' ulatc Ihl! V:.l lll! <.Ing le at inlet of a cl! ll trifugn l pump impeller having 300 tip diamctcr is 500 mm , The rt!lati vc ve loci lY at tip section is --1 51: to the tilngenl
mill diameter al illlc! and 600 lIllll diamdl!r at oU Llet. Th~ impdlcr vilnes arc 3tl.!x il. If the radial velocity at cx it i!:= 15 mis, the now at tht: in let is rudial and
378 }> TURBO MACIIINES HY Il RA UI.IC PuMI'S '" 371}

Also. (c) Boss diameter

N../Q Ve loci ty of now
H J {;I
en = 0.5 / 2gH
3S x 6J/ 4 = 0.j v'r-2~x~9.~
8~I -
x~2
N
JTT78 = 3. 132 m/s
N 134 .22 rpm
Disc harge through the pump
(b) From inlet velocity diagram
IT, ,
rr D" N rr x 0.5 x IJ4.22 Q = 4(0- - D;;)C o
V, = (;I) = 60
w, IT , ,
= 3.5 1 m/s O. IS O 4'(0.29- - Dh) x 3. 1 3~
CII 2
: . lan (3 1 = -V , = -3.51 0.0109
~,

~, = 29.67° 0. 11 m
u,
Figure 8.JO Exampl e 8 .22 A jet pu mp fi ned 2.5 m above the suction rcsr.:rvoir and IB m
below the supply reservoir lin s wate r through a 100ai heigh t o r "2..7 m. Dete rmine the
Example 8 .21 An ax.ial How pump Iws the fo ll owi ng particul ars: discharge = erfic icncy of the jet pum p when it de live rs 7.5 lis of water while using 2.75 1/ 5 from
180115. head developed = 2m. specific speed = 250, speed ratio = 2.4. Flow ratio = the supp ly reservoi r.
0.5. Calc ulate (a) speed orthe pump ~ b ) the runner diameter (c) the boss diameter.
Solution
Solution
fls = 2.5 m H, = 18m HJ + HJ = 2.7 m
Q = O.ISO m) /5 H =2 m N, = 250 Q, = 2.75 1/ 5 Q, + Q, = 7.5 lis
Speed rat io = 2.4 Flow ratio = 0.5 H" = 2.7 - H, = 2.7 - 2.5 = 0.2 m Q, = 4.75 1/5
Q.• = 7.5 - Q, = 7.5 - 2. 75
(a) Pump speed
Therefo re.
N../Q
N, Je t pump effi ciency,
H J{4
N, x fi JI' 250 x (2))/'\ Q,(H, + HJ)
N Q,(N, - H,,)
../Q JO.ISO
N 99 1 rpm 4.75(2.5 + 0. 2)
2.75( 18 - 0.2)
(b) Runner diameter
26.2%
Peripheral vcioci ty
V 2.4J2gH
= 2.4J2 x 9.S I x 2 SHORT QUESTIONS
15.03 m/s
8.1. What is a centri fugal pum p?
Since. 8.2. The ce nt rifuga l pump is si mil ar in construction to Lhe francis turbi ne. (TrucIFalsc)
rr D N 8.3. The efficiency . of the vortex casi ng centri fugal pu mp is [han the
V
60 efficiency of vo lute cas ing centri fu gal pump.
60 x 15.03 8.4. Draw the ve loc ity triangl es at inlet and exit of il centrifu gal pu mp.
D
rr x 99 1 S.5. Wh at is a slip factor? Write the ex press ion for wo rkdone per kg of water of a
D = 0.29 m ce ntrifu gal pum p with fluid sli p.
 .r
H YnR"L'Lll- PUf>U'S ... 377
I
NUlllht.:r of s[;Igl.:s
Nnw. the..' ClIvtla\lOI\ p.lramelcr
NPSH
/I =
140
- - = 49
o = H
.f

.i
2SA .
3317
/I = 5 =
36
Eq Ualill£! hcacll·o·dficil.:nL of pump· I :.Ind pUlllp·2 = O.09::! l

From Ihe sll!ady now cnergy equation taking tbe reservoir lev..:! as datum (Z .. = 01
H,
H, = (N'IV,) '( D,D,), WI.! gel rOf c.::aSl! ( I )

P" . head losses) I

( ~~ )' = (~)'(z: )
= -- -
pg
(SU Ill 01 f

= C500)'
1200
("84)16
P"
--I"H I - -
PI .: NPSI I = V,']
pg pg [ 2X
= 2.77
D, = )2.77 x D, P, 1.8 kP" ,.
= )2.77 x 0.15 = (0.75 x 13.6) - 3.317 - 0 . 1835
0.25 III 6.7 In
or
Fur case (11
D"!. == 250mm
p~ V.,"!. P"- l i b .,
"

Example 8 .19 When a labormory Icst was carried out on a pump, il was found .--=- + . . . . :. . + Z, = -
pg .
p, = 830 Pa
Jil
pg 2g -
Ihat for iI pump total hca d of36 m at a di sc harge 01'0.05 mJ/s.e:lVitulion began when Ji
th e Sum orllle: SIali c pressu re plus the velocity h(!ad at inlet was reduced to ~.5 m. The
Jtll10spheri c pressure 750 mm fi g and tht:: V:lpour pressure of water is 1.8 kPa. If the
z, +" h
:::;:;
(0.62 x 13 .6) - 3.317 - 0.0846
5.03 m
"

pump is Iu opl.! ral c ill a locution where :nmosphcri c pressure is reduced to 620 mrn
IIx ;J.nd tht.: vapour pressure of waler is 1DO Pa. whilt is the va lue of the cnvilat ion Since Ihe /low ratt:: is thl.! same," II =
II h and the pump must be luwe red hy II dlstanc.::c.::
par;tnll.:h:r when the pump develops the s;unc Inial hC'ld and disc.::hargl.:'! Is it nel.:l.::isary (ZI - Z~I = l.ll7 III .lI lhe new locatiun .
11 \ rL'Ju..:e Ihe he ig ht of the pump ahovc the supply and i f so by how mudl'.'
Ex ample 8.20 A n axial now pump has:m impeller or out le t diameter 1.0 m . TIle
Solution Cavit'lli on hegan. wher. dia uf bns!- IS U.5 I\l. If specific spl.!'ed of pump is 38 and vel ocity of nuw i~ 1. m /s.
Suggest a suilllb ic. spet::d of the pump to give a head of 6 m. Also determine vane
p. v; angle at the en try of Ihe pump, if the lIow is axial at inlet.
.......!.. + -!.- = 3.5
pg 2g
Solution
<lnd at th is c.::IlI1Jitioll Pi == P'1'fl/Jo Ih e VOlpour pressure. The n
0, :::;:; I m. D" == 0.5 In,

(aJ Pump speed

!l + V/, - PilI/II ]
(lg 2g pg Discharge = Area of now )( veloc ity of now
IT , ,
1.8 x JO) = 4(D,- - D h) x ell
= , 5 - ::-::-,----,-,-.;
.. 9.81 x 10' IT, ,
= -(1- - 0.5-) x 2
= 3.317m==NPSIi 4
1.178 m'/s
 H YORAULIC Pu ~U's ..... 375
37·1 ,. TUllDO MACI1INES

The hC;Jd de "doped hy cnc h pump -,

From till: oUl lt! t velocity trinngks (Fig 8.2)
[N:,o]'"
U2 - Wf!
[1000 X2~r'
C ,l;l ::;

n'-'l C rl = ~.21 m/ s
[.: tan45° = II
52 m
:. ex, ~ 20.94 - 2.21 ~ 18.73 m/ s
Total head dcvclopt.!d (H) = 156 rn.
H
From '1m eq unt ion -. No. of pum ps ( n)
Hm
'1m X (U2 C_(1 ) 156
(g) 52
0.9 X 20.94 x 18.73 /I ~ 3
J
9.8 1 Example 8.18 A ce ntri fu gal pump having Lhrce slDgcs in paralld ddivers 360 m
~ 35 .99 m of water per hour. agai nst a he<ld of 16 m when running at a spt!ed of 1500 rpm .
Diameter of its impeller being 150 mm.
Total bead generated by the pump A mulli-stage pump. geometricall y sim ilar to the one given above. but huving stages.
3
in series is to be designed 10 run at 1200 rpm and to deliver 450 m / h of wate r against
" x H,,, ::; 3 x 35.99 n head or 140 m . Find the impeller dimneter and me number of swgcs requlrclL

107 .97 In Solution

It should be noted that in the first pump. all the three stages arc ill para llel which
(ii) Shaft power input (P,,) means that he ad of each Slage will be lhe same i.e 16 m . Where as the: di sc harge of
each stage will be 360/ 3 = 120 m) / hL
PI ::; pgQ(Hm X II ) On the contrary. in the seco nd pump the s tages are in series which mean s that each
ryO stage would deli ver a di scharge of 450 m] / hr. Where as tol?J head of 140m will be
equally co ntribu ted by eae h s tage.
'Power output of the pump = pgQ(Hm x 11) So.
QI ~ 120 mJ / hr
1000 x 9.81 x 0.05 x 107.97 Q, ~ ~ 50 m' / hr
P,
0.8 H, ~ 16 m
11, ~
the head ge nerated by each stage in the second pum p.
52959.3
~

0.8 Eq uating the specific speed of pump-I and pump-2. we gCI

~: ~ (Z:)' (Z:r
66 199. 1 W
P, 66. 199 kW
lllUS. Shn ft power ~ 66. 199 kW 120
450
~ (1200)'
1500
(HIH, )~/'
Example 8.17 Find the number of pumps required to take water fr om a deep
or
wel l.under a tota l hend o f 156 m. TI1C pumps ;:Irc ident ical and run at 1000 rpm . The
spec ific s peed of each pumr is given as 20 while the rated capac ity o(each pump is
150 lis. (M KU- Nov. '96)
(Z:f' H,
~

~
0.64
0 .27
1.78
H,
Solution
11, ~ 1.78 16 ~ 28.4 m
H~15 6 m . N~IOOOrpm. N,~20. Q~0.150m'/sec and y.
]72 ;.... T URlll) M ACH INfS HYUH :\UI.j(' PU)'II'S "" 373

Example B.15 A centrifugal pump hnving external nnd internal diamelers of 2gJ-lm
n~spl.! c liwly 1.25 m am.I 0.5 m is discharging water al the rate of 2000 litis agninsl a
hL"ild of r (1 ill. when running at 300 rpm . The va nes arc curved bnck al an ung!!: of
.lOu with thl.! wngl.!nt at the outlet and the ve loci ty of now is constant at 2.5 mIs, Find
(a) hyuraulic efficiency nf the pump. (b) power requirl.!d and (c) least SPl!cJ at which
·.N'2.

(rr:0' r- r
2
,

l".
("6~'
l)J~l x
,

16
aille purnp com mences to worK . (MU-Ocr. '98)
(rr X6~2S)' _(rr :0°.5)'
Solution
'. N 295.4 rpm
1.:25 III D[ 0.5 m Q
16m N ~no rpm ~'2. Example B.16 A three stage cl!ntrifugal pump has impellers 40 cm in Jiamc:tc:r
and 2 em wide at outle\. The vanes nre curved back at the outlet at 451; and they
(a) HydratJlic (or) Manometric efficiency reduce the circumferential area by 10%. The manometric eflicicncy is 90% and the
overall dficicncy is 80%. Determine the head gcncralt!d by lhl! pump, when running al
Hili X g 1000 rpm delivering 50 lilres per second. What should bt! tht! shaft power?
'1/1i = U]CX1 (MKU-April '97)
rr DiN
Ul = - - - -
rr x 1.:25 x 300 .,.j,
60 = 19.64 mls Solution
- 60 i
en 2.5 Given, Number of stage, 11 = :3 f
CI1 = U~ - - -"- 19.64 - - -
. tan fi] tan 30° O'! = 0.4 m. b]::::::; 0.02 m. th:= 45 ~ r
19.04 - 4.33 15.31 mjs !
Reduc.:tion in an!a aI uutlet = 10%
Ih x 9.81
IJIII
19.M " 15 .31 (i) Head generated by pump
52.2% Area of now at outlt!t ::::::; O. 9{rr D'2.b])

(b) Power required (ps) 0.9 xrr x0.4 x0.02

Nr.:g Jccling 11ll; mechanic.:al losses. the power required 10 run the pump is l!quaJ to Ihe 0.023 m'
rluid power developed by the impeller

i.c.. Ps HI = ,iIU]Cf~
17111 ::::::; 0.9. I/O = 0,8. N = 1000 rpm.
pQ=1000 )(2 Q = 0.05 Ollis
2000 kgl'
Velocity of now at outlt!t
:. P.r 2000 x 19.64 x 15.31
_Q_=R
= 60l.3R kW ,C r2
rr D,!b,! A,
(c) Minimum starting speed 0.05
=
0.0226
"2gflm = 2.21 m/s

(]f~t)' - (]f~t)' 2gHm Outlet impeller tangential velocity

IT x 0.4 x 1000 ,
N' [(~6~')' - (rr6~') 'J 2gHIII 60
= 20.94 m/s
,I
 HYOII ;\ UI.I(' PLiMf'S ..;: 37 1
370 >- T Ultoo MA CHINES

Th e hydrau lic efficiency is (b) Power input

Hili pgQ H",
'1fI p =
E '/
Ruid Power developed by pum p 10.1 x 9 . ~1 x 0.0 16 x 42./
Fluid po"..er supplied 10 impe ll er 0.76 x I(}-l
S.6Y5 kW
No s lip, thererore,
Example 8 .14 A centriruga l pump with 1.2 III diameter ru ns at 200 rpm amJ
pumps 1RSO lis. the average Jirl being 6 m , The angle whic h ,the va nes m,ake at I.!X II
ond
wi th the langent til the impeller is 26" a nd the radinl veloCitY or n ow IS 2.5 lTl/~,
gH", Dl!tt:rminc th e nlUllometric eflicicm:y and the least spl.!ed' w stan pUmpll1!; agitln ~t a
C", = heau or 6 111, lhe inkt diameter or
th e im peller being 0 .6 m ,
V'1JlII
9.8 1 x 37. 16
= Solution
98.3D x 0.76
Give n D, 0.610 D, 1.2 m C r2 = 2,5 "I j S
= 4 .871 D mls 1880 lis = 1.88 m.l/s
N = 200 rpm Q
The o Ull e t velocity triangle (\\'ilhout s lip) gives (Refer Fig . 8.2) filii = om fl, 26<'

(i) Manometric efficiency

(U,C"lg)
D 2(4.87ID - 98 .3 D)
IT D2N
Hence, fiO
IT x ' 1.2 x 200
D' = 0.0495D - 0 .0008
60
.', Impeller diamete r( D) = 12.57 m / s
= 0.214 m
Example 8.13 A sma ll ce ntrirugal pump, when tes ted III N = 2875 rev/min
C ,I'! = Vz - \V.IJ

wi lh water, delivered Q =
57.2 m J / h and H = C" = -2.5- =5. 1_1 m/s
----
42. 1 m at its best effic iency point Wr! = tan fh lan 26
(11 = 0.76) , Determine the specific speed of the pump allhi s test conditi o n. Compute
thc required power input to the pump. (MKU-Nov. '97) C.t~ = 12.57 - 5.13 = 7.44111 1'
6 x 9.81
Solution '1m = 12.5 x 7.44
= 63.3<;1.
57.2 J
N = 2875 rpm. Q = 3600 = 0.016 m Is. Hili = 42.1 m. (ii) Least speed to start the pump \I is give n by

(a) Specific Speed of the pump

N.JQ
N)' _(If , 0.6 x N)'
N,

=
=
Hno
J /4

. 2875JO.0 16
(42. 1)'/4
v x 1.2 x
60 60
=
2,96 N! =
N=
2,<).81 x (,

117 .72
I QI),4 ry.;n

= 22 N ::: zrJu rpm

 ]68 ~ TUHUO M ACIllNES HYI)R AliI.lC PDII'S ....:: 361,1

ThcrL!fore, th e blalh.:.s occ upy 6 percent of the circumferenlial area and (hI! hydraulic dliclcncy
Hili = 0.89 x 31.91 (neglecting s lip) is 76 percenl, whal muSI he the pump impdler diameter?
= 28.6 m
Solution From the continuity equation, the veiocity In the pip!.!!". i!".
Hene!.!,
28.6 x 10' x 9.81 v = Q/A
0.04 = 2.26 m/'
178.5 kPa = G x 015 )
2
Now,

C2 = (C;~' + C.;l, )'I' Total losses = Pip!.! frictio n losses + nlhi..'r losses
aud 4/1V'
- - + 3 (V')
2gd
-
2g
C"
C.I"} = U, - ----
~ (:In/h. 4 x 0.005 x 40 +3) V'
0.324 = ( 0.015 2.~
= 19. 13- - -0
Ian 7 M.333 y 2.26'
= 16.49 m/s = 2 X 9.81
C:z = (0.324' ot- 16.49')' /'
= 2. 16m
= 16.49 m/s
Tmal n:quircd head = 35 + 2.16 = 37 . 16 m
Solving for the static pressure hend From the defin iti on of the dimensionkss specific speed. the speed of the pump I~
dClcrmmed.
= Ci2g- Ci)
H", - ( N, =
NQI/2

= 28.6
_ ( 16.49' -
2 x 9.8 1
1.29') (g 11 )'"
0.075(9.8 I x 37.16)J /4
N = (0.04) ' I '
= 143.5 kPa
= ) 1.28 rev/s
(e) Power given to fluid
Flow arc.::l perpcndicu lDr 10 impeller outkt periphery is
= pgQHm
10.1 )( 9 .81 x 0 .0265 )0." 28.6 = Jr D x -
o x 0.94
10
7.43 kW

(d) Input power to impeller

= 0.2950'

Now,
Ps = Power give n to Ouid/1lfJvernll
C" =
Q
7.4 3/0.89 Flow area
8.35 kW 0.04
=
Example 8.12 The basic desig n of a centrifuga l pump has a dimension less 0.2950'
specific speed of 0.075 rev. The blades ::Ire fOf"\l/ilrd fut:i ng on the impeller and the out lei 0.136 /
= -- m 5
angle is 1200 to the tangellt, with an impeller passage width al out let eq ual to onl!-tcnth 0'
of th e diam eter. The pump is to be used to pump water from II vertical distanc!.! of)5 m
Also,
at a now rate of 0.04 m 3 Is. The suction and delivery pipes arc each of 150 mill U, = rrON
diameter and have iI combin ed length of 40 m with iI friction faclor of 0.005. Other = rrO x 31.28
loss!.!s :It pipe entry, exit, bends ctc are three times the vc.:locity head in the pipes. If = 98 .30 m/s
 I·IYDRAUUC PUMrs ..; 367
366 :;. Tunuo MAC] JINES

35.3 35.3 Volume now through the pump is

(30 x 14.77/ 9.81) = 45.168 Q Area x Velocity of now

'1m 78.15% .(2Jrqb) x Cq
2" x 0.051 x 0.064 x I.2Y
(c) Pressure rise in the impeller 0.0265 m1 / s

U2C~2 .
- - - Impeller loss - -=-
C; (b) Stagnation and static pressure rise across the impeller
g 28 Using the continui ty equat io n r1 C r ] == r1. Ct"J
45.168 - 3 - 12.21 0.051 x 1.29
c" 0.20)
29.958 In
0.324 m/ s
Example 8.11 An impeller with an eye riluiu s of 51 mm and an outsiuc diameter
of ~I06 mm rotates at 900 rpm. The inlet and outlet blade angles measured from the At ou tlet. ltlngcntial impeller velocity is
radi al flow direction arc 75 c and RJ u respectively, while the blade depth i:-: 64 mm.
Assuming zero inlet whirl, zero slip and nn hydrauli c efficiency o f 89 percent.
Calculate, 900 x 2") x 0.203
(a) the volume now rate through the impeller
(. 60 .
(b) the stagnation ;lOd static pressure rise across th e impeller 19.13 m/s.
(c) the power transferred to lhe nuid and
Hydraulic dficiency
(d) the input power to the impeller Total head deve loped by pump
'111 Theoretical head dcvdopcd
Solution Si nce there is no slip,
fJ; = Ii,
E
(a) Volume flow rate through the impeller If thl.: change in potential head across the pump is ignored. the total hl!atl dcvdopcu
TIle ou tlct blade angle measured from the tan gential direction
by the pump is given by (P, _PI) (Ci _Ci )
flm = --- + - - --
pg 28
and
fJ, = 90" _75" = 15° and for an in compressible fluid. the total pressure Ilt!ad ctl· cJTic.:ient is

At inlet, tangential impeller velocity is

\Y,
pg

COO6~ 2rr) x 0.05 1 Now,

= 4.81 m/ s
u,
E = U,c" = u, (U, _ IV,,)
Figllr~ 8.29
g g •
From the inlet velocity triangle (Refer Fig. 8.29)
19 .13 (9
-.-
9.B I
1 .1 3 - - -
Ian 7°
C,,)
C"
(Since zero whi rl Col·] ::;;; 0]
U, - ( 19. 13 - -00324)
19.13
- -
CI 4.81 tan 15 c 9.81 la07 °

1.29 m/s 32.15 m

 HYDRAULIC PUMPS '" 365
~M ;... TtJltuo M AC HINES

Bu!. Example B.1 0 In a centrifugual pump handli ng liquid waler the head loss in the
impell er is 3m. while the pressure gain in !.he casing is 4.7 m ofwaler. which is 38.5%
P'J. PI of the absolute kinetic energy at the impeller exit. If the ve loci ty of now al tht: exi t
- - - = Prcssure rise in impc ll cr
pg PC . of impeller is 4.64 m/s and tht: impeller tip speed is 30 mls. when the difference in
:hercforc. pressure gauge readings installed allhe impelle r inlet and ou tlet is 35.3 m of water
find (a) the exit blade anglc and the Euler work input (b) ma nometric efficiency
Press ure risc in impt:lIer
,
= C,r2 UJ,
g
_ Ci
2g
+ Cf
2g
(c) the actual prt:ssure rise in the impeller. Assume slip coefficient of 0.85.
(MKU-April '96)

From inlct velocity triangle. (Fig. 8.27) Solution

Impe ll cr head loss - 3 m

IV, C; 1
~ = __ )( 4.7 = 12 .21 mls C" = 4.64 mis
Q 2g 0.385
CrJ = -
. Area of Howat inlet
Q 0.0 15 1\ u:! = 30 m/s (b..P) impdlu = 35.3 m
= 1.492 mls (a) Exit blad e angle and Euler w ork Input
nDliJ l iT x 0.2 x O.Olfi u,
:. C , = 1.492 mls Kinetic energy al impeller ex it
Figu re 8.17
From nudel velocity triangle. (Fig. 8.28) C, = J2 x 9.8 1 x 12.21 = 15.48 OIls
From the outlet velocity triangle with fluid slip at impl! lIcr exit (refer Fig. 8.3).
lan fJ ., = C" -
- U2 - C.t2
Cr1 = jCi - C;, = /15.48' - 4.64'
U2- C.f:!.= - -
Lan fJ, = 14.77 mls
IV,
Idl!ul ubsolu tt.! whirl velocity
Q 0.015
C,' = ,,-D-,b-, = " )( 0.4 x 0.008 = 1.492 mis C~2 14.77
Figu re 8.28 Cx' = - = -0- = 17.38 mls
1.492 a .1 .85
.'. U! - C.r ! = - 3 0 = 2.584 m/s
{an U
The blade angle at exit
U.., = 7f DJ,N _ iT x 0.4 x 1200
- 60 - 60 = 25 .133 m/s. tan/h. =
Crl
U2 - C.fl
.. C" U, - 2.584 = 25.133 - 2.584 4.64
=
30 - 17.38
C r:! 22.55 m/ s
/1, = 20.18°
Velocily at impeller exi t
Euler work input
Cz = JC;z + C;2 w1m = asU2C.f2
/22.55' + 1.492' 0.85 x 30 x 17.38
= 22.6 m/s = 443.19 1/ kg

(b) Ma nometric efficiency

25.133 x 22.55 22.6' 1.492'
: . Pressure rise = - +--- -,-,_'.,.1:::",--,-_ = (b.. P )1mI'd Icr
9.81 2 x 9.81 2 x 9.81 IJm = (U,C~,lg) (U,C~,lg)
= 31.853 m
 HYORAULIC PUMPS 4: 363
362 ):> TURDO MACIIINf.5

and 4 x 0.0 12 x 100 x 3. 18'

:. hlo 2 x 9.81 x O. 1
24 .74 m
Wc know thai, Now, manometric hC<l d
v, ~
Hm =
U2 C .t 2
- - - L osscs In
. II
Ie'Impe II cr and casIng
. Hili = (hJ + lid) + hfo + -
28
g
v'
=
U,C~,
--- - - Lo!'is of kinetic energy = H + hlo + -'L
28
8 3. 18'
.. Hm = V,C 2~ (Ci)
g
x' _
28
= 20 + 24.74
45.26 m
+2x 9.8 1

20 =
V,(V, - CV, - 2)' + 4
2) Now using Ihe re lation
g 4g P8QHm
p = ry"
wi - 4V, - 792.8 =0 =
1000 x 9.81 x 0.025 x 45.26
0.7
Solving for U2, wc gCI
= 15.86 kW
v, = 16.94 ml s Example 8.9 Find the risc in pressu re in Ihe impeller of a centrifuga l pump
but, Ihro ugh which water is nowing at the ralcof 15 lis. The intema l·and extemal diameter.;
rrD2 N of the impeller arc 20 cm and 40 em respectivel y. 'The widths of impeller at inlel and
V, =
60 out lct arc 1.6 em and 0,8 cm. The pump is running at 1200 rpm . TIle water enters
60 x 16.94 tht! impeller radially al inlet and impeller vane angle at outlet is 30°. Neglect losses
D,
IT x 600 thro ugh the impe ller.
= 0.5392 m
Solution
(or) D, = 53.92 em
= 0.015 m1 / s D, 0.2 m D, = 0.4m = 0.016 m
Example B.8 A cen trifugal pump hns nn overall efficiency of70pcrcent, supplies = 0.008 m N = I 200 rpm C, = C,. :: 30"
25 Us of water to a height of20 m lhrough a pipe of I Ocm diameter and length of I 00 m.
Assume friction co-efficient, f = 0.012 , Estimate the power required to,drivc the App lying Bcrnoulli'$ equation at the in let and outlet of the impelle r and neglecting
pump. losses from inlctlo outlet.

Solution E ncrgy at inlet:;;; E nergy at outlet - workdone by impelle r on water

~u = 0.7 Q = 0.025 mJ / s H = 20m

PI C~ C; C~2Ul
D 0. 1 m L = 100 m I = 0.012 - + - + Z, = -= + ~ + Z, - - -
p,
PS 2g pg 28 - 8
Loss of head due to friction in pipc
If inlet and outlet of the impeller arc atlhe same height (ZI :: Z:!)
he = 4I L V,' "
J o 2gD

where V is the ve locity of water in the pipe.

Q
= -IT- - = _IT 0.025
x a I'
= 3.18 m/s
- D' 4 . pg
4
 ~()o ;,.. TURBO M ACHI NES H YDRAULIC PuMPS "" 361

(c) Absolute velocity of water at exit (a) Manometric head

Cr 1 4 .24 v1 _ V 2
c, sin 1l'1 sin I J.08° Hili (Po-P,)/pg+ aI +(Zo -2,)
2g
c, IR.74 m/s pgfl, = 13.600 x 9.8 1 x 0.25
(d) Manometric efficiency 33354 N/ m' (Vacuum)
Po 1.5 x 10' N/ m'
· 'Ilf =
Velocity of water in both the suc tion nnd delivery pipes,
(26.57 x 18.25)/9.81 Q 0.1
1111 .:::;: 60.7'1,. Vo = Vi = ~= rr
x 0.15'
-D-
4 4
(e) Volumetric efficiency.
= 5.66 m/s
Q 75
'I t! = Thererore,
Qt 77.25
'I .. :;;::; 97.09% 1.5 x 10' - (-33354) ) + (5.66' - 5.66') + 0.5
fI.. = ( looO x 9.8 1 2g
(f) Mechanical efficiency
= 18.69 +0 + 0.5
Fluid power
'10 = Shaft power = 19.19 m

:. Shaft power :;;::;

PR (f) fI"
(b) Overall efficiency
pgQHm
t10
J p
75 x IO- )
1000 x 9.81 x ( 2 30 1000 x 9.81 x 0.1 x 19.19
= 22 x 1000
0.55 18825.4
20.07 kW
22000
20.07 - 1.04 .. Shaft power - mechanical lOSS]
and '/111 =
20.07 [ . '1m:;;::; Shaft power
= 85 .6%

flm = 94.8% Example 8.7 A centrifugal pump is working against a head 0(20 m whilc:rotating
m the rale of 600 rpm . If the blades are curved back at outlet tip and velocity o~ no~
Example 8.6 During a test on the cen trifugal pump, lhe roll ow in g reading were remains con stant at 2 mls . Calculate the impeller dIameter when 50% of the kmcuc
obtained. Vaccum gauge reading;. 25 cm of fig, pressure gauge n:ading = 1.5 bar, energy at impeller outlet is converted into pressure energy.
cffL'.cli ve height between guages ;. 0.5 m, power of electric motor;. 22 kW, discharge
of" pump = 1001/5, diameter of suc ti on and ddivcry pipes is eaeh 15 em. Determine Solution
m:lOomelrie head and overall dficicncy of the pump. flm = 20 m, th. = 45°. N = 600 rpm, Cq = CT"l :;;::; 2 mls
From ou tlet trinngle for a cerlIifugal pump. (Refer Fig. 8.2)
Solution

- fI,
20 - Z,
25 em of Hg vuccum
0.5 m
Po
P =
1.5 bar
22kW
ex 2 = U, - IV"
-
2
= U2 -

= U1 -
C"
-fJ-
tan 2
I,
I.
i.
D = Di = Do = 15 em Q = 0.1 m' /s = U, - - - -
- tan 45°
2
I
 HYORAULIC PUM PS .:{ 359
358 > TuRBO MACHIN ES

From outlet velocity diagram. TOlal quantity of water handled by the pump
Q, = Q + QL.uu = 75 + 2.25
C.r 2 = U, - IV., C"
= U, - ----
(an Ih = 77.25 l/ s
77.25
3 Q/ per side = - - = 38.625 I/ s
37.7 - - --0 = 37 .7 - 5.196 2
(an 30
= 32.504 m/s 38.625 x 10- 3
:. Cr l =
6.B3 x 10-3
... \I' 282.7 x 37.7 x 32.504
= 5.66 m/ s
IV = 346.42 kW
Now,
(c) Manometric efficiency Cil = 90"
From inlet veloci lY triangle. (Fi g. B.26 (a» w,
( U, C.<2ig) Cd 5.66
70 , 9.81 tan Pi =
U,
~ -9. 16
;,7.7 x 32.504 ~,
~, = '. 1.71 °
11m 60 .04 % u,
(b) The absolute water angle Figure 8.26(0)
Example 8.5 A radial. single slage, double 5uction, centrifugal pump is manu- Area of now ilt outlet = ]'( Dzb2 x Contraction factor
factured for the following data.

Q = 751/s D, = 100 mm D, = 290 mm

where b-z = 23 x i= 11 .5 mm per side
A, rr x 0.29 x 0.0115 x 0.B7
Hm = 30m N=1750rpm . hi = 25 mm per side ~ 9. 12 x lO-'m'
b2 = 23 mm in total al = 90
0
~o = 55%
Leakage loss = 2.25 I/s Mechanical loss = 1.04 kW 11, = 27° Velocity of now al outlet
contraction factor due to vanes thickness :: 0.87. Q 38.625 x 10- '
~

Determine (a) the inlet vane angle (b) the angle at which the waler leaves (he wheel A, .0.00912
(c) absolute velocity of waler leaving impeller (d) the manometric efficiency and (e) ~ 4.24 m/s
the volumetric and mechanical efficiencies.
Peripheral speed at outlet
Solution n D, N n x 0.29 x 1750
U' = -w = 60
(a) Inlet vane angle
The blade speed at inlet. = 26.57 m/ s
rrD,N rr x 0.1 x 1750 Now, fh = 27"
U, = - - = =9.16m/s
60 60
Area of now at inlet
where
C"
AI = rrDlbl x Contraction factor = V2 - Wx2 = Vz - ----
tanlh
= rr x 0.1 x 0.025 x 0.B7 4.24
6.B3 x 10- ' m' = 26.5 7 - - -
tan 27°
= I B.25 m/s
Velocity of now al inlet
4.24
IB.25
0'2 = 13.0Bo
 356 }- TUiUlO MAClIlNES HVORAUUC PuMPS '" 357

TIle slip factor (a) is given by a nd from the ou tlet velocity triangle (Refer Fig. 8.2)

C.~l W.r:! U2 - Cx 2
16.76 - 12.46 = 4.3 m/s
C' ll

0.77 x 15.92
er :! = WI'2 1an fh
;:: 4.3 x tnn 40° = 3.6 m/ s
12.26 m /s
Now,
Therefore, the theoretical head with slip is Q = an:a of now x Velocity
= TrD'2b2 x C r 2
lhC.~" = Jr X 0.4 x 0.05 x 3.6
- -- =al,·E
g = 0.2262 m J Is
= 0.77 x 30.B3
= 23.74 m/ s Example 8.4 A cenlfifugal pump havi ng OUler diaml!h.:r equal to two times the
inner diameter and running at 1200 rpm, works againsl u total head of 75 m . The
Thc stodola s lip factor is given by ve locilY of flow through the impeller is constant and equal ( 0 3 mls. The vanes arc
set back at an angle of 30° at outlet. If the outlet diameter of the impeller is 60 cm
if sin fJ' and width at outlet is 5 em, determine (a) vane angle at inJct (b) work done per sec by
1- - impeller and (c) manometric efficiency. (MKU-Nov. '96)
2( 1 - (C"IV, )colfJ,)
So lutio n
Then,
0, = 20,. N = 1200 rpm. lim = 75 m, Crl ;:: C r 2 = 3 m /s.
Jr sin :.mo D2 = 0.6 m, b:! = 0.05 m
0.77 I - =-.,.,-:=::--:c=----,=:
2 (J - (I.7B/19) col 300 1
(a) Vane angle at inlet The inlet velocity triangle for a cemrifugal pump is
I
2 = 8.15

Numher of bJudes required = 8.

shown in Fig. 8.26
C" I
Example 8.3 The outer diameter of an impeller of a centrifugal pump is 40 c m
tan{J1 = -
V, i
and o utl e t width is 5 em. The pump is running at 800 rpm and working against a head
0, = -=
D,
= -2 = 0.3 m
0.6
w,
II
. of 16 nl . The vnnc angle at outlet is 40°. Assuming th e manometric effic iency to be 2 I
75%. Determine the discharge. (MKU-Nol'. '89.) Dj N
TC Tr x 0.3 x 1200

I
V, = ~ = 60 = 18.85m/s
Solution
3
D~ = 0.4 m, /;~ = 0.05 m. N = 800 rpm, Hm = 16 m , {J"1 = 40° , 1]111 ==: 0.75. Lan tI, = 18.85 u,
TIll! impeller tip speed
rr x 0.4 x BOO
p, = 9.043 0

Figure 8.26
I
I
60 (b) Workdone p er second
= 16.76 mls

From Ihc definition of manometric effic iency

'1m =
flm u,
rrD,N
60 = rr x 0.6 x 120a
60 = 37 .7 m/s ~
(V,C,·,lg)
9.BI x 16
m = pQ = p(rr 02b, xC,,)
g X Hili =
Cx:! = 10 3
rr 0.6 x 0.05 x 3

,I
X X
U2 11m 16.76 X 0.75
= 12.46 m/s = 2B2.7 kgls
354 )lo TUROO MACHINES

SOLVED PROBLEMS
I HVDRAUl.IC PUMrs <i:

4211.8 x 0.65
355

Torque ddivered
10
Example 8.1 A centrifugal pump of 1.3 m diameter delivers 3.5 m 3 jmin of water 273.7 Nm
at a tip speed of 10 mjs and a flow velocity of 1.6 m/s. The outlet blade angle is at
30° to the langent at the impeller periphery. Assuming zero whirl at inlet and zero Example 8.2 The impell er of a centrifugal pump bas backward.fal.:ing blades
slip, calculate the torque delivered by the impeller. inclined at 30° to the tangent al impeller outlet. Tbe blades arc 20 mm in depth at the
outlet. the impeller is 250 mm in diameter and it rotales at 1450 rpm. The now rate
Solution There is no slip. ThereCore, through the pump is 0.028 mJjs and a slip factor of 0.77 may be assumed. Dl!lermine
fh = fi; (he theoretical head developed by the impeller and the number of impeller blades.

The Euler head is given by Solution First consider thl! no.slip condition.
Assuming hlildl!s of infinitesi nwllhicknes5 the !low area may be calculated as
,
U1C~1-U]C" 1
FlowareiJ Impclll!r periphery x Blade depth

Since. there is no inlet whirl component, e X] = 0 rr x 0.02 x 0.25

U2 C-'l = 15 .7 x 10-' m'

E Flow ve locity CI1
g QIA
v, -
= -(U2 WX2 )
= 0.028/( 15.7 x 10- ')
g 1.78 m/s
Given fh. = 30°. From the outlet velocity triangle (Refer Fig. 8.2) From the ou tlet veloci ty triangle (Fig. 8.2)

~ ~
tan 30° wn :mo
1.6 1.781 tan 300
tan 30° 3.08 m/s

E ~
9.81
(10 __ 1._6_)
lan 30 0
Now,
V, ITDN 160
7.36 m or W/(N/S) ITx 0.25 x 1450/60 .
19 m/s
Power delivered OV) Ex (mg) Absolule whirl componenl
III p x Q
c,-~ Vz - W.tl
= 1000 x 3.5/60 19 - 3.08
58.33 kg/s
= 15.92 m/s

.'. Power delivered (W) 7.36 x 58.33 x 9.81 The Euler head is
4211.8 W E=-_V!:,:c~x.c'_--=V~I:C",
."
g
Power and assuming CA'I = 0 (no whirl at inlet)
Torque delivered
Angular velocity U2 C .tl
1
E =
4211.8 x - - K
(V Ir) 19 x 15.92
U = wr , lip speed U 10 m/s 9.81
r 1.3/2 = 0.65 m = 30.R3 m
;152 :,.. TUltllo MACILINES
The no zz le can [ower the pressu re [0 Ihree fourths of almospheric pressure, i.l!. ahout
2.5 TTl suctiu n head can be obtained. Steam also :>crves (0 prehcat thl! wat!..!!' red 10 the
boiler. Wilh waICr at hi gh pressure, a more perfect vaccum ca n be prodUl:eu, sO that
a sucion lift of 5.5 (a 6m can be obwined. The jet should be ncar the surface of
water. Several jets may he employed' if a large quantity of wl.\tl!r is to be pumped . TIll.!
c:lpacilY of a jet pump ran ges upto about 50 lis.
If the rale o( tl ow from suppl y resl.!rvoir is Q I and the qU<lnIity of water sucked per
second is QJ. tl1(:n lhe IOtal discharge rate from Ihe pump is Q = Qt + Q,\
If HI is the height of suppl y reservo ir above the jet, H.r is the sucti on head :md fIiI
is Ihe Jelivery hl!ad. th en efficiency of the jet pump is give n by
wor k done
II/ = work consumed
Q,( H, + H,,)
III = Q,( H, - Hoi )
Air Lift Pump
TIle pumps thut utilisl! cu mpressed air [ 0 lift watcr arc know n as .air lift pumps. Thl.!
function of comprl!sscd air is to form a mixture of ai r and water and to reduce the
mi xture density. Thc dellsit y of a mixturl! of air ilml wJle r is much lower tlwn Ilwl of
pure WJler. If such a mixlure is balanced against a water column. th l.! fornH.:r willnst.:
much high~r than thl! l;:Iuer.
Air tnl: 1 DiKhl1 e
""\
I return valve is fiucd to a flange at the top of the pump. The suction line of the pump
I I.
1f='
Figure S.25 Air lift pHilip
Fi g. (8. 25) shows the: ;:Iir lift pump. Compressed air, supplied. by a co mpressor il1-
sWlJed on (or) ahove the ground level, is rassed through one or morc nozzles at the
hOllom into the wa leI' at a cons iderab le depth, bl!low the water surf;:lce. The rapid
strcam of air al the Il ozzlr.: exit produce a jt!t and entraps the water in the imm ediate
HVDRA UI.IC PUMPS "" 353
vicinilY and carie s it upward s to the top of delivery line. The air-water mi xtuft: can
risc ab ove tht! water level because of its low density.
TIle air is introduced at a considerable depth below the water surface. so that the
press ure due [ 0 the column of height L is less than that due to height H. height of
water level above the nozzle, thus, causing the flow of walcr to the desirt!d delivery
level. The pump disc harges water as long as there is a supply of air. For best results,
the lift of th e pump (L - H) should be less than H .
Advantages
1. No moving parts, no valves. No damage due 10 solids in suspension in water.
2. Raises larger quantity of water for a given diameter than any other pump.
3. To drain out water from mines where the compressors arc alre.!ady uvailable.
Disadvantages .
I. Vt:ry low dficil!llcy. Th e volume of air in m]( V) ilt atmospheric pn:ssure. required
to lift one m·l of watcr through II height (L - H) dt:pt:nds on tbe efficir.:m,'y.
2. Air leakage prohlem.
Submersible Pump
As th e nam e implies. the pump and electric motor both arc submerged in wilter.
Submersible pumps arc built together as single or multistage centrifugal pumps,
directly coupled wilh the electric molor, which is tOlally enclosed. Tht: motor and
pump shafts arc supported in water lubricated plain bearings.
These.! pumps are vertical centrifugal pumps with radial or mixed flow impcllcn>.
Alllhc me.!tallic bearings are wate.!r lubricated and protected against the sand. A non
is situated between the pump and the motor ilnd provided with a perforated strainer.
Motor of the submersible pumps arc filled completely with water. The water cools
the windings, insulated in a plastic impervious to water. TIle pump shaft is connected
to the motor shal'l by a muff coupling.
Submersible pu~p s are installedbClow the lowest expectcd water level in the well.
These pumps can be usually employed in open wells where frcquent changes of waler
leve l make the working of a horizontal pump difficult. ;
Before a submersibl e pump is installed, the motor must be filIed with clean non -acid
water free of san d for the purpose of priming. The pump mUSl be started with Ihe I
valve sli ghlly ope n. If there is a considerable amount of sand in the water, then the
pump must be operated with valve partly open, untillhe sand contents arc reduced to
acceptable quantity. The valve may then be opened gradually. !
Advantages H
I. High overall efficiency Bnd therefore economical in operation.
2. No maintenance because of its glandless construction and waler lubrication.
3. No priming is required due tD submerged installations.
4. No suction problem, since fOOl valve is not required,
5. Low noise level.
 350 }.- TURno M"CII1NliS H r DllAlJU C P UMPS "" )51
....,
During one-half revolution of rotor rOUltion, the volume increases bl.!!\VCl.!n the rotur Center line -l Cylinder bloc k
and cam ring . The resulting volume expansion causes a reduction ofprcss urc. Thi s is I - - center line
the suction process which causes nuid 10 now throug h the inlet port and lillihe void .
As the rotor rotiltc s through the second half revolution , the surface o f the cam ring Plllile
COllie
pushes the vanes back into their slots. and the trapped volume is n:dUl.::cd resulting
in increase of pressure . This positively ejecL<; the trapped fluid through the discharge PiSlons
pOri .

3. Piston Pumps
A piston pump works on the principle thut II reciprocilting piston C~H1 urilw in fluid
when il retr<lcts in a cylinder bore and discharge it at high pressures when it e~tcnds .
There arc two basi c types of piston pumps (a) axial pis ton pump and ( h) mdial piston
pump .
(a) Axia/ piston pumps Fig . IS .22) shows an axial piston pump. In a xial piston
pumps . lhe pistons arc parnllel to the axi s o f the cylinder block. It cons ists o f a cylinder
hlock rotating with the drive shaft. A universal link connects lhe block to the drive
shaft to provide alignment and pos itive drive. The centre line of the cylinder block is
set aI an offset angle relative La the centre line of the dri ve shaft. The cylinder block
conlntns it numher of pistons ammgcd along a circle. The piston rods arc.: connected
to the drive shaft flange hy ball and 50ckcljoints. The pi stons arc fo rced in and out o f
their bores as the distan ce hetween the drive shaft flange und cylinder bloc k L.:hanges.
Oil rurrcuto
Cylinder block
Re<lctio n ring
Figure 8.23 R{ldial pi.rIOll plllllp
As (he c y linder barrel rolates. Ihe pi slo ns on one side move outward . 'nlis draws in
fluid . as eac h cylinder passes th e s uction port s oflh..: pintle . When a pis IOn passes Lht.:
point of maximum ec centricity, it is forced inward by Lhe reaction rin g. This force s
th e nuid to enter the discharge port o f the pintle .
MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF PUMP
Jet Pump
A je l pump is s hown in Fig . (8 .24 ) Jet pumps arc used to lifl Lhe wall.:r in a grcatt!r
quantity when a s mall quantity uf wutcr is uvailable deep down the earth. Steam (.or)
water at a hi gh pressurc is forced through a fine aperture nozzle, thcreby converttng
most of the pressure energy into kineti c energy. It results in lowering of pressure
Cilus ing suction to take place . A part o f the suc tion is due probabl y 10 the dr?p .of
pressure resulting from conden sati on or the steam . Steam is generall y used an Jet
pumps used to fe ed the water to a boiler.

Piston is wilhtlrllwinG
rronl bon: pi inlet
From inler
Figllre 8,22 Adel' piSlo1I pump

(b) Radial piston pump A radial pump is illustrated in Fig . (S .23) It consists
or pintle to direct fluid in and out of the cylinders , a cylinder barrel with pis tons. i:md a
rotor containing a reaction ring. Th e pistons remain in constant contact with the
reaction ring due to centrirugal force and back pressure on the pistons . Fur pumping
action. the reaction ring is moved eccentrically with respect [0 the pintle or shaft a~is. Figure 8.24 Jelpulllp
 ;\·HI ;... Tl llUlO rVJ..KW NES HVDRAULIC PUMPS "'" 349

TIle ex ternal gea r pump uses spur gems, (which arc noisy al high spceds), helical Inlet Outlet
gears (whil.:h nrc lim itcd 10 low press ure .Ipplication duc to end thrust problems) and
herringbone gC~lrs (w hi ch provide greater flow rales s llloolhy).
(b) Internal gear pump Fig. (8 . IR) shows Ih e con figuration orlhl! internal gear
pump. llii s rump consists or nn internal gear. a rl!gulill" sp ur ge:tr, a crescent shaped
sl!a l and all cx tcrn:lllillusing.

Thrust cage Idler rotor

Crescent seal
Inl et
Inner
Figure 8.18 imcrlla/ gear I'Wllf'
As powc r is applied to eilher gear, the motion or Ihe gears draws fl uid from the
resa\'oir and rorces it around holh sides or the crescent st!al. which Ole IS as a sea l
bl!tween Ihe suction and discharge POrls. Wh.:n Ihe teelh mesh on the sid e opposi le
tll thc cresce nt sen l, the fluid is forc ed to enter Ihe disch.ugc pOri of the pump .
(c) Lobe pump Thc lobe pump is illu slflHed in Fi g. (8. 19). 'ntis pump operates
in a fas hion similar 10 the external genr pump. But unl ike th e external gear pump.
holh lobes arc driven t:xlerna lly so that Ihey do not actu<llly contact each other. Thus.
they arc quiter th an oth er Iypes of gear pumps. Due 10 the smaller numhcr of 111'lling
dements. the lohc pump's output will have n grealer amount of pulsation, although
its vo lum etric displacement is ge nerall y greulcr tlliln for ol lll.!r types of gear pumps.
Onlance cup Rotor housing Mechanical seal
Figure 8.20 Serel!' plllllp
There may be on!!, two or Ihree screws. In a 2-scrcw pump, one is rOlor and tbe o~lcr
is id ler. In a 3-screw pump ther..: are two idlers on either siLle uf the rotur.Two idlers
act as s..:als 10 Ihe power rotor and arc driven by fluid pn.:ssure and not by metOllIic
conlOlC I with rolor. The liq uid entcring Ihe inlet passag..: flows iolo the Idl end of the:
rOlor whe: rl! it is trapped in pocJ.;...:ts formed by Ihe threads and is carried lowards the
di scharge. The movelll..:nl of Ouid is simi lar 10 Ihol o f a nut on Ihe power screw.
Thl! advan tages of screw pump over Iht: other IYPI!S of pump are:
I. Screw pump operates upto a continuous working pressure of about 150 har.
2. The screw pump is free from pulsation ond vibratio n. So. Ihe pump is silent while:
running .
2. Vane Pump
Vane pump (Fig. 8.21) cons ists of a rotor disc having a number or radial slots and is
splined 10 the drive shaft. The rotor rotatcs inside a cam ring. Eaeh slot has a vane
designed to mnte with Ihe surfilce of Ihe cam ring as the rotor turns . There is an
ccce ntricity b..:twecn thc rotor and the cam ring. The vanes arc frce 10 slide radi<.illy
with Ihe help of springs and thus form the requ ired seal hetwccn thc suction und
discharge connections. Centrifugal force keeps Ihe vaneS oul against thc surface of
the cam ring .
Cam ring surface

Figllre 8.19 Lobe' (ll/llll'

(d) Screw pump The screw pump (Fig. 8.20) is an axial fl ow pos iti ve displace-
Ilh: nt unit. It consi sts or a rotor or screw to whi ch the source of power i.c. electri c
mOlar is direct ly L:Onnccll'd. TIle screw may be single helical or double helical. 11lc !
ad\'iJ lI1a!;!1! of double helical is Ihal they arc balanced axially. The fluid is carried
fnrwarJ In th c dischurgc along Ihe rotor in pockels I'nrmcd hetween tt:elh <lnd the
c,lslng.
Figure 8.ll \ime 1'1111/1' ,
I

11l
 I jyI)R .... UU C PUMPS '" 347
346 ,. TI)RUO M ,\('IIINES
•
inlet velocity \' i arc meil.<;ured, and u~ is then calculated from the above cljuation. The (a) Ex ternal gea r pumps
minimum required NPSfJ or Cfe may then be plolled ror the different degrcl!s of inlet (h) Internal gear pumps
throttling (0 give a curve of (Ie VCSUS now co-efficient. (c) Lobe pllmps
From the steady now energy equation, the energy loss betweelllhc free surface (A) (d) Screw pumps
and the inlet side of Ihe pump can be determined . If the datum is placed :ltthe lower 2. Vane pumps
reservoir surface, \'1\ = 0 and ZA = O. Then the equation inlerms of heads becomes 3. Pi sto n pumps
The details of the construction and operation of gear. Vimc and piston pumps arc
P" / PC = PI / pg + V/"/2g + H:werirm
discussed in the following sections.
where HJu ('lifJrr = Z. + "/i + hffJSJ at in let. Substitution for p./pg in the defining
equation of 0-. gives 1. Gear Pumps
(a) External gear pump Fig . (8.17) illustrates the operation of an cxt~mal gcar
pump which develops now by carrying nuid between the teeth of two mcshmg gears.

Outlet
If a is above a l · • cavitation will not occur. But in order to achieve this. it may be
necessary 10 decrease l is I/j"/illll by decreasing Zi and in some cases the pump may
havc to be p laced helow tiie reservoir or pump free su rface. i.c. negative Zj. especially I1rive
if" li.iS particularly high duc to a long inlet pipe.

METHOD OF PREVENTING CAVITATION

TIle following factor s should be taken into account to prevent cavitation:

I. The pressure of Ihe nowing liquid in any part of the hydraulic system should not Inlet
he all owed to fall below irs vapour pressure. For example. the absolute pressure
Figure 8. / 7 £-af'rllCI/grar pump
head should not be below 2.5 m of water, if water is the working medium .
One of the gears is connected to a drive shaft connect~d . 10 th~ primemover. ~e
2. TIle specia l materials or coatings such as aluminium . bronze and stai nl ess steel
seco nd gear is driven as it meshes with the driver gear. OlliS camed aroull.d ho~slll.g
which arc cavitation resistant materials should be used.
in ch'lInbers formed between teeth. housing and side \vear plates. Th.c sucllon ~Id~ IS
whl!re teeth come out of mesh. and it is the place where the vo lume exp;lI1ds. ?rtnglll.g
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS about a reduction in pressure below atmospheric pressure . Fluid is pu shed mlo thi S
TIle pumps arc broadly classified into two as (a) Hydrodynamic (or) non- positive voi d by atmospheric pressure hecause the oil supply tan~ i~ ve nted to the atmosphere
displacement pumps; ex: centrifugal and axial pumps and (b) Hydrostatic (or) positive The discharge side is where · teeth go into mesh, and It IS here where the vo lume
disp lacement pumps: ex : Gear pumps and vane pumps. The former type is used for decreases between maling leeth.
low-pressure, high-volume now applications.TIlcsc pumps are not self-priming . This The theoretical fl ow rale of a gear pump is given by
is becau se there is 100 much cleareance space between the rotating and stationary
elements and to scal ugainstlltlllosphcrie pressure and thus the displacel1l1.:nt bl.!twcen
IQ,,, = V/J X N I
the inletllnd outlet is nOi a positive om:. The laller type of pump ejects a fixed quantity
where. Q.h is thl! tlll.: nretical now rate in mJ/min. VD i.s the pump di splaceme~t
of nuid per revolution of the pump shaft. A pressure relief valve is used to protect the
vn lullll! in m J / rev .a ml N is the pump speed in rpm. The dis placement volume Vo IS
pump against overpressure, because a positive displacement pump continues to ejeci
nuid even though the out leI valve is fully closed cllusing an c.xtremcly rapid build iT 1 '
VD = -(D - DelL
up in pressure as the nuid is compressed. Where as. for non·positivc displacement 4 " I

pumps. in such a case. there is no need for safety devices to prevent pump damage.
Positi ve displacement pumps can be classified by the lype of motion of internal where,
clements. The motion may be eithl!r rotary or reciprocating. D" - outside diameter of gear teeth. 111
'nlere nrc essentially of lhree basic types; Dj • insidl! diameter o f gear teeth. TIl
I . Gear pumps L - width or gem teeth . 1/1
 ~-I·I :,.. T Ulino t\'I ,H; ltlNES
I-I rDltAUUC' PUp..U'S ..: ~45

Wh r.:.n the liquid 1I0ws through a cen tri fuga l pump , the slatic pressure (suction pres-
s ure ) at the eye of the impell er is reduced and the velocity increascs. Therefore, there
JOO is a danger that cavi tation bubbles rn ayJonn al the inlet to th e impdlcr. When the
fluid moves inlo a higher pressure region, these bubbles collapse with tremendous
HcaJ force. givin g ri sc to pressures as high as 3500 atm . Local pining of thl.! impell er can

~
result when th e bubbles collapse on a metallic su rface, anti serious damage can occur
\ /", \ ,,(
~ oo by this prolonged cav itati on erosion. Noise is also generated in Ihe form of sharp
'-
PowC'1" -
- ........... '\".
/'
. .
cracki ng so unds whl!1l cavitation take s place. .
'\". DC'sJgn pOI n!
Cavitati on is mos tlikdy to occur on the suction side o flhe pump bl!twccn the lower
reservoir su rfnce and Ihe pump inlet since it is in thi s region that the lowest prc.ssurc
100 -- - "". /
will occ ur. A cavitation parameter is defined as

Efficie:ncy Pump total inl et head above vapour pressure

u=
Head developed by pump
o 40 AI Ihe inlet nange
80 120
Percen tage of design flow rate
Figure 8. 15 Characteristic C/ lrt't!S of arial flolI' pump
where all pressures arc absolute
Now Q is proport ional 10 ell ,md thcrcfnrc
(or)

Id E/dCncxdE /dQ CX-Ucotlh l

For ;IXia l fl ow on inlcL fi2 is relat ively small, and thus for a given pump at i.I g ivt! n speed
thl.! h!.!ad - fl ow re lations hip has a Sleep negative slope . Thl! power curve is sim ilarly vcry Every pump has a critical cavi tation number (a,,) , which can only be determined by
steep. the power requirement at shut offb cin g perhaps 2- 2.5 times that required nt th e testing to find the minimum values of NPSH before cavitation occurs. One method is
desig n point. This makes for a very expl! nsivc e lec tric motor 10 cover the eventuali ty to determine Ihe normal head-flow characteristic of the pump and then to repeat the
at th e low fl ow rates ~1nd so lhe fi xed bl.:!.de axial fl ow pump is limited La operation n! tes t with th e inlet to the pump progressively throttled so as 10 increase Ihe resistance
the IIxed cksig n point. In variable flow mnchincs. the blade ang le is adjusted so th at to now at th e inlet (Fig. 8.16). It will be found thaI for different throttle valve scnings
Ihc pump runs ,l{ its maximum effic iency at all loads and reduces the shut off power Ih e performance curve will fall away from the normal operating curve al various points
req uiremenl .
In Ih e figure 8.15 , the power and head cu rves arc seen to enLera region of instabil ity at 3% head
aho ut 50 perccn t of lhe design now filte . This is duc to e ll becoming increasing ly small
und thereby increasin g the angle of inc ide ncc of How o nto the blade until separation
a nd stalling of the blade occurs. Funher head risc at evcn lower fl ow roues. and lhe l\1easure:t.\
NI'SIi Nt'S
consequ l.!JlL power ri $c is due 10 th e recirculat io n of the nu id aro und th e blade from [he
pressure sid!.! 10 th e s ucti on sidt.! and then up o nto the press ure side o f the next blade. /
An increased hlad e stagger anglc will o nCe agai n reduce this rec ircul a li o~ , therehy
the powl.!r rcqu ir!.!Ol!.!nt. ---
Q, Q, Q, Q, Q, Q,
CAVITATION - Q-,> Q-,>

- Cavi tati on is dcflned as a phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles of a nowing

liqu id in th e regi o n where tht! locLl I abso lute stati c press ure of the liquid [atls het ow
th e vapour press ur!.! of the liquid and th e sudden co llapsin g of these vapo ur hubbies
Figure 8.16 Hill Qud NPSH \'usus Q

and one definition of the occurcnce of minimum NPSH is the point at which the:
head H drops be low the normal operating charac teri stic by so me arbitrarily selected
in the high press ure n:gio n.
percentage, usually about 3 percentage. At this condition static inh:t pressure p. and
342 ,. TUlluo MAClIlNES

It should bl.! noted thilt the now area is Ihe i.mnulus formed betwel!n the hub and Ihe
bli.ldt! lips. Then we Illay write

111 = pC,,[rr(R,'2 - R~)l

The work dOlle hy the pump is

r IW = mU(e" - e,,) I
Impeller THE ENERGY TRANSFER OR HEAD
u
The energy tr4lnsfcr (E) is given by
W
c, E =
IV, mg
c,
= U(e" - e" J/ g
For maximum energy transfer the absolute Oow velocity must be uxia l ill the inlet i . ~ .
CI = Cu' Hence.:,

0'1 = 901> C ,t l =0 E = UC. 11 /1!.

Outlet gu ide vnne E in lenns of angle fi] is obtained as

<olll, = (U - e"J/c"
or
CI'! =U- C(lcolfh
Figure 8.14 Velocity trtl;flg/~s oj axial flolV (lumps Hencr.: subs tituting for C.I'! in the above equation.
Since the sU:lIor is fixed, ideally the absolute velocity C I is parallel 10 the trailing
edge of the blade (not shown in Fig_ 8.14). The relative velocity WI is obtained by [E = U(U - e"cOIIl,)/8 [
Yeclorially subtracting the impeller tangential velocity U(= UI =
U2) from CI ·
TIlis is the maximum energy trnnsfer or head dcveloJ1cd by a n a;(ial now pump.
WI ideally should be parallel to the rotor leading edge of the rotor. For £ to be consta nt over the whole b lade len gth . the blade angle Ih should hc
In the exit velocity diagram. the relative velocity vector W2 is parallel to the blade increased hecause U increases with radius. It is see n from the above equation th .. t
trailing edge. lhere mus t be a corresponding increase in the tenn Cn col /3'! . Since Cll is co nstant.
/32 shou ld incre'lse. Hence, the blade must be twisted as the radius' increases.
THE WORK DONE ON THE FLUID Note: Since thl! density ch,mgc across an axial flow fan is so low, it may be ';011-
From Euler's pump equation. the work done on the Huid sidercd to he operating w ith an incompressib le nuid and therefore tht: same equations
as applied to axial now pumps may be used.
IW = ",(UzC X} - UIC xl ) I AXIAL PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
Changes in the condition of the fluid take place at a constnnt mean radius, therefore TypiCi.!1 hcad -now power and efficiency curvcs arc shown in fig 8. J 5. A Sleep neg;J{Jve
slope is ev iden t on Ihe head and power curves at low now rail.!s . 111is ca n hI.! c}tplaincd
considering the maximum energy trnnsrer equation. For a given blildc design .It fixed
Also assuming a constant How area from the inlet to outlet, we have speed with :lxinl now at inlet

[ E = U(U - e" col 1;')/8 I

J~O ,.. T URBO M M·HI NF.5 ,·f\·OR.... uuc PuMI'S "' 3-11

AxiAL F L OW PUMPS
Combined System resistan ce
I___ ",-l!~in~se ri e s ,.Icurve (1-1 "" H, + KQ 2)
, DESCRIPTION
I
An axial now pump cons isIS of a propeller type impeller running in a casing with fine
Ho
clearances bel ween Ihe blade lips and the casing inner walls . The Iluid esse nliulJ y
/
passes almost axially thro ugh ulternate rows of the fixed stator b1adcs and movint;
/
ro tor blad es in a muhis tagc axi al now pump . The figun: (8. 13) shows a single Slut;e
/ ax ial now pump.
/
lI e
~
/'
""- Pump C
Pum D

o opcrOll ing points 0 C C+D Q-C>

Figure 8.11 7iI'o diJfferelll p UlllpS connected i" series

Flow)
----'::.::. Flow

II r Combined in
seri es
~~~~~(rre~if.:~~rC~Q2)
I '
I
I
I Smrionary inle! Stationary oUllet
_ ~ng J e pump guide vanes
/ guide vanes
/
Impell er (or) Rotor
,, Figure 8.13 Si/lglf! stage ClxiCJljlolI' pump

The inlet g uide vanes guide the fluid to enter the rotor with 11 purely axial vdocity.
The impdl cr blades. however impart a whirl componc:ntto the Iluid . The uUllc:t guide
operating vanes elim inate! Ihe swirl on the o utlet side and turn the fl ow towards the ultis.
point ...
To ensure a smooth flow without shock at the design condition. Ihe bladc.s of the
Figure ll.11 Two simi/ar pumps cOlmuted ill serieS impeller mus t be twisted . The now area is the same at inlet and outlet and the maltimum
head for this type of pump is of the order of 20 m. The usual number of blades lies
Pumps in Series between two and eight, with a hub diameter to impeller diameter ratio of 0.3 - 0.6.
Let 1/ = Number o f identical impellers moullted on the same shaft. The advanlage of an axial flow pump is its compact conSlruction as well as its ability
[0 run at extremely high speeds.
Hili := Bend developed by each impell er.
Th en the t(llal hl!ad dl!vcl 0pcd x /-fIJI. ="
TIle di sc harge pass ing th ro ugh each impeller is same. VELOCITY TRIANGLES
The in let and outlet velocity triangles nrc drawn for axial now pump (Fig . 8. 14). It
Pumps in Parallel will be noticed thaI the impeller blade has an aerefoi! section and that the inlct relative
Let II :;: number o f ident ical pumps arranged in paralle l. velocity vec tor WI does not impinge tan gentially but rather the blade is inclined 81
Q:;; Di sc harge from one pum p. an ang le o f incidence j to the relati ve velocity vector Wt. This is similar 10 Ihe angh:
TOlal di scharge = /I x Q. of attack of an aerarail in a free strt:am . It is assumed Ihal there is no shock at entry
E<lch pump works againsl the sam !.! ht!ad . and thot th e nuid leaves the blade tungentially at exit.
33tl j;> TUHBO MACHINES HYDIL\UL!C PUM"S ..: :rw
Q A + Q If but certainly greater than either one. For a very nat (stalic) curve two similar Ir pumps A and B are not ide ntical as shown in Fig. 8.9. then the pump B should nllt
pumps in parallel will deliver nearly twice the flow. (Fig. 8.8) be run and cannot cven be started up if the opcrating point is above its shutofl' head .

PUMPS COMBINED IN SERIES

1-11 System resistence To develop a high head, the pumps should he connected in series as shown in (igurc
, (H = Hs + KQ2)
eurve
8.10. The water rrom the suction pipe enters the pump C at inlet and is dischargt.:d iLt
/ the outlet wilh increased pressure. Tilt.: water with increased prcssu n.: from the purnr
/
/ C is taken to the inlet of the pump D. The pressure of waler <lIthe pump D exit will
he l110re than the pressure of water at the pump C exit.
Combined - ---
-- ~'
/pumps ( ,
\ ,
( -..... , \ To Llc:livcry
\ pipe
\ \
Single pump \
\ \ \
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
o A A+B Q~ \
operating points From \
\
Figure 8.8 Two simj/ar pumps connected in parallel

TIle combined brake power is found by adding the brake powers of pumps A and B
ilt [hc same head as the operating point. /

The comhined efficiency equals /

I
I
,
pg( Q,I-I-·8)( H m )A+8 I I
(Ps)A+IJ
I /
/ I Pump D
I

Pump A Combined in System

Pump B pilInllel rcsistcnce
curve
(1-1 ~ H, + KQl) Figure B.IO PllltlpJ in Uri/'S
/ The discharge through eat.:h pump is the same. The com hi ned head is higher than
/
eilher one. TIlL! pumps in SeriL!5 need not be identical at all, since they merely handle
the same disdwrge. The)' may evcn have different specds. although normally both
.lre driven hy the same shaft.
The combined operating point head for two different pumps in serit.:s will he more
than either C or 0 scparately, but not as great as their sum.
The combined pumps perfromance curves arc sho\vn in the figures H.IJ .:md H.I:!. .
The combined power is the sum of brake power for C and D al the operating pOint
now rate.

o operat ing points B A A+B Q~

. ' . pg(Qc+o)(H"lc+D
The combined effiCiency 15 = .
Figure 8.9 Two differellt p,tmps combilled ill paralfel (P.dC+D
 336 ,. T UlWO M ACHINES IiYDltAtJl.IC Pllt.U'S .;( 337

Figure 8.5 shows typical characlCristic curv~s for a ce ntrifuga l pump . The he'ld is
<Jpprox im:uely constant at low disc harge and then drops 10 7.ero at Q = QIlItIX ' At
thi s spt:ed and impelle r s ize Ihe pump cannot deliver any more nu id than Qmlu , llH:
positive slope part o r the head is s how n dashed as mentioned earlier, this regi on c<.In
he unswblc Dnd cn use pump surge.
The power provided by the pump mo tor rises llIonOfonically wilh d isc harge and then
typ ica lly drops orf slightly ncar QI/l/lx. The drop orf reg ion is shuwn dashcd because
it is a lso potent ially uns table and can cause mo tor ove rload durin g a trans ient.
The efficiency ri ses 10 a maximum at aboul 60 percent of Q",II .I" Th is is Ihe des ign
nnw rale (Q f) or Bcs i eniciency po inl (lJEP ), '1 = '}"III.\" The head and po'wcr at th e
JJEP will he lerrneJ lin and Pf) re spec lively. NUle th allI is zt!ro al the origin (no now)
nllJ at QIII'" (no heLld ). NUl!.! :.Il so thai the ,/ curve is not independcnt but is s im p ly
caku lnted rrom Ih e rdaJion
CONSTANT EFFICIENCY OR MUSCHEL CURVES
The head versus di scharge curve and efficiency versus discharge curve for various
speeds nrc combined 10 ge t the co nSlan l l!fficiency cu rve. The Musche! cu r vcs nrc
drawn as fo ll ows .
O.S 0_6
11.7 08
. 0_8
0 .7
0.'
/ n.s
The v<lrinti o n of pump erticicncy ('1 ) with di sc hargc (Q) is pl oued for dirferent
speeds N t. N! . N) . .... etc. us shown in Fig. 8.5. A constant dficicncy line is. drawn
on 1/ - Q plot 10 determine IWO d isc harge (Q) valu l!s for a p:.Irtic ul:.lr spt!cd . 111l!Se
points arc marked as 1,2.3, ... elc . and arc projected on to [hl! H - Q plot ror the saml!
discharge values and spel!d for a panicubr dlicil!ncy. 1l1is procedure is repe:.lled ror
uthcreHicicncy values . The points of same dtkicncy arc joincd by a curve as ~hown in
Fig. 8.6 . TIl esc curves arc called the COIIstallt efficiellcy or iso ~ffic;ellcy clln'~s. The
point of max imum drtcicncy can be determined rrom Ihi s graph . TIle advantage of
Ihis plol is that n single point on Ihi s graph gives all the information regarding the
Spl!crJ. hl!:IIJ. disl.:'harge, cClicicncy nnd power.
MULTISTAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
A Ccn lri fu gal pump lital con sists of two or more impdlers mounted o n the samc shaft
or on dirferent sha fls is called the I/Ill/listag e cell/rijugal pI/flip. Multistage pumps un!
employed to accomp li sh the following two important runctions .
I. To produce a high head .
2. To develop a high discharge.
PUMPS COMBINED IN PARALLEL
To develop high discharge, Ihe pumps should be connectt:d in p:.lrallcl as shown in
the figure 8.7.
,+ ,
Q"

Pump A

N,
Sump

Q--->

Fig'J,.e 8.7 PIIIII/Js;n puralld

Pump A and pump B lift the water from a common sump and di scharge the water to
a common pipe to which th e delivery pipes of each pump is connected. Each of th e
pump works Jg<l inst the same head.
The two pumps A and B, which arc in parallel need nOl be identical. But ror the
same hc~d t the multi stage pump discharge is the sum of the now rales or each pump .
i.e. QA + QB. (Fig. 8.9)
If pump A has ma rc he:Jd than pump 8. pump B cannol be added until the opcrati ng
Q--->
head is below the s hut o frh cad of pump B. Since, the system resi stance curvc ri ses with
Figure 8.6 MIIJc he/ curves Q. the combined delivery Q"+H wi ll be less than thl! separate operat ing discharges
 H YDR.AULIC PUt.-II'S .;( 335
334 }.> TURUO MACHINES
...,
For minimum speed where Pj a nd Vi arc the pressure and veloci ty at the pump inlet and P UfJP is the vapo ur
pressure o f the liquid . All pressures arc absolute pressures.
NPSH is a lso defined as a me:lsure of the e nergy available on th e suc tion s ide of the
pump .
NPSH is a commerc i:l l term used by the pump manufaclUrers and indicates the
Ifm in terms of '111
suction head which the pump impeller can produce. In other words , il is the height o f
V zC.(! the pump a xis from the water reservoir whic h can be permitted fo r installation.
Hili = '111 X - --
g
Substi tuting the val ue of Hm in the above equation yields PRIMING
Priming of l.I ce ntrifu£:ll pump is defined as the operati on in which the suction pipe.
vi - Vr = '111 x
U2 C .\,: casing of the pump a nd a portion o f the delivery pipe upto th e dc;livery val ve is
2g g completely filled up wi th the liqu id to be raised by the pump bdore starling the
Now. pump. Thus, the air from these parts of the pump is removed.
The he;'ld generated by the pump is give n by

U2~" I
and
IE=
TIlcrcforc.
T he ahove e quation is indepe nden t of th e density of th e liquid. This mea ns th at when

(~)' -(~)' pump is running in air, the head ge ne rated is in terms o f melre of ai r. If the pump is
primed with wate r. the same head is genera ted but is expres sed in metre of water.
28 But as lhe density of air is very low. the gene ra ted hend o f air in te rms o f equivalent
metre of wale r head is neg li gib le. It is obvious. th at if impc ller is running in air. il wi ll
· ·d·
DIV rrN , we get
I mg by - produce on ly a negligible pressure. which may nOI be sufficient to SUt:k WOller fro m
g60
the s ump . To avo id this difficult y, the pump is first primed . i.e. filled up wit h waler.

PERFORMANCE CURVES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

(or) Pc r fOfl11l.1ncc clwrts arc always pl otted for constanl shaft-rota tion speed N. The: basic
inde pendent variab le is taken to be the discharge Q. The depe ndent v:lriahles or output
72~ [Di - DT] = 'III arc taken to he head ( Ii) . power(P) and efficiency.

Hence the minimum starling speed is

120 x '711 x C,rl X D2 Besl Emcicnc),

H painc !DEI') or
rrlDl- Dil 11.l'.H 1 ( un~tablc ;
un cause
DesiGn pninc

a nd a centrifugal pump has to run at thi s spee d alleast. 10 di scharge liquid . surgc)

NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD

~el .Pos itive Su.c ti~n Head ~~PSH} is the head req uired at the pump inlello keep the
liqUid from c avllat mg or bOIling. The pump inlet (or) suction s ide is the l ow ~ prcssurc
point where cavitaTion w ill first occur.
TIle NPSH is defined as tJ 0 ••,

p. V' P
NPSH = ~+ --.!.... - ~ Figf/re 8.5 Typical t'rlZlriJlI galplllllp performan ce curl'es of COIIJIU/Il impd/f!l" ro tari()11
pg 28 P8
speed
 Ii VDllAIJl.l' ?lJMPS ...{ 333

(iii) Overall efficiency

Ir Hi is the (Ot:11 he ad ucross th e impeller, th en j\ Icuknge power loss ca n be defined us
Fluid power developed by pump
PL = pg Hiq (X.5)
'1(1 = Shaft power input
,----=-:-:---,
pgQHm
Eq uati o n (8. 4) shows that when the discharge valve of the pump is closc:d. th e leakage '7!1=---
fl ow ralc attains its highest value . p,

Casing Power Loss (iv) Volumetric efficiency

If h e is the head luss in th e fluid between the impeller outlet and the pump o utlet Flow rate through pump
'7 v =
flange and the fl nw nlle is Q. then Pc may be de!'inr.:d as Flow rate th rough impeller

(8.6)
Iry·=~ 1
S umming up all the losses gives
(v) Impeller efficiency
r--=---~~~~
Fluid power at impeller exit
where' H",' is the manoml.!lric head . 'Ii = Fluid power supplied to impeller

(i) Mechanical efficiency Fluid Power supplied to impeller; Auid power developed by Impc llr.:r + Impeller
loss
Fluid power supplied to the impeller The Fluid power supplied to the impeller is also referred 10 a.s the powe:r available
'lilt = al the impeller.
Power input to the shan
P.~ Q, (hi + H;)
P, MINIMUM STARTING SPEED
'DIe cen tri fuga l pump will start delivering fluid if and only if the pressure rise in the
fJi - Total head across [he impeller
impell er is more (han or eq ual to manometri c hend (Hm). Otherwise the pump will
h ,.- head loss in the impeller
nOl discharge fluid . although the impeller is rotating. When the impdlr.:r is rOlating
(or)
the water in contac t with the impeller is al so rotating. This is the case of rorced voncx .
In case of forced vortex. the centrifuga l head or head due (0 pressure: the rise in the
impeller is
= w 2r;
______ w2r21
(ii) Manometric (or) hydraulic efficiency 28 28
where
AC lUal Head developed hy pump wr2 - Tange mi al velucity of impe ller at outlet = V2 and
'111
Thl!Oft.!licnl head developed by impeller wrl- Tan ge ntial velocity or impeller at inlet = V\
HIII/Ch; + Hi) Head du e to pressure ri sc in impeller

- (or)
E = U,C,., / g = ( Hi + h;)
The flow of wa ter wi ll commence, when
Vi Uf
=- - -
2g 28

Vi - Vr
28
 HYDRAULIC" PUM!'S "" 3:\ I

Manometric Head (Hm)

C;\, AC;\
It is a head against which a centrifuga l pump has to work. It is denoted hy ffm · It i.-;
given by the rollowing expressions.
The pump tolil] inlet and outlet heads arc measured at the inkt and oUllet flanges
rc'spcctivcly and arc given as
l<loal Pump total inlet head;:::: Pj I pg + V/12g + Zj
Pump total out lct head = VI;
Pol pg + 12g + Zo
Total hcad developed by pump (or) manometric hC<.Id (Hm)
Actua l
u, .[
= (Po - P;)/pg + (V,; "
- V,-}/2g + (Z" - Z,) 1
The type of pump is selected for a specific purpose based on the manomelric head.
Figure 8.3 Exit velocity trial/gle wilh slip Hili c<ln also be expressed as

HEAD DEVELOPED Hs + I: HlosSt:s

H; + fI/i -t-hfj +"10 + " 1"
Ddivc:ry pipe
I
where II f is the fridional head loss III is the other head losses and
I hla +hfo / -
Hm = Euler head - Losses in the impeller and casing
- - -
,.-- -=-= -- --= --
- - PUMP LOSSES AND EFFICIENCIES
-
tenmrug;!..,- ~p. hd
The shaft power or energy P.T that is supplied to the pump by the prime mover is not

Hm
'".~~ . the same as the energy received by the liquid. The difference is mainly dul.! to the
following losses:
H, l. Mechanical rriction power loss (Pm) due to the friction be tween the fixed and
the rotating parts in the bearing and the stuffing boxcs.
2. Disc friction power loss (PD) due 10 friction between the rotaling faces or the
P; @-:F impel1er (or disc) and the liquid .
h,
3. Lealmge nnd recirculation power loss (Pd due to the loss of liquid from the
pump (or) recirculation of the liquid in the impeller and
Suction 4. Casing power loss (Pl')
pipe
Impeller Power Loss (Disc Friction Power Loss (Pv))
- It is caused by an energy or head loss h; in the impeller due to d isc friction. flow
hJj + hrj -------------
------- ------- separat ion and shock at the impeller entry. The now rate thmugh the impeller is Qr.
--------- ---- so the impeller power loss is expressed as

Figure 8.4 Heads associated with centrifugal pUlllp

I PD = pgQ; h; I
Leakage Power Loss
Static Head (H.d
111e pressure difrerence between the impeller eye and tip can cause a recirculation of
It is the vertica l distance between the two levels in the reservoirs or Hs ;:::: hs + lid a small volume of fluid q, th us reducing the now rate at the oUlletto Q. Thus
i.e, Static head is (he sum or the suction head and the delivery head.
(8.4)
 3:!~ ,. TlIIHKI MACIIlNES
HYDRAULIC PUMPS "" 329

r]. fJl is Ihe angle suhtelltled by (he blade at the inlet, measured from the tangent to and
the inlet rJuius, whih! fh IS the blade ungle measured from the tangent at the outlet
C.1'2 = C] cos cr2
U,
WX2 ex;! Thus

(8.2)
If, a,
Cr,
W, C, But by using thl.! cosine rule.

P,
then UICI cos 0'1 = (Ul- W? + Cr)/2
and U.,C, coscr, = (U; - \V~ + C;)/2,
Subs~il~ting lh~ ahov; rcJati~n in ~qualion (8.2l. gives

[(Vi - V1) + (Ci - Cr) + (lVl- Wi)]

E=
2g

Figure 8.2 lIeloeity rriangle:J for a Cl'lIIn/llgal [ll/mp were,

h 1 - represents the increase of kinetic energy of the fluid across
(C .,' - C')I'g
the impdl~r, (V~ - V~)/2g represents the energy used in imparting circular motion
The fluid I.!ntcrs the blade passage with an absolute velocity C 1 and at ,10 angle. crl
about Ihe impcl1~r axis [0 the fluid and (Wf - Wl)/2g is the gain of stalic head due
10 Ihl.! impeller inlet the tangential velocity vector VI = wrl, where w is the 'lI1gular
10 reduction of the relative velocity within the impeller. . ..
wlocit), of (he impl.!lIcr. The resultant relative velocity of the flow into the blade
As lhe water enters tbe impeller radially, the absolute velocity of water al IOlct IS III
passage is WI at ~m angle ,8;,
(and not fit due to the shock at the cntry of blade)
the radial direction and hence al = 90° and C,I'! = 0 because C j = C'L
langentto thc inlet. Similarly, at outlet the relative velocity vector is W2 at an angle
So, equation (8 . 1) reduces to
f1; land nOI fl2 due tel nuid slip atlhe exit) tangent to the blade. The absolute velocily
vcctor C] is oblaineLi by subtrncting the impeller outletlangential velocity vector V'2
from IV] and C] is SCI at an angle Ct'] from the tangent to the blade. As n general
case unless othcrwisl.! stated, it will be nssumed that the inlet and outlel blade :mgles
TIle volume flow rnle of water is
arc equal to their corresponding relative flow angles. ( i.e).B~ = f31 (for No-shock
cundition) and f3~ = fh (for No-slip at the exit).
From Euler's pump equation the work donI.! per second on (he fluid per unil weight
o f fluid flowing is
wlH!rc
C is 'the radi<.ll component of the absolute velocity and is perpendicular to tht: tangent
IE = WIllig = (U,C,., - U,C,·,J/g I (8.1 ) al i'nlet and outlel while b is Ihe width of lht! blade measured in the:. dirt!ction.
When considering lhe slip factor 01. lhe Euler head equalion becomes

where, ex is the component of absolute velocity in [he tangenti,ll direction. ' E' is oflen
referrcd to as the Euler head and represents the ideal (or) theoretical head developed
by the impeller only.
. E' ill terms of ansolute velocity is ohtained as follows: Typically, slip factors lie in the region of 0.9, where
From tlie velocity triangles
Actual C~
al = (Refer Fig. 8.3)
Ideal ex
 r!YDllAUUC FPMI'S "" 3'27
3:!6 y Tt )1l1l0 MACIUNES .....
of now and thus increases the pressure of water. nle efticicncy of centrifugal pump
having thi s casing is reduced due to the formalion of eddies.

(b) Vortex casing (Fig 8.1 (b)) If a circular chamber is introduced between the
Delivery casing and the impeller, then iliat casing is known as \'vrft'X cusing. This l:onsidcr.lbly
pipe
reduces the loss of energy due to the foonation of eddies. Thus. the dliciem:y uf the
pump is more thim lhe efficiency of volute casing ccnlrifugal pump.

(c) Casing with guide blades (Fig. 8.I(e)) In this 'ypo of casing. the impolkr
is shroudcd by a series of guide blades mountcd o n a ring which is known as 'diffuser' .
Delivery wive The guide vanes arc designed in such a way that the wilter from the impeller enters
the guide vanes without shock. The area of the guide vanes increases, thus. reducing
the now velocity through guide vanes and consequently increasing the pressure of
wilter. The water rrom the gui de vanes then passes throu gh the surrqunding ca.o;ing,
which is in most cases concentric with the impe1\cr. The diffuser is optional and may
not be present in a particular design depending upon the size and cost of the pump.
Impeller

Vone,;

I
ch3mbcr

~casing ~- "-
,/

/-(
\
I
/ "-
\
\
J
Suction pipe \
,
Sump
~
' ---/"
Guide Y,InC5

Figure 8.l(b) Vortt'x casing Figurt! 8.l(e) ewing wilh gllide van/!.i

Foot valve nnd 3. Suction Pipe and Delivery Pipe

strainer
Figure 8./(a) Centrifugal pump
2. Casing
It Is an air-tight passage surrounding the impeller which converts the K.E of water
lenvin~ the impeller into pressure energy before the water leaves the casing and enters
the delivery pIpe. TIl[~ three commonly used casings are
(a) Volute casing Casing that surrounds the impeller. is of spiml type in which
flow area Increpses gradually. TIle increase in area of flow, decreases the velocity
A pipe whose o ne end is con nected to ilie inlet of the pump and other end dipped intu
the wa ter in a sump is known as the sliction pipt!. A foot valves, fitted atlhc lower ent..!
of the suction pipe, opens o nly in thc upward direction. A strainer to remove t..Ichris
from water. is <lIsa fitted at the lower end of the suction pipe. The pipe whose one
end is con nected to the oUl let of the pump and the olher end ddivcrs the waler at a
required height is known as delivery pipt!.
WORK DONE AND VELOCITY TRIANGLES
Figure 8.2 shows lhe velocity triangles at the inlet ami outlet lips uf lhe vane fixed to
an impeller. The blades arc curved between the inlet radius q and the outlet rnt..!ill s
 J::!4 :;.. TURB o M .KIIJNES

run al 1500 rrill. Dl.!terminl.! its power, discharge and head. Find and vl.!rify their
SPl.!l'llic spceds.
JAns. (a) 0.001 m.l/s (b) 2.:!S m (c) 0.0405 kW and (d) 25.8J
7 . 11. An axi[ll How pump with a rolOr diameter of 30 em hnndlc liquill waler <lIthe
rate of 2.7 m J/min while operating al 1500 rpm. The corresponding energy
inpul is 125 J/kg. If n geometrically similar pump wilh a rotor diameter of 20
8
~m operates [II 3000 rpm what arc ils (a) now rate (h) change in total pressure
Ifthl.! 1010.110 lotal cflicicncy is 0.75 and (c) input power. (MKU-Apri! '96)
[Ans. (a) 1.6 m'/min (b) 1.67 bar and (e) 5.93 kWI HYDRAULIC PUMPS
7.1-1. A model of a Francis turbine of 1/5th of the actual size was lested in a laboratory
undl.!r a head of 1.8 m. It develops 3 kW at 360 rpm. Determine the speed' and
pm. .·cr dcveloped under 6 m he41d. Also. find the specific speed.
[Ans. (a) 131.5 rpm (b) 456.9 kW and (e) 299.31
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
7.15. A model of a Kaplan turbine, 1/12th of the actual turbine size is tested under
a head of 3 m. The head for the proloturbine is 7.5 m. The prolOturbine. is
designed to produce 6000 kW at a speed of 150 rpm at an efficiency of 83 %.
Find spc~d. discharge. power nnd specific speed of the model. INTRODUCTION
[,Ins. (a) 113BA2 rpm. (b)0.4.12m.1 / s. (e) 10.54kWand (d19361
7.16. Whal ,HC unil qU ':lIIti[ic.~ ? Define [he unil quantities for a turbine? Why arc they The hydraulic machines which conVCrithe ml!chanical energy into hydrllulic energy
impnnulH? arc called asplllllps. The hydraulic energy is in the form of pressure energy. Two types
7. 17 . Ohtain alll.:xprcssioll for unit spl.!cd, unit discharge and unit powcr for ilturbinc. of pumps commonly used are centrifugal and axial flow pumps. They arc so named
7 . 18. t\ pelton lurbine produces [n.ooo kW nfpower while working under u head of because of the general nature of the fluid flow through the impeller. The combination
500 Ill . The spel.!d is 300 rpm . Assuming lhe efficiency of tile turbine 10 be 80%, of centrifugal and axial flow pumps is called 85 mixedjioll' pump wherein part of the
lind the values nf unit quantities. If til(! head on the turbinc falls to 350 m, find liquid flow in the impeller is axial and part is radial.
the new di scharge , spe!.!d and power for the same efficiency. Verify the specific The hydraulic machines that convert mechanical energy into pressure energy, by
speed. IAns. (al 0. 114 (b) 13 .4 2 (e) 0.894 (d) 2.13 m'ls (e) 251 rpm means of centrifugal force acting on the fluid are called as centrifugal pumps. The
. . (f) 5853.8 kW (g) 12.691 centrifugal pump is similar in construction to the Francis lurbine. BUI the difference
7. [9. A FranCIS turbllll! works undera head of 5 m and produces 701W; Ihe discharge is tlwtthe fluid flow is in a direction opposite to that in the turbine.
through the turbine is 1.5 mJ js and the speed is 180 rpm. Find the unit quantities
and new values of speed, discharge and power. when the head increases to 15 MAIN PARTS OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
m.
The parts of a centrifugal pump arc similar La those of a ccnlrifugai compressor. The
[,Ins. (a ) 0.671 (b) 80.5 (e ) 6.261 (d) 2.6 m.1 /s (e) 311.8 rpm three important pans of a centrifugal pump arc (1) Impeller (2) Casing and (J) Suction
(f) 363.7 kWJ and Delivery pipes (Fig. 8.[0.).
7.20. A pl.!lton wheel devel ops 5520 kW under a head of 240 m wilh an ovcrnIl
!.!~fici c ncy 01'83 % when revol ving at USPl.!l.!U of200rpm. Find the unit quanti!i!.!5. 1. Impeller

-
II [he hl.!aJ 011 the same turbin e during off seuson falls to 150 m [hen,· find the
di scharge. power and speed for Ihis head.
JAns. (a) 13 rpm. 0. 1R2 m.l Is. 1.5 kW
(MU-Ocr. '97)
(b) 151U rpm, 2.23 m.l /~, 2.73 Il1WJ
The rotating pan of the centrifugal pump is called the 'Impeller'. The impeller is a
rotating solid disc with curve.d blades standing out vertically from the face of the disc.
The lips of Ihc blndcs in the impeller arc sometimes covered by another flaL disc
to give shrouded blades, otherwise the blade lips are left open and Ihe casing of Ihe
pump itself forms tile solid outer wall of the blade passages. The advantage of Ihl!
shrouded blade is that flow is prevented from leaking across the blade tips from one
passage to another.
The impdlcr is mounted on 11 shaft connected to the shaft of an electric motor. As
the impeller rotates. the fluid that is drawn into the blade passages at the impel[er inlet
is accelerated as it is forced radially outwards. In this way, the Sialic pressure of fluid
is raised.
 DIMENSIONAL AND MODEL ANALYSIS ~ )2)
322 }>- TURDO M ACIi I:-JES

7.38. WhH! is model testing ?

7.16. The number or repeating variables are equal to the number or rundamental
7.39. What ;Ire the conditions of camp Ie Ie sim ilarity between a model and it!> pm\O-
dimensions of the problem. (Tr.ue/False)
type ?
7.17. If a variable is dimensionless. it it"clf is a 1I'-term. (TrucIFalse) 7.40. Specific speed of a model is to the speci ric speed of its protoIYp..:·
7.18. The product of two 1I'-terms is dimensionless. (True/False)
7.41. What are unit quantities'!
7.19. What is model analysis?
7.42. TIle ullit speed is given by
7.20. \\'hat arc thl! advantages of model analysis?
7.21. Define: Similitude (a) N/,fH
7.22. Listlhe types elr similarities. (b) ./NIH
7.23. What is Geometric similarity? (e) IN/l/
7.24. TI1C rollowing points should be considered in geometric similarity. 7.43. What is thL'- usc ofunilljuantities'!
(a) Flow directions and all angles must be preserved.
(b) Orientation should be preserved
EXERCISES
(e) both (0) and (b)
7.25. What is kinematic similarity?
7.1. Discuss the advantages of dimensional analysis.
7.26. What is dynamic similarity?
7.2. State Buckingham's 1f-thcorem. Describe this theorem for dimensional anal·
7.27. What are non-dimensional numbers?
YSls.
7.28. Detine Reynold's number.
7.J. Show that the discharge of a centrifugal pump is given by
7.29. Mach numher is the square root of the
(a) ratio of inertia force to the pressure force
(b) ratio of inertia force to the gravity force Q-
_ND' J [gHm _11_]
N'D"ND'p
(c) ratio of inertia force 10 the elastic force
7.30. rroude's number is the square root of the ratio of - - - - - - force to the where N is the speed of the pump in rpm. D is the diameter of the impeller.
- - --force. g acceleration due to gravity, Hm manometer head . I). viseoc.:iIY of nuid and p
7.31. Weber's number is the square rool of the ratio o f - - - - - - force to the the density of the nuid.
----force. 7.4. Show by tlimensional analysis. the Power P developed by a hydraulic turhine
7.37. What arc undistorted models? is g iven by
7.33. When is a model called a distorted model?
7.34. Define: Specific speed
ex pressIOn.
or
a pump and write the units of each quantity in the P= pN'D' J [D;~']
7.35. Define: Turbine specific speed and specify the units ofeach variables appearing where p is the density of liquid. N is the speed in rpm, D is the diameter of
in the ex.pression. runner, H is the head and g is the gravitational accelaration.
1.36. The turbine specific speed is given by 7.5. What is model analysis? What arc its advantages?
N,fH 7.6. Explain the different types of hydraulic similarities that must ex.ist between a
(a)
prototype and its model.
7.7. What do you mt!an by dimensionless numbers. Define and explain four ntH\ -
(b)
H5/·1 dimensional numbers.
N.Jii 7.8. Deline und derive an t!xprcssion for specific speed of a pump.
Il J /'
(e) 7.9. Derive an expressio n for specific speed of a turbine.
7.37. The pump specific speed is given by 7.10. How is the model testing of a hydraulic turbomachine mack?
JNQ 7. 11. A centrifugal pump was tested in a laboratory by a 1:8 model. It consumed
(a) 5 kW under a head of 5 m at 450 rpm. If the prototype is to work at 130 m head.
(lim )5/,1
NJQ determine its power, speed and discharge ratio .
IAns. (a) 225 rpm (b) 20480 kW (c)256 1
7.12. A ccntrifugi.ll pump discharges water at the rate of 0.167 m" /s at 2000 rpm
under a head of 100 m and consumes JOO kW power. A 1:5 scale mudel is to
 ):::!O ,.. TUiUJO MACIllNES
DIMENSIONAlANDMoDaANAlYSIS ..;,( 321

and 19B6.525(20)'I' (f) Power

(25 )'/ 2 PII(HZ)]/:!
1421.44 kW
1.265 x (160)'"
Example 7.13 A Pt!lton turbine produces 5000 kW under a head. of 250.~ <'nd 2560.2 kW
has sr~i.!d or11 n rpm. O\'erall cf(icicnc), or turbine is 85%. Find the unll quantlues: If
the hl.!ad falls to 160 III what are th e new values of speed, discharge and power. Fmd (g) Specific speed
also the speci fic speed.
N"!..../P"!. I 67.9BJ256li:2
N,
Solution (Ii,)'/" ( 160)'1'
PI = 5000 kW. iii = 250 m. NI = 210 rpm, '10 = 0.85. H} = IbO Ill . = 14.94
(a) Unit speed
NI 210 SHORT QUESTIONS
N" = - = =
%J ,.,250
= 13.2B
7.1. What is Dimensional analysis?
(b) Unit power 7 .2. What is a Dimension?
7.3. What is Unit?
p _ ~ _ 5000 = 1.265 7.4 . What are fundamental dimensions and derived dimensions? Give examplC!s.
,,- H3j"1 - (2S0}-lJ. 2
I 7.5. The dimension of power is
(a) M L 2T- 2
(c) Unit discharge (b) M L'T- J
(c ) M LJT-'
'10 = 7.6. The dimension of work is - - - -
7.7. There is no dimension for efficiency (Truc/FaJsc)
7.8. Match the following
D.S5 x 10 3 x 9 .81 x 250
(a) Force ·MLT- 1
2.3 9Y m] I ); (b) Dynamic viscosity - none
(c) Angle - ML -IT- I
(d) Momentum - MLT- 2
~ = 2.399 =0.1 52
Q" ffi l ,/230 7.9. What arc the important advantages of dimensi onal analyis?
7.10. What is dimensional homogeneity? Give an example.
when fh 160m
7 .11. Dimensionally homogeneous eq uations are of (he system of units .
(d) Discharge 7.12. What is Buckingham IT-lheorem?
7.13. Number of dimensionless terms in Buckingham's Jr-theorem is equal 10
Q" x .Jii). (a) The s um of (Olal no. of variables (n) and the no. of fundamental dimensions
(m )
0.152 x v'i6o
(b) The difference bel ween nand m
1.92 m J /s (c) The product of nand m
7.14. Each IT-term contains
(e) Speed
(D) m-I variables

.... Nil X

13.2B x
.Jii z
v'i6o
(b) 1 + m variables
(c) m varjub lcs
where m is the number of fundamental dimensions.
= 167.9Brpm
7.15 . Enumerate, (he points governing lht! choice of repeating variables .
 -
318 ).>0 Tunoo MAOIINES DIM ENSIONAL AN D M OIJEL ANAI ,YS1S '" 31 '1 ..,
Solution Using tht: unit power equation
Dm=~ Hm = 5m H J1 = 8.5 m Pp= 8000kW N J1 =J20rpm P, P,
D" IO
(a) Speed of the model
HJ(!, H2"2
6600 x (181'0
NI/I = ( H"') '/' (DI')
flf! ' DIU
N
"
P,
(30)'/'
3067 kW
5 ) ' / ' (10)120
= ( -8.5 Example 7.12 A turbine is to operate under a hCild of 25 m al 200 rpm , Thl,.·
discharge is 9 m .1js, If the efficiency is 90% determine the rerfonnan cl! o f the lurhim'
= 920.4 rpm under a head of 20 meters. (/) IJU-NfJl'. '(7)
(b) Discharge from the model (MU-Oct. ·~~I

Solution
Q.. (~:)' (~:) Qp Head on turbine HI = 25 m, Speed N ] = 200 rpm , Discharge QI = 9 lJl ·l/~
Overall efficiency '10 = 90%.
8000 x JO' Performance of the turbine under the head Hl = 20 m, mcun s 10 find Ihe speed.
pgryoHp = JO' x 9.81 x 0.85 x 8.5 dischilrge and powt!r developed by lhe lurbinc when working under the head of10 rn .
For lhe Head H'!. = 20 m, Speed::: N2 . Discharge:; Q2 and Power::: P2
= 112.87 m' /s
Using lhe unit speed equation

( ~)'
JO
(920.4) x 112.87
120 N,
N,../H,
../H,
= 0.866 m' /s
200 x J20
(e) Power of model v'25
= ( Dm)' (N.,),
0JI Np
P" 178.88 rpm

Using the unit discharge equation

= ( ~)5
JO
(920.4)' 8000
120
Q, =
Q,.rfi,
= 36.1 kW ../HI
Example 7.11 A ,urbine devel ops 6600 kW. when running at 100 rpm. The head 9 x J20
on the IUrbine is 30 m. If the head on Jhe turbine is reduced to 18 m. determine the
= v'25
speed and power developed by the turbine. Q, 8.05 m' /s
Solution Using the unit powcr equation
Power developed P, = 6600 kW Speed N, = JOO rpm Head If, = 30 m
For the head H2 = 18 m Speed = N2 and Power = P2
Usin g the unit speed equation
Now, P,
N, =
= ../H,
1}0

100 x ./IS :. P, = 0.9 x lOOO x 9.8I x 9 x 25

N, = ~ = 1986525 W
N, = 77 .45 rpm = 1986.525 kW
 1[6 :,.. TUJu] o M ,\ C' J-IINES DIMENSIONAL .... ND MODEl. AN .... LVSIS ~ 317

Exar.lple 7.8 Two geometrica lly simi lar pumps are run ning at the same speed of Solution
[000 rpm. One pump has an impeller diam eter of 300 mm and lifls water at Ihl! ratc DIU 1
3
of 0.02 01 Is against a head of 15 m. Determine the head and impeller diameter of
; Pm = 1.84 kW Hili =5 m Nrn = 480 rpm H" = 40 m
DJI JO
the Olhcr pump 10 deliver a discharge of 0.0 J m1/ 'j.
(a) Power developed by the prototype
Solution
For pump-l:
N, ; IOOOrpm , D,;0.3m, Q,;0.02m.1/" H,;15m
Pp = (~:.)' (zJ Pm
For pump-2:
(b) Speed of the prototype
N'l = 1000 rpm , Q2 = 0.01 mJ /s
(a) Impeller diameter of pump-2

,
(D~N ), (D~N ), = (~0),C~)480
(~:)' (~:)(~;) 135.76 rpm

( ~)
(10)5 (135.76)' 1.84
(1000) 480
0.02 1000
0.5 = 4163 kW

(c) Specific speed of the prototype

, (N,)p = NpjP"
; (0.5)l x 0.3 ~
p
0.238 m 135.76 X (4163)'/2
(b) Head developed by the Pump-2 = (40)5/ 4
= 87.1

( ~), (~), Specific spel!d of the model

Nmffm
(H') j
H,
;
(~:) (~:)
(NJ )III =
H;/4

480..fi]4
H, ;
em)'
-
0.3
- x H, =
(5)5/'
= 87.1
; (0238)'
-- x 15 (N,)p = (NJ ),,, = 81.1
0.3
9.44 m The specific speed of the model is equal to the prototype c!nd thus it is verified.

Example 7.9 A lurbine model of I : 10 develop' 1.84 kW under a head of 5 m of Example 7.10 A model of a Kaplan turbine, one tenth of the actual size is Ic!sted
water at 480 rpm . Find the power deve loped by the prolOlypc under il head of 40 m. under a head of 5 m when actual head for proto turbine is 8.5 m. The powl!r to be
Also find the spet!d of the proJOIype. Assume efficiency of both the turbines to be developed by prototype is 8000 kW. When running at 120 rpm at an overall efficiency
samc. rind and verify the specific speeds. of 85%, de,ermine (a) speed (b) di scharge and (0) power of model.
 DIMENSIONAl. AND M ODEl. A NALY SIS "' l iS
1
~ 14 };.o TURBO M ACIUNf:.s

Exam ple 7.7 A geomeuically simi lar model to scale I : 6 of i.I large cen tn fugul
Head =85 In Flow nue = 20. 000 mJ III 5 - .
Wi.ltcrdensity = 714 kg/ mJ P 4 peed- 1490rpm Dlameter= 1200mm pump is tested . Thc prototype paramctcrs nre speed:::: 400 rpm . discharge = 1.7 m) Is.
TI ower:::: rnW (electrical)
head developed:::: 36.5 m and the power input 720 kW. If the model is tested under a
Ie manufacturer plans to build a model Tes .. . .
power to 500 kW and flow to 05 JI . . f t condJllons hm lt th e uvailablc elec tric head of 9 m, dctcrmi ne the speed. discharge at which it should be run and the power
dficiencies arc <lssumcd equa l fi·nd ~ ~ 0 dco ld water. If Ihe model and prototype required to dri ve the pump model.
, IC etl . speed and scale ratio of thc model

Soluti on . Solution
Equaling the head. power and flow coefficients for the model and protDlYPI! _Dm = _I Nil = 400 rpm . Q'I = 1.7 mJ Is. Hp;: 36.5 m
D" 6'
Q"
Qm =
(NI')
N (DD,: )'
m
PI' = 720 kW . f1m = 9m
(aJ Speed o f th e model Equating thl! head coefficient for the model and
or

= 20. !lOO )
( 0.5 x 3600
(Dm)' prototype
DI'

= 1111 (~:)' .,fH.;,

ITT x -
D I'
x Np
Nil! =
"Hp D",
Al so

;"m = (NI')' (DDm ) ' p

(PI') = j 9
6 x 6 x 4oo
3 .5
Nm p,,!
1191.75 rpm
Substitute for NI' I N"" thcn
(b) Discharge of th e model Equating the nuw coefficients o f the mode l and
4
0.5
( 1111)' (DD". ,)' (DI')'
D",
(~)
1000
prototype

( Dm)4 ( 8 )
DI' = (11.I1)'x O.714 Q.. = ( Dm)'
V"
N,"
x -N
p
x Qr
Scale ralio

(6I)'
Dill _ ,, _ _ _ x 1.7
1191.75
-D =03
I'
. = 400
Then 0.0235 m'/s
N"INm= 11.1 1 x (0.3)' (c) Power required by the model Equating the power coeffi cient for the
Speed ratio model and prototype

Hm
(D;N').. = (D;N')p
A lso (N I
D )'
Dm"
(~:)' G:)' " PI'
= ')' (
HI' Nm
Pm =

Head ratio
=
crc)'3.3 0.3
= C)' C
_
6
I9175
___
400 )'
,,720

2.45 kW
;\ 12 :,.. Twl.OO M ACIlI NES DIMENSIONAL AND MODEl ANALYSIS ..;, :'\ 1;\

Power of T. 0 - bl - 2 :. bl =- 2 S pecd of model Nm = 1000, Head of modd H", = 8 m. Power of mood

and DI=2 - 4= - 2 P", = 30 kW, Hcnd of prototype Hp = 25 m
Subs titutin g th e v31uL'S of ill. bl. and CI in 1C I. we obtai n (i) Speed of prototype (Np)
][1 = L - 2V - 2p-I.FD
Equating th c head coeffic ie nt for the model and prototype (equation 7.20)

(~t =(~)/'
(or)
Fo
][1 = pL2 V2
For the second rr -term ,fHp x -Dm
- - xNm
.../Hm D 1,

M " L oJ T O = LU2(LT-I)I1~("'L -] ) nA'fL -11' - 1

Equaling tht.! powt.!rs of M, L. T on both sides
fl: 5 I
- x - xlOOO
B 5

Powe r of M. 0 = C2 +I :. c:!.=-l [;;= ~J

Power of L, 0 = Q2 + b2 - 3C2 - 1 .'. a2 = -b2 - 2
= 353.5 rpm
Power of T,O = -b 2 - 1 : . b2 =- I nnda2 =-J
(ii) Power developed by the prototype
Suhs(ilUling the values of QJ, b2 and c:! in 1C2, we obtain
Equnting the power coeffic ien t for the model and the prototype (equation 7.19)
1f2=L - 1V - 1p-lp.

(or)
rr, = - Ii -
(D:N3 t = C:N3 ),,
Step-6
- pL I'
P" = p., x (~::)' x (zJ
Subst itutin g thc va lues of Jrl, and 1T2 in .equation (7.34), we get

FD /") _ 0
= 30x5' x c~r
II ( pL'V" pLY -
= 4143 kW
(or)
(iii) Ratio of the flow rates of two pumps (I.e. model and prototype)
Equating the flow coefficie nt orthe model and the prototype (equation 7. 18)

(or)
FD = p L'I"g (~)
pLY
or
Example 7.5 One-fifth scale moue l of a pump w.as tested in a laboratory at 1000 Qp (Dp)'(NI')
rpm . 'nehend developed and the powcr input nt thl:! best efficiency point wl:! re found
Qm D", Nf/I
10 be Rm and 30 kW res pcL·tivclY. If thc prototype pump has to work against a bend
of 25 m, dctcnninc it s working speed, the power required to drive iL and the raLio of
the now rates handled by the two pumps.
= 5 x, C .5)53
--
1000
Solution = 44. 1875
O ne-fifth sca le modc l means that the ratio of Jinear dimensions of a model and its Example 7.6 Specifications for an ax.ial flow cooJanl pump for one loop or u
prototype is equal to 1/5. pressurised waler nuclear rl:!actor arc
 DIM!;NSIONAI.,\NnMoOELANAI.YSIS ..: 311
310 j> TURBO MACHINES
l
Equaling Ihe powers of M. L. T o n both sides Note that. ~ = ~and::" is callct.l mllghlle.r.l'!aclor. 'men. Fincliun codlicien[
DVp Re D
Powcr of M. 0 C::!+I .·. C1=-1 of a pipe is a function of Reynold's number and roughness faclor.
Power of L. 0 = Q2 + b2 - 3cz - I
Example 7.4 The drag force exerted by a flowing nuid on u solid body depenJs
Uz +bz =-2
upon the length of Ihe body. L. Velocity of now. V. den si ty of nuid p uod viSCOSit y
Power of T. 0 = -b2 -1 : .bz=-1
11. Find an expression for drag force using Buckingham's theorem.
and Q2 =-2-bz =-1
Solution
Substituting the valucs of az. bz and Cz In 7rz. we get
Step-1
If::! = D- I V-I p-IJL The drag force FD depends upon . L. V. P and JL . Therefore. D is a runction of L. V. f1
and IL . Mathematically.
(or)

JT2::;: - -
,. IFo = f(L. V. p. ILl I
DVp
(or)
Third JT-tcrm f,(Fo.L.II.p.,,)=O (7 . .13 )

Total no. of variabl es. n = 5.

(or) Step-2
Dimensions of eac h vari able arc
M O LO T O = L"·l.(LTy)b,(ML -))"L
Fo=MLT-'. L=M. V=LT-'. p =ML - )andl'=~IL - 'T - '
Equating the powers. Hence. number of rundumental dimensions. m = 3.
Number of IT-Ierms = n - m:: 5 - 3 = 2.
For M. 0 = c) :. CJ = a
Step-3
For L. 0 = a) + b) - 3c) + l Equation (7.33) can be written as
aJ + bJ =-1
(7 .34 )
For T. 0 = -bJ : . b) = 0
and UJ =-1 Step-4
Each rr -term contains m + I variables, where m is number of repeating variubles and
Substituting lhe values of UJ. b) and cJ in JTJ is equal to 3. Choosi ng L. Vand p as repeating variubles. we have

IfJ = D-'.\/D .pD E 1T1 = L U' Vb, pC, FD

rr2 ::;: L(ll V"l pel J-L
(or)
Step-5
E
]f) = D Each rr -t~rm is solved by the principle of dimensional humogem:ity.
For Ule first If -term
Step-5
Substituting the values of 1f!. ]fl, and rr) in equation (7.32). we gt!t I If) = V" Vb, pC! FD I

F,(CF':Vp'~)=O
substituting dimensions on both sides of If.
MOLDTD = U".(LT-1)bl(ML - J)CI.M LT- 2
Equating the powers of M. L, T on both sides,
(or)
Power or M,O = CI +I :. CI =-1
Power of L. 0 = a, + b, - 3c, + I a, = -b, - 4
 30X ;,;.. TULtUO /Vl.o\CIIINF:S DIMENSLON~1. AND M oncL, Ar.;AI,YSIS "" JOt)

Equating the powl.!rs of M, L. T on both sides, Solution

PllWl.!r ('If M, 0 = c:! + I ,', c':! = - I Step-1
Pl,lWcr of L, 0 ;:;: ( I ::. - Jc:! - 1 ,', Q2 = 3c:! + 1 (12 = -3 + 1 :: -2 Friction coeffic ient CF is a function of Y, D, J.L. P ilnd E,
Ptlw~ror T,O= - b2-i ,', b).=-i
S uhsliluling thl.! val ul.!S of 0:1, b2 :lnd C2 in Jf2, :. C,. = I(V. D. fJ.. p. E)
or II(Cr. V. D. fJ.. P. E) = 0 (7.31 )
IT:!. D - 2 ,w- I ,p-l , jJ-
Hence, total number of variables n = 6
I'
D2,w,p Step-2
The dimensions of each variable
Third IT-term
CF = dimensionless Y = LT- 1 D = L
fJ. = M L -I r- I • p = M L -3. and E= L.

" Number of fundamental dimensions

Substituting the dime nsions on both sides,
m= 3
Then. number of 7f -(enns = n - m = 6 - 3 = 3.
Now. equation (7,31) can be writlen as
Equating Ihl.! powcrs on /'1'1 , L afld Ton bOlh sides,
Power of M . 0 = CJ :, CJ = 0 (7.32)
Powl.!r of L, 0 = OJ - c) + 3 ,', OJ = 3c) - 3, (J) = - 3
Powcr or T,O = - b) - I ,', b) = -1 Step-3
Suhs tituting the va lues of (/). b) and CJ in]f) Each iT-term contains m + I or 3+1 = 4 variables. where m is equal to the number
of rcpeating variable, Choosing D , Y. p as the repeating variables. the threl.! TT ·Icrms
are
D-J,w-I,pO,Q

Q TTl = D(lIVb1p' ICF

DJ ,w IT:!, D"l Vb:! pC] J.L
]f) = DQ} Vb) pC] E

Step-6 Step-4
Substituting the vt:llues ofn[, rr::! and IT) in equation (7,30) Each rr-lenn is solved by thl! principle of dimt!nsional homogeneity,
First rr ·tcrm
II ( 1],
I'
D 2wp' DJ w
Q) = 0
or Since [he variable C F is dimensionless, it itself is a rr·tcnn, 111l:rcfore,

rrl = C,.-

Scco,?d rr-tccm
Example 7.3 Friction coeffic ieLll (pressure drop per unit length) of a pipe de-
pends on Average speed (V), pipe diameter (D), ViscosilY (Jl), density (p) and inside
rouglincs,~ (E), Using Budingham'_ 'i IT -lhcorem, express the friction coefficient of Substituting dimensions on either side
pipe as a function of dimensionless quantities, (MKU-Nol', '98)
 )O(i ,. TUlmo M ACIIINES
DIMENSIONAL AND MODEL Af"A.I.VSIS ~ .107 --.
3. Momellwm = Ma~s x Veloc ity Step-4
Each rr-Icnn co nt ains til + J vil riahl es. whercm is equal to three and is also a repealing
!vi x Length
= Tim e
variab le.
Ou t nfs ix variubles 1']. p. JJ. w. D and Q.thrce variables are 10 hcselecled a<; repeal-
= MLT-'
ing vari ables .. '1' is a dependent variable and should not be selec ted as a repe aling
Workdone variilble. OUI of the five remai ning variab les. one variabl e should have gcomclrit.:
-I. Power = ~:::.:==
see property, the seco nd variable should have fl ow property and Ih e third onc' have nuiJ
Force x Distance properly. 1l1ese requirements arc fulfilled by selecting D. w. and p a.<; repea ling vari-
= Time ablcs. The rcpeating variables the mselves should not form;1 dimensionlcss lcnn anJ
( MLT-') x L sh ould hnvc themselves fund amental dimensions cquallO m (i.e . .3 here ).
= T Dimensions of D. wand p arc L. r-'.
M L -J and hcnce the three fundamenlal
dimensions exist in D. w, and p and they themselves do not form a dimensionlcs~
= ML 2T- J
group.
Example 7.2 The erfic iency of a lurbom achine depends on de nsi ty 'p', dy namic Step-5
vi~cosity 'tt'
of the nuid , angular velocity 'w', diameter 'D' of th e rotor and the Each JT- ICrm is wrillen as
discharge Q. Express' rj' in lerms of the dimensionless parameters.
rr , Dn l . prl . 'I
hl
(MU- Apr il '98) ' W
O il! . Wll~ . pr~. It
Step-1
rr, = Dill . w'IJ . pr~ . Q
rr)
The efficiency of a turbomachine (1]) depends on i) p ii) J.L iii) w iv) 0 and v) Q.
Hence ',7' is [) function of P, J.L. w. D, Q. Mathematically, E<lch "-term is tben solved by the principlt.: of dimensional homogeneity. For
~ = /(p,!",w, D, Q) (7.28) First rr -term
or it can be written as

(7.29) Substituting dimensions on both sides of 1ft

Hence. the 100ai num ber of vari ables (including dependent variable) n=6. M O L ° TO ;:: L fI , • (T - ' )"1 . (M L -3)," . MOL QT U
Step-2 .
Equa ling the powers of M.L. r o n both sidl!5 .
The value of '1/1' i.e. number of fundamental dimension s for th e problem is obtained
by writing dimensions of each vari able. Dimensions of each variable arc Power of M. 0 = c, +0 C! = a
Powers of L. 0 = ", + 0 at = 0
'I = Dimensionless /' Powers of T. 0= -b, +0 : . b, = 0
P = ML-), Q =
D = Land W = Subs titu tin g the values of al. b, and Ct in " t . we get
'Hence, number of fund amenlal dimensions.

111 = 3 If a variable is dimensi onless then. it itse lf is a JT-Ierm . Here the variabk 'J]' is a
dime nsionl ess and hence 'J]' is a IT-Ierm. As it ex iSIs in first rr-term, '1f! = 'I' . lhere
Step-3 is no need of equ ating the powers. {he value can be ob tained directly.
The number of dime nsio nl ess 1i'-tenns is given by
Second rr-term
1=,1-111=6-3=3
Thu s three "-term s ~;ay "I, 1r2 and IT) are formed. Hence equation (7.29) is writte n
as Substituling the dimensions o n both sides.

/ , (rr" rr" rr)) =0 (7.30) MOLor o = Lfl2.(r-I)1I2 (M L -3r 2.ML - I r - I

 DIMENSION "L"ND MoUl.:.LAN"LnJ S ...;: ;\05

SlIhSliluling the va lu !.! n r ;..: in t.!qu3Iian 7.22 ~ll1d rearranging the equation. we nhlain or

IN,,= ~ I " II
When H = I m, P = Pu PII = K
2. Unit Discharge Substituling the va lu e or K in equation 7.29. we gel
Tht.! dis c h ~lrgt: or now th rnugh a turhomac hinc working und..:r :l unit hend 11.": till) is P (7 .27)
lamed ;IS Iilli.1 jloll' VI" I~I/ ;t .diJcll(lI :~e. It
is dcnoh::d by the s)' lllhol (Q" ,. P" = HJ/ Z
Th..: I.:Xpn.:!>Slllll ror UllIt dI sc harge is give n 'IS:
Let, H- I'kmi llf w:tlcr (In th l: lurholnachine
USE OF UNIT QUANTITIES
Q-Disch:!r);..: passing through th e machill": when ht:ad in II is 'II'
II - area of IhH... o r w;u..:r The behavio ur of a hydraulic turbomnchine working under different heads can be
ThL' dist: htlr!;c p:lssi ng thro ugh a !!ivL'JI turhnmil(:hint! unde r 'l h":i.ld . fI' is !!ivc n tH', easily known from the va lues of lhe unit quantities.
Q= Area of now,: \'dm;ity • . Let
57f iJ giVL'n turhomnch inc ;m:a or !l ow is constant and vl..'lncil)' is rrnrnrlional Iii HI, Hz be the heads on the turbomachine:.
N I. N!. are the corresponding speeds,
Q Cl' vclod ty crJH Q I. Q2 are the discharge. and
PI , P,! ure the power developed by the lurbomachinc
(m) Using th e defining equations of unit quant ities
Nt Nz
When 1-/ = J 111, Q=Q,., thl.: cons t:lIl1 (K) vuJu e is K = Q .jH,=..,fH]
.S u hstilUIlllg
' .
Iht: v:.dllt: of j( i.lIld reulTilllging t.!qualion 7.27II , WI.: gt.!1 QJ Q,
Q" - - = - - and
Q .jH, ..,fH]
Q" (7.251
Jij PI P2
3. Unit Power
P" fll / 2 = flJ /J
J 2
~f11c powt.!.r developed by a IUrbol11achinL' working under 11 unit hC;1J is ca1led Ih e unil Hence, if the speed. discl1W'ge and power developed by a turbine under a panicular
po\\'cr. It IS dl!nott.!d hy P/j . head arc known, then by usinp the above three relations. the speed, discharge , and
Th e expression for· PII IS oh wined as foll ows, power deve loped by the same turbomachine under a given head can he obtained.
Lcl. l/- Hc;!u of water on the turhomachint!
P-Puwcr dc\'clopeJ ny th e tu rhl)/ll:H::hinc under Ihe head ' H'
Q- Dlschargc through turhomat:hlnc und er 1Ill! Iwa d . fI '
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Till! ove rull c fli cil.!rIl:y is given as
Example 7.1 Determine the dimensions of the following quantitic.:s in M·L-T
Power devdoped system.
Po\V~ r input
I. Force 2. Torque 3. Momentum 4. Power
p
pQII Solution
P '/o(I'QfI) J. Force -= Mass x Acceleration

(or) Length L-'

=M x - - -., =M T
Timc-
Pex(Q x II)
2. Torqlle -= Force x Distance
Since Q ex Jij MLT - ' x L
P a /{V!.
= ML 1 T-'!
=
 OIMl:NS10NAL AND MODEl. ANALYSIS "" 30~
302 > TtJlwO MAC"lIlNES

an
d Q
N DJ
. known as the flow cocrticiem and denoted as ¢
IS
;2%2 i!' called the Head coefficient or specific head and represented by V' for nHlt.h:1

Applymg tht! nnw coefficient for the model and the prototype tl!sling

17 .20 )
(N~,) III
= (N ~,) . fl
(7.18)

(or)
3. Specific power of the model and prototype are same
Power of the hydraulic turbomachine is given by (7 .211

lor) UNIT QUANTITIES

Ipfl'pQHI Thl! quantities or a hydraulic turbomachinc working under a unit head afe l:alh;J lht.:
IIlIil qual/tirie:;. TIlt:! following are the three important unit quantities which mu."1 he
where H is the head of the machine. We know
studied under unit head.
Qa D3 N and
1. Unit Speed
.Jii fl' DN I:. U fl' C, fl'.Jii1 The speed of" turbomachine working under a unit head is termt!d as unit spt!cd. It I~
Pfl'pD'N (D"N') denoted by (Nil)·
The cxpression for unit speed (N u ) is ontainl!u as follows.
PcrpD 5 N J
Let. N -Specd of a turbomachine under a head H
or /i - Hea.d under which the turhomachine is working .
P U-Tangl!ntial vt!locily
pN]D5 = constam The tangential velocity. absolute velocity of water and head on -the turbomachim!
arc related as
P
pN] D5 is known as the power coefficient or specific power and denoted by P for U a C where C a JH
The tangential velocity (U) is given by
model testing

(7. 19)
I U = rrDN
60
I
For a given turhomachinc. the diameter (D) is constant
where Pm = P"
:. U cr N Of Na U
4. Specific head of the model and prototype are same
Tangential velocity (U) is given by (or)
rrDN
U = - - also
60
N=K.Jii (7.22)
Ucr../H (g is dropped since it is a constant)

.Jiifl'DN where K is a constant of proportionality.

Ifhead on the turbomachine becomes unity. the speed becomes unit speed .i.e. when
or
H H=I. N = Nu
D2 N2 = constant Substituting these values in cquation 7.22, we get Nu = K
 JOO ;... T UlUIo M ,\C! UNES D IMENS IO NAL AND MODEL ANALYSI S ....; 30 I

(or)
MODEL TESTING OF HYDRAULIC TURBO MACHINES
Before manufacturing the largl,! sizt!d actual machines, their moods which are in com -
plele s imilarity with the actua l machines (also called protot ypes) are made. Tests will
(or)
he con du cted on the mod els and the performance of the prototypes will he pn:dicted.
H5 j'! TIll! co mplet!! si milarity between the actual machine and the model will CX,ISI If Ih.:
P = (ConSlanl )-,_
N- (7. 14) ro llow ing conditions arc sOlli s l1cd .
Conslanl is ca lled Ihe Co nSlii nl of proportionality.
1. Specific speed of the Model = Specific speed of the prototype
According to IhL' dcfinitinn o f specific speed.
tV = N" whell jl = I kW and Ii = I III the ahove cquuliol1 7. 14 reduces tn I (N,)", = (N,),. I
, or
constant = N,\~

HV! (:(3) = (~J~)

III I'
17 . 161
:. P = N.? N2
or 2. Flow coefficient is the same for the model and the prototype
The discharge Q for a hydrauli c machine is given by the rdatiun
Q = Area x Velocity of now
TIle turbine specific speed N,r is
Area = rr DB
where
N _ NM D - diameter of the turbo machine impeller
j - HS/4 (7 . 15 ) B - width of the impeller
N is in rpm . P is in kW and H is in mClres. and BaD. he nce

Table 7.2 Ranges of specific spet.·ds of fttrbo machilles Thererore .

Q = rr D"1C, 0 . 17/
S. No. Turbo machine
Dimensioll/ess
specific ...peed We know that Ihe tangent ial velocity is given by
I. Pelton Wheel /T DN
0.02 - 0 ..19
-Single jCI
0 .02 - 0 . 19
u=--
60
-Twin jct
0. 1 - 0.3 or
- Four jet lIf'DN
0. 14 - 0.39
2. Francis turbine
0.39 - 2.3
-Rndinl (s low speed) The tangential veloci ty (U) and now velocity arc reluted tu lhe diameter and speeJ:J!'>
0 .39 - 0 .65.
-Mixed l10w (medium - ex prcss) 0 .65 - 2.3 UaC,aDN
3. Kaplan turbine
2.7 - 5.4
4. Propeller turbin e (axial) Substituting for C r in equation 7. 17 yit!lds
1.6 - .1.6
5. Centrifuga l pumps (slow-high speed)
6. Mixed fl ow pump
0 .24 - 1.8 Q = /T D'(DN)
1.8 - 4.0
7. Axial fl ow pump (o r)
3.2 - 5.7
8. Radial flow co mpresso rs 0.4 - 1.4
9. Axial flow s tea m and Gas turbines 0.35 - 1.9
10. Axial compressors, blowers 1.4 - 20 Q
J5fN = constant
 DIM Et-:SION,\L ,\NIl Moo".f A"'''ISSIS .... ~IJ\J
298 ... Tunno MACIIINE.<;;

We O1lso know [hat The whh.: 7 .2 shows Ihal each Iype o r lUrbomachinc works In a nam:w,; rang!.! (If
spct.:ific spc.c.ds. 'nH! spedfic speed is lhe parameter exprc.ssing lbe varintion of all the
UaDN (7.81 variahks N. Q and H ur N. P and H which cause similar Oows in turho mac:hint.:$thilt
From the ~lhove 1\\'0 equations
< • 7 _7 ..
'nd 7 • 8 we have art.: gl!o Oll!lrit.: ally .. imi lar.

Derivation of the turbine specific speed

Da JHm
N Th e power Jc\'clopcd hy an y tu rbine in ICrrn$ or overall d liciency i:- given hy
TIle discharge equation then becomes

Q Hilt 1.; -
a - -, 'IvHm) or
N
or Pa( Q 1-I)((lS flo. P and g arc conslants)
H 3/ 2 The ahsolute veloci ty. tangential velocity and head on the turbine arc related as
Q ::; (constant)~ (7 .9)
Nl
Ca JH and
From the definition of specific speed
UaC or
N = '!~ ~vhen Hili = 1m and Q = I m'J/ s . (7. 111
Suhstltutlng these values in the abov . UaJH
tionality is determined. e equiltlon 7.9. the value of constant or propor-
But Ihl' tangr.:ntml velocity ' U' 15 given by
rrDN
U = - - or
TIle discharge Q is 60
UaDN 17 .121

From equat ions (7 , 11 ) and (7 12), we have

or JH 17. iJ)
Da - -
N
The discharge through the lurhine is given by
The pump speciJie speed is Q = Area x Velocity
= A x C
N.,fQ
Ns = - - 17. 10)
11m' 1' But Area 0' D x 0 where B = width si nce Ba D
:, ACt D2
2. Specific Speed of Turbine
The specific speed or a turbine is defined as the 5 . -- or rrom equation 7.16
unit power when working under'unit I.e d' I ' peed at which the turbine develops If
a _ t IS expressed as A a --, and
N-
N _ N./P CaJH
, - (ii)57J H ·l / 2
Qa N'
where. N is the speed in rpm. H is the head in m . ..
TIle dimensionless spec ific speed (or) the p () a~fid P ]s til: p~wer In kIlowatts. Substituting for Q in the power equation, we get
ower specl Ie speed IS gIven by
N pill Hl/')
N,p = P 1/1(8 H)'/4
Pa (- N 2 . H
 DIMENS LONA L AN Il M ODl:L A NALYS IS ...: ::!t)7

1
wlll..'r~ K = E las ti c stress a nd A = L

I!lenin Forl:c ( F, J
Fe =
Gravity Force.: (F~)
pAC2 C
BUI J K / p = a t vt!locity of sound in the nuid). /vi = -a'
p A Lg
The Mac h number is na med afler Em sl Mach (1838 - 1916).lln Austrian physir.:lsl.

~I
When the ro rces duc 10 clastic compression predominatcs in addition (0 the inertial
forc e. the dynamic simil:lrilY betwe en the modd a nd prototype isobtamed by equutlng
Ihl! lviach nUlIlberofmodcl and the prototype. i.e. (M)mmld = (M)/ru/t>f\'/Jr

The
• I<lWinwhidl nl odcl s are basedon Fro ud c 's numberi.e . ( Fe) II W (ItI = (Fe ) I"flIfIIVJlt'
IS kn own as the Fro/lde 's model lalll. . SPECIFIC SPEED
Tht! spec ifi c speed is the purameter which docs not explicitly contain the diamch:r of
4. Weber's Number (We) the runner or impeller. It is denoted by the symbol N~. The specific speed is used in
II is ddincd as Ih!.' squore rOO I orlhl.! rali o of the ine rt ia force of a fl owing lluic.J to the c om paring the different lypes of turbo mach ines as every type of lurbomllchinc has
surfm.:e h.:n sion force. II is named after Moritz Weber o f the Poly technic In stitute of different spec ific speed .
Ill-rlin . II is g ivc n ;15
1. Pump Specific Speed
Inertia Force (Fj)
w,_ = The s pecirlc s peed of a centrifugal pump is de ll ned as lhe speed at which the pump
Su rfncc te ns io n r o rcc ( Fs)
delivers one cubi c metre of liquid pcr second against a heaiJ of one metre . It IS

j PaALC' ex pn:sscd ns

wlll::r!.! (J = surfn cc (c nsio n per unit leng th illld A = L:2

whe re N is th e speed in rpm. Q is the discharge in (tn" / sec) and Hm is the manomclnc
Wt= __ C_ head in melres. The dimensionless specific speed is givt!n by
.fii/ p L NQ' /2
(gfi., )'"
H'c'b,:r's l1I ol~e llfll "
is tilt.! law in whic h mode ls are based o n Weber's numbe r. Ac-
cordmg to thi S law there is dynamic similurity betwee n the model a nd its prototype .
H C IH~ c. Expression for pump specific speed
The disciHlrge for a cemrifugal pump is given by the rdation .

IQ = IT DRC, I
5. Mach's Number (M)
wht!rc
M ~c h number is de linl"d 'IS the squan: root o f th e ralio o f the incnia fo rce of a fl owin ll D-Diamcte r o f Ihe pump impeller
nUlL! to the clastic fmce. MlIthc mali cally, jt is define d as C
B-Width o f the impe ller
We know Ihal D ct B
Ine ni:l Force ( Fj)
M Q 01 D'C,
Elastic Force ( F, )
The now ve loc ity, tangential velocity and manometric head (Hm) arc rcJah:d us
jPAC'
KA U ct Cra ~ (7 .7 )
 -
DlM ENS IONA I. AN Il M OIJI:L AN:\i.'·SIS ....: ~y ~

corn:spomJing points iln! I.!qual. Alsu (ile dir!!Clions of the co rrr.:sponding forc!!s at the NON-DIMENSIONAL NUMBERS
corrcsponding points s hou ld he the sa Hle (refer Fig . 7.2).
Non-d imensiona l numbers arc those numbers wh ich arc ohlained by dividin g Ihe
Lct
inertia force by Ihe viscous force or tilt.: gravity forcc or the prt.:ssurt.: run.:e ur surl';u.:c
(F, )/ = inenia fnrcl.! a t a p(lint in the prototype.
tension force or tht! elasti c rorce. As this is a ratio of om: for~1.! to another f\ll'\:t· .
(/'~+:) I' = Gravity force at the poinL in the prototype.
it is a dimensionless number. These nOll-dimen sional numhers arc also calkd a:-
and (F;)",. (FJl)//I arc corn.:sponding fon:l.!s allhc correspondi ng points in the model.
cJilllellJiolJfess 1If1l1Jhers .. The foll owing nrt! the important non-dimensional numht.:r:-.
c whic h arc used as a criteria for the dynamic similarity between a model and ih
~z prolOlypc .
C In2=C r

--",.../ ..- ---.~~ 1. Reynold's Number (Re)

It is defined as thl.! ralio orint.:rtia force of a flowing nuid and the vise(Jus fort:e uf th\.'
Cr
I nuid. It is named after Osborne Reynolds. a British engineer ..... ho tirs{ proposeJ II 111
J 883_ It is e xpressed as

Inert ia force (Fj )

Re =
Viscous force (Fu)
pAC 2
Figure 7,1 Thl't!(' similari/ies- pmfOf),pe a"d model of a llise =
Then , for dynamic s imilarity, we have lL(f)A
(Fdfl ;: (Ft;)p ;: F,
IRe = pCLorCL I
(Fi)m (F"),,, l' 0

where Fr is thc fiHce ratio. where " = ttl P

M.Hhcmatically, Ncwton's law for any nu id particle requires lhe surn of pressure In case of now through pipes , L is taken as diameter 0 ,
force (F,,) , gravity force (F~) , and friction force (Ff) eq ual to Ih e uccclerution term . The Jaw in which lhe model s arc based on Reynold 's number is t:alled Reynolu '!'!
or the inertia force (F;) model law or s imilarity Law. i.e . (Re)/IImJd ;: (Re)lIru(U'YfJ('
i.e.
2. Euler's Number (Eu)
It is defined ilS Ihe square root of Ihe ratio of the inertia force of a nllwinJ; fluid til thc
pressure force . Thi s is named arler Leonhard Euler. Mathematic ally. it is c xpre ...... t·t.!
CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC MODELS as
Inerlia Force (Fi)
'nlC hydraulic models, ure classified, bnsed on the scale ratio for the linear dimensions, £11 ;:
Pressure Force (F,I )
as follows;
1
1) Undistorted Models jPAC
= PA
If the sca le ratio for the linear dimensions o f the model and its prototype are same, C
or if the model is geometrically s im ilar to its prototype, the model is said .to be <In
.,jP/p
fUlJistorted model.
The law in which the models a rc designed on Euler's numhcr is known as Euler's
2) Distorted Models model law i.e (Ett)mfJdtl ;: (£II)p,,"m:vp~
If (he scale ratios for the linear dimensions of the model a nd its prototype arc different
or if the model is not geometrically similar to its prototype, then the model is called as 3. Froude's Number (Fe)
distorted model. For distorted models two dirferent scale ratios, one for the horizontal It is defined as the square root of the ratio of inertia rorce of allowing nuid to the
dimensions and the other for the verLical dimensions arc udopted. gravity rorce. It is named after William Froudc , a British naval arc hilel:t. It is cx.pn,:~ s t.:tJ
 191 ;.. Ttmlio fvIM'III NES
DIMENS ION"'. "Nil MOIlEI. ANALYSIS ...: :!lJJ

Thl.' ,·ldl"(l/lta,I.W I" nf Ihe dimr.:nsi onul and model analysis urc
I . The pl:,-rormallL"e ur Ihe actualturbomar:hine can be easil y predicted. in advance
from ils moud s. The reliubililY depcnd.~ on Ihe degree. or si milarity thaI exists
hd W\.'L.' 1I lilL.' IlHluel and the. prolrtlypc.
, With rhe hclp of dimensional an:ll ys is, a relationship hClwl!r.:n Ihl: vll ria bll!s in-
Iluencing thl! prnhlr.:m in terms nrlhe dimensionlr.:ss par;Jnletcrs is obtained. This
rehttltH1Sh'l' hdps in conduc ting tests on Ihe model.
3. Wi th the help of model tes ting, the mosl economical und safe desi gn may be
Sdl!I..' Ir.:U.
SIMILITUDE
Si mditll dL' is ucnncu as the simi larity between the model and its prototype in every
respect. Thn.:c types of similarities mu st r.:xisl between the modI!! and prototype. They
4. The homologous points (The points which havl! the samt.! rdative IOCilIIOn) mu sl
be rl!ltlll!d hy the same lil1cm··scale ratio.
Fig. 7 . 1. shows OJ protOLypr.: and a onr.:-te nth scalr.: modd or a hliJul!. The s..:a l\! ralll1 ilo
also applicLlhlr.: 10 thr.: rastcnt!rs used .
The linr.:ar dimensions of Ihe mOlJd arc all onc-tenth of the prototype blade. BUI II!!.
angJr.: of ,Iliad: with respect 10 Ihe frt!c slre am is tht! same 10" nOi I ... . All physical
dctalis 0 11 the model mUSI be scaled. i.c., the nose radiu s, the surface roughncs... elc.
Any departure will lead 10 the vio lation of geomt!tric sim ilarity. Modds which appear
similar in shape but violat\! gr.:ometric similarity shu uld nOi be cUOIpart!d.
2m
;- o~" ~
Homologous points

O}~~ml
arc:
I . [i('onll!lric Silll il.a rilY )
2. Killt!malic Similarity e,L ".2:'- -
3. Dynamic Similarity

1. Geometric Similarity
!- t"'"1
A mtldd und prototypc an:: geomelri ca lly sim il ar if and only ir all hody dimensions Fi[:llrt! 7.1 Pr()rOlypt! {ll/{J il5 lI!Odd 11';111 CI.'Omt!lric Jimi!rmly
in Ll lllh l: lit!"!:!: l.:lI\lrdinalcs ha\'r.: the SLl Ill!: lin l!nr-scllh: ralio.
L!:I 2. Kinematic Similarity
Lm - Lenglh ur Illndd A model and prototype art! kint!matically similar ir and only if Ihr.:y have Ihe samc
/J m • Arr.:adlh of ml)lId velocity Sl:all! ratio. i.e the motion of IWO systems arc kinematically similar if homo-
Dill . Di:.ullele.r of" IIlCldr.:l logous particles lie at homologous points and ul homologous time (ref!!r Fig. 7.2).
\I", - Volullll! of model LeI
Am - Arc:t o f model emj = Velocity of fluid at point I in model.
;md L I1 , ill" D,1o V,I ilml A/I arc the correspondin g vu lu cs of the prototypc. For geo- Cm1 = Velocity of fluid at point 2 in model.
mctri c simi larily hctwccn Iht:. model <lnd protDlYpc, the rollowing reimion musl exist. and e ,ll , C II ! are corresponding values at the corresponding points of fluid vt!loclly
L , 8 1, in the prototype.
-I= - = For kinr.:matic similarity, 10 exis l

whl!rl! G r is cu llt!c.J the scale ralio.

For arC;1 ratio anti volume ralio, th e relalion should be as given helow.
Similarly ror acceleration
a/.!
=- =a,
Llllll lIml

(LLm )' = (B)'

I'
8m
I'
where C r is the vt!iocity ralio and (I, is Iht! acccianion ralio.
The directions of the vdocity in the model and Ihe protol yf>t! shou ld he Iht! same.

I. All angles ;Irc. prr.:scrvcd in geomclril.: similari ty. 3. Dynamic Similarity

2. All now dirct:li ons are preserved.
J. The Oriel1l:uiull of Ihe model und prDlDlype, with respcci 10 the surroundin gs A model and protOlype are dynamically similar if and only if Ihey hav\! Iht! s;lmt!
must hl! id~nlit.:;J1. force -scnle (or mass-sealt!) ratio , Thus dynamic similarity is said to exist betwecn
the ni odel mid the prototype, if lin: ratios of the corresponding forces acting LIt tht!
290 ):> TURBo MACHINES
Since, Dllllension of L.fI .S = Dimension of R.H.S = LT - 1
equ:Hion C = J2g H is dimensionally homogeneous and can be used in any system
of units .
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS METHOD
Buckingham PI Theorem
The Bud,ingham PI tll!.!orem is one oflhe lIimensional analysis methods ofn:ducing a
!lumher ur dimensional variables into a smaller numher of dimensionless groups. The
nalll!.! ri CllIlH!S from the mathcrml.lical notation Jr, meaning a producl of variables.
If there arc -II' variables in a physical phenomenon and if these variables contain 'm'
fundnmental dimen sio ns (M. L. T), then Ihe variables arc arranged inlo J(= n-m)
dimension-less terms. Each term is called a Jr-term. The reduced J equals the max-
imum number of variables which do nOl form a pi among themselves and is always
less than or cquillto the number of dimensions describing the variables.
Typically, there are six steps invol ved,
I. List and count the 't!' variables involved in the problem. Dimensional analysis
will fail, if any imporlant variables arc missing.
For example, Let Xl be the dependent variable and X2, X),···. Xn are the
independent variables on which X I depends in n physical problem. Then X I is a
function of X2, X), ... , Xn and mathematically it is eltprcssed as
(7.4 )
eq uation (7.4) is a dimensionally homogeneous equation. It contains 'n' variables
(including dependent variable) equation (7.4) can also be written as
2. List the dimensions of each variable according to M LT9. Detennine the number
of fundamental dimensions (say, there are 'm' fundamental dimensions).
3. Find J. according to Buckingham's 'Jf- theorem equation (7.4) can be written
in lerms of number of dimensionless groups or tr tenns in which number of
;T- terms is equal 10 (n- m) 1. Hence, equation (7.4) becomes as
(or)
(7.5)
4. Selec~J variables which don't form a Pi product. Each 7r term contains m + 1
variahle!>, \·.:here . m' is the number of fundamental dimensions and is also called
th!.! rcp!.!<1ling variable.
For example. in the problem considered, X2, XJ. and X4 arc n:pealing variahle~ ir
Ihe fundamental dimension //I(M . L. T) =
3. Then each Jr ternl is wrillen as
Method of Selecting Repeating Variables
The number o f repealing variables arc equal to the nurnberof fundamental dimen"loll~
of the problem. The folluwing points govern the choice of rcpe:uing vari ahle" .
a. As far as possible. the dcpcmh.:nt variable should not be selected <I!> rerl!allll~
variable.
b. The repeating varianlc should bc chosen in such a Wily that tlile variahle l~ a
~eomctrie variablc. otilcr variablt:. is a now variable and the third variable I... a
Iluid property variable
Geometric variables- Length(I ). Diameter ((I). Height (h) ett.:.
Flow variables - Vdocily (c), Acceh:ration etc.
Fluid property variables
Kinematic viscosity (O). Dynamic viscosity (J.d. Density (p). etc.
c. Tilc selected variables shou ld nut form a dimensionless group.
d. The fl!pcating variables together must have the samc number or funJallH;nlal
dimcnsiuns.
e. No two rcpealing variables should have the same dimensions.
5. Add one additional variable to the sekcted J variables and form a power proJllcL
Each Jr lerm (as given in equation (7.6» is sol\'ed hy Ihe principle of dimensional
homogeneity.
6. Write the linal dimensionless function by substituting the \'alues of Jr I. 7T;! . . . ]t'l _ '"
in equation (7.5) and check whether all pi groups ilre dimensionless .
MODEL ANALYSIS
To predict the performance o f turbo machines such as turbines. compressors. rump!'>
etc. Model Ana-lysis is employed. That is, before manufacturing the real (If ilCIU;11
machines, models of the machines arc made ilnd tests ilrc performed on Ihem In !!et
the required infonmllion.
The model is the small scale rcplicn of the actual mai..'lllnl.!. The actual rnachll1e I!'>
called prototype. The study of models of actual mnchinl.!s is callcd as model 01l01r.l'l.l' .
The model analysis is actually an c;-.:perimcnlal analysis of finding oul solutioll!,> Ill'
complex problems using models of tbe actual system.
 ::! SS ;.. Tunuo MACHJ NJ:S DIM ENSIONA l ANDM fJ llIL.A .....\LYSI S ...; ::!Kl)

Tht! dimcn sio ns of mos tl y use d phys ical quantities in turbo mac hin L.:s <I rc gI ve n in
l"bl c 7. 1

Tahl('7. 1 Phys ical Quollfirie.r 1I.'ied ill wrbu machill es or

I)/i.l'si cal Qual/firy Symbo l Dimensi on Ihal is th e dim ensionless force coeffi cient F / p C 2 L"! i.Jnd it is the only funt:tion of
dimensionless Reynold s numher (pC L /ll ). We shall learn e:o:.(lclly how to make Ihi s
I. Area A L' rl!dUCli on in thc following section s.
,.
2. Vo lum e
Angular vl!lnci ty
II

'"
L'
T- '
The functi on ',1.: ' is different mathemati cully from the origmal function ' {' , hut II
( ontains allthl.! same information. Nothing. IS IOSI In a dimenslOl1<ll analysis.
".5. Disc harge
Accl'krallon dlle II) Ciravity
Q
g
L JT - I
LT - :'
Till.! rUIlt!titlll ' .t:' ei.lll he estiJhlished hy rUlIlIlng the l'.\pl'nml.!llt for only III value s of
tIll: ... lIIglc vanaillc called the Reynolds numher resulting III huge saving. of time and
L '! T - 1
6. Kin CIl1.Hi l: vi scosil y v~
,." mOIll!)' .
7. Forct! F M L T -' 2. Th e p redicli(l ll 0/£1 profotype pt!fformall ct' JI"(I III f L'.I"/ S f"mulll("/t'd Oil CI sndt' m odt'!.
~. \Vcighl IV MLT-'!
The dilllt! l1si onal annly sis providcs 'scnlin g laws' which can (;OIlVl'r1 data from i.J
9. Spl!c ilic we ight w M L- 2 r- 2
( ht! up, small model into design inform ation for an cxpen sive Iilrge pwtOlypt:, Fur
10. Dynamic viscos ilY n M L- IT - I
exampll.!. One need not bui ld a turhomachinl.! and scc whether il has the mi.Jximulll
II. Work. En erg y W, E M L "! T - "!
dcsirt!d dfi ci ency. Onc can measure the dfi(ienq on a smallmodcl and usc LI scaling
11. Power p Af L"2 T --·l
law to preuictthe effi ciency of a full- scale protolype turhomachint!. For example, we
13. Torque T M L"! T -"!
do n' J huild a milli on rupees air plane and sec whethcr it has t!nough lift force . Wt:
14. Moml.!l1Lum M MLT- '
rneasurt! the lift forc!.! on a small modc! and usc a sl.!aling law to predicllhe lift on tht:
15. /\ l1 gk 1/ NO lle · full seale protot ype air plant!.
16. TC lTIpcralurl.! T II
L~ T - "!I;r l 3. The dt::lermilllllion of ,lit' 1I1(J.'i/ ,'illirable rype of machille nil rhe htlJi.\- OJ maximum
17. Specifi c heLlI C,'" C~.
eDiciell cyJor (l specified range a/ head, speed olldlltllL' rllft:.
I X. Mass Fl ow rale MT - I
l ~. Elliciency '"'I No ne
DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY
Dimcnsional homogeneity means thilt thl.! dimensi ons or each term 1/\ i.Jn eljuall un
ADVANTAGES OF DIM ENSIONAL ANALYSIS
on ha th th e siut!!> arc t!quul. l-knc.: e, if th e dimcn sion s of each term 111\ hOlh slue !'.
Thl.!" impon alll ad v ~lIl1a c e s of uirnt:n sinn;-t l anal ys is besi dl.!s its Illi.lin purpllse In rt:dUl;e or all l!qui.Jti on arc the same, the equati on i ~ known a!'. dim t'lisiolla//y h{lll/ogt'II(' jJ/l .~
variahl es and group !hcm in dirn e nsinnl t!ss form , :Ire t!fjIHlfirJII . Thl! powcrs of fundamcntal dimensions (L. M, T) on buth Sides or the

I . All en urmous S£/I';lI g iI/lim e ami IIWll er. l.!qu;)ti on wi ll bl.! iucnti cal for a diml.!n si onall y homogeneous I.!quation, Such equutltub
arc independent of th e system of unil s (mclric , En£lish or 5.1)
SUPPOSL . foro.:t: F on a pi.Jrti cul ar bod y immersed in a stream of flUid mov ing with
vel oc ity C is a fun cti on ofh ody length L. the nuid dl.!nsiLy p , thl! stream vel oc ity C. Consider the foll ow ing cqunti on
i.Jnd thl! tlu id viscos il y 11. it is cx pn: ssL!d as '

IF ~ f ( L. C . p. /tl l (7. 1J wherc 'C' is vel ocity. H is heighl or any nuid column and g is accelerat ion uut: to
gravity.
Dilllt!nsion of L.l-1.5 of Ihe above equati on is gi ve n by
whe rL 'r mean s ' ;] fun cti on of" a nd is to be Jet ennin ed expl:rimentall y. Gt! nerally. it
lak es ahoul IOc xpcrilllental points to dclin e Ll curve. To fin d the dfcc l of body lenglh
in eq uatio n 7.1 WI.! shall ha ve 10 run the e," perimenl for 10 Icngths L . For each I. wc
sh~1I nee d 10 va lu cs of C, 10 values of p and 10 va lues of IL making a gran d lotal or Dimension of R.H .S of thc cqui.Jti on is
..... 10,000 expe rimt:llt s. AI a rale of Rs 100 per c.'l;.pcrimcnl. till! IDlal L!xpcnditun; would
be in st!vcrallak.hs. Howeve r. with dimensi on al analy sis. we can immediall::l y reduce j (L/T' I:L ~ j~ L '/"r'l
th e equati on 7. 1 to an cqui vnlent form
Lr '
 7 ______ - - -----------

DIMENSIONALAND MODEL
ANALYSIS

INTROD UCTION
Dimensional ana lysis is a mathematical technique used in rcst.:.m:h work fur de sign
and modd testing . II deal s with Ihe dimensions o f thl! physical quanti lies involved
in the phenomenon. A dimcll.'iioll is the measure by which a physical variable is
expressed quantitatively. Forcxamplc. Leng th is a dimt.:nsion associated with vari;lhlcs
such as distance, displacement, width. height and dcnt:ction. A 1111;1 is a particular
way of attaching a number (Q the quantitative dimension. Ex: Metl!r and I.:CnlimCI1.:rs
afC hath numr.:ri cal units for expressing length.
Dimensional analysis is a IlH.:lhod for n.:duL:ing the large number of vanah1c~ 111-
valved in describing the performance characteristics or a turbomachinr.: to a nUlllhr.:r
of manageahk dirnensinnlr.:ss groups. For c:<amplc if a characteristic depentl .. upon
'x ' dimensiona l variable s, dimensional :ma lysis will reduce the problem [u on ly' \.'
dimensionless variab les, Generally (x - y) equals lhe numberof differen t fundaml:nlal
dimen~ions which govern the problem.

Fu nda mental Dimensions

The three basic or primary or rundamental dimensions arc length (L), lime (T) , ;1110
mass, (M). In compressible nuid~, one marl! dirnl!nsio n. apart from the inJere lltleO[
quanlities M,L & T namely lhe temperature () is also consideretl as a rundaml'nta l
dimension. II is rderred in short as the MTLO system, when thest! qU<lnlitics an.'
used as the rundamental dimensions, There is no direct relationship bl:[wl:en these
dimens ions .

Derived Dim ensions

The dimensions which possess more than olle fundamental dimension ;ue called
derived (or) .fec(llIdol), dime1lsiolls, For instan ce. ve locity is denoted hy twO baS il'
dimensions i.e. distance per unillimc ( LI T), density is denoled by mass per un!!
volume (MIL J ) and acCeh!ralion by di sli\ncc per second square (LIT'!). Thl! ex -
pressions (L I T). (M 1L J) and (LIT2) arc called dimensions or velocity. de nsily :Jnd
accclcralion rcspl!ctivciy. They arc called secondary or dl!rivl!d dimensions.
 :!S~ ;... TURBO M . \ ClUNES

6X (a) De linc spouting vcloc ity
(b) Prove that a .rlll " = 0.707
6.9. Show thc skc tch and describle the working prim:iplc of a double rolal ion
ward flow ratlia l steam tu rbine stage.
1>.1 O. Draw Ihe entry and exit vcloci ty triangles for a Ljungslrom lurbine.
6. 1 I. Derive the following rclations.
(n)
( b)
6. 12 . 1'IH; llL'sign dala Df lin inward !low ex'haust gas turhine arc as rollows:
Stagnation pn.;SSLlfl! and tcmpefilluJ'c at nozz le inlet = 700 kPa und ! 075 K.
SIatic pressure and temperature at e.'(i t rrom nozzle -= 510 kPa and 995 K.
Stalic Pressure and tempcrature al rotor exit = 350 kPa and 918 K.
Stagna tion temperature at rotor exit = 920 K.
Speed = 26,000 rpm.
Mc,ln rotor exi t radius to rotor lip radius = 0.5.
n· .~ flow into Ihe rotor is purely radial and 'H exit the flow is axial. Calculale.
(a) (olal-(O-lOtal ertlciency (b) outer diamclcroflhe rotor(c) the nozzle and rotor
Joss cocfficienlS and (d) The hlade out let angle al the mcan diamcter (measured
rrom Ihe radial direction).
IAns: (a) 80 % (b) 0.29 m (e) 0. 1625 and 1.15 (d)72 .2°]
0. 1:1. A 90 fFR turbine 1135 Ihe following data. Rotordi~mett:r ralio (D t / DII ) = 0.45,
0
Ihe impeller peripheral spel!d spoUling veloci ty and the Mach number ailiouic
.,
eXI. (MV-.-\pril ' ~7)
OU I - IAns: (a) 580.7 mls (b) 865.7 mls (e) 0 .9731
6. 16. The design data of a Ljungstrom turbine arc specd = 3600 rpm. inncr diaml!ter
or the bladl.: ring = 12 cm. blade width = Jcm. blade exit angle - 2~ r . now rOite
= 10 kg/so Determine the powcrdeveloped and Lhe enthalpy drop In the blade
ring ror ideal flow and optimum conditions.
IAns: (a) 12.08 kW and (h) 1.2 k1/kgl
6.17. Determinc Ihe powcr developed by;\ 90" IFR turbin!! whIch has the rollowing.
d:lIa. Imj1clll.!rdiamell.!r at cmry = 40 <.:m, impe ller diamete r (mt!an) at t!Xlt = 211
crn. l11a~s nllW ralc = 5 kg/so rj11ll = I H.OOO. iscntropic dficiency =. K51i!:. !low
coenicient at entry = O.~. stal ic pressure ralio aL:fOSS the stagc = --I. j1res!> urc
at the impeller exit = I hilr. temperntun: at Ihe entry or the stage = 600' C.
Assume half the Sialic pressure rali o to occur in the nozzles and thL' volute. The
discharge is axial. What is the nozzle angle and width or Ihe impt.:1h:r at cnlf)'?
IAns: (al 710.65 kW (h) 16.1' onu 'e) .1 .7 eml

rotor speed = 16,000 rpm, noz zle exit air lingle = 20 D , nozzleerfic:iency = 0.95,
rotor \vidlh at entry = 5 cm, blade to spouting velocity nltio = 0.66, total -la-static
pressure ratio (Pool PJJ = 3.5, ex il pr!.!ssurc = J bar. stagnalion temperature al
entry = 650 u C.
Assuming constant radial velocity and axiul exi t, ucterminc (a) tht.: rotor di-
LllHctcr (b) th l! rOior blade exit air angle (e) the mass Ilow rate (d) hub and tip
diameter or lip rotor (e) the power dl.!vciopl.!d (r) the IOlal -to-total efficiency (g)
no zz le [lml rotor enthalpy loss coeffic ients.
IAns: (a) 59 em Ib) 38.9° (e) 14.2 kgls (d) 8.4 em and 44.6 em (e) 3458 kW
(f) 92.5 % (g) 0. 126 and 0.338J
6. 14. An IFR tu rbine impulse siage with a llow coe fficient orOA develops 100 kW.
The (0Ial-lo-lola1 efficiency is 90 % at 12000 rpm . If the flow rate or air is 2.0
kg/s al an enlry lemperalure or 400 K. del ermine the rotor diameters and air
ang les nt the en lry and exit, Ihe nozzle exi t and ang le and the slag nation pressu re
ratio across the stage. Assum e zero exil swirl and ConSlant radial velocilY. Take
rOlor exi t dinmelcr is 0.8 limes Ih e rOlor inlct diameter.
IAns: (a) 35.6 cm and 28.5 cm . (b) PI :;: 21.8 0 • 0'1 = 11.3 0 and
flo = 26.6°. (e) 1.68J
6. 15. A small IFR gas turbine, comprising a rin g or nozzle blades. a radial vaned
impellcr and axia l diffuser, operales with n total-to-IOfal efficiency of 0.9. At
inlet to the stage the stagnation pressure and temperature ore400 kPa and 11 40 K
rcspcclivcly. The flow Icaving the lurbine is dirrused to a pressure or 100 kPa
and has negligible exit velocity. The nOlzle angle 01 the exit is 16°. DClcrmine
 RADI Al. FLOW G AS AN D STEAM T UHUL "' ES .....: :!a :\
282 ).. TlJrmo M ACl IJN ES

For rOlar 6.10. Draw the Mollier chart for e~pan sion in a 90;' IFR turhinc'?
6.11 . Deline degn:c.: o f reacti on
Cp( T, - T2.<)
LH = 6. J 2. The degree or reac tion of a radial now gas turbine.: with mulal vanes IS
IVf/2 (a) 0.5
C, = j2 C p(To, - T, )
(bl 0.25
(e) n. 1
6. 1J . T he.: degree n f re<lclion increases with the ill creasifl): va lu es oj" the Inkt hl aJl'
= j2 x 518 x (925= 9 15) = 10 1.7H IlIls
IT D,N = IT x 0.132 x 24. 000
i\n g le. (TruelFalsc )
V, = = 165 .88 m l s 6. 14. For it gi ven value of the now coeffic ient. the forward curved vanes give h i.~ltu
60 60 d egree of react ion compared to the backward curved ,,·anes. (True/Fnlsc)
1V:! = jCi + = vi 1iOI.78' + 165.88' 6.15. As the nnw coefficient incft!ases. the degree of reac ti on of the backward curved
= 194.62 mls vanes and the forward curved vanes.
n.ftl
(a) Increases and decreases re specti vely
T2.r T, (P')",
P, = ' 1029(385)
-
527
,:<, (b) Decrcases and Increases respec tively
(c) remains constant
= 907.22 K 6. 16. Lj un g.strom lurhine is a turbin e.
51X(9 15 - 907.22) 6. 17. TIl e optimulll r;:ltio of pc.:rip heral veloc ity of bl... dc 10 the relati ve ve loc it y ,II
:. LR = exi t for ma ximum work is
194 .62' /2
(a) or.lll11 = 2f3
LR = 0.2128
(b) Or'''1'1 ;:: s inJ3
(d) Total-to -to tal efficien cy (c) 0".1'1" :;::: cosfi/2
6.1 8. TIl e maxi mum work ou tput fro m a Ljungstrom outward now reac tion turbtnt:
is tw ice the sq uare of the cxit blade velocity. (TrucIFalse)
C'
'1,-1
= I},- .s
-- ',
2V'
6. 19. An outward now radial turbines behaves as a stage o f the ;Ix i:ll
turbine.
I 101.78'
= 0.90 1 - 2 x 337.58' EXERCISES
'1,-/ = 93.95 %
6. 1. Draw the sketch· of a 90 1l IFR turbine stage showing its main compo nenh.
6 .2. W hat nrc: Ihe npplications o f IFR turbine?
SHORT QUESTIONS 0 .3. Draw the entry and exit vcloc it y triangles for a 90'" IFR turh ine
6 .4 . Prove thilt for a 90 0 IFR lurbine .
(a) \V / I1I -= {j~
6. 1. Wh<lt is a radial fl ow gas IUrbinc?
(hi '1'1 = I
6'32. Wh .lI arc the .~pplications or radia l now gas turbines? h.5 . Dru w an enth alpy - entropy diagram for now through an in ward -flow radi<J1
6.. The fl ow rate In <l md · 1 n .
6.4. Can a 900 lFR I b' · lab ow gas turbine is ve ry low. (TruclFalse) lu rbint' slagc fi ttcd with nn cx hnust diffuser.
ur me e used as a cenlriruga l
6.5. How are the Inad changes efrected in radi al f1 comp:ess~r? How ? 6.6. Provc tiwi
. , '
6.6. The rotor blades of a radial now gas turbine ar~w turbInes. It rn'~1 - 1/ 2U 2 ;:: "0]", - 1/ 2U i
the radial 10 the axial direction . (TrueJFa/se) curved to change the fl ow from 6 .7. (a) How is the degree o f reac tion of an IFR turbine stage defilled ?
6.7. The workdonc per unil mass flow in a 90° lFR t . .
(b) Prove IhJI
hlade veloci ty. (TruelFalsc) urbme IS equa l 10 square o f the
R
6.8. The rOlo r consta nt of an IFR is eq ual to
la) "u. re i I
R - I I - </>,cOII!')
(b) IIo.rcl-V '/2 2
(e) 11o
R 1 -V'I
-
6.9. Draw the veloc ity diagrams for a 90 0 IFR turbine? 1
 180 ;.... TliltUO M ,\liIlNES R,\DI AL FLOW G .... S ANI) STEAM TuIWJNIiS '" 281

C/,(Tl - TI.J) 1005(785.99 - 778.78) (a) Total-to-static efficiency

Cr / 2 524 .76' 12 Referri ng 10 the Mollier Chart.
0.0526
Too - T02
(h) Rotor enthalpy l oss coefficient III -.f :::;
Too - T'!.JJ

(:~) '7'
11'2 - 1I'2.r
LR = wi 1'2 Too

IV:!:!
= U'1! + Cr'2 = 179.48'1 + 222.84 2 ""
385)m
1145 ( 700
.. w:! 286. 13 mls
CI'(T~ - T2r } 900.8 K
LR 1145 - 925
lVi)2 :. 11'-J
1145 - 900.8
T" = T, (P')'~' =785.99(_1_)1':1
P, 1.931
'/1-1 = 90.1%

651.28 K (b) Ro tor diameters

1005(665.0~ - 651.28) \VIm ;:; C,,(TOO - To'!) = U;
286.13'/2 U, = 15 18 x ( 1145 - 925) = 337.58 mls
0.3373 U, x 60 337.58 x 60
D, = ~ = IT x 24,000
Example 6.6 For a radiallurbine stage the pressure and temperature through the
stage at design co ndit ions arc: Total pressure and temperature upstream of nozzle arc D, ;:; 0.269 m
respec tively 700 kPa and 1145 K, Sialic Pressure and temperature downstream of = 0.49 x 0.269
nou le ilre respect ively 527 kPa nnd 1029 K. At rOior ex it, Sial ic pressure is 385 kPa,
static temperature is 915 K and stagnation tempera ture is 925 K. The ratio of rotor
= 0.132 m

exit mean diameter (a rolor inle t diameter is 0.49 nnd speed is 24.000 rpm. Assuming (c) En tha lpy loss coefficients
relative flow lit rotor inlet is radial and absolute fl ow at rotor exit axial detcnnine
For nozzle
(a) IOla l ~to~slatic efficiency (b) rOiar diameters and (c) enthuipy loss coeffic ient for
nonlc and rOIOf. Take r = 1.67 and molecular we ight of gas as 39 .94 (d) IOlal~ t o- lotal C/.(T, - T,,)
LN
efficiency. Cr/ 2
S olu t ion C, J2C/.(TOI - Ttl
?na = 700 kPa Too = 1145 K P, = 527 kP" 12 x 518(1145 1029)
T, =10~9K P2 = 385kPaTl;:; 915 .K
= 346.66 mls
To, = 925 K N = 24.000 rpm , -I

Too (P,),
D'!.fluIDI = 0.49
IV:! = C'I C, r = 1.67 T" = -
Poo
R 8.3 14
R = - = - - = 0.208 kJ/kg-K
III 39.94
= (527) Vel'
1145 700
.1

,. R 1.67 x 0.208
C/, = - - = = 0.518 kl/kg-K = 1021.75 K
r - I 0.67
518( 1029-1021.75)
LN = 346.66'/2
LN = 0.0625
278 ,. T URBO MAClIINES

(c) Mass now rate for a 90" IFR turbine, R = 0.5 1.93 I b;) r

=
''1 - II ,
- - -
"0 - "2
=0.5

0.5C"ITo - T,) Mass fl ow rule

PI
P,
RT,
1.931 x 10'
287 x 785.99
= 0.H56 kg / m
1

-
In P! A1Crl
hut
Wl m = U\2 O.B56 x ( If x 0.59 x OJ)5) x 179.48
0.5Vi 111 1..t.24 kg / s
:. T, T,---
CI' (d) Power developed
and
\V = ';'U~=14.24 x (493 . 11 21
W = · J.463mW

.'. T02
vi 493 . 11 2
T-OI- - =923- - - (e) Hub and tip diameters at exit
C 1005
Rotor width ;ll e:~it
681.05 K "
Ci 179.48' '"
= T02 - 2C = 68 1.05 - 2 x 1005 Pl(rr D'!.}Cr'!.
I x 105
p
P1 \
665.02 K RT, 287 x 665.02 = U.524 kg / m'
Now. 14.24
.'. b'!.
0.524 x If x 0.266 x 179.48
V,' 0.5 X 493. 11'
T, T, + 0.5 e = 665 .02 + 1005 0. 181 2 m
I'
T, = 785.99 K Now. hub diameter Lit cx:il

N07.l.1c efficiency is given by D'!.. II Dz - b'!. = 0 .266 - O.IR I 2

= 0.0848 m
Too - T, = 0.95
Too - Tis and tip diameter at ex:it
.'. T1.~
'J; _(Too-T') D!.I = D'!. + b2 = 0.266+ O. I HI 2
00 0.95
= 0.4472 m
923 - 785.99)
= 923- (
0.95 (f) Total-la-static efficiency
778.78 K
IV
Fronl isen tropic relation. '1, - . --::--:-;;;---:;:----: = 14.24
IIIC,,(7iM) - T2Jj} x 1005(923 - 645.28)
,- , 87. 13%

= (:7)' (g) Nozzle enlhalpy loss coefficient

Poo T',) ,=,

(-Too
h! -his

,.
ci 12
778.78) .. C, = V,I cosex, = 493. 11 1 cos 20"
= 3.5 ( 923 524.76 m/s
 r

I
276 ;. TUlwo M ,\CIIINES
RADIAL FLOW GAS ANO STEAM TURIlINES "" "2.77

Solution diameters at exit (f) total-to-slatic stage efficiency (g) Nozzle enthulpy loss coeffiCIent
and (h) rOlor en lhalpy loss coefficienl.
0, 0.09 m 0.062 m
O~ . h 0.025 m 30.000 rpm PI 1.8 kg/m 3 Solut ion
Pun V,
x 0.09 x 30.000 p,
3.5 P, I bar Too 923K = 0.66
V,
IT C,
60 Di 0.45 20'
N 16.000 rpm "I q" 0.95
V, 14 U7 m/s 0,
:. C, = 14U7/0.707
b, 0.05 m Cr , Cr2 = Cr

199.96 (a) Rotor diameter

C2 0.447 :< C.I v, = O.66CJ
0.447 x 199.96
C, jC,,(Too - Tzu)
89.38 m/s

Power dc.veloped = 1111/ T' where III = P"l Q2 Too ( P, ) ';' = 923 (~) 1l
Poo 3.5
(a) Vo lume flow rate at impeller exit 645.28 K
: . C.f /2 x 1005 x (923 - 645.28)

Flow arCLl at impeller exit

= 747. 14 m/s
V, 0.66 x 747. 14 = 493. I I m/s
IT, ,
4" (Di, - 01.,,) ROlor inlet diameter
':. (0.062' - 0.025') V, x 60 493. I I x 60
4 rrN rr x 16, 000
2.528 x 10- 3 m 2 0.59 m
2.5"8 x IO- J x 89.38
Rotor outlet diameter
Q, 0.226 m' /s

c,{~~
= 0.45 x 0.59
The r~lIc of mass fl ow is
= 0.266 m
M p, Q, = 1.8 x 0.226 (b) Ro tor blade angle at exit
0 .407 kg/s U,
Cq
(b) Power developed is given by tanfh = V, U,
"I
Cr2 Crl = Utlancq
IV 0.407 x 141.37'
493. I I x Ian 20'
= 8134 W C,
Cr, 179.48m/s
8.134kW
Figure 6.9(a) &: (b)
Example 6 .5 A 90- inward flow radial turbine has the following duta. TOlal-to- = IT = 222.84 m/s
static pressure ratio (POD / P2) = 3.5, exit pressure P2 = I bar, inlet lO1U1 temperature u, IT O,N
60
x 0.266 x 16.000
60
(Too = 913 K, blade to isentropic speed rulio = 0.66. rOiar diameter rmio = 0.45,
Speed = 16,000 rpm, noz.zle c:<il angle 20". nozzle efficiency = 0.95 and rolor width 179.48
al inlet = Scm. Assuming constant meridional velocity, determine (a) rotor diameters tan fh = 222.84
(h) rotor blade angle at exit (c) mass now rate (d) power developed (e) hub and lip
~, = 38.85'
:!74 ~ T URBO MAC III NES
RADIAL flow G AS AND STEM..! T URBINES '" 275

(f) Mach numbers at nozzle and rotor exit (a) The impeller tip speed
c, C, 413.48
M, = ;;;- = JrRT, = J I.4 x 287 x 471.94
M, = 0.9495

.nd

jCj-+Ui
Jr RT, vi = 09 [1147 x 1150 x (I - C~)'I:: ) ]
rrD2m. N rr x 0.21 x 18.0{)()
v, = v, = 532.2 '" Is
60 60
197.92 ml'
J I1 8.75' + 197.92' (b) Flow angle at nozzle outlet
Jl.4 x 287 x 394 .08 Since Too = TOla nd
230.8 u, «,
C'
397.92
0.58
g) The nozzle and rotor loss coefficients

LN
hi - ill.r
=
13.265 x 10'
TOI = T]

C, =
+ - '-
2e
"
jio06 x c,' x (To,
= j 2000 xI.l477(i150 -
= 560.6 1 mls
- T,)

IU 13)
W,

P e,

Figure 6.8(b)
ci/ 2 413.48'/2
Fru m th e inl et veloci t)' triangle. Fig. 6.8(b)
LN 0. 1552
cosO' I
v,
uno
C,
LR
"2 - II!\ =
13.265 x lO.l
or at = oos - ' (~)
lVi 12 230.8'/2 560.61
LR 0.498 = 18.:1 1"

(c) Mach number at nozzle exit

Example 6.3 An IFR gas turbine operates with a total-to-tota l efficiency orO.9.
At entry 10 the nozzles, the pressure and tempe rature or the gas are 300 kPa and C, C,
M,
1150 K respective ly. Atthe oUllet of the nozzle the slatic temperature of gas i~ 740°C ~ = Jr RTI
and al the outlct of the diffuser the pressure is 100 kPa. TIle gas has negligib le' veloci ty 560.61
at the diffu ser exit. Find the impeller tip speed, flow angle allhe noulc outlct and =
Mach number at n07.7. le exit . Assume that the gas enters the impeller radiall y nnd there
JTT3 x 284.5 x 10 13
is 110 whirl at the ex it. Take C p = 11 47 l / kg - K. r = 1.3 3 and R = 284 .55Jkg - K. = 0.9 1

Example 6.4 A small /FR wrbinc run by exhaust gas has the following de slf! n
Solution dal<.t . Rotor inlet lip diameter = 9 em . rO lor ouLlcltip diameter = 6.2 em, rotor OUlIt:1
"" = 0.9 Poo = 300 k? Too = 1150 K hu b diameter = 2.5 em.
T, = 74U' C = 1013 K PO.l = 100 k?
= =
C, I C, 0.447 and V,/C, = 0.707 . Blade speed 30.000 rpm . Delermine (OI l
vo lume now rJtc at impeller out let (b) the power developed and lake dl:nsil Y IJf
exhau st gas <1t impellers exit LIS 1.8 kg/ m J
 ~T2 )0> TURBO M ."'C.IIlNES RADI .... LFLowG,\S .... NOSTEA""TuRBINES '" '17)

we con w rite, The width of the rOlor al inlet

h{)(1- hl.' = hO I - h lJ = (hoI - hi) + (hi - Itl,\) b, = '"

PI WI (rr D,)
C' 6.5
- ' + 13 .165
= 2C p 1.499 x 118.75 x n x 0.42
t W 11 8.75 0.02767 m
C, = -. -
sma l
= -,---c7.,..,--- = 413.48 m/ s
sin 16.69"
2.767 em
Then,
(e) The rotor blade height at the exit
.113.48'
= 2000 + 13.265
flnl - Jib' = YM.75 kJ / kg
98.75 ur
= - - = 98.26 K
1.005
T02 = T, +
C;-
Since, - 2000 x CII

Too 1(u
C,! -= C,! = C'I = 118.75 m/s
T02 = 401. IK
T" TO! - 9M .26 = 557 - 98.26 11 8.75'
,', T2 = 40 1.1 -
458.74 K 2 x 1005
= 394 .08 K
Now,
r
P,
Pm
= ( 1"2
To,
f'-' C =
94 08
. )
401.1
I.;
P,
= (1"',) ;-=J = 0.94
POD Too
1.4 Since PO:l = PJ (negligible diffuser exit velocity). Pin = I har
4 (458.74) 0.4
.:. PI =
557 : , P2 = 0.94 x I = 0.94 bar
= 2.03 bur T he flow un!a nt rotor exil is given by

und //I 6.5

A, = - - = --
C' P2 C 2 me,!
T, JUI - _1- (J.94 x 10'
P,
2C" P2 = =
RT"!. 287 x 394.08
413.48'
557 - ~=-:-::::-:; 0.831 kg/m'
2 x 1005
471.94 K 6.5
'. A2 = = 0.0658 m'
0.831 x 11 8.75
TIli.:n, 0.0658
AI
II"!
P, 2.03 x 10' Jr D2.m n x 0.21
PI -= = 0.0997 m
R1", 287 x 471.94 =
= 1.499 kg / m] h"! = 9.97 c;m
 :no }o- T URBO MACIIiNES RAOIALFLowGASANDSTEAM T uRIIINES "" ~71

or (c) Stage efficiency

11.93
= 1. 65 x ;r x 0.3 x 120.3 1100 - 1I0J

0.0638 m lis = 1100 - "31$

6.38cm Since. "0) = hu~

(d) The mass flow rate and power developed 1100 - "02
1/1 = 11.93kg/s
Power lV = mUIC.rr = 11.93 x 188.5 x 257.98 From iscnLrllpic rclnti on

= 580.15 ·kW
Example 6.2 A si ngle swgc 90° I FR turbine fitted with an exhaust di ffuser hCUi
th e rollowing dala . 0 .673 x 557 = 374 .7 K
'. Th.'
Overall slagc pressure ratio =4 .0. temperature at entry =557 K. diffuse r exi t prl!S5Urc
and
= I ba r. mass flow rate of air = 6.5 kg/s o flow coefficien t ;;: 0.3. rotor tip diameter 1018.5
;;: 42 cm; mea n diameter at rotor exi t =- 2 1 cm. speed = 18000 rpm . \V / m 1000 - /'0' = - -
- 6.5
En th alpy losses in Ihe nozzle and the rest orthe s lage arc equa l. Assuming negligible 156.69 kJ/kg
ve locit ies at the nozzle en try and di f[user exit, delcnninc (a) the nozzle ex it air ang le.
(h) the r u t or width at en try. (c) the power developed. (d) the st:1ge efficie ncy. (c) the Thl!rcfurc.
rotor blade heighlllt the.: cxil, (I) Mach numbers al n07.zlc and roto r exits and (g) the 15fi.69
nuzzle anJ rolo r loss coefficients,
Cfl{Too - T,lJl)
Solution 156.69
Pool P-, 4 Too = 557 K PJ = Ibm 1.005(557 - 374.7)
C" = 0.8552
1/1 6.5 kg/s .p, - =0.3 N = 18. DUO rpm
U, 'h &5 .52%
D, = 0 .42 m OZ.III = 0.2 1 m

(a) The nozzle exit air angle (d) Rotor width at the entry
u, Total enthalpy loss
1C D, N 1C x 0.42 x 18.000
U, = 60 = 60
110) - II J.. = CI'(7iIJ - T,u)
IV
= 395.84 lO Is w, = TOI- - -
c, TOJ ::;: T02
mC11
C" = .p, U, = 0 .3 x 395.84 = 11 8.75 m /s
101 8.5
From th e inlet velocity tri ang le
Figllre 6.8(a) = 557 -
6.5 x 1.005

~ = err
= ~01.1 K
tan 0' 1 = VI VI Then ,
'an
_ , (1-18.75)
- C/,(T02 - T:h .r) = 1.005(401.1 - 374 .7)
'" 395.84
= 26.53 kJ / kg
'" = 16.69°
Given enthalpy losses in the n07.zle an d Ihe res I or the stilge ilrc considc rl!d equal.
(b) Power developed
enthalpy Inss in the noa.le is given by
IV = mUf = 6.5 x (395.84)' 26.5.1
IV = 1018.5 kW 10, - 10" = - - = 13.265kJ/ kg
2
 RADIAl. FLOW G .... SANOSTEAM T URn lNES ...c 269
::!M'i ;... T UIW O MACHINES

;:; 317,4 K

S tJg~ dficicnc),llrJ' = 15.3 + 317.4 = 332.7 K

C,.7U,,[1- (~J '7' ] T he nozzle dlicil!ncy is givell hy

Crf 2
=
1.368( 188.5)' 'IN = C,,(Too - T,,)
1005 x 313 [1 - W ',' j ] Tot) - TIJ =
Crf 2
Cit x '1N
71,17 % C, = C II / casal
(e) The air angle and width at the rotor exit Co, = C, eota t :;;: 120.3 l;ut25'

C, = C, = 120.3 m/s
= 257.98 mls
: . CI = 257.98/ cos 25'
u., = rr D"N
- 60 c, = 284.65 m/ s
Tf x 0.3 x 7200 284.65' 12
" Too - hr = 1005 x 0.97
60 u,
= 113.1 m/s
Figure 6,7(b)
= 41.56 K

Fro m th e oUllet velocity tri ang le (C X2 = 0) (Fig . 6.7( b» Too - TI ,f = [P, "
Too 1- (Poo) '-'J=.11.56
C,
41-'56l~
liln th P,
u, [ 1- - = (0.89)"" = 0.67
Poo Too .
fl, = ,"n-I (120.3) " PI = 0.67 x 3 = 2.0 1 bar
113.1
= 46.77· Densi ty of air at ro tor entry
Rotor width at exit PI = P,/R T, = 2.0 1 x 10'/287 x 332.7
II I- II, = 2. 105 kg / m'
R ---uc--=- = 0.3 I 58
I .(1 The muss now rale through thl! rotor is
0.3 158 x 188.5 x (C,COIC'J)
m = PI AIC'I
0.3 158 x 188.5 x 120.3(coI 25· )
= 2.105 x (rr x D, x b,) x 120.3
TI - T]. 15.3 K
= 2.105 x (rr x 0.5 x 0.03) x 120.3
From th e workd onelkg /11 11.93 kg Is
1V1m ;:; CI!(Too - 7o:!.l ;:; VIC), ! AI rotor ex it
188.5 x 120.3 x COl 25 °
/11 = P2 A :!C2
litu - To::! p, = P2 1 RT2
1005
48.39 K P, = Poo / 2 = 3/2 = 1.5 bar
:. Jo:! 373 - 48.39 = 324.6 1 K T, = 317.4 K

T,
C; C; : , P2 = 1.5 x 10'/287 x 317.4
T02 - ,=Tc)2 - -,-
_e,l -CI! = 1.65 kg/m'
'? 6 1 _
.,_4. 120.3' :. 11.93 = 1.65(Tf x Dh X bh) x 120.3
::! x 1005
 266 ,.. TURBO MA C'IIIN~ R ADI AL FLowGASANOSTEM,TuRDlNF.S '" :!61

the true o r equivalr!nt blade velocity is 2V2 on account of counter rotation. Therefore. Determint.: (al the flow and loading coefficients. (b) the degree o f reaction and !Io,uge
the actual blnde to gas relative velocity ralio should be efficiency. (c) Ihe air angle and width at the rotor exit. and (d) the milSS flow rale :lIu.I

ZV, power de vclopcd.

CJ'p p, = W) = cos fJ Solution
This is sa me as in the fifly percent rc<lction stages of the axial ty pe. In this sense. the [JIM) :3 bar Too = 373 K
I 0.3 m N - 7200 rpm
oUlw:.lrd flow coun ter rol<lting radiallurbine behaves as a fifty per cenl reaction slage \ r, 0.5 m rio =
0.03 m fJ , = 60", "I = 25"
of the axiallype. b
= C r ;. = C, = 0.97
For ideal flow. from equiltion (6.20) Pool P2 1.0 e" 'IN

1 , , (a) Flow coefficient and st~ge loading coefficient

hI - 112 = U,CX1 + V2 C.'·t - "2(Cj - Ci)
...
(6.Z4)
e,
Flow coefficient (¢) := U
From the. velocity trianlge.s at the exits of the first and second rings .
, , !rd,N 1T x 0.5 x 7200
e', VI + lV I - 2VI WI cosfJ and eX] WI cos fJ - v, V, =~= 60
e', vf + Wl- 2V2 W) cosp and C = X2 WJ cos,8 - V2 = 188.5 mls
c,
Substituting these relations in cqu . 6.24 and assuming VI ~ V1 and WI ~ W), we
get .
I 2 2 ., 2 Figure 6.7(aJ
h, - h, = Z(4V, W, cos fJ - 3V, - V, - IVi + IV))
From the combined velocity triangles, at the exit of Ihe first ring From Ihe inlet ve locity triangle

lV~ + (2Ull' - 2lV,(2U,) cos /J V, C.q - \VX ]

W~ + 4vf - Wi C,(coterl - cOlfJ;)

V, 188 .5
Therefore. :. C,
cot Cl' , - cot fJ
111 - " 2 =
1( 2+ 4Vi' - Wi., -
"2 W,
,
3Uj - U2 - Wi
, ., + Wj'). 120.3 mls

h,-h, = [(vl-vn -(wi -lVl)]jZ (6.25) e, 120.3

Flow coefficient cp, V, = 188.5
It should be nOled Ihal in inward flow radial turbines VI > V2 . So, the enthalpy drop
(hi - h2) increases by an amount (Ur - Vf)/2 (equ. 6.6a). But, in outward flow = 0 .638
radial turbines VI < U2. thereFore enthalpy drop (h, - h2) decreases by a quantity
(Vr - Ui)/2 (equ. 6.25). Therefore, For the same size and speed, inward flow radial Londing coe fficient V" = 1 + t/I, COI~,
turbines develop higher power compared to the outward flow Iype. 1 + 0.638 co'60'
1.368
SOLVED PROBLEMS
(b) Degree of reaction and stage efficiency
Example 6.1 A cantilever blade type IFR turbine receives air at Poo :; 3 bar,
Too ;; 373 K. Other data for this turbine are rotor tip diameter:: 50 cm, rotor exit 1- t/I , CO'/J,
diameter:; 30 cm. speed:; 7200 rpm, rotor bladc width at entry = 3 em, air angle R =
2
at rotor entry:: 10°, air angle at nozzle exit = 25 °, nozzle efficiency:: 97%, stage 1 - 0.638 CO' 60'
pressure ratio (Pool P2):; 2.0.TIIC radial velocity is constant and the swirl al the rotor =
2
exit is zero. = 3 1.58%
 RADIAL FLOW GAS AND STEAM TURBINES '" 265

VELOCITY TRIANGLES AND STAGE WORK From thc ve loci ty (riungles.

The vc lOl.:ity triangles ror th e first two s tages arc shown in Fi g, 6,6 , Various veloc iti es \VIm = UleW I cos fJ - Uj} + U:!(WJ cosfi - V2)
at the in le t of th e lirsl stagr.:. are designated by Ih t! suffix o.
Assuming VI :::::: V2 and 'WI ~ lV). th en

W 1111 = 2U2(\V) cos fJ - UJ,)

= 2(V::'!\V3 cos fJ - Vi)

M ult ip lying a nd dividing by W). we get

Secolld
bloldc rillg
= 2W -
]
,(u, - cosfJ - -
\V) W2
- u;) (6.111
1
;;:;; 2Wf(Grcosp-a})

where G r is the ratio o f the peri pheral veloci ty of blades to the relati ve velocity at !.he
e~il
and is assumed to be constant i.e,

err ;;:;;

First For maximum work.

blade ring
aw
aa, o
cos fJ - 2ar o.
(or)
Figure 6.(j \elodty triaflglesJor th e Ljllllgsll"Om turbiill' staGeS
cosfJ
The n: lative vc lnci ly at !he exit of the first stage is WI whic h along wi lh Ihe reripheral =-- (6.221
2
n: loc il Y (/ 1 gives the absolute ve locity C I, Th e relative velocity \V2 tt t thl! l!ntry of the
sccond siage is ohwi nl!d by subtrac tin g V I rrom Ct . Thus the t.!Xil vd oci lY·lriangle TIlis is the opt imu m value of a r fo r the maximum work, Then
nf lhe li rst s wge anJ lhe cnlry veloc ity lriangle of the seco nd stage arc s upe rim posed
WI cos p ;;:;; 2V,
nn each ol her. T he same vel oc it y triang le appli es to the roll owi ng stages. Th e rcia(ive
veloc i(y ilt the ex it from th e second slagc is W.l and at (he entry lU the third stnge lV.l cos 13 = 2U2
is 11'4 . The comm on ahsnlute velocity atlhis sec tion is C2. The air ang les (13 ) or all
Tht.! maximum work is obtain ed by substituting the val ue o f a rapI in equation (6,21)
stages arc assumed 10 he the sam c. The pcripheral veloci ti es orthe two rows at a given
sec ti o n are also olssumed to he equal. 1 , ,
Wnllu/m = 2" Wj cos- fJ
Stage Work
But
Thl! firs t h lade row dOl!s nOl form a ge ne ral stage. Therefore. a ny OI her stage. cnn
he consit.lcred fu r the purpose of anal ysis . For the second s tag\.!, the work d~cfkg is IV) cos fJ = 1U,
given by
Therefore . (6.13)

- Sill ce c. , ~ is in Ihe oppos ite dirct.; li l1n.

(620) lV"wx l nr 2uI
The above Iwo equations show Ihat Ihl! ou tward flow counter rotating radial stages
hl!havl! like an impul se stnge of the axiallype. Bu t th is impression is not true , Because.
 R" U'''Lr-1.0WGA~A:-'I)SII;A~ITt : IWI :'\J:S ....: ~lJl
262 ;:. TIJRllO MAC"IIINES
The h:.M-dcgn:c reaclion (R =O .5) has Ihe ad vnnwge of having" const'm t va lu c of
C' the reac lian at all values of the Claw "'-llcffic icnt.
1_ -_._ "-
:. R = 2UICx, The degree of reaction increases with Iht.: increasing va lues o f Iht.: inlet hlade a n ~ 1e
({fd. Thus for a given va lue of the Ilow coefficient (q,Jl ilc forward curved vane s give
R =
_ C.li
2U,
1_ "'2I (6. 17)
a higher dcgrcc of reaction compared to the backward c urved V;.Jncs .
The degree of react ion of lh e backward curved vanes decreases with increa!otlng
From the inlet veloci ty triangle Fig. 6.3(0) values of Ihe now coeflicicnt. The conve rse is true for the forward curved V;Llle~ .
CJ 1 = VI + Wx,
AN OUTWARD FLOW RADIAL TURBINE (LJUNGSTROM TURBINE)
= UI +C"cot/1 r
Ljungstrorn turbine is an outward lIow rad ia l turbine (Fig. fi.S(aJ) in whkh the llull!
. R=
.
1_[U'+C"COlfJ']
2UI
(6.18) enters the turbine in the axial di rection and Icaves radia ll y a l the cx.it. The areilllf 11m,,'
increases towards the exit which accommoJales the expanding ,gas. The mnsl L:or\1 ·
man ly emp loyed LjungsLro m turbine consists of rin gs of canliiL'ver h lades OIuunh:d
= I _ [ I+ "'~col II I ] on 1\"'0 discs mlaling in oppos itc d irect ions . The cou nle r rlllatlng hladc ring!ot uf a
Figure 6.J(bJ Ljungstrorn lu rbim: is shown in Fig . 6.5(b). Each row of blatl e!> rorm.... a slagc.

R= HI ~"'ICOIII']
When PI = 90 L'(ang le measured fro m the plane or rOlation) i.e .• fo r radial vanes .

cot 90° 0
I inici
(6.19)
:. R = 2
_.)1C ;'1n

Consider the expression (fi. 17)

R= I
_ ex,
2U,
When R = 0 i.e. for an impul se stage C.r , = 2UI and hence til, = 2 a nd R = 1/2
i.c. for the firty pe r ce nt reaction swgc C.I· , = VI and therefore. "', = I
Fig. 6 .4 s hows the varialio n of the degree of reaction (at va rious va lues of the flow
coefficient) wi th the rOiar blade in le t ang le.
1.0
1..1 Figure 6. ~(a) All olltwarrlflol\" ratlial lI. d)ill(' tLjllllgS//'OIll Iu/,hllll'}
1.2
1.1
I.n
11'1
lUI
IInckwnnl
tl .7 cuned
R 0.(,
L--B"~-~OL.'~:;~~t"~~==---i t
"'I
n.' " Fnrward
D.l n. culVcd
vaoes
0.2 04
·]0:0-.I!;;O-"?;O~60".-i7"O-.,f.:o-";!;O;--;JIO"O'"\;1O;;1';20;;I;';];;O~,,;;;o7,,"o~r6D
0.12!;;0::; Figure 6.5(b) CV/II/tcr I(}Wlillg billtit rings o! LjllllgJtnJlI/ /llr/Jillr
~,. t.!cgtct;'..\ -

Figure 6.4 V(lr;{I(iof/ of deRrce n! n:aclion with rolor blade inlet ungle.,
 RAll l",!. FLOW GAS AND SnA il I TUiUlINt:S ...; 1ClI
Th l! 10I<lI· 10-IOInl dfi ciency
Thc energy change may be relnled 10 kinetic energy where the assocmted vduel!)
\V 1100 - 11m term is known as Ihe Spoflcing velocirydesignulcd as CS. 111U5 rour spoullng veh)cll l e~ .
'III w ith and wi thout a dilTuser and ror 100al-tn-tota l o r tOlal-lU- slalic cunJ illUn:. may he
1I'.f " 041 110'1,.
de fined as rollow3
U,'CI + <P I col /1 ,)
TIll! appropriate definition would be used depcnding upon the dfil:lenq bcin~ de-
tcrminl!d .
Fo r isentropic flow across the (urbine.

16.121 \VIm = U~ = C}/2

or
,
The isc ntro pi l: work bl!twccn th e tow I condi tions at the e ntry and stati c conditi o ns at
th e ex it o r th e stage is given by
In prac tice. U I / Cslies in the range 0 .68 to 0 .7. Thi s blndl! to gas specd ral io is dcnlJlcd
IV, 1100 - h'1u = CJI{ Too - 72.. > as CIs. '·

C"Too [I -(:':,f'] (6.lJ) DEGREE OF REACTION

Degree o r reaction ror a radial flow turbine is defined by
Th !.: IPlal-to-stati c d lic ic ncy is gi vcn hy
SIalic e nthalpy drop in the rotor
'/, -.
IV " 00 - 11 0'1 R = e.::==::-::::;;::';:::-j;;::-7~"'~=
Stagnation en thJlpy drop in tht; singe
\VI- " 00 "2"
II I 112
Ui(1 +rJ> , COI /!,) _ ""ui (6 . (4) 1100 ho)
-

C,JoO[I- ( ~J;l ] - C,'ToO [1 - (::of] hI - 112

16.151
"01 - "0'1
I , ,
SPOUTING VELOCITY (hoI - h02) - - (Ci - C;)
2 -
The ise ntropic wl nl t.:nthalpy dro p in the turbine is give n by

I(h oo h.,,, ) I
when the diffu ser is not till ed . T he e xpressio n becomes (11 00 - IIOJ.. ) when the diffuser
is filled .

= (0 . 10)
CO I/(/itin/1.\" Tmlll-to·wwl TOfOI-w·stafic

C' c} I I IJ .. )
Ifr th e whirl velocity C X2 is zt:ro at exit and Cz = Cf'! I
with difTu scr -i( = (/1{)( 1 - h U.l ,, ) = ( l fN J - Ass l,lming co nstnnt radia l velocity C,.. - _ - [
2
C r! = C r ]
C' C', , , "} , "} C'
~ .:;:;; ("no - 11 0'1,, )
:. Ci - Ci = Ci - C;1 ;; Cr - ;]
wilh out din'user
2 2 ,
= C.~1
Figllu 6.3(a)
 RADl /\L FI.ow GAS AND STE.;\.'" TUIlBINES ....; 251)
251\ ,. T I)IUJQ MACHINES

Total-Io-tota l isentropic efficiency is give n by

h Poo
00 ______ 91 PO I P-
o 1/11 =
(Too To::!,,)
0
'1" is in the range of 80-90 per cent.
TIle losses in::tn IFR tu rbine can be expressed in tl! nns of the noa h: .lntl rntor Ius!>
codficicn ts as defined for the .udal stilges.
C;12
From tile II - s tliagmm, these coefficien ts arc

II, - "I.l
P, Ci /2
I,
and

02,
P,
P, LR = "2 - "2.1

02$5 W£/2
35 3s
OJss
2
2, STAGE EFFICIENCIES
2$5
The i.h.:tua l work ou tput of the stage is
IV
FigllTt! 6.J Mulli,'r clla r' for r'X[WII.firlll ill a 90" ill ward flow radial go.t IIIrbit/l' = "00 - hU2 = "01 - 1101
m
Eq uatin g the two ex.pressions = U,C,fI = U 1 (U, + H'q)
= Vi(l+<PlcOIfill
1 hOI - h01 = UIC.r1 - U2 C ,(! I (6.6 )
From the velocily Iriang le (Fig. 6.1)
It is alrea~y show n that the quan tity 'I' for a cen trifugal comp ressor is given by

where T ;s j] cons tant

1= "O'd - V2/2
or sU, C" cO lfJ l
1+ --
V,
BU I
Therefore.
C.I !
I(U2 - V;) - (lV2 - IV;) I V', nnd -C" = 1>1
", - 11.,= I - I - (fi.6a) V, V,
- 2
:. "', 1 + ¢ICOlfi,

Then HI/III = 1/IIU~

For a perft.:ct gas
(Vi, - 1V,'- c
-I- ';)
(6.7)
2 \\1 / m = CI'(To l - To~) = U~( I + 1/1, cal fJ ,) = ""U I'! I fi. 10,
In the t1i1Tu ser li02 = fl03. T hus. Tht.: ise nt ropic work ou tput bc[wt.:en the total co nd iti ons at the entry and c,;i l o f thc
stagt.: is
(6.8)
IV,
If thc losses.in the diffuser IIfC ncgl cctcd. then
If>.l I I
TOJ .. = T02H ;md
 ~5b ,. Tl lltliO M ACIIl NI: 5
RADI,\!, FI.OW GASANIl SH .... M Tt IRIHNt;S '" 257

SC:(;lion UI nu.lius .

" - - ' ' ' ' Guide "anes

( 2) 'fir==;\<- (or v:me]css
I~~ C r,
C,
r 2 u\terage

/~ ~
~pucc)
'. (3)

I\l V~:--- ROIo,

blades
Rotor in let

I C,~w,
f ~ u,
1
Figure Ii.J(b) Radial i,,}luw wrbine I Figure 6.1 Velocity friclfIclerJor un inward flow rudinl furb/lll'

ahout 70" , hUlthe vanes can be pivoled to ... lI ow for adju stm enl of the now angle as and for radial relative velocity at ent ry i.e. for a 90': IFR !Orbi"!.!. fJl = QO"
the load l: hunges. In some turbines, there may be no vanes:.1t all. but a pas::iUgc similar
W/m = Vf Isince C.rl = VII (6. 1)
!(l thaI or the vaneless Jiffuscr (di scussed al rcudy ) is fitted . A vane less space ex.isls

between the nU 11e1 tip (I f lhe vunes and the rotor. This spact.! is being ut ili sed by the The head or siage loading coefficient is defined by
gas ror futher flow aJju stmcnt and hdping in thi: reduction of vibfi.ttory disturban ces
t/ll = w_o_rk_d:co,,'-='C,-I-=k~g
wilhin Ih i: turhine. _ C'l l
So me of the ct)mmOn applica{i ons of {be radial turbines nn! in the fields of {ur- V'I V,
hncharging , aircrafl and missile auxi li ary dri ves, cryogenics. and gas liquefactinn .
Francis (Inwnrd flo w radial) turbine has bee n in use since a long time for hydrormwr From Ihc Vl.!locity triangle. CXI = C" COl at
gcncr'l1ion. Thl.! Ljungstrom (o u{ward flow radial) turbine is used ill SWam pOWI.!!"
generati on. :. 1'" = Crl COl at
= <PI cota (6.2)
The nUor which is usually manufactured with cost nickel alloy, has hl ades thaI arc V,
curved to change th e now from the radia l (0 thl! axial dirl!Clion. The shrouding for
where ¢t is known as thejloll' coefficiem. For a 90° IF R Iurbinc. V, :::; ell '
the bludcs is formed hy the casing , and a diffu ser can be filled at the outlet to further Therefore.
fl.-duc c thl' high kin c{i c: energy J{ thut point and thereby incrcJse the I.!l1th.dpy drop
across Ihl! nUor. V'
t/I, = -.l
VELOCITY DIAGRAMS
V'I

'1IlL.' vei OL.'il y [riangles 1'01' thl! 90 0 inward now radinl gas turbines arc shown in Fig. THE THERMODYNAMICS OF FLOW
(1 . 2 . Sec tion I ~~
rde rs Ihl.! rotor .and '0 ' subsc ript indi c:llcs [he point of enlry to Ihe
nnll.1e V; IIll." ,Ifld secti on 1-3 indicates the diffuSl.!f ou tlet sl.!clion. The IhCnllOdynamic path followed by the gas is shown on the. Mollier ch:.irI (Fig . 6..3).
. \\'l, rk dlllle per unit illass now in the rot or is given hy Euler's turbine equi.ltion In the nonie, no work is done. Therefore, hoo = hOI. although Ihc 100ai pressure
drops from POo 10 POt because of irrevcrsibilities. Thus.

If v..'hid vel oc ily is ze ro <lIthe exit (C.12 = O)the n

TIle work done is given by
W/ III = U,CXI
W/111 = hOI - ho:! (6.5)
 l

6
RADIAL FLOW GAS AND STEAM
TURBINES

INTRODUCTION
The inward 110w rmkd gas turbines arc usr.:d for applk:llions where the nnw (;lIe IS
vcry low. [or cx.lInplc, (Urbochargcrs for com mere in I (diesel) engines :lnd fire pump ...
The radial gas tu rbines nrc vcry compact. the maximum diameter heing nhnut 0 .2 tTl
and speeds nrc hi gh. ranging from 40.000 to 1.80.000 rpm. 'nley arc usually of the
901.> type, the bladl!s being J.. r lO the tangent at the periphery of the rotor (lulcr IOlel.
The g.IS cmcrs the turbines in the radiol direction and Icaves axially at tht: outlet.

DESCRIPTION
A YODinward flow radial turbine is very sim il ar to the centrirugal compressor and thl'
only tlilTcrcm:e being Ilwl the gas now is in the oppusite dirc.!t.:liOIi (Fig:-.. 6.I(a) anJ
6.1 (b) . The gas cnlt!rs the sr.:roJl casing, whose cross-sectionJ! :.Ire:! is dct.:re:'lsing ;t~
the gas passes through il. This keeps the veiocilY al the entry 10 the 11I1/.t.le Vllnc!-
constant :.IS Ihe gas is gradually drawn off on its cin.:um ferellli •.d palh . The nOI.l.h:
valles arc cOllverging to incrc;:tsc the kinetic t!ncrgy of lht! gas and tht!Y SL:I the ga:-.
anglc fo r entry illlo the rotor. This <lngle, measured from Iht! rudi.tl dIrection is usu:.Ill y

Figflre 6.I(a) IIHl'IIl'dJlolI' radial (IFRJ fIIf'h/l1t'

 A XIAL FLOW ST ~AM ANOGAS TuRBlNES .... 153
152 ~ TURBO MACHI NI;S
[he hub . mean and tip sections of the bl ades (a) the blnde angles, (b) degrec of
powt!r aUipul of the s tage, (b) the l:ipcl:ific en th alpy drop in th e l:itage in kJ/ kg reac ti o n (c) blade to gas speed ratio.
a nd (c ) the percentage inc rease in relative velocity. IAns: mean sec tion P I = 60
0
fh = 65'" at = 70"
IAns: (a) 11.33 mW, (h) 79.98 kJ/kg ond (e) 50.89%J R 20.4% ond a = 0 .35,
5.~5 . An 3.'(inl now gas turbine hn s adcgrecofrc3ction of30% . The hlrldc speed at lhe hu b scc lion f3t 71.0 0 • f32 = 0
66.3 • a l ;::: 74.8"
menn diameter is 300 mrs rind the mass Dow is 2.5 kg/s. The gas ternperature at R 41 .4% and a = 0 .2.
e
th l! turbin e: inkt and o utl e t a rc 5000 and :WODC res pec ti ve ly. The fix ed blad e tip section fi t 43.1 " . Ih =65.4". al ;: 65 .6
0

ou tll'l ang k is 101l Ill cus urcd ill lhe same direc tion o f blndl.! spl.!cd . The axia l
vdoci ty remains constant :1I 100 mps. Draw veloci ty diagram and determ ine
th e relativc veloc ities and power developed. Take C I' = 1.005 kJ / kg K.
IMKU-Nav. '96)
IAns: In) 348 and 472 mis, (b) 502.5 kWJ
5.36. Two rows o f a velocity compounded impulse turbine hnve a menn blade speed
o f 150 m/s and a nm.zle ve locity of 675 mls. The nozzle angle is 200 • The
exit a ngles of the firs t movi ng row, fixed a nd second row of moving blades nrc
R 49.2% and a = 0.54 1
5.41. An axial flow gas lurbine has rOOI a nd tip diameters o f 600 mm and 75.0 ~m .
Rotor speed is 7500 rpm. Rotor bladl! design is based on free vo rtex pnnclpll!
,md absolute ve locity is axial at ex it. 1lle actual change in totalte.mpcra~ure at
m(!a n sec ti on is I IODC. Calculate the ai r and blade angles. reaction rall o and
blade load in g coefficient al all sectio ns. Take R = 347.2 J/ kg-k and r = 1.3.
lAns: t:rl.m = 72.25° , fhm ;::: 60.93° , fhm = 52.96:. Rm = -17.8 8% 0

25° . :!5° and 30° respt!c li vely. T here is a 10% loss of velocity due 10 fric ti on in 1/11 = 2.3 6 "u = 74 . 11° , fll.h = 66,83 , fl'.h = 49.67 ,
all blades . The steam flow is 4.5 kg/s. Omw the velocity diagram and delermine R~ 1Il = -49.17% 1/I1.h = 2.98 al,I;::: 70.4r, fi1.1 = 53.24 "' .
(a) th e power outpul and (b) the diagmm efficiency. Il", = 55,8 2° , R, = 4.55% .pl., = 1.911
IA ns: (D) 796.5 kW and (b) 77.7% )
5.42. A gas turbine slage has an initial absolute pressure of.350 kPa and It:mpc~a.lurc
) .:n. The nozzle ang le in a veloci ty com po unded im pulse turbine is 200 to the mea n 5650C a nd negli gib le initial ve loc ity. At the mean radlus O. 3~ m , the cond.'tlon:
b hldc speed wh ic h is 100 m/s fo r eac h movi ng hlades row. The re a rc two rows ure nozzle exit absolute static pressure is 207 kPa. nozzle exil now a~glc.:: IS 68
o f moving bln des wilh c.x it a ng les 26 r• a nd 30°. Between these rows there is n a nd stage reac tion is 0.2. Determine the Dow coefficic!nt. sto.g e loadlOg fact.(Jr~
row of fi xed hll.ldes wilh exit nns lc 2W' . The relative ve locity o f stea m drops siage reaction and air and blade ungles at the mean . hub and up. The hub ra~.lu!t
by 10% during passage through ring o f blades and the final di sc harge is axial . and speed arc respectively 0.31 m a nd 8000 rpm . Ass ume that ,Ihe slage IS to
Determ ine the vcJm:ity of steam leavi ng the nozzle s a nd the blade efficiency. If
Iht! noa.lc effic ie ncy is 95 % a nd the kinetic e nergy o f s tea m leaving the s tagc
ha ... e a free vorte x swirl at thi s speed . Take C,. =
1. 148 kJ/kg-K and r:: I.:n .
(MKU-Nov. '96)
Neglect the losses .
is availahle as he al l'nl'rgy. estimate th e state o f steam e nterin g the ne xt stnge.
T he condition s o f the steam at nozzle inlet is 8.5 bar and dry sa turated.
I IAtU-Oct. '96)

[Ans: 0'1.111 = 68°, 0'2.111 == -10.3° , fJl.m ;: 39.2° . fi2 .".::: 55 .!}:\"
[Ans: (,) 450 mls (b) 61 % lind (e) 5 bar, X = 0.96J
5.38. In a n impul sc turbi ne desi gned for free vortex flow at th e rotor inlet. the blad e <Pm = 0.602, Rnr = -0.2 VtI .III ;: 1.38 Ctt.h = 70.H2 · .

I = _ 11.9° , flu. = 55 .3 1", fl, ." = 50 .63" ,p" = 0.7,

root radius is 25 cm and the blude he ight is 6.3 cm . TIle absolute stenm ve loc ity
= - 0,079 ,"'- h = 1.7 6 au = 65 .29°. a:!.1 = -9. 1' .
a t the rotor in let is 450 m/s. the Ouid being directed so us to make an a ngle
fl,., = 59.9° ,p, = 0.528, R, = 0 .38
o f 15° with the whecltangent al the hlade root. If th e speed ratio is 0.4 at Ih e , .pI.< = 1.06[
tip. the blade velocity coefficien t is 0.97 and th e difference between th e rotor
in let ,md ou tlet ang les is 3" all over the rotor, draw the velocity triangles for
Ihe blade ti p and find lhe degree o f reac tion al the sam e pos it ion.
I 5A3 , The data for an axial turbine SLagc are : hub diameter:: 45 0 mm , tip d iametl.!r
:: 750 mm, rotor speed :;: 600 rpm . At the mean section, a, = fh = 75 =. fJl =
IMKU- Mm' ' 97) a, = O. R = 0 .5. Assumin g radial equlibrium a nd constant nou.le angh:. '
IAns: - 4.9%J d~termine for the hub, mea n and tip sections (a) the absol ulC and rc1a~i\'e a~r
5.39 . What is the percentage of reacti on of a si ngl e stnge turbine opcr'Hing with a anglc.::s (b) blade-Io-gus speed ratio (c) degree of reacti on. Assume ax tal eXit
tnlal pressure ratio of 3 tlild top temperature of 11 00 K, if the velocity oul of from the stngt: at all sections .
the s tator blade is 550 m/s. and ve loc ity out o f the turb ine is 300 m/s. Ih.h = 65
D
0 .554 , 0.218
IAns: al,l! ;::: 75'" fJu. = 57.87" ,

(MKU- .'Ipril '97) 0° Ih..m = 75' , 0.966, 0.5

Q' l,m 75° Pl.m
IAns: 0.64 1 0
- 63.58' = 80. 13 0
1.487, 0 .6751
au 75 th.1 fJ2.1 •

..... 5.40. The blad es of a fret: vortex turbine rotor have in let and out lel an gles of 60 and
65 degrees at a mean diam eter of 100 e m . Tht! correspondin g nozzle a ngle is
7()". The hub 10 tip rati o is 0.6 and the turbine runs al 3600 rpm . Cal c ulate for
 -
250 r TUlmo M ACHI NES

5.8. Prove Ihat " 01, reI = h02, r eI. across the turbine rotor. 5.2S. A single whed impulse stea m lurbine has cqui.angular rotor bhldcs thaI den:!. II'
5.9. Define
(a) tOlal-(o· IOI:II ~mciency
(b) tota l- to-sialic e fficiency.
3 .75 kW and produce a torque in the disc o f 1.61 Nm at a menn radiUS IIf
132.5 mill . The rotor receives 0.01 4 kg/s ohtcam fro m nozzles inclined al 711
to the a:l( ial direction and s tea m disch nTgcs fro m th e whed chamber in an aX ial
-
5.10. Define di rection. Find (<I) the blildc angles (b) the di agram efficiency (cJ the cncJ thrusl
(a) Nozzle loss coeffi cient and 0 11 the shaft (d) the ta ngcntiaithrusl o n the blades.

(b) Rotor loss coeffic ienl
5 . 11 . Define hlnde loading coefficient? What is iI's sig nificance ?
5 . 12. Prove that
1ft = Q'I(tan li1 + Inll {iJ.)
5 . 13. Why arc simple impulse turbiocs no t so common?
5 . 14. Wiull is compounding or slaging?
5 . 15. E.'plain bri e ny a IWO stage pressure compounded impul se lurbine and show the
pressure and velocity variati ons across Ihe tu rbine .
5 . 16. What is a velocilY compounded turbine? Draw a Iwo s tage c urti s turbine
indicating the pressure and velocity vnriations across it.
5 . 17. Draw the inlet a nd outlet velocity triangles of a two sHlge impul se turbine.
5. J 8. De fine blade velocity coefficienL. How does it vary between an impulse a nd
reacti o n turbine.
5 . 19. E xplai n with a neat diagram tllc operations of a reaction turbine.
5 .20. Define: Reaction ratio for a n axial now turbine stage . Compare the d~g ree of
reac tion for ax ial now compressor and turbine .
5.21 . De ri ve the following rela tions.
1 r" by
(a) R = '2<P (tan flo - tan (J\)
[Ans: (a) 60.7 (b) 0.62 (e) 2.Q.l N and (d) IU) NJ
5.29. A 50 percen t rcacli on steam turbine. runningal 450 rpm dcvclops5 MW and h;J ~
a stl!am 'mass flow rale of 6.5 kglkW.hr. At a panicular stage in the expnnsion
the 'Ibsulutl! pressure is 85 kPa 011 ;J steam dry ness fr<lclion of O.Y4. If the ex it
angh! el f th c h lade is 70° meilsu red from the axi al n ow din:ction. and the oUl le t
re lati ve vdoc ity of the steam is 1.3 times the ml!an blade speed, find the hlauc
heighl if th e ratio of rotor hub diamelCr to h lnue hei ght i.s 14.
IAns: (1.1 ~ I mJ
5 .30. In a lero reaction gas turbine, the blade speed a t the mean diameter is 290 m/s.
Gas leaves the nozzle ri ng al an ang le of 65° to Ihe iu. ial direction whi le 1111:
s tage inlel stagnation temperature is 1100 K. 111e stngnation pressure at IW 7.Z h:
entry and c" il arc 400 kPa and 390 kPa respectively. Stat ic pressure ill n07.l.1t:
e:(i t is 200 kPa and Ihat at rotor exit is 188 KPa. Assuming th a t the magnitude
a nd direc ti on of velocities at entry and exit of the stage arc the sn mc, dt.!temline
the stage lotal-lo-Iolal efficiency. Take Cp = 1148 J/kg - K. IAns: 87 ..1t:i I
5.31. Show tbat for a free vortex turbine blade with negl ig ible degree of reactio n al
th e hub. th e degree o f reaction R at any radiu s 'r' is relaled 10 the hub radiu s

R= ~ + CII(lan Ih - lan O"t> R=1-(;)2

(b) 2 2U
(e) R = 1+ CII( lana2 - Ianad 5.32. Steam with a velocity of 600 mfs e nle rs an impul se turbine row of bladt:s ill
an a ngle of 2SO 10 the plane of roLation of the bladcs . Tht: mt:an blade spccd is
2U
5.22. Draw Ihe velocity trinn gles and h-s dii.lgrnm for the following D.xinl now turbine 255 m/s. The exi t ang le from the bl ades is 30Q , There is a 10% loss in n:1~ti\'c
stnges. velocity du e 10 friction in the blades. Determine (~) the enlry nnglc oflhe bl~dcs
(a) R =0 (b) R < 0 measured from th e ax ial direction (b) the work done per kg ofste.un/sec (e) tht:
(e) R = 0.5
(u)R = 1.0 (e) R > 1.0. diagram efficiency (ll) the end thrust per kg o f sleam/sec.
5.23. Prove that for an impUl se turhine [Ans : (a) 4B.5 ° (b) 150.71 kW/(kg/scc) (e) 83.7% nnd (d) 7B N/(kgls)J
5.33. The n07.7.1 e5 of a si m ple impul se IUrbinc arc inclined at an angle of 20° 10 Ihe
(a) a =
s in 0" 1/2
di rec ti on o f the path o f the moving blades and the steam leave s th c nOlzle~ <It
(b) '7""r.f .din =sin:! a,. 375 m/s . The blade speed is 165 m/s. Find suituble inlet and outlet angles fur
5 .24. Prove thaL for it reaction IUrbine
(he blades in order th.1I there shall be no axial thrus t on lhe bladcs. allowing
(a) a = sin 0"1 for Ihe veloci t)' of th e steam in pass ing over the blades bcing reduced by 15·,~ ·.
2 sin 1 Q'I Determine also the powcr developed for a stea m now o f one kgls at the blades.
(b) 'Imn.f·J = I +sin 2 ar a nd the kinelic energy of th e stcam finally leaving the wheel.
5.25. Prove the following [Ans: (al 56° . 49 ° (b) 52.B kW/(kg/s) and (e) 8.778 kJ/(kgls )j
,Jt =
'Is x R.F. 5.34. AI a s tage in u reucti on turbin e the mcan blade ring diaml!ter is I m and thc
5.26. Expla in the various internilll os~cs in axiul How turbines. tu rhine runs at a speed o f 50 rev/sec . TIle b lades arc designed for 50% reac til)n
5.27. What is turbine governing? What a rc the different methods of governing of with ex it angles 60 n a nd inlet angles 40:l. TIle turbine: is supplied wilh s lt:alll ill
lurbine ? Exphtin hricny. Ihe r;lle o f 6 .00,000 kglhr and the stnge effi ciency is g5%. Determine. (n) the
 ~ ·lK :;;.. TtJlUlO M "C HI NF.S n. XI AI.FLOWSTE AMANOGASTuRIIlNES ... 149

(iI) "I -
5 .9 . In the rotor of the axial now turbine
II). = co nsta nt.
5.33 . Gas turbines Il!nd to be always of the reaction type. Why?
5.34 . Steam turbines are us ually impulse (orJ a mi xture of impulse and rcacuon slag e~
\V~ \V~
(b) "1 - --
2
= /" -
-
-
2
bcc uase of
(a ) High pressure ratio.

(e) h, + -2
cl = It.,
C;
-+----=.
(b) Low overall pressure ratio .
- 2 (c) Type of working Ouid.
5. 10. For il nonnul s ta ge, Ihe siali c Icmpcralure drop across Ihe stage equals the lotal 5.35 . The maximum diagram efficiency of an impulse turbine is
tcmpcralurc drop. ITruclFalseJ (a) cot 2 a]
5. 11 . I)(!finc Turhine s tnge 100al-to-Iotal isentropic efficiency. (b) sin 2 a,
5. 12 . When is Ihe tnlal·'o-to lal !.!ffil!.!ncy used? (c) sinO']
S.ll . Odin!.! Blad!.! loading. cneflicicnt. 5 .36. The blade to gas speed ratio for maximum diagram efficiency is
5. 14. The sil.e of a sta li o n;:lry induslriallurbine is larger than thut of the aircrnft gas (a) s in a]
IUrhine . [Truc!Fal s!.!} a,
(b) 2 sin
5. 15 . Ratcau lurhine is an examp le of (e) sin "I /2
(a) .Two stage velocity compounded impulse turbine. 5.37. The blade to gas speed ratio for maximum diagrnm efficiency of a reaction
(b) Simple impul se turbine turbint: is
(c) Two stage pressure compounded impulse turbine. (a) sin Ci]
5. 10. In press ure compounded impul se turbine, the blade height has to be increased (b) s in "I /2
IOw<lrds thc low pressure s ide. Why? (e) 2 s in 0' 1
5. J7 . In veloci ty compounded impul se turbine , the blnde heigh t is same in all rows. 5 .38. The max.imum stage efficiency of a reacuo n turbine is
(Truc/Fo lse) (n) I + sin 2 Ct']
5. Itt Define Blade velocity coefficient. (b) 1 + sin2a] / 2sin2a,
5. 19. The relative veloc ity of Huid increases across a reac li on turbine. (Truc!Falsc) (c) lsin2al / l +sin2al
5.20. What is co mpounding or staging? 5.39. The stage dflciency, turbine efficiency and reheat factor arc rdated as
5 .21 . Why is compounding necessary? (a) 'It = '7$ x R. F
5.12. The renction turbine bas (b)'7J =R.Fx'71
(a) no diffusers . (c) R .F=1J, x1J$
(b) 110 nOI.z les . 5.40. Annulus flow area interms of hub diameter and blade height is
( c) no fixed blades.
(0) rr(Dh - ")"
5.2l . The ste:lI11 ve locity in a r!.!aclion turhine is low and hence lhe speed is low
(b) rr"(D" +")
rdaliv.; 10 Ih l! impulse lurhine. (True/False) (e ) rr( Dh + Ii)'
5.2-1 . Differentiate hctwl!cn impu lse and rcnction IUrbines. 5.41 . What is Govemipg of turbines? How is it done?
5. ::!5 . Thl! s t!.! am expands in the movin gs fix ed blades of3 reaction turbin e. (True/Fa lse)
5.26. In impu lse turbine the pressure drop, unlike the rcaction turbine, takes place in
the nozz les o nl y. (True/Fa lse) EXERCISES
5.27 . Why is the term reaction used in rcaction turbine?
5 .28. Define Degree o f reacti on. 5. 1. Describe (he working principle of an axial flow turbine with a ncat sketch.
5.21). Wh:1I is z.ero reac tion stage '! 5.2. What is an axial How turbine stage?
S.lO. With isen tro pic flow conditions prevailing , lhe l ero reac lion stage is ex.actly 5 .3. Draw the inlet and DuLlet velocity triangles for an axial flow turbine stage.
th e sa me as the impulse stage. (TrueIFalse) 5.4. Prove that tbe axial flow turbine siage work
5.3 I. Wh;ll is <:I n impulse stnge?
5.~ 2 . The following stages should be avoided due to the adverse pressure gradients \V 1m = Vel/( Ian PI + Lan th)
causing fl ow se paTalion 5.5. Define Diagram efficiency. What arc the other names of it?
{a) Negative react ive stage only 5.6. Draw the h-s diagram for expansion through an axial flow turbine stage.
(b) Reaction more than 10070 only. 5.7. The work done factor is not used in axial flow turbine but it is used in llxiul

- Ie) hOlh (n) and (h) compresso r why?

 AXIA.l- FLOW S 'll ; A~1 ANOG"sTUIUJItoil.: S ... 2-17
246 :;:. TORUO MA CIlfNES

(a) Absolute and relative air angles (a) Absolute and relative air angles
Nonie c}l.i t "'ng le, O' Lm = 0'1./. = 75 °. Nozzle exit <lngh:. O'u = O'l.m = tl'l.h = 75 °
Cx 1.r -V,
tan fiLm
lun f31.1 = CuI. r
rr D,N rrxO.75x6000
IT DmN rr X (2 X 0 .3) X 6000 v, = 60" = 60 = 235.62 m/ s
Vm
60 = 60
175 .52 - 235.62
= 188.49 m/s =
47.03
2 16. 16 - 188.49
_ 51.96°
57.92
fILm = 25.54' Since Cx:! = 0
V, 135.62
Par un <txial ex it. Cd = O. lun f32.l = - - = --
Cal,/ 47.03
V" 188.49 11,., = 78.7 1'
tanfhm =
Cul. m = 57.92
(b) Blade-to-gas Speed ratio
#.2.111 = 72.92'
V, 235.62
a= -
(b) Blade-ta-gas speed ratio Ct.1 181.7 1
Vm 188.49 1.297
a =
Cl.m 223.78 · (c) Degree of reaction
= 0.842
CII I.,(lanfh, -tan{JI,I)
(c) Degree of reaction
Rf = 2V,
47.03 x (Inn78.7 1 -lan(-51.96»
R,., =
Cn I ,'" (Inn (h.Ill - tan f31.m) = 2 x 235.62
2Vm = 0.627
57.92 x (Inn 72.92' - Ian 25.54)
=
2 x 188.49
f SHORT QUESTIONS
= 0.427
5. 1. What is un axia l fl ow steam (or) gas turbine?
(3) Tip Section 5.2. What arc the advantages of an axial now turbine?
5.3. Why is ... ing le or two stage axial flo w compressor preferrc.'CI in ai reral"l jet
Cu propul sion?
Cl.m 5.4. The blade height is increased towards the low pressure end why?

C7 r'''· =
5.5. Draw the velocity triang les for an axial flow turbine stage?
0.3 )0.933 5.6. The d iagram work per unit mass fl ow is given by
( 0.375 = 0.8 12
(<t) V C il (tan f31 + ta n (32)
:. CLI el. m x 0.812 223.78 x 0.812 = 181.71 m/s (D) VC,,(lnnfi l - Inn/l,)
c.,
C.[ 1.1 = Cx Lm x 0.812 2 16. 16 x 0.8 12 175.52 m/s (e) U(ln n /I I + Inn /I,).
CrlL/fI X 0.812 57.92 x 0.812 47.03 m/s 5.7. Define Diagram or blade efficiency (or) Utilisation factor.
S.S. Draw (he Mo lli e r diagram for expansion throug h an axial Il ow turbine siage .
:!..J·l ;.. TI IROO M .-'ICI II NES AXIAl-FLOW STEAM ANOGASTulWINES ...{ 245

Gas tcmperature. (a) Absolute and relative air angles

C2 Nozzle exil ang le, aUI = 75°
T, TUI - - '-
2C / C (I.h = CI,h' cosal = 292.71 )( cos 75°
74i! = 75 .76 m/s
= 973 = 734.78 K
2 x 1155.6 C,r1 . 1J = Clh ·sinal =292.71 x sin 75°

(c) At the tip = 282.74 m/s

D, = Do. +"
= 0.53
Gas di schargL.! ang le .
+ 0.053 = 0.583 m From inlet vt:loci ty triangle
WeI. h CII,Jr-Uh
I'm tan f3u = --=
Ia n Ci 1.1 - lunal .1II Cn.h Cn .h
"0.53 I) =
282.74 - 141.37
- - Ian62 75.76
0.583
.. fJ l.l1 = 61.81'
Ci I . 1 59.68'

C, - e--
u
= 320.27
= 634.4 mts
For z.ero reaction sec tion,
cos Cit,l cos 59.68° Ih.h = /31.11
and 130." = 61.81'
Cr 634.4 2
T, TO! - - = 973 - ,--"-,.=cc
2C" 2 X 1155 .6 (b) Blade to gas speed ratio
798.86 K Uh Sinal sin 75°
GlJpt --=--=--
Example 5 .1 B An axia l turbine with conslan t nozzle air ang le (75 °) and zero CI.' 2 2
reaclinn at the hub nlOs at 6000 rpm. It s hub and lip diameters nrc 45 and 75 cm = 0.483
respt:ct ivt!ly. All sections arc designed for maximum utilisation factor. Assuming
raJillll!4Uilihriutn co nditions. determine for tbl! hub. mean and tip sections (a) absolute (c) Degree of reaction
anu relati ve air angle s (b) blade La gas speed ratio (c) degree orreac ti on. Assume axial R" = 0
c:xit from the sl,lgc al all sections.

Solution
It) Mean Section
or a constant nozzle air angle,
a, = 75~ . R" = O. N = 6000. DII = 0.45 m. Df = 0.75 III
I Cl.h C.et .1! Cal.II (rm)sm.a
,
l

(1) Hub Section =

CI.m exl.'" = CIII.III = rh
Hub speed.
(0.45 + 0.75)
ITD"N " x 0.45 x 6000 + r,
'II 2 2
u" 60 = 60 'm = -- 2 = 2 =03m
.

Si nce R,.
141.37 m/s

= 0 a nd fo r lniJximum utilisation factor

si ll al
('" r'''·
rm
=
(~)0.933
0.225
CI.h 292.71
_
- 1.308

=
U"
= C I •m = = = 223 .78 m/s
GO[II
CUI 2 1.308 1.308
C;, I.h 282.74
U" 141.37 C x t.1II = = 216.16 m/s
.. Cl.h =
(sina ,/21
= (sin 75" /2)
1.308 1.308
C'IJ./J 75.76
292.71 mls Cnl. m = = 57.92 m/s
1.308 1.308
 ~ T llnno M A("lIINE.."; AXIAl. FI.OW ST1:AM AJ ~ D GAsT1 JJtllJr : ES '" 2·1)
242

And Assuming thal th ere is no pressure drop in the movi nl:!. hlalk.(T... = T I ,) from
Mo llie r charI. . - -II

U"
Inn {h." - (an U2.h ;

C" To , - T" ; (TOI - Til + (T, - T,,)

176.72 C2 C2
Inn fI2.h - ta n 54. 1 ;
973 - 751.49 - ' +01-'
87.38 2C,! . 2C,J
176.72
tan fh." ; --+tnn54.1 1. I Cr 2 x 1155 .6 x (221.5 1)
87.38

I
; 3.4 e Lm = 682 .2 m/s
.. fi2.h ; 73.63° Gas tcm perature
(aJ Degree of reaction c:! 682.21
T, 1(11 - - '- = 973 - -
{tan Ih.h - (an {JI.I,) ! 2Cf, 2 x 1155 .6
= r/J" 2 T, 771.6 K
Co ; 87.38 ; 0.495 (bJ At the hub
;
U 176.72(,an 73.63° - 'an 71.33°)
Hub diamctcr is QClcrmined as follows

; 0.495 2 ,iI pACu

= 0. 11 P, 1.6 j( 105 kg
p - - ; ; 0.7 18 )
RT, 2R9 x 77 1.6 In
(bJ Blade loading coefficient C/1(r - 1)
R ; ; 0.289 kl /kg
l/Iu, = ,pf, (tan fIu. + tiln Ihh) r
C" ; C, COS'" ; 682.2c0562 ; 320.27 m/s
; 0.495('an 7 1.33° + 'an 73.63°)
A ; n Dml! = n(lOIr)Jr
V'I.J, ::= 3. 15 z ,iI
A ; JOlT" = --
~xample 5.17 The roll owing particulars relate to a single stage turbine or frce pC,
vonex. design. 20
TOlal head inlet temperature - 973 K, total head in let pressure - 4.5 bar, staLic head 1/ 2 x - -
0
0.718 x 320.27 IOrr
outlet pressure - 1.6 bar. gas now rate - 20 kg/s oNozzle oullet angle - 28 (measured Ii 0.053 m and
rrom blade velocity). mean blade diam eter to blade height ratio - la, Nozzle loss
D", O.5J m
coe fficient _ 0. 1. Determine the gas velocities. temperatures ilnd discharge angle al
the blade mid, root and lip radii. Assume C" = 1.1 55 6 kg/kg·K and r = 1.333. H ub dinnH:tcr Dh = Dill - II = 0.5J - 0.053 = O.477m
For rn:e vortex dl:sign
Solution C.I I.III · r", = C 1 U · r"
973 K = 1.6 bar ,;, = 20kg/ s or
Too
r," 0.53
'" = 90 - 2H ; 62° Om/Ii; 10 = Til
. tan 0' I. rr1 = - - liln 62'"
0.477
au = 64.4 30
(aJ At mid section
,_ , 0.333 Gus veloci ty.
Too
(-PooP)'
' ; 973 ~ (16)- 1.333 C, C" 320.27

I
;
4.5 cos Q' I./J cos 64.43
751.49 K C, ; 74 2111/s
 A X IAL F1.0W STEAM AND GAS TURBINES "" 241
240 ,. T URBO MACH INI;S

(b) Power developed Since

Um = Cp(tana ,.". - tanfJ, .".)
I\' ri,U(CX I + C.r 2) v.,
lilV(U + 0) tan CLI.n! - tan fJl,m
75 x (160)' 235.62
1. 92 mW = tan 75 ° - tan 46°
87.38m / s
(c) Isentropic Enthalpy drop
CII 87.38
Flow coe fficient, ¢ = U = 235.62 = 0.37
=
"0 - "2
6.11\ 110 - h2.f 1/1, = ¢(tunll, + tunp,)
6.11 W/ m = 0.37(tan 46° + tan 75<)
-= - -
'h 11J 1/1, 1.76
I. 92 x JOJ /75
0.85 At foot scc tion, for fre~ vortex flow,
30. I2kJ / kg

Example 5.16 The dilta illmcan radiu s of tIn axialturbinc s tag~ arc as follows. ell . lanai ,,,. . r". ell ' lun au . . rh
RoltJr hl"de angles at cntry ;Jnd t!xit arc 46° nnd 75° rcspl!clivc ly. Nozzle ang le 31 : . Ian a,.h tana, .". -
'm
exi l is 75 °. Tht! hub 10 lip ralio is 0.6. Ml!llll rOlor specd is 7,500 rpm . Assum ing frcc 't,
vortt!.'( flow cond it iolls dClermine at meiln ;.md rool si!ction (a) dcgrct! of reacti on and 0.6/ 2
o
= tan 75 x 0.45/2
hl'hJI,! lo,ldin g coeffic ient Take hub diaml:ll!r ilS450 min .
4.976
Solution 78.64'
CLI, II
D" = 0.6 IT D"N = IT x 0.45' x 7500 = 176.72 m/s
N = 7 . 500 rpl11 D" = 0.450m.
D, v" =
60 60
A t mean section :

(a) Degree of reaction since Uh

tan ct1.h - -
0' 1.111 = {f2 .m = 75° Rill = 0.5 C"
0
176.72
(b) Blade loading coefficient tan 78.64 - B7.JB
2.96
0
lrDmN #1." = 71.33
V.,
60 Similarly,
011+ Dl Dli + DIi / 0.6
- Dill

=
2
0,45
=
+ 0.45 / 0.6
2
2 Ian a2 ,h =
=
tana 2.".-

0.6/2
tan 46" - -
',,,no
= 1.381
0.45/2
1I.6 m
IT x 0.6 x 7500
= 54 . 10
.. VIII
60
= 235.62 m/s
 23R ,. T URBO MACHINES

:. W ,;,(8U 2) = 100 X 8 X 1578.08' (a) Blade angle at inlet

AXIAL FLOW STEA M ANOGASTURDINES .... D9

-
W 19.74mW C.rl - U
tan {JI = C"
(c) Final state of steam The expansion process is shown on h - s diagram 180 x 'an 60° = 311.77 mis
eL I = C 41 tanal =
(Fig. 5.34).
311.77 - 280
h 180

o Po
(b) Blade angle at exit
Since R = 0.5

4
fh = a l = 60'"

Example 5.15 The conditions of hot gas at the inh:t to a 50% rcact~on turbine
4S
with a stalle efficiency of 85% nrc 800 kPa and 900 K. The blade speed IS 160 ~/~ .
The mass On ow rate is 75 kg/s and the absolute air ang le at first stage noale eXit IS
700. Assuming maximum utilization factor, Determine the rotor blade anglcs. Power
dcvclo·pcd and isenlropic enthalpy drop across the s tage.
Figure 5.34

Solution
ho - 114 Po 800 kPa
R = 0.5 ~, = 0.85
,n

"
ho - II.~l To 900 K U 160 mis 75 kg/s
19.74 X 10' 0'1 = 70°
--=~'- = 197.4 kJ/kg

~,
100 For maximum utilisation factor condition. bli.lde to gas
197.4
- - = 303.69 kJ /kg speed ratio is
0.65 U . WI=C.~
=
"0 - 197.4 3370 - 197.4 = 3172.6 kJ/kg GUfll = - = smcl"J
(I
U=Cx
= 3370 - 303.69 = 3066.31 kJ/kg
. C, = - U- = -160- = 170.27 m/s L

J4U
. sin at sin 70'"
From Mollier chart C n = Cl cosal = 170.27 x cos 70°
P4 = 27 bar, T4 = 365°C and ~4 = 0.105 ml / kg
Co = 58.24 m/s
(d) Rotor blade height

IlJ04 100 x 0. 105

The velocity triangles for a 50% reaction stage at
maximum utilization ractor are given in Fig. 5.35. ~C'=C.
w,/1
h=--
rrDCa " x I x 228.69
C.L.1 =Cls(nal :=U,:. WI·I =Oi.f. WI C II and =
{J,=O° . U
= 0.0146 m
Since~CI = WZandal :=fh
Figllre 5.35 \/doc:iIY rriallgle.fi
Example 5.14 Air leaves the nozzle of an axial flow turbine stage at an angle of CI sin Ct"1 = W2sin fh = U = W.rz for a 50% reactiofl 5ta,;e with
JO"', with an axial velocity of 180 m1s. If the rolor blade speed is 280 mls. Find the :. C.r~ Oi.c. C2:= ell maximum IItilh:.ariOll factor
rotor blade angle for the reaction of the stage to be 50%. (MU- Oct. '98)
(a) Rotor blade angles
Solution
The nozzle ang le (a l) measured from axial direction O't = fh = 70° and
0'1 = 90° - 30° = 60° Co = 180 m/s U = 280 m/s R = 0.5 az ::: fil = 0°
 A XIAl. FLow STEAM ANOGAS TURIHNI!.S ..( 237
236 ;.. T URBO MACIHNES

Since. the rotor blade ungles arc assumed to be equal.

(d) Blade height
,i, x I') Ih={J, =64 . 11 '
Assumin g frictionless now over the: blades, we have
Allh!.! lirsl !ttage rotor exi t
W2 = WI: C; :::;: C2 and \V2, :::;: \V'I
h, = IT Dell From the firsl s tage velocity triangle at inlet
c" = CI COS 0' 1 = 334 .32 x cos 70°
IV, sin (J, = 3U
11 4.34 lO is
100 x 0.041 Since WI ;::: W2 and fJ] ;::: fh
h,
" x I x 114 .34 = 0.0114 m. WI si n f3t ;::: W2 s in fh = 3U
All the second stage rOlor ex it
From firs l stage velOci lY triang le at exit.
Ii, x 1')4 100 x 0.05
W2 sin fh C.I~ + U = 3U
JrD C n :::;: IT X 1 x 114 .3 4
0.0139rn
:. e Xl = 2U = C2sina2
u
The velocity triangles for the second stnge is shown in
Note th~H the blade he ig ht increacs throu g h the turb ine s tages. Figure S.JJ
Fig. 5.33.
Example 5.13 For the above proble m, irthe lur-
hin !.! is two stage curti s turhine wi lh siage efficiency Since C~ ;::: C2 and 0"2 ;::: O'~ (assumed)
or (15 %. dderm in e (he parameters. C ,I sin 0'1, :::;: 'U
- :::;: C'xl
Solution C.~I 2U ;::: W~ sin /J; + U
(a) Rotor blade angles For max imum bl ade W~ si n fJ; = U
dlic icncy. Ihe blade-gas speed rnlio is
Since 1V~ ;::: \Vi llnd ,8; ;::: fJ;
si nal U
a"I":::;: - -=_
4 C,
wi sin fJ; ;::: Wi sin /32 : :;: U.
i.e. W:i ;::: UC.~2 W;zU == U - U ;::: D.
or C I .si n 0'1 = C .( I = 4U
4 x 157 .08
C, = = 668.64 m is U U 157 .08
ell :::;:
s in 70"
CI CDsa ] :::::: 668.64 m /sxc Ds 70 a
tan pi c; == CII = 228.69
= 228.69 mis ... f3; 34,48'
This vc loci ty tri ang les ror the first Slugc Dr a two Sine!!. /3; ;::: tJ ~
S(;Jgc cunis impul sc turbine wit h m ax imum blade er.
Iic l!.!ncy is shown in Fig . 5.3::! .

(b) Power developed

Figure 5.J1 Velocity rric/f/.~' (l!sJo r

- a cllrtis II/rbine wiTh max imllm

UTilizaTion facIO,.
IV
IV,
=
=
IV, + IVII
,i,U{Cx ' + Cx') = n,U{4U + 2U)
1;' (6U 2)

- C" - U = 4U - U = 3U
11'" 3U
c:: : ; ~ =
3 x 157.08
228.69
\VII
=
=
=
,iIU(e~1
,iI(2U 2
)
+ C~2) ;::: ,;,U( 2U + 0)

:. iJ , 64 . 11 '
 ...,
234 > TUIOlQ MACHINES

AXIAL FLOW STEAM AND GAsTUllfll:-l[:S .;{ 2:\5

For first stage

h
1',

o
P,
,
P,
2S
4

-IS

Figure 5.31

110 - IIJ.
ry" = 110 - lib
"0 - "2 = Wi/,;' = 2U' = 49.35 kJ/kg
110 - 112 49.35
Figure S.30 Ve locity (riangle:rjor a roteull tllrbin~ with maximum utilization jacfor
110 - lib = ~ := 0.78
Similarly for the second stnge p; = p~ = 53.950. = 63 .269 kJjkg

(bj Power developed From Mo1iier chart, Po = 100 bar To:;:: 500"C

Work done in first stage = liJU(C.~1 + C.rl) "0 = 3370 kJ j kg

WI = m2U 2 11, 3370 - 49.35 = 3320.65 kJ/ kg
11,-, = 3370 - 63 .269 = 3306.73 kJ j kg
Work done in second stage J1IU(C;1 + C;l}
From chart stale of sleam at first slage exit is P2 = 82 bat T1_ ::; 470"C
= ,ilU(2U + 0)
a, = 0.041 m) j kg
WI/
For second stage
Therefore,

TOlal work done WI + \VII '1I/I

"2 -
= "z - h4S
114

1;1(2U'1 + 2U 2} 112 - "4 = WI//,iI = 2U' = 49.35 kJjkg

41nU 2
112 - h"J = 11, - 11, = 49.35 = 63.269 kJ j kg
4 x 100 x 157.08' ry, 1/ 0.78
= 9.87 mW 11, = 3320.65 - 49.35 = 3271.3 kJ/kg
h.~I = 3320.64 - 63.269 = 3257.38 kJ/kg
(ej Final state of steam The expansion process is shown on " - s diagram
(Fig. 5.31).
From Mollier chan Pol = 65 bar T.,1 = 445'.C ' .a4 -
- 005
• m) Ik (>
...
TIlis is the final sta te of the steam at the turbine exit.
 AXIAL FLOW STE,o,M AND GAS TURIJI:-.IES '" 233

(d) Power developed

"c.~ IV

~c, ,~~~
)-?U Example 5.12
IV 35 x 394.24 = 3.B mW

The initial pressure and temperature of steam entering a multi-

L J c,-c,
IVA _ stage turbine nrc 100 bar and 50Q oC respective ly. The turbine diameter is I m and
speed is 3000 rpm. The exit angle of the first stage nozzle is 70°. The steam flow
rate is 100 kg/so Ass uming maximum blade efficiency and equal stagr.: efficiencies of
78%, determine th e rotor blade. angil!s, power developed. final slatl! of steam and lhe
blade height if th e turbine is two stage Rateau turbine. Stale the assumptions used.
u
Solution
Figllre5.19 Veloc ity triangles Jor a sing!" impulse slrlge w;lh maximuIII utilization/actor
Po = 100 bar To = 500"C D = 1m N = 3000 rpm
(a) Rotor blade angles Til = 100 kgls a'i = 70° ~SI = ~S2 = 0.7B
(un fit WI! =: U Irln a l (a) Rotor blade angles blade angles nrc assumed 10 be equal. The blnde gas
c(/ eu 2C 1 cosO' ] 2 speed ratio ror max.irnum blade efficiency is
Ian 7::l C
- -2.- = I . 635
U sinal
G U,"
~, ",,, - 1(1.635) CI 2
2U
58.55"
rrDN If x I x 3000
Il, Ii']. = 58.55° U = 60 = 157.0B mls
60
(b) Flow coefficient .. C,
2 x 157.08
- - - - = 334.32 mls
sin 70
ell = CI casU'1 2
U CI sin a l lanai 111C veloc ity triangles for a two slage Rateau turbine with max. imum hladc dficiency
2 a nd assu m ing ax.ia l exi t is shown in Fig. 5.30. For the first stage .
2
[an 73"
C] sina l = 2U
C ,r ]

Wq = Cx , - U = 2U - U =U
= 0.61:2
and C~~ O. C2 = ell
(c) Blade loading coefficient
W-f] U lanai
Ian fi t = C" C" 2
V'/ ¢(lan fJ I + tall Ih,)
0.612(Ian SR.55 + Ian 58.55) ~, = Ian
- I ('an 70")
- - -
2
2
p, 53.95" = p,
 AXIAL FLOW STEAM .... NOGASTuRU IN ES ..;: 231
.'
230 );;0 TURDO MACIlINES
(aJ Power output
670 - 249.5 = 420.5 m/s I IV mUCrr(tanal + lan(2)
Therefore
I U =
rrDm N
- --=
60
rr x 0 .5 x 2400
60
R =
420.5 - 249.5
2 x 300 = 0.285 I
I
= 62.83 m /s
C/t(tanp2 - tan.8l)
R = 28.5 I R =
2U
(c) Blade efficiency 2UR 2 x 62.83 x 0.5
C" =
(t,n /30 - tan Il,) (an 36° - Ian 19°
Work done 164.38 m /s
~h = Energy input
=
Power output for J kg of slcnm per sec
U(Wq + Wf~)
=
+ w;_ _ W2I
C2 IV = I x 62.83 x t64 .38(tal1 36' + tan 19' )
--.!.
2 2 IV 110.59 kW

Since (b) Stage enthalpy drop

R
W/III
= q,
= 2U(lVx , + Wx,)R 110.59
201 x 10' x 0.285 0.88
= 125.67 k1/kg
57285
Example 5.11
""
HOI gas at BOO kPa and 700°Centers a simple impulse turbine
and nozzle and expands adiabatically 10 100 kPa with an efficiency of 90%. The noah:
C, =Ca lcosa, = 2001 cos 70' = 584 .76m/s angle is 73 ° 10 the now direction. Assuming optimum conditions. find the rolor bludc
angles, flow cO,efficient, blade loading coefficie nt and power dc\'c1opcd for a mass
201 x 10'
:. flh = flow rate of 35 kg/s .
584.76'
- 2 - + 57285 Solution
= 0.8806 or Po = 800 kPa T, = 973 K
88.06 P2 :;: 100 kPa al :;: 73 QO
q" =
U sin 0'1
Exam ple 5.10 Steam enters a 50% reaction stage at a pressure of 2.2 bar and For optimum co nditi on. 'I"ltr,r .ci ia = sin2al .and (J1l1'f = - = - - . Velocity
C, 2
170Cl C of temperature . The rotor run s at 2400 rpm. The rotor mean diameter is 0.5 m triangles for a si ngle impulse stage wi th maximum diagram efficiency (o r) ulili1..HiolJ
and the symmetric rotor and sialor blades have inlet and ex.it angles respec tively of
factor is shown in Fig. 5 .29.
36" and 19° . Find the actunl sInge power output. If the stage efficiency is 88% find
also the enthalpy drop al th e s iage. (MKU-May '97) 2V = Clsinal=Csl

Solution
WCI = C.lI - U = 2U - U :;: U
WlsinfJl = W.r,:;: U
R = 0.5 Po = 2.2 bar To = 170'C Since W, :;:::: W2 and PI = {Jz for an ideal impulsc Slag!!.
N = 2400 rpm D .. 0.5 m al = 36° ct2 = 19'.
IV, sin til = W, sin til = U
Since R = 0.5 ct, = fh and ct2 = PI CX! ::::; 0, i.c. C! ::::; ell
 AXIAL FLOW STEAM .... NDG .... sTuRHINES "" ::29

Example 5.8,. Th~ axial component of the air veloc ity ilt the e:til or the nonle
(b) C, = C" = 180 m/s.
~} r all :tx ial Ol1W h!ilClion stuge is 180 m/s. TIle nozzle inclination [0 [he direction of C~ is axial. Therefore. the ou tlet velocity triangle will be as shown in Fig. 5 .28( b)
rnl;J.t ion is 2)0. FillJ thl! rotor blade nnglt!s at the inlet and oUllc l, if Ihl! degree of
rL.!';lc ti on shou ld hI! 50% and the hlade speed 180 m/s. U IBO
tan/h :::. -~-=I
Al so for Ihe same blade speed, axial velocity and naule angle, find the degree of C2 180
r~action. if the absolute ve loci ty at the rOlor o utlet shou ld be axial and equal to the : . /12 = 45°
a\lal ve locity ::1\ the inkl. MKU-Apri[ '94
As there is no change in the conditions at Ihe rotor inil!t. f31 is Ihe same .
Solution
fJ, = 43.9°
C" 180 m/ , " I = 90 - 27 = 63° R = 0.5
= ¢ (Iun 13, - Ian fJll = I x (lan45°-w n43 .9"' )
U = 180 m/s Thu s, R
2 2
(a) Blade angles 0.01 BB (or)
= I.BB%
C" = C'i tan at
Examp le 5 .9 TIle blade speed of an axial now turbine is 300 mls. The mass [Jow
= 180 x tan 63°
ratt! is 2.5 kg/s oThe gas temperature at turbine in let and outlet arc 500° C and 300°C
= 353.:!7 m/ s respectively. TIle fixed blade o utlet angle is 70°e. Axial velocity rema ins constant at
C.r , U .1D.27 - IRO 200 m/s. Delermine the power developed, degree of reaclio n and blade I!fficil!ncy .
-W'L =
-
!:In fil =
C" C" 180 [MU - April '96, Oel. '97, Oel. '99 am/ April '991
:. PI = 43.9<)
Solution
U = 300m/ s Ii, ~ 2.5 kg/s To = 500"C

w,,~ : cu
LJC' (a) Power developed
T, = 300°C al = 70° Cn = 200 m /s

HI = 1;IC 1,(To - T1)

U ~ 2.5 x 1.005 x (500 - 3(0)
(al (b)
= 502.5 kW
Figure 5.2S(n) 11I1t't I'e/ority rri(lllglr Figure S.18(b) £\'i/ I'docity Iriaflgle
(b) Degree of reaction
Dc,gn:l! of reac ti on.
tan fJl Y
R = WJ"2 - \V.rl
. The slage work donclunit ma.ss flow is
R q, (tan 1'-
u, - 2U
2 IVf,ilU(IV" + IV,,) C,,(To - To)
CI , 180
-=- = 1.005(500 - 300)
U 180
~ 201 klfkg
2R
tan fi '! ~+Iil n li l 201 x 103
:. W"~ + \V.q :;;;
300
:::. 670 mls
1 x 0.5 °
- -1- + I. n4 3.9 From inlet veloc ity triangle. refer Fig. 5.2
1.962
Wrt CAl - U :::. ell Ian al - U
fJ, 62.99° '" 63°
200 Ian 70° - 300
= 549.5 - 300
Si nce R = 0.5, fJ'!. = 0'[ :;;; 63 -'l which is give n in th e problem . = 249.:1 m I"
 226 ;. TURDO MACI-IINES AX I Al. FLOW STEAM ANI) G AS T lJRH I =" k S .... :2 21

From inlet veloc ity triangle.lI the hub. rerer Fig. 5.2 From inkl veloci ty triangle atlne tip. refer r-ig. 5.2.

tan 0'1 .1/ =

=
334.83
62.6 1
tan 0'1.,
exl.,
--=---
C"
72.69"
200.896
62.61 -
V" V,
and tanat.II - tanPI .1I = Cf/ and -C = tan at., - Ian PI.I

2,,(0.225)6000
or "
V,. = 2rrfllN
= V,
60 60 Ian fJI.t = tanat.t - -
= 141.37 mls C"
2,,(0.375)6000
VI :;;;; -2"r,N
60
= --,-,--';-;C'.:...c.c..c
60
= tanal.h - -
V"
tan PUr
C" = 235.62 ml s
" 141.37
= tan79 .4 - - -
62.6 1 . 2:\5.62
72" Ian f3l.l = 130 0 71.69" - --
PUI = - 29' 62.6 1
f3r.l
Fro m the outlet veloci ty triangle. refer Fig. 5.2.
At ou tl et
V"
-C = Ian Ihh - tan 0'1./1" CX1,t ·'r = CX1./Il.r",
" 45 .16 x 0.3
CX2.l1
C.r 2.1 = = 36.13 mls
BUI tan 0'1.11 = -- 0.375
C" V, CX2./
AI outlet tallthl = -+ - -
ell eu
CX2.r1l "1Il 235.6 + 36.13
=
45. 16 x 0.3 62.61
0.225 th.1 = 77"
60.21 mls
The degree of reaction at the hub and lip arc

" tan {lZ.h

Uh + C.t:2 .h C.
Cn CII
R,. = 2Uh (Ian th./! - Ian fJl.h)
141.37+60.2 1 62.61
(raIl72 .75° - rUII72° )
62.61 2( 141.37)
11,.. 72.75" = 3. 16%
For the tip and
S imilar eq uati ons as above arc used . At inlet
C"
ex!.. "1
R, = 'iij (tan Ih., - tan flu)
" ,
251. 12xO.3 62.61
:. Cxu = 0.375
2(235.62) (ta n 77" - 10,,( - 29")1

= 200.896 mls = 64.9%

 This work done ~qlJill~ the enthalpy drop pcr swgc. Therefore. Solution
1.69 U' = J 1.59 x 10] n, = 0.225 m r, = 0.375 m
45" , = 76° , f3z,m = 75" . N 6000 rpm
or U = 136.7m/s f3l.m =
co nstant
al.m
C" =
(c) Blade mean diameter
The mean radius.
FJowvdocilY ell = Ctcosa l
C, = 1.43 x U = IA3 x 136.7
rm = rh + r, = 0.225 + 0.375 = 0.3 m
2 2
Ct = 195.5 m/s
The melln blade speed
ell = J Y5.5 x cns(90 - :!O" )
2rrrmN
= 66.9 ml' Urn =
60
From SICillll I~blc . ill 1.05 bar, the specific volume or dry stea m is givcn by 2n(0.3) 6000
=
60
1'J.a: = 1.618 mJ/ J..:g 188.5 m/s
=
Nnw. From inlet ve locity triangle, at the mean radius, refer Fig . 5.2
. Volume flow rail!
rvlass !lnw mil' = Vm
Spec ific volum(,!
lanal.1II ":"lan{JI.1II
Volume now rale (rr Dh)C'1
188.5
where D - blade 1ll1'3n lIi;.III1CICr ilnd II - blade heig ht
-tan ::-=:==----:-:-:-
76" - Ian 45"
= 62.61 m/s

0
Cx\. ... = Cil Ian a 1.111 := b2.6J x lan76"

" =
12 = :!.51.12 m/s

1rO(~)X669 and from ou tlet velocity triangle at the mean radius, rder Fig. 5.2-
18 .63 = 1.618 CX1.... = WXl .... - VIII == CII tan th.m - Um

tor) = 62.61 'an 75' - I BB.5

= 45. 16 ml'
0=1.31]
For the hub
(d) Rotor speed
For a rrl.!c vone=<. design. ex . , = t,;onsL at all radii. 111creforc. b~twcen the mean
U :.: (10
radius and thl! huh
N
nO
13~.7 x 60
1T x 1.312
At the hub inlet
= 1990 rpm

Example 5 .7 The dala for a free vortex turhine blade arc g ivt:n bdow. Cx, .tII "m = CXI.h . 'h
Cx ..... · 'm
Blade lip dinmeter - 75 un, blade roof diamt.!lcr - 45 em, inici 'Inglc orlhe rolnr hlad!.! ex .. /! =
n,
at mid hl!ight - 45 " , out h.:t angle of th c nozzle blade at mid hl!ight - 76(" outlt.:t ~lIlg ll!
of Ih!.! rotor bladl!. al mid heighl - 75 fl , spt!ed - 6000 rpm. 251.12 x OJ25
=
Axial velocity remains COllstant across the rOlOr. Determine for the hub and tip 0.225
Iii) IH)'1.1.lc exit angle (hl rolor hlade angles (c) Ih~ degre~ ofrl.!actioll. = 334.83 ml'
 A ,\\ ,\L FLow STEAM ,\NO GAS TURBINES .... 223
222 }> TURBO M ACIIINES

By measurement from the velocity dillgram WI = 59 m/s WX1 + Wr~ == i42 m/s. Solution

Diagram power R 0.5 P, 14 bar TI 315"C 1'2 ::;: 0.14 bar

= mfl(W:fl+Wt~)
0 .75 RF 1.04 N 20 IV = 11.770 kW
10.000
3600 x 45.6 x 141
(a) Steam flow rate
= 17.99 kW
From Mollier chart Ihl.! isentropic enthalpy drop when stt.:am expands from \4 bar and
(c) Diagram efficiency 315 lJ C 10 0.14 bar is

Work done/kg 6.IIs = 3080 - 2270

=
Energy input /kg = 810kJ/kg
Work done/kg = U(W", + IV,,) Wt.: know that
and Ovcr3 11 efficiency ('II) _ Stage efficiency (t'/S'fll:t') x reheul faclor (R.F)
C' ryr = 0.75 x 1.04 = 0.78
Energy input/kg -1.+
2
Since Ct. then Thus. actual cnlll.llp)' drop

2C'I - lV', 6. It = 'I, x 6."s

= 2 = 0.78 x 810
45.6 x 142 = 631.8 kl/kg
'Idirl = 78.4%
C(IOO)~ - 59')
/J. h 631.8
Enthalpy drop per stage = N 20
(d) Percentage increase in relative velocity = 31.59 kJ / kg
w2 - WI 100 - 59
Diagram power (W) ::;: m D.h the mass flow rate o( steam
= =
W, 59
69.5% lV 11.770
TIl = /J. h = 631.8
(e) Enthalpy drop in the moving blades = 18.63 kg/ s

100' - 59' (b) Blade speed

= =
2
Work donclkg = U{Wq -I- W.1'l)
= 3.259 kJ/kg
= U [(C, ' - U) + lV,,]
Tolal enlhalpy drop per Slage = 2 x 3.259 = 6.5 18 kJ / kg
Example 5.6 Steam enters a 0.5 degree of reaction turbine at 14 bar ,lIld 315 °C
and is expanded to a pressure of 0.14 bar. The turbine has a stage efficit!nr.:y of 75% sine!.: 0'1 = fh and CI := \V2 for a 50% reaction turhin!.:
for each stage and the reheat factor is 1.04. The turbine has 20 successive siages and
the lot al power output is 11.770 kW. Assuming that all stages develop equal work = U[2C, si n a, - UJ
calculate the steam How rate. Al a certain place in the turbine. the steam has a pressure
of 1.05 bar and was dry and saturated. The exit angle of lile blade is 200 and the blnde Now U / C, = 0.7 or C, = 1.43 U
speed ratio is 0.4. ESlimme the blade speed mean diameter o( th e annulus at this
point in the turhine, and the rnlor speed if the blade height is 1/12 of the blade mean
Work done/kg = U[2 x (1.43U)sin(90 - 201 - UJ
diameter. = 1.69 u'
 AXIAI. FI.OWSTEAMANOG .... sTI IRDlNES ...: 221

For un it lIlass nnw nile of Sh:arn. 4

Towl dri vlIl g fnrc!.! = (870 + 295 ) x I = 1165 N The mCi.ln blade speed (U) = -3 x eu
AX ial thrus t for first sta ge = (CIII - C"1) = 170 - 135 = 35 I11 /S
= 45.6 m /5
Axiallhru sl ror s~cond singe
A x ell
(C;'l - C:,:!) = 110 - 100 = 10 m /s Mass now or steam. /II = - - 0 - .
whe re A is the an nulu s area and 0 is the spec ific volume o r steam lrom the steam
Axin llhru!<;1 per unit mass fl ow r~lIc = (J5 + 10) >. I = 45 N
tubll!. A I J bar and with dry sutufi.ltcd steam
(c) Diagram power
a = 0 .6055:1 m'/ kg
= 1II11( 6 W" +e:. W II )
"1 1110
= I x 120( 11 65)/ 10. An nulu s arca = -
::;; 139.8 kW C" (10.000/3600) x 0.60553
= 34.2
(d) Diagram efficiency
= 0.049)8m'
11(6.\\1.,./ + 6. W.I'II )
=
Ci / 2 Now, on nulu s area, A =
1r Dh . .
I :'O( 11 65) where '0' is the mean blade diameter and ' h' is the mean blade hClght
=
(600)'/2 0.04918
= 77.7% :. D = A/rrll = rr x 0.04

(e) Maximum diagram efficiency

= 0.39 m

'],Jill ::::: s in :!Ci I

ux 60
Rotor Speed, N =
rrD
si n.:!(90 - 16)
45 .6 x 60
92.--1 % = rr x 0.39
Example 5.5 A parson's reaction IUI'hi nc having iden ti cul blad ing dl! li vers dry = 2233 rpm
sa (u nllcd steam ;1. ( J o;lr. The ve locity of stCillll is 100 m/s. The mcan blade he ight
is --I C Ol nnd the ex it .lOg lc or the movin g hhliJl! is 20 ;', A I the mean radiu s the axin l (b) Diagram p ower
now vcl ()cil}, eq ual s 3/·] o f the blilde spcc:d. For a steam fl ow rat e of 10,000 kg/hr, S ince the blades arc id entical. the inlet and outh:t velocity triangles will al so hi!
ca lcul a te. (a ) [he rotor speed , in rev/min (b) the power output or s tilge (e) the diagrnm identical. From the data
dfic iency (d) the perce ntage in c rease in rclali\'c ve locity in th e mo vin g blades due to U :::;: 45.6 m /s a t = 20° CI = 100 m /s the velocilY diagram may he drawn as
expa nsio n III [h ese bl:'ldl.!s (cJ th e cntlw!py drop o rth e s team in tilt! stil ge. show n in Fig. 5 .27 . Draw AB = U. Sct off Be alCiI to AS and ~qual t?
Ct· JOIl1 AC .
T hen SCI o rr A D ;::: \V:! = Cl (identical blades) al fJz to AB. Jom D wllh B.
Solution : 10
c, = 100 m/s " = 0.04 m fi2 = 20"
3
ell = - u //I = 1000 kg/ hr

(a) Rotor speed

"
Th e flow ve locity
n"
C" CtCOSa l F
E U.:0.45.6 mls: 0
101) cos(90 - :'0)
= 34.2 rn /s Figure 5.27
 -
AXIAL Fww STEAM A:-InGASTIJRI!INI:.s '" :! 19
218 }:o TURflo MACIIINr;.'i

Example 5.4 The steam in a two row curtis stage leaves the noz.z.les al600 m/s
\V.q = 460 m ls C" , = 1711 m l'
4 10 m/s CUl = 135 m /s
\VI ~
and the blade speed is 120 m/s. Before leaving the stage. it passes through a ring 20° C, = 325 ni ls
~,
of moving blades. a ring of fixed blades and another ring of moving blades. The 0
nozzle angle is 16", while the discharge angles arc 18 0 for Lhe first moving ring, 21 0, Th;}l is the bladl: inkt angle fur firs t row o f moving blade is 20 • . I ' I'
.. d I I C' C is the sll:·tm vel oc Ity al I le In ct
fo r the fixed ring. and 35 0 for the second moving ring. all meOlsurcd relative to the MCilsurc BD rcpres!.!nling C2 nn Cil cu ale \. I :
plane of rotation . Assuming 10% drop in ve locity during passage throu gh each ring to the second row o f moving blades.
of blades, draw the ve loci ty triangl es and determine (a) blade inlet angle for each row
C; = WR . C, = 0.9 x 325 = 292.5 ni ls
(h) driving force and axial th rust for each row of moving blade (e) diagram power
per kg/s steam now and (d) diagram efficiency. What wou ld be the maximum posHiblc k \ ' B' = U . Sct off
Thl.! bladc S cl.!d for cach mov ing hlade is same on d ·so La ~ I , .,
diagram dlicicnt.:y. B'C' = C; a~ a'l to ,\'8' . Join A'e' . Measure A'C' represenLJO g WI and caku lalt:
Solution W2·
c, = 600m /s U= 120m / s 11,= 18° I 1;:::
W WR . tv; I
a; = lI Dand f3; = 35 0
IVR =0.1
' D' - W' at a' to A' 8 ' and join 8' with D'. Thi:-. co mpletes the vel oci ty
~Se t a IT I I -:2"'2 . . b· ' F 5 ')6)
The veloc ity diagrams are drawn as shown in Fig. 5.25 and arc con structed as follows. diagram for th e second stage of two row C'urHS Impulse {ur IIlC ( Ig. ... .

Scale I : SO
Stale J : 5U

c'

E'
Fjcur~ 5.16

By mC~lsurcment. WI = 190 m/s

lV2 = 0 .9 x 190 = 171 mls
Figure 5.25
IV'x, = 155 m ls C' =II O m / s
(a) Blade inlet angle for each row
IV'x, = 140 m js
'"
C;'l == 100 m/s
Draw a horizontal line AB representing U seLorr BC at 0'1 La AS and equal to Ct.
Join AC which represents WI and caluculate W2. lV2 = WR WI . Then set orr AD
p; = 35°
equa l to W 2 at 112 to AB . Jo in D with B. This completes th e veloci ty diagram for the Th!.! blade inlet angle for the second row o f moving bladcs is 35
0
•

first stage of the two row curtis impulse turbine (Fig . S.2S).
(b) Driving force and axial thrust
IIV2 = 0.9 IV, I Driving force for first stage is given by
·l:!. W'1 == W.fl + W'l :::;460+4 10== tO Om /s
By measurement from the velocity diagram
Driving forl.:c for sl.:.cond stage is give n by
IV, = 485 m ls
A IVXII = IV'.r , + IV,.' ,• = 155 + 140 = 295 m ls
IV, = 0.9 x .85 = .36.5 mls
U
 A XIAL FLOW STE"~l ANoGII. s TuIilllNI:5 "" 217

(a) Steam velocity at exit from the nozzle (c) The relative velocity ratio . .
From the niven J nd calculated d 'Hn. we can d raw the vec tor diag r.nn as show n,ln Fig .
S ilK': the lur~in!.! is impul se, the IOI~ 1 pressure drop wi ll occu r o nly in Ih..: noalt:s.
Ass um ing isen trupic l!xpansion. the enthalpy drop can be found rrom [he steam tab ll.!. 5.24. AfI;r drawing the inlel ve loc ity triangle ABC . locate point ~ by dr~wmg Ih t:
pcrpendicu larCE and th en set o ff E F = { W~ , + W"' J} to locate POIOI F . St:t off A D
A I PI =:' hur "1 = h .~ = 2747.5 kJ / kg
at Ih to AB and leI AD inlerscc l rnc pcrpe ndu.:ular FD al D.
-'I = .,.' = 0.819 kJ / kg - K
For iSl!lllrnpic.: l!xpansion, 52 :::: 5[ Scale I : 50
:\1 P:. ::::; :U~ har. '\"'£:/'2 < Xl: Ihc rdorc. the s lt!J m is wet WI : 180 Ints
\\12 " 140 m/s
s:! - .\" fl'~ 6J~ 19 - 1.647
'\"""'!
= 5.:\67
u
= O. l)6~

"'!f : : " .r+ x::!I! !..;

= 551.5 + 0 .964(2170. 1)
= 2643 .5 kJ / kg

Figure 5.14
= 274 7.5 - 2643.5
By mCi.ls uremCnl from the velocity diagram
= 104 kl / kg Rebt ivc Veloc ity al inlet.
Now. IVI = 280 m/,
Gain in kinetic energy := Us..:ful he al drop Rl.!!:.Hi Vl! Vel oc ity al oull e t.
1V2 :;:::: 240 m/s
W, 240
Relative Velocity ratio = --=
WI
:;: : -280 :;: : 0 .857 .
(d) Stage efficiency
CI hOOt> ~ O.lJ .,." 04+ 75i Work done/ kg
·D9.1:! m /s 'IXWJ.lt = Em:rgy Supplied 10 no:u.lc

(b) Diagram efficiency

c'0
Ene rgy s upplied / kg = (ali, ) + 2000
l/./iu =
751.
u = 104 + 2000·

= 106.8 1 kJ /kg
175.65 x 469. J2
imd 'Isttl}:t = (106.81 x 10)
IV 206 x 10)
= 77.15 %
= IIIU
=
2. 5 x 175.65
469. 1201 /5 (or)

- =
175.65 >< 469. 12
(439. 12)'/2
85.47%
=
=
' IJill A 'In,,:zll." :;::::

76.92%
0.8547 x 0.90
 21·' I> TI IR n o MACII INES
AXIA1.FLOWSTEAM,\NOGAS T u ltliI NES "'" 215

Ve loc ity o f .steam al e.'(il frum the nOZ7.1e

(c) Blade efficiency
C' + W.n)
---'
2 'Illin
U(lV X1

Cil 2
C, J2000 x 402
179 x 10'
896.7 m/s
896.7' /2
From thi s data . the velocity diagram (Fig. 5.23) ca n be drawn and Ihe following 69.4 %
rl!su ll s nre nblained. Draw AB = U. Set o tT Be := CI at oq to AB. Join AC. Measure
=
Pd LCAE). Thcn SCI orr AD 0.7 AC (IV, =
0.7 IV,) al /3, =
p, 10 AB . Join BD. Ma xim um hladc effic iency under optim um condit ion
.,
:= sm-al al := 1)0" :- 20°
P I .. JO·" ~, WI .. lll0 '!1 I~ si n:! 70"
:= := 70°
C. , .. J1nrn /~ WJ ,,4J,I,"/,
t":,. lJllmJ. n :" 1.[' = 8H.3%
('..; "' 21(l 'n(~ w •• " SSO",' . . Work done on blade
W.J= "lIlt1m/~ SInge c fflclc ncy ;:; .
Total energy supplied 10 blade
\\'1 "" 0.1W ,
SCIIlc 1 : IUU
279
473
= 58.98%
It can also hc found from

0.694 x 0.85
= 58 .99%
Fig"re 5.23
a) Axial thrust per kg (d) Energy loss in blade friction

Wf - \Vi
= 2
310-210
6::!02 - 434 2
100 N/kg = 2
(b) Power developed per kg of steam/sec. = 98022 J/kg
Work donelkg o f steam/so = 98.022 kl/kg

+ WX2)
U(IYX I Example 5.3 In OJ si ng le row impul se turbine stage . Sleam is su pplied dry and
300(550 + 380) saturated al 5 bar and the exhaus t pres sure is 2.8 bar. There is carryove r velucity
or 75 m/s. rrom Ih e previou s stnge nnd the kinetic energy al e.'(it from the nozz le is
279 kW /( kg/s) only 90% uf the theoretica l available energy. TIle nozzle is inclined at 20'" wit h Ih!.'
Power developed per kg of Sle<lOl per scc. direction or blade rOl<1tlon' a nd blade speed rntio is 0.4 . TIle hladc exil ang le is Jl so
20°. Fur a steam now rate of 2.5 kg/s the o utput or Ih e s iage is 206 kW. ESli rnJh:
= 279 x 0.9 (a) v~locity of stearn at ex il from tll c nozzle (b) dii:1gram efficiency (c) the relati,,!.:
= 25 1.1 kW / kg/s velocity rat io. (d) s iage erric ien cy. .

Steam rale / kw .hr = 3600 I Solution

251.1
P, = 5 bar P, =
3 bar Co = 75 mls. ", = 20° U /C , = 0.4 fh = 20
= 14.3 kg
m =2.5 kgls W = 206 kW
(
 2 1:::! :.- TI III1Hl M ,\( ' III NI: S
(d) Axial thrust
t'l1'IJc (0) ex it ,'doc ity and direction (c) wnrk done per kg of steam (d) axial thrust and
Illlw..:r dcvcJoped fo r a stea m now rate of 5 kg/s and (c) dingram or blad..: dficicncy.
Solution Change in now velocity = Cui - e'l:!

c, = 500 Ill is U = 200 mls = 175 - 135 = 45 Illis

th. = 90 - 25° = 65"0' 1 = 90 - 20'" = 70° Axial lhruSl :;; 5 x 45

Thl.' diagrum is constructed as fo llows (Fig. 5.::!:!).

VclOC lt }'
= 225 N
1~1I ScI..:t.:t u suiwblc scak (mostl y reduced scn le).
and power dewlopl.!d
(h) Draw AS equal to blatil.' spl!cd U,
!~ I Dr~lw Be wit h it s in l; linnti oll Wi lh AS equal [u nozzle angl..: (0'1) ;tIlU S!,!t orr Be W = m x (Work done/kg)
l,.'qua l In the steam velocity (C I) on the snme st:ale. = 5 x III
IJ) JllIn:\C tu l:OmpJclc Ih..: inlel velocity Iri;tnglc ABC. AC = WI. 555 kW
td SI.!I nIT AD at movi ng bladc cxit ang lc 10 AU . With A as c..:nl rc lind radius cqual
hi Ih..: pe.!rccnlagL' 0 1" AC, dmw an arc 10 cut the.! lint! AD at D. AD = W 2 . In this (e) Diagram (or) blade efficiency
prohl..:m sinL"c th l.! dJ"l.!ct of rriCli on is nl!glcctl.!d, AD=AC. U(W.rl + w.r:!)
j n JIll!! 8D tn cn rnplt:tL' Ihe olLt let VL! lo(., Jty triangll! ABO . BD = C2. '7di u =
Crl1
Til l! velocity diagriun is show n in Fi g. 5.2:?:.
Suk l ; ~O Kinelic energy supplied to the blade.!
W, '" 1I~ mO,
o,,,j7'
C:! SOD:!
W:=W, "' ll~ mI. -L:=
t:;. ,Mln," = 2 2
"~ '" )/1
W,' ::: ~ 70nu. Work dono / kg U(WJ1 + \VJ·:!l
I) w,~ =1 ri ~ mlo
. c •• =In m'~ = III x 10' W I kg
Co.: = IHm.. III x' IO'
500' 12
88.8%
I) ~()H "' "
"
Example 5.2 TIle bl<ldc spe.!cd or a single ring of impul se hlading is :\(X) I~S anJ
Figure 5.22
the nozzll! an!!le is 20 0 • Thl! ise ntropic heat drop is 473 kJlkg and Ihe nozzle crllt.:lcnl,."Y
Th..: foll'l wi ng r..:sults arc ubtained from thl! veloc ity vec tor diagnlm . is 0.85. Give~ thaI the blade velocity coemdent is 0.7 and the blad..:s arc s)'mmctril: al.
(a) Moving blade inlet angle draw [hI.! velocilY diagrams nnd calculute for a un it mass now of ste.!am (a) A;(i~l
thrust on the hladinu (b) steam co nsu mption per kW if thl.! mcchanical dlicicncy I!'
90% (c) Blade or di:gram efficiency, stage dlicicncy and maximum blade dticicncy
(b) Exit velocity (d) energy loss in hladc friction.

- imd dirL'c li nll of sIC am .11 cxil

c, = 160 ml s Solution
U;300 mis , ,, = 20' , (All), = 473 kJ/kg, qN = 0 .H5,
\V2
w,
= U.7, Ih =
{J , (blades bl.!ing symmetrical)
Usdul heal drop which is converted into kinl!tic cncrgy
(c) Work done per kg of steam D. h 'I N tl.h J
lV /III = UPV.r 1 + Wr:!) 0,85 x 473
= 2(1)(270 -\- 2R5) = 402kJ/kg
= IllkW / kg
 210 > Tunno M i\CI IINI;:'"
Ci 12. where C:! is the absolute velocity of Lhe steam at the blade exit. When this
kinclic energy is passed over to the next slage, it is termed "carry oller".
In addition 10 these losses, there may be some loss ofheDt energy due 10 'radiation'
to Ihe ambient surroundings. In all. the lotal intcrnallosses in a turbine may be 20 to
~O% or so.
(h) Loss due to moisture In the lower stages of the turbine, the steam may
become wct os the velocity of water panicles is lowerthan tll.1.( of the steam. So a part
of Ihe kinetic energy of sleam is 10SIIO drag Ihe waler partic les along with it.
GOVERNING OF TURBINES
In a normal turbine driving an alternatcr, the energy output will vary in accordance
with the load . lllc objective of a govcrnor is to m a intain the speed of Ihe turbine
conSlanl irrcspective of Ihe load. The perfonnance of the turbine itself depends, 10 a
large exlent. on the particular method employed for controlling the suppl y o f steam to
the turbine so that the' speed of rotation' will remain constant. The c hief governing
methods arc
(a) Throttle governing TIle principle of thi s method b'lsically requires 't"rot-
tUng' of th i.! s team . so as to reduce lhe s team Oow whenever there is a reduction
of load on Ihe turbine. In addition to a stop valve, the turbine has a 'double bear
,·ultle' having. seals o f equal or nearly e.qual a reas , so sha ped that the forces on Ihe
valve due 10 SIalic pressure and dynamic action arc balanced . This double beat valve
actually throttles the steam (Fig. 5.l9). IL is operated by a servo·motor controlled by
a centrifugal governor. which is driven by a worm gear at a speed less than that of a
turbine.
Figllre 5.19 ThrouJe governing willi double beat valve
(b) Nozzle control governing In this method the nozzles of the turbines ore
grouped in two, three (or) more groups and each group of the nozzles is fed with
the steam supply conlrolled by valves (Fig. 5.20). Di fferent types of arrangements of
valves and groups of nozzles may be employed. But the noz7.le control is necessarily
A\"(,\!. FLOW 5T1.;"'" i\NIlGASTuIW1!'.f'_" ...;: :! II
restricted 10 Ihe firs t stage of the turbine.lhe n07.7.le areas in till: OIher stages remaining
COllstant. II follows that , provided the condition of the SIC<.lnl at the inlcllo the second
stage is not materiall y effecled by Ihe changed co nd ition ofl he firs l st;Jge, the absolute
pressure o f stea m in front of the second stage nO/.z lc will be directl y propt'rliunalto
th e rate o f s tcilm now through the turbine .
Figure 5.20 Nuz:.le COlllmJ gOllU1II1I1:
(e) Bypass governing The modern high press ure turhines consist of a numher
or stagcs of co mparati vely sma ll mean diamelers of wheel. Ow ing to sma ll heal drop
in th e first stage. employing noale control £overn ing is not advisahle . FUriher. In
cusc. of higher loads the extra stc om requirell can not be admilled through ;'HlJitiof1al
nozz les in the first s tage, due to vilrious reasons. These diflicuhie s of regulation arc
overcome by the use or by pass gm'crning (Fig.. 5.21 ). In thi <t nll:thod. the steam enter,
the lurb ine c hes t through a vave controlled by a speed governor. For IlIgher IU<ld, :1
'bypass lil/f' is provided, in such a way that stearn passes from the lirs! stage nOi'.t.le
box directly into that of. say, Ihe fourth s ta ge. Suc h 'bypass' of steam is automaticall y
regulated by n vnlve controlled by the stenm o f the firSI Singe which scnses the load
vuriatlon.
Bypass ""')l
valve ~ "S Bypass steam
LJ..~ c::::,; ~ :'L.
_ ~To
... lower
slage
,~~~
Fieure 5.21 fJypllSS NovernillJ.:
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Example 5.1 The data pertaining to an impul se turhine is as foIlO\,,·s:
Stenm velocilY = 500 mIs, blade.: spccd=200 tn/s. Exit angle of nlll"in~ hl<lde =2:"
measllrcd from H1ngcnliJI direction. nozzle anglL! = 20". Neglecting the effed of
friction. when passing through hladc passages, calc ulate : (;'1) inlel angle of movilll,!
 :W.R :,... T liltBO M ,\('IIJ NES
AXIAL FLOW STE.... M ,\NO GAS TURBINES "" 209

Re;lction (a) Governor valve losses Usually all turbines arc filled with govcrnors for
Impulse turbine Ihl! purpose of speed regulation. The first loss occurs here In 11ll! form of ·rhrottling·
lurbltle
(It thl! main SlOp valve. This los5 may be of the order of 5 \0 IO ?t:

Figllre 5.17
(b) Nozzle friction losses The friction and eddies cause soml! prt!ssurc drop
in the. nozzle but the most significant loss occurs in thl.! vcJm:ilY of Ihl.! jl!l ;.It the exit
(4) The hl:.ldes of an impluse turbine arc only in action when they arc in front of th e of the nozzle. This loss mny amount to another 5 to 10%
nuzzles, whereas blades of th e rencti on turhine are in action all the time.
(5) Jmpul se lu.rbines have the same pressure on the two sides of the rotor blades, (e) Blade friction losses Due to this loss, the relative velocity of !ileum allhe
\vh e r~as dlff~rc nt pres~urcs exist on the two sides of the moving bl:.ldc of a inlet (0 the hlade is correspondingly reduced al the exit of the blade
rcacUon turbine.
(6) Becau~e of sln.all pressu re drop in each sLage, the number of stnges required for
a reactIOn turhln!: arc much greater than th ose for an impulse turbine ofthl! sa me
pllwer.
where IVH~.a coe fficient which varies from 0.7 10 0.9, which lakes imo account the
TI~c fluid \'elocit~ and the blade speed for a reacti on turbine arc low as co mpared loss in velocity dut.! to friction.
\\,Ith those of an Impulse turbine.
IH) The variatj ~n of dill.gram efficiency wilh hlnde speed rnlio is shown in Fig. 5.1 8. (d) Disc friction losses When the disc (or) the turbine wheel fOtatc Sin a Jen se
On co mpann~ b~th Imp~lse turbine ~nd reacti on turbine, it is clear from the graph (or) visco us mediulll likc steam, certain fluid resistance is experiem:ed by the.: whed.
th.at. fo~ a rca~l1on turbine the effiCiency curve is reaso nably flat in the re~ion As a re.:sult, the moving Sleam creates II drag on the stearn whIch SL!ts it in mOlion.
nl maxlmun dmgram efficiency. This point is of great signifi e3nce as Ihe s ~all
Also. a cennin ddinitc 'circa/urio,,' ofsit!um within the wheel openings is developed.
thereby in creasing Ihe frictionnl losses. It is difficuh 10 reduce the Insses Jut.! to ~uch
\'ar.int~ons. in th e blade speed rario (~I ), ca n be nc~eptcd without having much drag forces. known as 'disc/riclioll/osst!s', in turbines. This loss is about 10%.
"nnallon III rhe value of diagram efficiency. (e) Partial admission losses In Ihe first stage Df II high pressun: lurbinc.
owing to co mpilra tively small area I"t:quired for the nozzles, the laller extend o\'er
the whole pl.!riphcry of the slage: and thus a few blades remain partiall y filled wilh
steam, in which the now also gets disturbed considerably. 1l1cre will he certain eddies
produced in Ihe channels or the idlt! blades. Since the casing is full of steam. t!vcn
these blildes which arc not under the direct inlluence of jets will churn (shake) the
"'- RI!:lction
steam eddil:s und thus produce 'fall losses' (or) 'windage iosst!J' which arc knuwn
as partial admission losses. Attempts may be made to reduce tilese l(l s~ e s hy limn!:
turbin e
Simpk: slationary shit.:lds around tht: movi ng blades which are not rect.!i ving the SleJIll.
impulse
lu rbine (f) Gland leakage losses There is a smull loss of energy in each stage of Ihe
turhine , owing LO til(! Icakagl: of steum from one wheel chamber 10 the next through
the glands. Here some space hetweeillhe diaphram ami the shaft may hI.! eXls~ing ami
lead to leakage. Actually, the functi on of glands at high pressure cnli is t(1 ..:hed. the
Sin a, It.!akage of steam to th e atmosphl:re, while that at the low pressure end j~ to prevent
in -leakage of air to the turbine.. However, eve n a best typt: of gland is sus..:..:ptibk ttl
leil ks and causes such type of losses. Two lypt.!S of gl<lnds arc in gcm:ral us\.! .
( i)The carhon ring glands
Figflre 5.18 \lariulion of diagram efficicncy wi,h blade .f{lt!ed mlio
(ii) The labyrinth pa..:king glands, whil.::h minimi se the gland h:akagc losses.
INTERNAL LOSSES IN TURBINES (g) Residual velocity loss In [he final stage of a IUrhine, the kindie crll:rgy
An ideal (ur~illc wo.uld develop work equivalent to the isentropi c heal drop of lhe corresponding \ 0 the final absolute velocity of the steam as it leaves the whed is losl
s[cllIn. Bul. III practIce, the. actual work oblained from a turbine is mu ch less than wholly (or) partiall y. An·angement ma y he made 10 recover II part of the cn!.!rgy hy
the theore tical work (or) isen tropic work. This difference is due to the various losses reducing the' velocity between the Inst stage and the exhaust hranch . This type of loss
ellUml!rLlICd as follows, is known as the residua l velocity loss, and may he rcducctl also by providing guiu!.!
va ne s in the exhaust hood to perform so me diffu ser action. This loss is eq ual 10 Ihe
::!06 };- TURBO M .... rIllNES
AXIA l. F LUW STE.'~I ,,~ nGAsTl ; lurl sl ' :-' ... :!117

The stage efficiency fOf the given stage is ,/.\

'/,
R.F
Actual enthalpy drop Of '1/ = 1/.\ x R.F
'I:r=
Isentfopic enthalpy drop

'1.11 FREE VORTEX DESIGN

AlB,
;hC, Fre.::e.:: vorte.::x pnne.::irk i~ use.::d fur thc dcsig.n oj" lung hlilde.::s.
-=..--=-
A2B'2
and so on.
-
.
For constant sW-!!nalion enth:..dpy 'll.:rnss Ihc annulu s (~O)
-
dr
.
= 0 ilnd constant aXial
The reheat factor is defined as the ratio of the cumulative l!nthalpy drop 10 the
velocit y dC"
- - = 0 ) . tIc 1 whirl componellt 0 I' ve ICIC .ilY Cx . IS.inverSe
. Iy proportliJll;1
. 1
Rnnkine enthnlry drop and il is given by ( dr
to the r:.luius. Rm.lial e.::quilihriulll is achie.::ved in rrcl! VOrtc.x design only when
A,B,+A2 B2+"'j
IR .F= A,D
1C \, 1" = constant I 15 .52)

rl=:;
L AnBrr
For 3 stages = c"=
~.':'--:o­ (5.491
AtD CONSTANT NOZZLE ANGLE STAGE
The.: turbine intcnlal efficiency is defined as the ratio of the total aC(UallUrbine wurk Constant nozl.k ang le blades lor) straight blades are simpll.! and less I.!xpl.!llSJve. com-
to the Rankine work. pared to twisicd nozzle blades. For a cons lant absolute air angle lO' I) stag!.! imd r;ldial
equilibrillill. the relmi onshir bl.!tween rnl.!an sl.!c tion and any sec ti on a1 radiu !'. f'. i!>.
A,C, +A,C2+'"
A,D
~
C.I L ",
(5.50)

rf '/.It = '7.11 = '1.\ is assumed IMPULSE TURBINES VERSUS REACTION TURBINES

A,C, The salient c.Iiffcn:m:cs between an implusc turbin e and reaction turhinr.: arc sl;J ll.!d
'1.\'
AIBI
= A2B2 A:;BJ
he low.
A,CI + A2C2 + A:;CJ (I) In irnpulse turhine.thc !luiu is expande.::d completely mIlle noah: and il remain ..
AI 81 + A2BZ + A:;BJ at constant pn:ssurc during ils passage through tht.: moving hlade!>..
Il=J In rl.!ilc tion turhine the Iluid is only partially expanded in thc nol.l.lt.: ilnd tht.:
L AnCn rernainlng. expansions tilke place in the rotor blades.
11 = 1 (2) In irnpulsc turhines whl.!l1 the Ouid glides over the moving hladJ.:s. the rcla -
I/.T (0.511
11=)
ti vc veh1city of fluid cither remains constant or reduces slightly due.:: to friction
L AIIBrr
(i.e. H'2 ::: WI )·
11=1
In reaction turhine. sinn! the Iluic.l is cuntinuously exp;.mding. relative \'e1oci!}'
From equalions (5.50) and (5.5 I),
doc s increase ( II'~ > Wd. .
(3) Impulse.:: hlades arc of the.:: plat e or profile types and arc sYlllllletrical iiS ~hll\\'1\ 10
'1, x AID
'1s = rl_) Fig. 5. 17 . Re<Jc\ioll turhine blilJe.~ h(lve nerofoil sectilln and ilre.:: il."ymmctrH.:al.
L AnBn The blaue is thickcr at one end (Fig. 5.17) and this provide.::s a ~uiti.lhle shaped
rr = ' passagc for the.:: Iluid to cxpanu .
 ::!t14 , TI JltUO MACI-II N':S AX'AI. r-LOW STI:,\M AN OGASTu ROISr:S "" 205

(b) Pure impulse stage In this stngo by deF- (e) 100 per cent reaction stage I'.
h
'lillian tlh:n! is no pressure d rop in the rotor. For When R = I (equation 5.48) g ives a t = Q2
h o
rcwrs ihle adiab.ltic now, the poi IllS 1.2 and 2s w ill and C, = C:! . The velocity diagram is in-
l"lli nddt! ( f\g 5.15 (b» . clined to the ri g ht. There is nostalic e nthalpy
(c) Negative reaction stage Idea ll y. forro- drop in the stator (Fig. 5. 15 (e)).
\'l'fslhh: ~dl ~ha ti c fl ow, Ihe poin ts 1.2 and 25 o n the
(f) Reaction more than 100% In-
Mo Hie r c h ~rl ~D in ci d c in th e ·zcro rcac lion stuge.
creasing the reac ti on ratio to great er than I
Tlh.:rL'fo n::. with isc ntropic flow co nditions prcv;; l-
, gives ri se to diffusion in the stator passages
Lng Ihe ze ro reaclion s t:lge is exactly Ihe same us
Figure S.15(b) Pllre implIlse or nozzleswithC , < Co(Fig.5.15(f)). This
th e impul se stage. H owcver wh en the now is irre- Figure S.J5(/) Stage expanslOII walt
stage ill a l/ axial gas wrbine situation should also be avoided because of
va s ible. Ihey arc no t s;uil e and in fucI nn increase reacrio" more thall 100 per Ct'11I
Ihe likelihood of now separation o n the sta-
In_.e llllw.lpy occ urs in the rotor of the implusc s iage
lor blade s urfaces .
ill at. lLriai gas !f"b;ll~
(hg ..5. 15 (c» . Thi s stage is refern.:d 10 ' IS a negative h
o
reli c ti on s tilgC.
.Fo ra nc~ati vc reaction s tage. W2 < WI (from cqua- STAGE EFFICIENCY, TURBINE EFFICIENCY AND
lion (5.4)) thereby causi ng diffus ion of the the re la- REHEAT FACTOR
~ivc ve loc ity vec tor in the rOlor and a subscq uent rise Fi g. 5 . 16 shows the c x. pans ion of steam through a number of turbine slages. A, 8.
10 pressure . Thi s co nditi o n s.hould be avoided. since repres":lIls th e isen lropic cx.pansion in the first stage. TIlt: actual stale: of Sleam with
adverse pre ssure g radients c:lUsing flow sepa rati o n L---'tc:''-____~ fricti o na l reheatin g is shown hy po int A 1. So Ihe actual heat drop is Ale •. Similarly,
on .he hlade s urfaces results in poor e ffici e ncy. 5
Ihe isentropi c "nd ac tual siages of heat drop fo r the succeeding siages arc shown in
Figure S.lS(c) Negatilll' re(IC'rion
Fi g . 5 . 16 by A1B2, A]8] and A le2. AJCJ and so on .
(d) 50 percent reaction stage Whcn R = 0.5 from equation (S.47)/h = Q'J The drop A I D re prese nts the overall isentropic heat drop (or) Rankine heat drop
(~I ::= (tl ~ IS:l C '. = I~:! and Cl = IV I. Th is results in asy mmetrical vd oci ty diagrum~ between the in lel and outleL state of stearn .
I hi.: drop enthalpy the stat or ilnd rot or arc equal (Fig. 5.15 (d »).
10 111
Th e sum or tile isentropic drops in a ll stages of the turbine (A I BI + A2B2 + A,:\B] +
h Po ... ) is called the ' CulIlulative elllhalpy drop' . The cumulative enthalpy drop is always
h Po
ho greater than Rankine e nthalpy drop (A I D) as the constant pressure lint!s diverge from
ho=h t,f-:,'°""-~_-,;-I,/
IcfliO right on the MolJier c hart.

2s 2
11.:, 2ss 2s :!

s
h

i
Figure S.lS(e)

Figllre 5. 15(d)
Ficure 5.16 £orpullsion proCI!SS in a mll/rislage rurbinl!
Figure 5.1S(d) A50 ,n'l' Ct'1I1 reaclirU/ stage i ll (1II {lxial gas fltrbill e
Figure S.lS(e) A 100 I't'l' Ccll! reaction stage in (Ill {lxial gus turbine
 202 :> Twmo MACIIINI:S

Cu(lan fJ2 - tan PI)

2- _-=-2~ = 2U
+sin Zcrl
.p(tan til - tan ~I) (S ..lt11
2 sin z 0'1
IJ/U"I _.1 15.42 ) 2
I + sin 1 0'1
Equatioll (5,46) t::l1I be rearranged into it sct:ond foml
REACTION RATIO
\\1'2- W,..
111C reat:lion ralio of an axia l now turbine Vilr' . 2U
as the reaclinn rOllin of an axial now co • ~cs \~ Idely from 0 to 100 rt.!r cen l where
slagc.
. mpressor IS usua!!)' .St.!1 al 51) p t:'r Cenl I'or (ill'

rhl! rl!l.IL'tion ratio U is given hy

(cuIan Ih) _ [Cu lan 0'1 - !:!.. - ]
Then. R 2U 2U 2U
R = SUllie enlhalpy drop across rotor
Sialic emh"lpy drop across stage C,«(;.Ln f3'! - (;lna l )] (5.471
= 0.5 + [ 2U
= ", "1
"0 - h'2 (5.43)
And a third form is give n by subSliluting for

= (hOi, _ c/)"
2
~h
(:,
01-
Cl)
2
l;lnti'! ;::
(u +C C" -,) = (tana} + VIC,,)
"
EquatiOIl (S.47) then becomes
BUI for a normal siage Co = C,_ and smcc,
' I 100 = hOI in the noall!

1'1 - "2
C" (tan a:! + ~- II
tan.a l )
R (5.44 ) 0.5 + C
"01 - hOl R 2U
I [Cu (tall Q:! - tan 0'1 )]
(1.v 1 _ Wl) = + 2V '
Remcmht!ring (IHIt hor", = "0'1,.1 then hor -h , =("1- /1 1 ) + ' ,
and subsliwlin f l '
'I - "1 ,rl O~"I - 2 = 0
g or In equation (5.44).
(a) Zero reaction stage If R = O. from equalio n (5.46), ~, = ~, and frolll

(2(hOi - hOl)(
Equation (SAS) \\I,! W, =
. The conditions tlf gas through the stag\!. and Lhc accomp<lnying vc\ocilY mangh.: ...
W,l _ w:!
- 1 arc shown in the ligurc 5.1 S la).
(5.45)
2V(C,1 + C ,)J I',
If'C . ' ,- h
II IS assumcd to he cons tant through the stage, then

s (b)
la)
Figure 5./5((1) 7..uo reuctioll a dal gClJ IIIrhl1lt'
R = + IV" + IV" - V)
2V(U The veloci ty tri.mglc is inclined mnre towa rds the left.
Idt:all y. for reversible adiabalit: now, the points 1.2 and 2s on the Molliachart slwulLi
(Wr2 - 'VI·, )(W,I2 + \Vt,) = W X2 - WI',
= 2V(IV" + 1\1,,) 2V
coincide. and in 1hal case no pressu re drop occurs ;n the rotor.
 ~no ;;. TIJI{ltu MAC IIINES AXIALFLOWSTEAMANDGASTlJiUlINES .... ~OI

_. mU Cw'r l + WI·1) (or)

2WJ- Wr 15.38)
= 2
Suhslituting equations (5.37) & (5.38) in equation (5.36).

STAGE EFFICIENCY OF A REACTION TURBINE 2[2UC, sina, - U'[ 15 .09 )

Thl! stag e efficiency of a reaction turbine is the rati o of work don e to Ihcc ncrgy input
2wi - Wf
Using cosine rule.
(5.35) Cf + U"'!. - 2UC, sinal
and = C,
Equation (5.39) becomes
Rl.!wriling.
= 2Cr - (Cr + U"J. - 2UC\ sinal)
(5. 36) 2
2[2UC\ sino!,! - U }
=
(Cr - U 2 + 2UCI sinad
2
2 [2UC I sino,! - U + C? - Crl
For a turbin l! of 0.5 n:aciion, (Cf - + 2UC] sin ad
U2

W~ and C~ = WI 2Cr
= 2- ~c--o;-=c'::-::-:
fh .and a1 = fi t (Cf - U2 + lUCI sineq)

or
Considering the nUllll.!rator of equation 5.36 U(H'xl + Wx~), 2
W'I +Wr~ (CX I - U) + w. Q
2- ---U-),,-=--u--
1- ( - +2-si na l
C ] sinO'] - U + \V2.s in fh C] Cl
2 1540)
(m ) = 2 - --~=----c­
I - a 2 + 2a sin eq

Ct si n eI') - U + Cl s in a l U d .
where a = - called thl! blade to gas spec ratio.
2C] sin a l - U C,
.'. un\!.1 1 + WI·!) = 2UCt sin O' ] - U 1 (5.37 )
Maximum Stage Efficiency
2
Cons id ering the denominalOr of equation 5.36, Thi s is found from the term 1 - a - 2a sin al·
This term should be maximum for the tJs lO be maximum.
dry,
= -2a -2sina, = O.
do
(5.41)
(J
= sin at

So,
2
= = 2-
1 - sin 2 al
1
+ 2 sin- al
 AX IAL FLOW Slh\M ·\ NIIGASTl) IUIISI;S ... I 'll)
....,
Unlike the impulse IUrbinc , no noales as such , arc mounted in a reaction (urbinc. This. c.xpansion in the. moving blndcs of a reaclion turbine gives un exira rCiJction
The rixcd hlndcs net as noz7.les in which the velocity of the steam is increased nnd to Ihe moving blades ovc r that which would be obtaint!lI if the blades wert! impu J.ic.
they also direct the steam correctly onto tbe moving blades. This extra reaction givl!s its name 10 lilt! turbine, the 'reactioll ("rhine' .
The diameter of hoth rotor and casing varies (increases) towards the low pressure In a rt! ~II.; ti(}n turbine a stagc is maLic up of a row of ri xt!d bladt!s fnllmveLi hy a row
side. This is mainly due to increase in spcciric vo lume. as the pressu re of Ihe steam of mnvin); hlades. Stea m cu;celeralion usually occurs ill hath the fhell anti J1II1\' IIl~
decreases. The steam velocity in a reaction turbine is not very high and hence th e hlade rows and helH:e thc slcam passnge hetween the hlad!.!s an: Iluu.!e shapl!d. So.
speed of Ihe turbine is re/;:ui vely low. the hladt:~ of reactiolliurhine differ from thai of the impulse turbine .
A react ion turhine is illustrated di'lgrammatically in the Fig. 5.12. There is an enthalpy drnr in thc
In thi s turhine, the power is obtained mainly by an impul sive force of the incoming steam lIunng its passage through tlie
SIC,lm and small reactive force of the outgoing steam. hlJdes whit.::h p rodu~'es the aceder· "
;)tinn . Tllc ex Il.:n I ttl whi ch thl.! en·
F M F M thllipy drop occurs in Ihe moving
hladcs is callcd Ih c ·tleRn·(' (!{ rClIt' ·
tl llll
If SO l;", Ill' Ill c elllhalpy drop tll;cur.~
in the mo ving hhu.lt.:s. thc slagc will u
b~' said Sfl'7r rcac! ion stage . 1\ 5071·
Figllre 5./01 Sllfieril/lflVSt'tll·rI(lc/I\·lrltll/~/I·.'i
n:OLclilll1 slu~e IS morc commtm in il
for (/ rt!cll.·tinll turbine
IlIlcl reaction lurhine. BUI in an impulse
pre~~urc
!urhinc. lhe l:J1tire enthalpy drop oc(;urs in tile (ixl!d hladcs.

VELOCITY DIAGRAM FOR REACTION TURBINE STAGE

The vdm;ily dia£ram for a reaction turbine stage is illustrated in tilc Fig. 5 . 1~ . Thc
tliagram illuSlra{ed is symnlet ricnl. showing equal accclcrillions in both li.'(ed ilnJ
InlCI Exit pressure moving blades Q,nJ hence thi s diagram illustrates the condilion of SOCm reaction .
vcloclly
Exit ve locity Due to accclc rnti(ln in the Illovi ng hlades W~ > \VI :.lnd thus, other thin); s hcing
eqlw1. Ihere is a grealcr cha nge in vd()city of whirl over th<l[ .-whidl would hc ohtainetl
Figure 5.1 J Pressure alld l'e/aeiIY varialiam acrass a reaclioll turbine with i111pulsc hlaJing. Velocities arc however. lowcr than thilt , which wiluid he fountl
111 IInrul~ !.! IUrhinn.
The shape of the movi ng blades is so designed to have the reactive force of the
leaving steam. 1'r1 accomplish this aren of the outici between the two moving blades With the :-;Y1l1l11elrical diagram illuslral!.!d. therc is no chiln~e In vcltlcily tlr IIllw and
will he reduced than Ihal aline in lei Fig . 5.13(a). hellc !.! no cnd (hl'u'>t due to thi s rhenomcnon.
Howeve r in <.I n:i.lcli on lurbine. there is ,I pressurc drop across cm:h S(;l1;C :.lilt.! tJUl: 10
thi s. together with the hlade annulus area presented, an end thru st will result.
As wit h the impulsl! turbine

Moving blades or
.c Power = IIIU(dwngc in velocity of whirl)
Mov ing blades or
impulse IUrbine reaclion turbine
Figure 5.J3(a) End thrus{ (due III vl.!loL"ity chan);c):;:: m(change in vducity of nUW)
However th e sw,ge efficiency must hc reiatcLI to th!.! energy avuilahlc Itlthe slage.
11li$ pressure anu velocity variations across a reaction turbine is shown in the Fig.
fnlbi s C~I ~C energy avnilablc to Ihe stiJge is given hy 6ft:;:: Sp. ent halpy limp in sw,ge.
5.13.
StiJge dlicicnC)'
TIle !Heam also expnnds in the moving bl<ldcs of a rC<lclion turbine with const!quent
pressure drop <lnd velocity increase in these moving hlndes. This is unlike the impulse
Work done in :-'Wgl.'
turbine where the pressure drop takes plnec in the nOllles only and nOl in the turhine.
Enthalry drop in "tug!.!'
 AX IAL FI.Ow STf.AM .... NO GAsTuRIlIt>:ES "'" 197

For a two siage turbine. REACTION BLADING

The pressure reduces through succeed ing stator and rotor rows, thi! velocity is in-
= C? / 2 creased at the expense of pressure drop and (his necessitates a blade passage Ihat I~
convergent (owards the ou tlet.
= 8(~}ina' - 16(~} (5 .3 1) For 50 per cenl reaction the stator <lnd rotor bl<ldes will be the. same. whereas lew
reaction implies impulse rotor bladeS with cons tant cross-sectional area passagcs and
= 80- sinal - 16a 2 no change in now velocity. Reaction of 100 per cent implies that the stator blade.s <.Irt!
U of the constant area impulse typt!. The inlet angle fit for the reaction bladc is almost
where a = - . is the blade speed ratio. zero ({JI ::: 0) whih: the profile of the back or the blade is almost linear.
C,
Fllr maximum cnicicncy,

d'/d i" B, (small angle)

da
o
:. ~ s in a l - :\2_17 () (5.m
sin 0' \
Convcrgem gas

TIll.' ma ximum di~gral1l efficie ncy is

• PDlhA , >A 2

__ _~~~tt..~~~~==:-Almost
'111i.1 . mil,\" (5.J3) strai ght
I1t Ir...liling edge

Figure 5.11 R~ucfjon blading

The mu .ximum work done is Reaction blad ing is often shroude.d 8tlhe tips, especially if the blades arc long. TIli~
aids in prcvt!nting c,;:cessive vibration by lying the blades together and thu s changing
. IVlm = 2U [2e, (~) - 4U] them from can til evers to blades fixed al both ends (Fig. 5. 11 ).

= 2U14UI = 8U' (5.34)

THE REACTION TURBINE
From the foreg oing analysi s, we ca n write, in general. for 'n' rows of blndes the Construction of the reac tion turbine is somew hat different from that of thl: impulse.
uf1timum hlade sf1ccd ratio tu rbine.
sin 0'1
(5 .340)
:!n

I
Will'I.. dune 10 Ih e last rnw = - of tolal work.
:!"
SJllal
Thu s for a three row vd ocity compounded turbine, (he ideal a = - 6- and the Ii.lst
rnw of hlaJes would do only 118th o~ the IOlal work. G.ll...ll..l.I..
. Sinai
Ctllllp.~lrIng lhc relatiuns a = - 2 - for a si ngle singe impulse turbine and Steam Filtcd blLide Moving blnde
gland
S ill at _
a = - - lor J two row impulse turbine, we find that for the same blade speed Figure 5.12 Ileac/iun /tIrbille
4 -
and Ihe same no?zl!.! an£le, the slcum vl! locity at the nozzle exi t (C I ) of two rows
Essentially. thc reaction turbine consists of rows of blades moun ted on a drum. TIlese
vdoc it), cnmpoundcd impu ls('" turbine is twice that for a simple impulse turhinc.
Since hlade \\'ork. is propnrlional 10 kinelic energy. theoretically Ihe work. of u two drum blades arc sepuratcd by rows of fixed blades mounted in thL! casing.
row C URTIS st;.Ige is four lime s that of a simpl e stage. for the same hlade speed.
 AXI,,1. FLOW STl:,\.\I '\r-: I)G,\sTI.' nlltSE~ ..; II})
]t)4 ;,. Tl IRllD MACHI NES

DIAGRAM EFFICIENCY OF A TWO STAGE CURTIS TURBINE

VELOCITY TRIANGLES OF THE TWO STAGE IMPULSE TURBINE
Work done pCI' unJlmass !low fro m Ihe lirsl row of moving hlm.lt.::-. IS g iven P)
Thl! vclnci l: Iriunglt.:s for a two stage impulse turbine arc shown in Fig. 5. 10. Fig.
) . IOl a) ;tnll (b) show tht.: combined velocity triangles of each stage . U(C.1<, + C.I-~)
1<----- \Vork dooe ---->I U(CI sin CYI + C:! sin cr2)
U [( IV, sin fJ , + U) -1- (II', sin Ii, - U II 15 .25 1

Assum ing symmetricil l blades wilh no friclioll loss, WI = W :! ilnd fi t = fl:!

2U WI sin tt,
2 UtCI si n CYI - V I
Work dam: fro m Ihe seco nd row o f mov ing hlade s.

Fjg"r~ S./O(a) SfIfJe";III/1USl!lJ I'e/ocil." l,.j{/1I8/~sJo "Jir:J' JICINt' <IV/mb VIC: 1 +C:~)
There is alwuys a ccrluin loss or vc~
locity Juring the fluw or steam over the
hl'IJc ;U1d Ihis loss is lakl!ll into account A.~sUIl1 Jn g thai C; = C'!. a; = a::! and a; = YO
hy Hllrotillcing n rnclnr cnlled blade "e-
= Ute:! sino:!)
I(ld,y (,(}f!fficiellt.
Ulm.lc velocity cueOicicnt nV,f} is Equatio n (5.27 J (;'Ill be wrillen as
given hy HI H = W:! / Hli .
The n:lativc vel oci ty of Sleam in the u
= Ujp.v; sin f:I; + U)+(W~sinfl~ -Ull
impulse turbinc blmlc rel1wins canslant
as Ihe ste<H1\ glilles over the blm..les (or) Figure 5. 10(b) SlIperimpmed "floci,.\'
If .tf; = fi; (sy mmetric al blades) and tv; = W1(no hlade rricli\IIl). llu:.n
is reduced slightly duc to [riclion. triangles for .H!COlld stage (W / b = :!V W; sin fJ;
III

In rcac liolllUrhinc blnde5lhe steam expands as it nows over the moving blades. This
incrc<lses the rdative ve loci ty of steam. W; sin If; = C; sin a; - U
w:! > tvl (Rcaclilll' lurbines)
tl':! .5. tvl (for Imp ulse turhincs) I
DUI from equalion 5.2H C; s in a~ ;:: C ~ s in O'~ I
r,
P(l\\'er fill' Ihe I Wll r()ws of hl mJcs = 111 U (6. 'V. + 6 IV"I ) And
where
6!V.,/ = change of vc.::lm:i,y of whirl or blade row I (IV:! - WI) C~ Sill cr,! = IV:! Sin fJJ. - U
6. HI II I = changeor vdocity or whirl of blndc row 2. (W~ ..... W;) W, sin fil - U.
= {Clsincrl - U)-U
. . . 2U(lIW" + lIW,,,)
B 1a d c (or) dlal!ram effiCiency = . ;:: C J si ncr l - 2U
- Cr
Therefure.
Nole Ihallhc rcfcrcn~c here is slillla the kinetic energy of the inpuL sleam (C? /2)

IEnd Ihrust = m(6C1I1 + {lCUII ) I Th e tOlal work dnne per unit mass now

\vhere (W/I11),,,,'11 = (lV/mIl + (lV / III):!

6C", ::: change in ilx.ia l velocity or b ladl! row I . 2UIC, sinal - Uj + 2UICI sinal - 3UI
6Ct~lI::: change in <lxi.,1 veloc ity ofblade row 2.
2U[2CI sinal - 4UI
Nllle thaI cither CUI (or) CIlII can be posilive (or) negalive.
 191 >- TURBO MACHINES AXIAL FLOW STEAM ANOGASTU RUlNI:.S ...: 19:\

press ure drop of the steam takes place in all the rows of fi:~ed blades s ince they all F
NOt'Lh: to.!
\I,.'ork as nozzles.

Nozzle M F M

In S ' ,~ lI ud a~ ~

l'
{t--"'ijf::=ttll Specific ,",uhmlc

I-t~r-+ Specific volume

P'
Cundemer pn:»un:

Figure 5.9 PreHIlrt!. velocilY and spt!cific I'olulllt! diagrum vJ /11'0 slllgt! l'e/OClIY
Exil \'c lociIY c()mpounded impulse IUrbi/lt! ,
Condenser
pressure Example for veloc ity compounded impulse turbine is 'CURTIS TURBINE'.. ,
Vdll..: il y of
Tht.! specific vo lume of the steam remains co nstant as thr.: steam !lows along the aXI!!.
S l ~i\m HI i nl el
of the turbine . Hence. the blade height is sam!! in all rows.
Figure 5.8 Pressure. "e/oeity and specific ,'oill/lle diagramJor (/ (11'(1 stugc preSJl/rt' The ve locity co mpou nded turbines are mainly used as drives for centrirugal com-
compoullded illlpulse turbille pressors. pumps. small generators nnd ror driving feed pumps in big power units,
As Ih t! press ure o f th e Sleam g radually decreases. the s pecific volume of the s te am
gradua ll y increases. Therefore, the b lade heig hl has to be inc reast.!d towards the low
pressure s ide.
nle pressure and velocity variations across the turbin e nre show n in Fig. 5.H.
Examp les for [hi s type of turbines nrc 'RATEAU TURB INE ' and 'ZOE LLY TUR-
BINE'

TWO STAGE VELOCITY COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE

The arrangemcn t of n two stage velocity com pou nded impulse turbine is 's how n in lh e
Fig. 5.9. There is on ly one set of nozzles and two or marc rows of moving bliJdes (in
IhlS C.:lse two rows of moving blades). There is a row of fi xed bl"des in hctwc.; n the
mov ing hladcs as show n in F ig. 5.9. The fun ctio n or lhl! fixed blades is o nl y t6 d irect
Ih!! slr.:a m com in g from Ihe fi rst movin g row to the nexl mov ing row. So. these nrc al so
kllown as 'Gu ide blades'. The cil thal py drop takes place o nly in th e no zz le at rhe first
~iI;\ge and il is converted into ki netic energy. Th e kinetic energy of the stenm gained
in the nozz les is successive ly absorbr.:d by tllr.: rows or mov ing bl;ldcs "nd finnll y Ihe
s t Co\ 1Il is exhaus ted from the lasl row of the blades.
TIlr.: var iation o f pressu re and vel oci ty o f Ihe s team along the axis arc also show n in

- [he Fig. 5.9.

Figllre 5.10 Tw o sla8t! 1't/ociIY COmfl()w/(/~c1 illlJlulsr! IIIrhj,, ~

 190 ,. TURDO MAClUNES
A XIAl. FLOW STEA.\1 ANOG "s T"II.HlNIi." ... 191

IMPULSE BLADING
Mov ing blade lllis ~qu'lIio n indicates Ihntlh~ nozzle angle a I
sho ul d be as high as possible. th e ideal hdng
The entire pressure drop of (he gas occurs
in Ihe s tator. In the rotor (he gas velocity Non- 1 90" . But 0'1 is limited by CII ' Large U'I means
changes Ihe direction bUI not magnitude. s maller ' Co ' rc.:suhing in longer blades 10 ac-
" --f--I-__ ConstOln,-
lmpul~c b lading is employed successfully commodate the required mass now rate. Typi- IIren pU ~ ;I1:t

at Ihe 11Igh·prcssurc end of steam turbines.

The ve loci ty o r the steam is increased in the
COnVCf!;enl ncule row (0 perhaps 800 m/sec
before entering the rolor blades and pnssing
~hrough them at conSlant pressure . A simp le
IInr ul sc turbine is shown in Fig. 5.6.
Diugram dficicncy is given by equation
5.6.
r--~=---,,-----,
iV,1 + Wr1 Ca n be rearranged as
lVd + iVx2 = iVl si1/ PI + IV1 silt Ih
pUll ing fil :::: Ih for impulse or zero reaction
=
Wd + Wr2 WI sill,810 + W R )
Where' tv R' is the relati\le \lelocity ratio
IV. = W,/W,
IV", + IVx ' ~ (C , sill '" - V)(I
Therefore,
Inlet
P,
cal nOZl.11! a n,glcs arc hctween 65° and 78°. lllc
rotor b lade p:,ssages are usually llf constant ·
area symmetrica l cross sec ti on (Fig. 5 .7) with
ink t angle (/31 ) and ou llet angle Uh) of 45 t .
-
Delaval turbilll.! is an e xnmp1c of impulse tur-
him:. F;gllr~ 5. 7 /11111111u rtlrb",,. lilt/do
Inlet
velocity
1 Exit pressure:
COMPOUNDING (OR) STAGING
The vel ocity of stenm entering the turbine b lades is very high. i.e. in lhe order of
----''----'------..1-._ _
Figure 5.6 Pressure velocity diagram 1500 mI s, if the en tire pressure drop from boiler pressure to condenser prtssurc is
for a simple impulse turbine clIrried oul in a single st<1gc nozzle as in simp le impul se turbine (DcI<1v<11 turhinc).
As the turbine speed is direc tly proporliona llo the Sleam velocity. the lurbine spced
~
Vny.d + W ')
x
---'--'7----':':":
is increased <1S a result of high steam velocity. Speed may he in the order o f 30.nOO
I , rpm. Such high rpm of the turbine ro tors arc not useful for pr<1clicai purposes lJnd a
2Ci reduction gC<1ring is necessary between the turbine and the ge nerator dri ven by the
turbine . There is also a danger of struc tura l failurl.! o f the blades dm: 10 excessive
centrirugal stres s. Therefore the veloci ty of the blades is limited to about 400 mls.
T he velocit}' of the steam at till! exit of the turbine is nlso high, when <1 sing le s tage of
blades :lrC used . Thi s gives ri se to a considernble loss of kinetic energy of <Ibout I ()
to 11 %.
These difficulties associated wi th the usc of si ngle stage turbinl.! for large pressure
drop and high s peed is solved by compou ndin g i.c. the usc of more lhan one slagc.
+ W.)
The types of compounding or staging nrc
(a) Pressure compounding : The to tal pressure drop of steam is divided into stage. ..

'lDillgrolm
_
-
2U(C, si n '" - V)(I + IV.) (b) Vel ocity compounding : The (Ot;]\ cnlhnlpy drop is convl!~tcd into kinetic energy

CI in onl.! s t;]gc bu t the conversion of kinetic energy of steam into mechanical I.!l1crgy is
divided into stages.
2[(U/Cd sin '" - (V/Cd' ] (1 + IV.) (5.22) (c) Pressure and velocity compounding: TIle total pressure drop of ste8m IS divided
into stnges a nd the veloc ity obtained in each stage is also compounded . 'nIlS has the
For maximum diagram efficiency. differentiate the above equation with respect to advan tilgl! or allowing a bigger pressure drop in each stage . Conseque ntl y less st.agcs
(U/CI)and eq untc to lcro . Then sin a l - 2UICI =O or .
arc necessary and a compact turbine will suffice for a g iven pressure drop.
C1 ~ V/C , ~ sin ",/2 (5 .23)
where a is blade to gas speed ratio. Thus. TWO STAGE PRESSURE COMPOUNDED
IMPULSE TURBINE
'lmf/x.,Ii"N = [si n 2 a l /Z] x (I + W R) A number of simple impulse IUrbine!' s tages. arranged in series is known a.'" prt!s.'iIlr('.
For an ideal turbine. WR = compoul/ding . In this, two stage pressure compounded impulse turbine. two impulse
turbine (simple) arc placed in series. The turbine is provided with one row of fixed

I:· TJ/flnx .diIlK = s in 2

at I (5.24)
blildcs which work as nozzles ilt the cotry of each row of moving hlades . 'Inc 101<11
 AXIALFLQWSTEA"-IANOGASTURBINES <{ 189

If ~1_1C . C.x i[ ve l ~c ity j~ flO( used. Ih e lo [al Lo slatic ef(icicncy in lerms of hlade loss
Table 5.1
~odfl ('· ICJH S I ~ g iven by
S.No Category Prime laeror <p alld ,#, T"rbill~ size
and"
'Its = h OO - h 02
c-'_ _ -= I. Sialionary Specific fuel Low Large Ilnd
hoo - "2u
industrial consumpLion high
For LI normal siage Co = C"! . Hence,
turbine:
2. Aircraft gas Minimum weight and Compact
turbine a small frontal area High and low

Upon rcarr:.mging
2.5 '1/1
,. 0 .90
::J
2.0
""E-8 1.5
f-rom equati ons 5.15 . 5. 16, 5. 17 and Ihe above equalion. We gel ~O.93
~

~
"'"i:: 1.0
U
" 0.5-
~
(5. /9) S.
o~~~~~-L~~~~--
0.5 1.0 1.5
BLADE LOADING COEFFICIENT
~= C"IU
The ~vork capac.i ty of Ihl! slage is expressed in terms of il temperature drop coefficient Figllre 5.5 Blade loading coefficil!1It \lUSUS fl(lw co~Dicic'nt
(or) blad~ loadlllg coefficie nt '
From Ihe graph of blade loading coefficient versus now coefficient (Fig . 5.5). it is
seen that. for a high tOlnl-lo-total efficiency.tht: bladt: loading fact or shou ld be as low
(5.20) as possible. If blude loading factor is low, the How coefficient will be low. n:suhing
in a high blade spl.!ed (U = Cf,/t/J), which is eo nsislCnt with allowab le blade stresses.
or However, the variation of ' 'I,,' with slight variation in the ."',. is very smaiL This
is true for wide choice of reaction ratios. In contrast, the lotal-to-stntic efficiency is
-#1 = Cu(ran /31 + tan thY U heavily dependenl upon Ihe re actio n ratio and ' ''IS' can be optimiscd at a given ' ,,,, '
by choosing il suilab lc value of rC<Jction.
I'~, <p(tan fJt + tan fJ,) I (5.2/ )
wilere ¢ is [he flow coefficient. BLADE TYPES
The impl i~alin n or: a low now coefficient is Ihal !.he frictional losses are redut~d in Steam turbines a re usually impulse or a mixture of impulse a nd reaclion siages whereas
~h~ s~[Jg~, Sin ce, eu IS lo~\'. 1J!, decrcascs with th e decrease in,p . This implies Ihal only gas [urbine~ lend to be always of the reaction type.
U slll,tl l ,1Inount of work IS done pcr siage. Hen ce . fora required overa ll power output The pressure ratio of steam turbines can be of the order of 1000: I but for a gas
a large number of stages :lre required . '
turbine it is usually within the order of 10: I. So it is obvious that a very long slenm
. In s lation ary industr~aJ power pla~ts where th e specific fuel consumption is of prime turbine with many reaction stages would be required to reduce the pressure: by a
Impoflanc~, a la~g~ dlilmcler, rcJalJ vely long IUrbine of low now coefficient and low ratip of 1000: I. If the prcssure drop per stage is made large to reduce the numbc:r of
blad.e loadln~ , gl.Vlng.:I high e~ciency. would probubly be ,lcccpted·. Wherens, gas stages, the blade leakage loss would increase and lead to reduced efficiency. Therefore
lu~bme used m a~rcraft propulsIOn have minimum weight and a small (ronlal <lrea as rcaction stages are used where the pressure drop per stage is low and also wht!n: the
~hlef fact~rs. Tins means using higher va lue s o( flow coefficient and blilde loading overall pre:ssure ratio of the turbine is relatively low (as in an aero-engine in which
!~C[(1~ 10 gl~'1.! a S~lOrter cOlllp~lel turh in e. BUI as ol conseqw.:nce, the efficiency is lower. three (or) four reaction stages of (or) ncar 50 pcr cent reaction al thl! ml!an radius ar~
I he lorq!olOg discu ssion is su mm arized in the following table . employed). So. the shape of the blade varies with the diffcrcnttypcs of stages.
 J 86 ,. TURBO MACIHNES AXtAL FLow STEAM AN OGAsTtJRU1:-JE..<; "" 181

STATOR (NOZZLE) AND ROTOR LOSSES Therefore, (h2r - h2.l.f):::: T2{.f!,s - S!u)

1wo isentropic efficiencies commonly used in axial flow turbine work arc And (hI - hl.r )::::: Td·q - 51.1)

I. Total-Io-Iotal efficiency By e.,(;1Il1ining the Maltier chart. it is clear that

2. TOIal -to-slatic efficiency
(S:'-I - s:'-u) = (SI - Sis)
1. Total-to-total Efficiency (q,,)
So, substituting this in the above equation.
This is used when the kinetic energy al the outlet of the slage is utilised for producing
(5.15)
work . Ex'lmplcs ror such cases arc Ihe propelling nozzle or a turbojet exhau~1. and
IIny intcnnediute stage or u multi-sIlIge turbine where the lcaving kinetic en~rgy is
used in the rollowing stage. In defining the efficiency, Ihe temperature limits nre taken The dimensionless loss coe frl cients may be defined in two ways.
helwecn tala I temperatures and hence it is rererrcd to as total-to-lotal efficiency.
(i) For the nozzle
1100 - 11m
'Ill = The enthalpy loss coefficient
"00 - holts

'111 =
110 - 112
[for a normal stage Co = C2l (5.12)
I LN = (III -1",)/(0.5)Ci I (5.16)

Iro - lilts
(or) the pressure loss coefficient
2. Total-to-static Efficiency ('}") (Poo - POI )/( POI - PI)
This is used when the leaving kinetic energy is wasted, and hencc it is not utilised 10
generate work. It is defined as (Poo - Poil / npci)
(5.1) (ii) For the rotor
The enthalpy loss coefficient
For a normal stage
[LR = (h2 - hlI)/O.5 W iI (5.17)

Upon rearranging (or) the pressure loss coefficient

(5.14) ( POI .. , - PO'!",)/(P0'2'I' - P2)

But considering. the slope of a constant pressure line on the h-s diagram given by
(POI", - PO,,,,) / npwi)
TIle value of L (or) Yin the stator and rOlor gives the percenta~e drop of energy duc I.~
Tds = dll - ~dfl
friclion in the blades, which results in a tola1 pressure and sti,jIlC enthalp~ drop :::Jcr~s.r.;
the blades. The losses arc usually in the order of 10-15 per cent and 10 pro~ortlOn
when p = constant . I 1I0W
Wltl " cae fnICt._.
·"n' Losses- can be lower ror very low v<llucs of now . . codficlent.. .
Total-la-total efficiency is calculatcd in tcrrns of blade loss CocOlclent. cquallom
T = (a ll/as)p
(5.15), (5.16) and (5. 17) being substi,u'ed in (5.14)
For a finite change of enthalpy 6h at conslant pressure

tlll '" T tls 'I" = (110 - ",)1 [(110 - II,) +2

LRWi
'( C')]
+ r; 2
i T2
LN
(5.1 X)
 I X-l :,.. T n lUiU M M -IIINES
1 AXIAL F LOW STEAM

as opposed to decclcmting . The cffecl of boundary - layer growth in the lurbine is

"NOGAsT\lRlltNt:.S '" I tiS

If e,., oF C'I~ tlu:rc w ill be an axiaithrusl in the now direction . Howeve r. il is assu med negligible. For a normal Singe in which Co = CJ., the stalic tl!mpcratu re drop acroSS

I
[hal [ilt! a xia l velOt'; IY Ca is co nsta nt and th e refore
the stage equa ls the totaite mpc ralUrc drop.
\V / III = Vel/ (tana, + tan cr2) (5.4) i.e. =
To - TJ. Too - T02 [ Co :: C'! I
The turbine s tage to [aI4(O·t o[a l isentropic efficiency is defined as
0>,
Actual work dont! by tht! gas
(5 .5)
'7'-1 = Isentropic work done
Equa ti o n (5.5) is u fll..:n referred to as the d iagra rn work per un it mass Aow and
'11 -1 = (Too - T02 )/(Too - T02.JJ) (5 . 10)
a., soc iillt!U wit h this is Ihl.! diagram efficiency. Dia gram efficiency (or)

lH aue eflidenc = Dia~m work done cr unit mass fl ow Thus

Y \Vor ' <Ivai a t! pt!r unit mass ow
Too - T02 = '7t-1 Too(l - TOluiToo)
(5 .6)
Too-T01 = 'IHToo['-(P02IPooJ '; '] (5.11)
Thl.! diag.ram t.!flicil.!ncy is a lso callt.!d the 'utilisation factor' . The utilisati o n fa c to r
, ~ hig.h in most modl.!rll iurb in·cs and hus a va lu e between 90% a nd tJ5 %.
To prove that, across Ihe turbine rotor hOI .rd = h 02.rri. WI! proceed as foll ows
The work done per un it mass fl ow rate is
h-s DIAGRAM FOR AN AXIAL IV 1m = h ot - " OJ. (11 00 = hO!I
FLOW T URBINE h
p.,
Writ in g
'nle Mollier or h- s diagram ror an axi al P"
OD 01
Ihm'turbin e is s hoWI} in [he Fig . SA . Tota l
prl.!ssllrc [loo :.lIld total t.: n[halp), 1100 re fl!r !O!
"'0
P" u
[0 the stator ink[ conditions. For ad iabatic o
now through th e sta tor row or nozzle ri ng
li oo = hot hU I uwing IU irrc.vcrs ibii i[ies,
the 100a i pressure drops 10 PO I at stator u
o utl ct (or rolor inlet). Expansion 10 P02
and lotal e nthalpy /til:! lakes p lncc in Ihe
hi -11 2 = ex, +2 e" 12U _ (e,,_-
e,,)i
rOior simi la r In th e axial fl ow compressor.
In thi s case al so C'f1 - v = lV.1"!
1 htl!.r'" = hO:!.r ..1 I
C..l 2 + U = W .11
The work do nc rer unill11:\ss Aow by the
g. a ~
is gi\'cn by ", _"2 = IV,,: IV" [ (U _ e,,) + (U + e,,)]
\\' /m = hon - 1102 = hnt - liD'!. (5.7) IV,., + IV" IIV _ IV ]
2 Xl "I
or
II' /m = el'(7nl - T01) (5.8)
Figure 5..1 Mollierc1lQrtJnl' expulI.f iolllhl'OlICli
axial flo II' steam or gas turbille stage
wi - Wf .: ell = conSlant
(lI! II I - III = 2
Suhslitli ling for W / Ill from equation (5.H) in equation (5.5)
Hence,
(5.9)
1 hOl.rd = IIm.rei I
II sho uld bc noled that lh e work d onc factor().) is not used in eq ua tion (5 .9). This
is hccilUse. in a gas or steam ItIrhine . flow Ihrou gh th e blade passage is accelerating

--
 I R2 ,.. TURUO MArl liNE.." A.\!A l. f!.oWSTb\/>I .'\ I\: nG ,\s TIIIUlINES ...; 1M 3

reduccd in tile moving blades. which nrc /lttached to the turbine hub and recovcred in 'A row of stator hlades rollO\vcd hy u sct of rotor blades is I.:unsilkred to bl! a sta!!e · .
Ihe fix.et.l stati onary hlades auached to the casing (Fig . 5 . 1). The inlello th~stator hlades is designated by the subscript O. Inlet to the rOlOrsec tnln IS
referred by suhscript. t and out let from the rotor section is ind1cated with suhscrlpt·::! .
All now angles arc measured from the axial dircl.:lion and can! must hl! tilken when th~
flow anglcs are measured from the dire~tion of blade motion I.C. tangcntiill dircl.:llon .
The gas leaves the slater blad~s with absolute velocity Cl at angle Ct't ami hy
subtracting the hlade velocity vector U. the relative velocity vector at entry to the rotor.
WI is determined . In moving across the rotor blade, the !low t1irection is changed and
the pressure reduced whi le the ahsolule veloc ity is dccrcased and the rcl:uivc velocily
-4--Sbaft
increases. The gas leaves the blm1l: t:.lngcntially at angle fi2 with n:lativc velocity W~ .
Vccto rially subtrac ting the blade speed rcsuhs in the abso lu te veloc ity C2 . TIlis !s
now the inlet ve locit y 10 the next stator row at angle cr~. which ror iI normill swgc
Stator (or) equals Co nt 0'0 .
casmg
Steam out For a normal s[rlge
Figllu 5.l A.ialflow rurbin~

The density of the gas gradual ly decreases as th e gas moves through the turbine, and
1 C2 = Co and a2 = ao 1
to maintain a constant ax.ial flow velocity. the blade height is increased towards the
low pressure cnd. STAGE WORK AND DIAGRAM EFFICIENCY
The stator row is often termed as the nozzle row and in certain types of steam turbine
The two vr.:locity triangles are superimposed upon eilch other in Fig . 5 .3. TIle em.. r!! )'
the nozzle row consists of a set of converging nozzles spaced around Ihe drum .
tran sfer is gi ven by the Eul er's turhine equation .
While.examining th e flow through the stage, the following assumptions wi ll be made.
1. Row condition s are evaluated a t the mean radius. unless othef\vise stated .
Work done
2. Blade height/mcan radius is small, allowing two·dimcnsional flow theory to be
used .
3. Radial veloci ti es arc zero.

VELOCITY TRIANGLES FOR AN AXIAL FLOW TURBINE

A sing le turbine stage ,!Od ve locity triangles arc shown in the Fig. 5.2.

Figure 5.3 SlIpt'rilllpOJed I·t'lod,." lroillglt!s

IE = U(C" - C." I/g I (5 . 1)

and sinl:c C.{ ~ is in the negalive x direction. the work done per unit muss now is gi ...en
by

£g=W j m = U{C.r I + C I ~} (5 .11

Figure 5.2 ~~/odr)' trion1:les Jor all a.rial flow gas (ar steam) (!lrbifle slage = U(lVJ"I+W'l) (5 . 3)
 5
AxiAL FLOW STEAM AND
GAS TURBINES

INTRODUCTION
Ax.ial flow steam llm..l gas turbines are turbomachint!s that expand a continuously
nowing fluid essenlially in the axial direction .
Development of th e axial Row steam and gas turbine was hindered by the need 10
obtain both i1 high flow Ciltc and compression ratio from a compressor to maintain the
air requirement for the combustion process and subsequent expansion orthe exhaust
gases. Inili:!.lIy. the air was provided by centrifugal comprt!5sors and lah~r the axial
now compressors were developed and used in turbojet engines, in which [hI! power
developed by Iht! turhine is partly used 10 run the axial flow compressor.
Axial Oow turbine has very wide applications ranging from aircraft prupul sion 10
industrial :lnd marine plunts. In this chapler, steam and gas turbines are con sidered
together. with the assumption that the same theory applies to both types ofmac.:hines.
Thi s is only valid. when the nature of the steam used in steam turbine exists in the
superh eated slate which is assumed to behave ns an ideal gas. Nowaduys. the power
o utput o f steam turbines varies from few kiloW3US to 660 kW. To have a hi~h power
output. su perheated steam using superheater is made to expand in the turbine to below
atmospheric pressure in the condenser, tocxlraCtlhe maximum energy frum Ihe steam .
Gas turbines an: used as the power unit for large jet aircraft propulsion. bl.!cause they
have a very high power 10 weight ratio. In the case of air-craftjct propulsiun, 10 have
enough jet thrust, hi gh axial velocities are desirable. Usually one, or at the mosl two
row s of nozzles and blades arc required. But, gas turbines which arc used in industrial
or mnrine plants require large number of s tages. This is required to reduce the carry ~
over loss, and to rcduce the load on the blades to give tbe turbine a long working lift! .
Steam turbines arc used in fossil fuel power stations and for steam dri ven propulsion
in ships. although gas turbine propUlsion units are often filled in the s maller class of
naval vessel s.

DESCRIPTION
The principle of energy extraction from the gas is gradually reducing the high pn:ssurc
e nergy by converting it into kinetic energy. This is accomplished oy plissing thc gas
alternately through rows of fixed and moving bhldes. The kinetic cnerM-Y of the gas IS
 178 );- TURBO MACHINE.';
(a) rotor blade angle inlet. (b) static pressure rise , ec) overall efficiency for a
power input of 1.15 kW, (d) degree of reaclion and (e) pressure coefficient.
IAns: (a) 75.7" (b) 59.7 mm WO. (c) 65% (d) 52.6% and (e) 1.89J
--1.36 . In an axial now fan the rotor and inlet guide vanes arc symmetri cal and arranged
for 50% reaclion . TIle hub and lip diame ters arc 45 em and 75 em res pectively.
Speed is 960 rpm . The motor power is 6 kW. The sUltie properties of ai r at
inlet are 100 kPa and 305 K. If the fan efficiency is 82% and the mechanical
efficie ncy of the: drive is 87%, fi nd . the rotor angles at inlet and exit a nd pressure
coclTicient. if the quantity of air handled is 6 mJ I s.
IAns: (a) iii = "2 = 52.5". fh = "I = 6.6" and (b) 1.371
·LH . The first stnge of an axial now compressor develops a pressure ratio of 1.2: I.
The inle t pressure nnd temperature arc I bar and 3 1° C respectively. The overall
cllicicncy of the compres sor is 83 %. The now coefficie nt is 0.47 . The velocity
diagram is symmetrical a nd at mean radius. the ratio of change of whirl velocity
to axial veloci ty i5 0.5. Determine the compressor speed if th e mean' diameter
is 50 cm . (MKU-April '93)
[Ans: 11056 rpm J
4 .38. TIle condi lion of ai r al the inlet of an axia l air compressor is PI = 768 mm
of Hg . TI = 4 1° C. At the mean blade section, the diameter and periphernl
velocity arc 500 mm a nd 100 mts respectively. /31 = 5 1°. al = 7°. fh = go .
mass now rale is 25 kg/s o Work do ne facto r is 0.95 and mechanical effic ien cy
is 92 % s tage efficiency is 88%. De lcrminc (a) a ir ang le a t the stalor entry (b)
hladc height at cntry (c) hub to tip ratio (d) stage loading coefficient. (c ) stage
pressure rnti(l (f) powcr input a nd (g) relative machine number altht! rotor inlet.
IAns: (a) 50.2" (b) 0. 19 In (c) 0.45. (d ) 0.75 (e) 1.08 (I) 204 .7 kW
and (g) 0 .33 j
4 .39. An ax iil l cO/llprcs .~or slilgc has meon diame ter 600 mm and runs al 250 rps .
TIll': lIl:(ual tcmperalurc rise is 30° C nnd the pressure ratio developed is 1.35 .
Inlc[ temperalUre is 35°C and the temperature rise in the rotor is 20°C . Mass
now ratc is 50 kg /s and the mechanical efficiency is 85%, determine . (a) power
required to drive the compressor (b) degree of react ion (c) loading coefficient
(d) slUge efficiency. (MU-Oct. '99)
IAns: (a) 1773.5 kW (b) 0.67 (c) 0. 136 and (d) 9 1.9%1
4.40. Thcl'onditions ofnir at the e nt ry of an axial compressor s tage are PI = 768 mm
of Hg :Jnd T, = J 14 K. The ang les at the me a n blade sections arc 0'1 = 7D •
f1, ::::: 51 0 . fJ1 = 9°. The mean diameter and the peripheral speed arc 500 mm
and l OOmIs respectively. Mass flow rate throu gh the stage is 25 kgls, the work
done factor is 0.95. mechnnical ellicicncy is 92% and stnge efficiency is 88 %.
Assuming free vortex now. determine (a) nir and blade a ngles of rotor. (b) no w
co· eHicil!llt. (c) loaciil1l; co· efficie nt at the huh , mean and tip sect ions .
=
IAns: (a) ClI .m =
r Cl1.m = 50.2" . P I .n! 51 (' . fi1 .11J = ly.
0'1.1 = 5 . 1° 0'1 .1 =40.99 Cl . f11.1 ==60.7° . f3~ . 1 =45.2" ,
c
O'\.,- = 11.2 1°. l:r1.r == 62.68 . Pl.r = =
32.75° . /h.,- - 47.58°
(b) 0.74. 0.53.1.18 and (c) 0.75. 0.395.. 1.96J
4.4 I . A n axia l flow cmnpressorcomprises a numhe r of si milar slages with equal work
done per sHlge. The :lxinl ve loci ty rema ins conSlant through out lill! c ompres sor.
A XI A L FLOW COMPRESSORS AND FANS ...: 179
Q vcr<lll total pressure ratio - 3.5, tota l inJcIIl!l1lperalure -333 K. rchllivc air
angle a t rotor inlet and out le t arc respecti vely 40° a nd 10° , b ladc vcloc.ity
- 185 mis, overall total-head isen tropic cfficiem:y - 87 % . degree of reac ti on
-0.5 . Compute (a) Total outlet temperalure and (b ) no . o f slages.
I Ans: (a) ~ 97 . 7 K and (b ) HI
4.42. Find the poly tro pic efficiency of an <lxial now compres sor. wilh symmclric al
stages from the following da ta. Total head pressure ratio -4. ovcra~llOla l ~ead
ise ntropic effi c iency -85 % . total head inlet tempcralure -21}0 I\.. The Inlet
and ou tl e t ai r nngles from the rotor hlades arc respccti\'c1y 45 ' and 10( . thl!
mean blade speed is 220 m/s. and the work done fnl.:tnr is OJHl . TIle axi.1I
veloc ity remnins co nsta nt throughout the eomp ressor. Find thl.: numher uf singes
requi red. Alsu find the inlet machinc number relative to rolOr al thL.: ml!an blade
height of the first slage. IAns: (a) H7.0%. (h) (i i..IIuJ Ic) O.HI
4.43 . The veloc ities for upstream and downstream of a n open propeller fan arc 5 and
25 mls respectively. The propeller diameter is 50 em. I f the amh ientl.:o llditiuns
arc 1.02 har and 37° c' Determine for th e mean flow velocity tb rnuf! h the pro-
peller. laj now rale ( b) tota l pressure de veloped and (I.:) lhe pO\'-'l!r rcquire.d if
the overa ll effic ienc y of the fan is 40% IA/V-OCI. 98)
[Ans: (a) 3.37 kg/s o (b) 35 mm orw.o and (c) 2.52 kWj
4.44 . An nxial f'ln consisting of rotor (no IGV) has the following dn1<l : huh di a ::
280 mm hub-lip ratio :: 1/2. spel!d :: 1000 rpm. relative air exit an gle =- I()~ .
axinl ve loci ty = 5.5 mis, inle t s latic properties . 102 kPa and 310 K. Deter-
mine (a ) flow cocf(iciclll (b) rotor hlade angle at inlet (c ) static pre ssure ri se
(d ) overall effidcncy (c) degree of reLiction. The power inpu t is I . ~ k ~V.
4.45 . An axial now c ompressor stage is des igned on forced vortl!X prlnc Lple . The
following data refer to the s tage at mean radius : mean diametl!f- 0 .5 m. periph-
eral speed- lOOmIs. mass flow rate-25 kg/s. a t == O'J = 7" . CI~ :=- 50. 1K'jk fi l =
51 ° and fh = 90D. Calculate (a) ai r and blade angles (h) spl!cific \\,~lrk (f.:) loa~ ­
in g coefficicni and (d) dcgrl!c of rcaction al hub. mean ilOd tip Sl!1.:1I 0IlS. TIle.lIT
cn lers the stage at PI = 768 mm of Hg and TI = 314 K.
[Ans: (a) O' l, m =
7 D a1.111 = 50. 18'.1 fi!. ... = 5 J" fI~ . ", == 9'
0'1./1 = 4.31 ° 0''2.11 ::::: 37 .04° f3 L.1r ::; 17 . 191: fi1 .1J = 5.691"
Clu = 9.75 ° 0' 2.1 = 58.33 ° PI.I = 59.94 fI? .r = 1 2.09~
11
(b) 7929 Jlkg . 3048.2 Jlkg. 15099.27 Jlkg. (c) 0.7929. 0.7929. O.7n9 .
(d ) 0.5 LI . 0.555. 0.51
4.46. An axial c ompressor stage has (he foll owing dalil : pressu rl! and 1l!lllpcrature al
enlry arc 1.0 har and 20" C. mcan blad e ring diametcr - 36 f.:1l1 . .. pceJ-1 H.Of)()
rpm . blade he ight iltcnlry-6 em, degree of reacti o n-50%.. axia l VcltlC lty-1 XI)
m/s. Air an gle s ilt rotor entry il nd stal(lf ex it - 25 °. Assume forced vortex 11 0w.
Dc tl.:rmine (a) ro tor blnde air ang lcs (b) degrec of rcal.: lion Ie) ~ pccllic work
(d) now codficlenl and (e) luadmg coerrlCLen t <lIthe hub. mean and tIP Sl.:I.:ILOIl!.
IAns: (a)O'I III = {h III == 25 D , Q'2 111 = fi l /JI = 5482". rq I, = fl 2 /1 ::; 2005
= =
au, {J r." 47 .99 ... . 0'1.r = {h, == 30.64 " .0'2 .1 = flu == 60.9N
(h ) 58 161 J/kg. 403 89.4 Jlkg. 7 9 1 6~ J/kg .
(cl 0.5 3 1. 0.678. 0.41 8. 0.7929. (d) 0.505. 0.505. 0.505 .
(e) 0.5. 0 .5. 0.51
 176 ;... TI IRBO M ,\(,'II INI:S
th e mass now hy 7 per ce nt while thc blade speed is kept co ns t;)ni and it IS
assumed llIlLh.=r II1I S nl.!w cond iti on tlwt the relativt! flow eXit ~l1 g b, for hath the
ro tor and .s ta(~~· remain unl:hnngL"d . What is the s til~e loadin g and rC.lctio n il t
Ihe nl.!\V condillon? Assume Ihe work done faclnr is 0.9.
. IAns: 0.435 and 0.64 1
-I.2J . An aXial flow compressor deli vers a IOlni pre ss ure mtio of 6, the tolal heild
pressu re an~ tt.!l1lpC~aIUrc a~ e ntry being 0.408 mP.. a nd 300 K re.~pl!c lively. and
~hl.' over:tll IsentropIC effiCiency bdng 82 per ce n!. The deg rec of reaclio n is
)0 pe r cent and all stagcs co ntri bu lc a n eq ual amou", of work. A I a panicu lar
s lagI.'. th l! hlndL' SPl.!cJ at ~he mean height is 20J m/s. and the axiul veloc it y is
17 1 m/s. If I hI..' ahso lule il lr angh: en te ring the ro tor 111 this slagI.' is 15" and the
work don e fac tor is 0.92. detenn ine. (n) th e rolor air in lel angle . (bJ the numbe r
of slllgcs required. (c) Ihe s ta lic tcmperaru re o f Ihe air at entry 10 Ihe rotor a nd
It!) th~ rutor inlet rcln live mnc hinc nurnbe r.
. . lAns: (a)42.6° (b) 12 (e) 284.4 k and (d) 0.6871
--l .2-1 . A nlUltlstage ~xl:l1 compressor is required for compressing air nt 293 K th rou gh
:1 pressure milO of 5 to I . Ench stage is 10 be 50% react ion and Ihe mean blade
speed 275 mIs, now codlic icn t 0.5. and the slage loadi ng faclor 0.3 arc taken
:\... C~ nS L.1.nt for a ll stages. De te rmine the now ang les and the numbe r o f sia ges
J:c4u~n:d If til e. siage dlicienq is 88.~%. Take Cp = 1.005 kJ /kg and r -= 1.4
lor 'IIr. A Iso. lind Ih l.! ovcra ll efficien cy of Ihe compressor.
. IAns: (a) " I ~ 1', ~ 35" und "2 ~ 1', ~ 52.45° (b) 9 (e) 86.3%1
. .;'25 . An axm l now c(l m~rcsso r has 10 singe s und the follOWing datil apply to each
s l l~g: at th e ml.!<ln diameter. nIade speed -200 m /s. reacli o n -0.5. polytropic
cfllcl:ncy - O.S~, stage c fli cicncy -0.84. Angl e of absolulc ai r velocity al
rOlor IIllet - U . . , a nd at rOi or OUIlct _-15,1 . work done fllctor -0.86. S tagnation
press ure ilnd tClllpenHurc JI inlet arc 99.3 k.Pu and 15°C respecti ve ly. Determine
Ih e tOial preSS LIre rati o o rthe first stag e and the overa ll sta ti c' press ure ratio.
' . IAns: (a) 1.14 (b) 5.461
4.26. Each s tage of an a:(Ja l now cumpressor o f 50% reac tion, has th e same m e.m
hlad cspeed und S:1Il1C flow outlet angle of 30 ° rcl<ltivc 10 blades. The mean fl ow
cod~c.ienl i ~ ~.5. and rcnwins Co ns tant. At emry 10 (irsl stag e th e stagnation
L"OIul IlIOn .01 :ur IS I~J3 kPa a nd 278 K and s tatic pressu re is 87.3 kPa and
Il ow a n:a IS O.J72 m- . Us ing compress ible now nnalysis , find mass fl ow ra le
and Il ow ve loci ty. Pind the shan power when there are 6 such s lages when
llIeL"h<1nical effici e ncy is 0.9. (MU- A,/rll '97)
. IA"s: (0)56. 1 kg/s( b) 132. 1 m/s ulId (e) 1102 1 kW I
~ . 27 A n aXliI lllow clHnpressor has conslan l aXia l ve loc ity Ihroug houllhe compressor
of 160 m/s . a mean bliJde speed o f244 tn/s and del ive rs a press ure ratio of5: I.
E;lc h stagc is lIf 50% re:lL"tio n and the rdativc outl e t air ang les are the samc. 30ll ,
for cach stage. If n poly tropic efficien cy of 88 per ce nl is assuml.!d, determine
the 1ll~lllber o f stagt!s !n Ihe co mpressor. I Ans: 14 )
- -1 .18. A he hc.oP.ler gas turhln c plant consis ts of a four stage ult ial flow compressor.
The aX I;}.' co m prL'ssLJr has stage tc mpernture ri se of 30 DC, us ing sy mm e trica l
stages wnh <l st.:J Ior o utl e t nnglt of 20° If" the mean diameter of e1l(:h Slane is
250 mill and eac h s tage is identical. The po lytropic effi ciency is 92 per ~enl.
AXIAL F LOW COMPRESSORS AND FANS <Ii( 177
Calculate the required rotational speed. Assume a workdone facto r of 0 .86 and
a constanl axial velocity of 150 mls. Estimate the total press ure risc ac;:ross the
compressor. IAns: (aJ 19,070 rpm (b) 3.07)
4.29, A multi stage axia l flow compressor is 10 have constant axial veloci lY of 150 mls
and 50% reactio n. The pressure rauo developed is -1 a nd Iht! inflnitcsimal Singe
efficicqcy is 85%. The tcmperntun: al the entry is 20"C. The mean diameter of
the bl:ldc ring is 35 c m and speed is 15,000 rpm . The exit angle of !.he blildes
in each row is 27°. Calculate Lhe blade angl e at inlet, the number of stage s and
pressure ralio of eilch s tage. (MKU-April '96 )
[Ans: (a) 52.92° (b) 6 und (e) 1.381
4.30. A tcn siage axial flow compressor has a pressure ratio of 6.6 and iSl!ntropic
effic ie ncy 90%. The compressor hl:ls symmetrica l stages and the compression
process is adiabatic . The axial velocity is uni fonn across the stage al 125 mls
and the mean blade speed of eac h s lage is 200 mls. If the air at 27°C e nters the
compresso r at the ratc of 3 kg/s, detenninc the direclion of air al entry and exit
from the rotor and s la tor blades. Also compule the power supplied to air.
(MKU-April '92)
[Ans: (a) '" ~ !h = 17.8° und "2 ~ 1', ~ 51.97° (b)718. 17 kWI
4 .3 1. An axial cOf1)pressor swge has n mean diameter 55 cm and run s at 15.000 rpm.
If the actual temperalure rise and pressure ratio developed arc 32:"C and 1.4
respectively, determine (a) the power required to drive the co mpressor while
delivering 57 kgls of ai r. Assume mechanical efficiency as 85 per c..:nl a nd ;sn
ini tinllempcrature of 35°C (b) the stage efficiency and (c) Ihe degree uf reaction
if the temperature at th e rotor exit is 55 °C. (MKU-ApriJ '98)
IAns: (a) 2156.6 kW, (b) 96.8,", (e) 0.6251
4.32. An air compressor has eight stages of eq ual pres sure ralio 1.35. The Il ow ralt!
through the compresso r and its overall efficiency an! 50 kg/s and H2% re spcc·
lively. Iflhe co nditi on of air at entry ilre 1 bar and 40°C, dctcrmine (a) the statt!
of air at the compressor exit . (b) poly[ropic efficiency, (c) efficiency of each
stage and (d) the power inpul assuming overall dfic i.:ncy o f the drive as 90%,
(MKU-Nol: '961
[Ans: (a) 11.03 bur and 689.8 K, (b) 87.1 % (e) 86.5% und (d) 21.03 mWI
4 .33. A fan takes in 2.5m 3/s o f air at 1.02 bar and 4ZOC and delivers it at 70 em W,G.
and 52°C. Determine the mass now nUe through Ihe fan . Ihe power required to
drive Ih e fan and the stulic fan efficiency. (MKU-No\'. '96)
IAns: <a) 2.82 kgls, (b) 2H.J4 kW and (e) 59.5% 1
4.34. An ax.ial ducted fan wit hout any guide vanes has II pressure L"odlicicnt of 0.38
a nd delivers 3kg/s of ai r al 750 rpm. Its hub and lip d iam elCr.i arc 25 em a nd 75
cm re spec tively. If the: L'ond ilions a t the entry arc 1.0 bar a nd 38 ~ C. delcmline
(a) air nng lt!s alIhe e ntry and e x. it, (b) prcssurc devd oped in mm W G, (c) fun
. efficiency aml (d) power re4uired to drivt! the fan if the oVl!rall cniciency of th e
d ri ve is 85%.
IAns: (u) 70.85' , 66°. (b) 8.36 mm ofWG. <c) 86.3% and (d ) ~ 99 . 36 WI
4.35 . An axial fan co nsis ting of rotor only has the foll ow ing data . Huh a nd lip dj . .
umetcrs arc 30 and 60 c m respectively. Speed 1000 rpm. ft!lalivc air exit angle
12°. a xial ve loc ity 6 mls. lnld static properties: 10 1 kPa a nd 3 15 K. Deh:rmine
 -
174 ~ T URDO MAClUNE.s
A XI,\ LFLQWCOMI'RESSOHSA:-JIJF"ss " 175

4.3 1. Deline compressor stage efficiency.

~. I J. Prove th ilt the co nditi on for rad ia l equilibrium is
~32 . What is compressor stall ?
·Lt':\ . What is rotilling compressor stall '!
·LJ..J . W hat is compressor s urgi ng':'
435. Why lire lo nger bl ades used in aircraft compressors?
-l ..':\o. Deline radial equ ili bri um in compressors.
J d
r· dr
'1 d
dr
2
, - (rC r )-+ -( e," :::: 0

4, J 2. W hat is fn':l: vo rte x blaJ c'? De rive the work t.lone and reacllon rallo for il fr ee
-
\'l1f1 ex hlad!.! .
4 ..17. What arc free vortex blades? 4, J 3. \Vhi.11 is <I constant reaction blade?
4.38. In free vortex blade dcg ret! of reaclion decreases from lip [0 hub. (Tru clFa lse) ~ , 1 4. Wilat IS a forceJ vortex blade'! Draw the veloc ity triangles:\t th l.! root and tip
4.39. What are forced vortex blades? of a forced vonex blilde.
4.40. In muhi slage compression. the slage pressure rise for the same te mpe rature ri st! 4.15. Prove the fullowing for a multistilgt! cum pressor.
is equal. (TruelFalse) la) I1J"'.1:4· :;..- ryfllm", ...ullr
4.4 J. Overa ll tolnl pressure ratio o f a multistage axial flow compressors is e4 ual to R (.~) "I,·r/lr - ll
!!..::11 (h) ON+I = ONt-!
ta) (D. TO.ftll~r,"f) ~" . , POI TOI
,
(b) (l::J.lij."tJtrrtll) "rli""=T1 4 . 1h. Com pare <I cc.:ntrifuga l comprc.:s50r with an axial now compn:ssor.
~/, · r
4. 17. Desc ri be th e fields o f appli cat ion o f centrifugal and axiul fl ow compressors.
(e) (6. TO.III/m lll) ,..:'t
Exp lain why now:::Iduys axial now compresso rs arc largel y uSl.!d for aviation
ga!' turbines .
EXERCISES 4. J 8. An axial now co mprcssor stage wi th 50% reaction h<ls Ih~ fo llowin g data . Air
inlt:t stagnation lemperature -290 K. relat ive flo w ang le al ro tor outlet mea-
4. 1. Draw a skc (l.; h of an axi al now co mpressor wit h inlet g ui de vanes and exp lai n sured fro m th e ux ial directi o n - 32°. now coefficient - 0.55 . rdative machine
th e working princip le of the compressor. number o n to the ro tor - 0.75 If the s tage is norm:!!. what is the slag nil lion
4.2. Draw ve loc ity triang le at th e enLry and ex it for the ax ial compressor stage. te mpcrature risc in the first SIJgc of th e compressor'! IAn~: 26. 1 K I
o. Draw th e h-s diagram for a complete axial fl ow compressor stage. 4. 19. An 'lX ilil now com prc.'iso r stage draws air from w ith the stng n<lti o n conditions
4.4. (a) Whal is the work done fact or for an a,.;:ial compressor stage? How does it of 1 bar ilnd 35 Q C. Assumin g a 50% react ion swgc with a now coeffic ient of
vary wit h Ihe number of slilges? 0.52 and thc rati o /lC I / U =
0.25 . Find the rotor blade an g les atlhe inlet amJ
(b) Define: (a) now coefficient (b) s lilge load ing and (c) pressure c,oefficient th e exit a5 well as the mean rotor speed. The total-ta-I otal efficiency of the stage
for an axial com pressor stage. is 0.87 whe n the stage: produces a total·IO-(olal pressure ra tio o f 1.23. FintJ also
4.5. Deflne the degree o f reactio n for an axial now compressor stage. Prove the Ih c press ure coefficient and thc power inpu t to the sys tem. assu ming Ihe work
followi ng relati ons. inpu l fa clor 10 be 0.86. The mass fl ow r a l~ is 12 kg/s . (B.D. U April '96)
I IAns: (0) 50.24". 35.79" (b) 3 17.5 ml' lei 0.4~ and Id) 260kW I
(0) R = :1<P( lan P, + Ion 130)
4.20. An ax ial flow compressor stage is to be des igned for a stugnulio n lemper;J1urt!
Ib) R = II + <p( lan ~2 - Ion adl/2 risc of 20 K. The work done r<lclOr is 0 .92 and the blade ve loc ities al the ronl.
(e) R = II + .p( l an iJ, - Ian ", >1/2 me'lIl radius and tip arc 157 .5. 210 and 262.5 m/s n.:spectively. TIlt! a x1011vt!locil y
is co nstanl from roollo tip and is 157.5 mls . Ir Ihe reac lion ra li ll at the mean
4.6. Draw supe rim posed veloci ty triangles forthe fo ll owing axial co mpressor s tages.
mdius is 0.5. What arc the inlel and o utlel air and blade angles at th e rool. mt.!iln
(a) R =
0.5 (hi R < 0.5 (e) R > 0.5 radius and tir for a fr ee vortex design? CaJc ulah: also the reactio n ill (he rou l
4.7. Pro\'e Ihat and lip.
p] - P, fAns: (a) O' l.m = th .m = 18.78° O'::!.m = fil.,., = 44 .S" 0' 1. 1 = 15 .2 1
(a) - U ' l
p -
= fj)( tana 2 -lanaI) P I.I. = 5~ .37°. 0'2.1 = 38.45° fi2.r =
40.y u. 0' I" =
24, 3R" fil .r = 2R.6H
Ih) 11.1 = (Dof') .•,ugr/pUC,, (t<ln a1- lanaJ) "'.' = 52.94' (J,J = -1 7.95". ( b) R, = 0.68 ond R, = 0 . 11 11
4.21. An alt ern ali vc des ig n prop osal to th at in the above problem is 10 have 50 7r
4.8. What is s urging in ax ial-now compressors? What arc its effects? Describe
reac tion along the whole blade. Whu!. then wi lllhc ai r and blade an g ll.!s he'!
hriefly.
4.9. What is s l~dlin g in an axial compressor 51 age? How is il developed? Why is it
IAns: Ci 1.1 = Ih.l =
29.64 " CY2.1 =- {Ju = 47 .6~ o O'l,r =
fi '! .r ;:: ~ .·n
Cl'!.r = Pl. .. ;:: ·n .::!.1 I
ca ll ed ro tating stall?
4.22. An ilx ial flow compressor under test in illaboratory eK hibits u stJge loatJing or
4. 10. What is radial equilibrium method? E xp lain bri eny.
0.4 for a reaction rati o 0[0.65 and fl ow coeffi c ient 0.55 . II is decided to rcdUl.:c
 17:! ... T I)IHlD M . \CIII NES AXIAI.FLOWCOMI'Il.ESSOIlSANUFANS .;,; J7 :l

3.5 4 .5. In thl! compressors . lhe bladl.!s (orm a diverging pussagc and the (luid is dc -
c" ~
~ 7.399 m/ s cc lc rulcJ. (True or Fnlse)
1.11 3 x OA15
4.b~ The ::uJvanl<lges of an axial How compressor arc
e" 7.3~9
~
Ti = 20 ..J2 = 0.36 fa) higher pressure rutio ond mass fl ow rate
(b) high lhrust per unit fronlal area
= 0 ..,6
(e) both (oland (bl
(d) Rotor inlet and exit angle 4.7. The blade hl!igllt is decreased as the fluid moves [hrou~h the axial flow c.;um·
pressor. Why?
4.8. In axial now t.!om prcssor, th.:.re is no How in the radial dircction .(rrudFillse)
4.9. What is the hasic principle of working of an axiaillow cumpressor'"
[;m(i I - 4.10. Whu\ i.Irc.lhc funclion s of the diffuser lor) straighlCncr hlades Ihal arc installed
althe end of Ihe last siage of an axial How compressor?
4 . 11 . What is an ax ial !low compressor stage?
4. 12. Draw lhe inlet and outlet velocilY diagmm s for an axiill fl ow compressor slage.
4.13. What is a normal axial How comprl!ssor stage'!
C.r I = O. No inle t guide valles
4.14. Inlet rdative velocity is greater than the outlel relative velocity. (TrudFalse)
4. 15. In Ihe rotor of an axial flow com pressor.
11' / 111 = Uc. r-:J.=U'!.( I - r/JILln/'1-'!.)
(ai "nl", = "02.",
~3 . 395 20.42'0 - 0 .36 tan 1301 (b) hili"'" < flO'!.."d
fI, 65.77' (c) "Ol"e/ ;> hO'!. .rd
4 . 16. Draw thc Mollier chart for an axial flow compressor stage.
<lntl 4.17. The axial flow compressor receives no contribution from the change in tan·
Ii I 111- +-
Iiln Ian

tun 65.77
2cp '"
+ 0.56
gc miai velocity. (True/False)
4.18. Delinc a nd ex press the !OIa!·to·tOla! axiaJ flow compressor cflic.:icncy.
4 . 19. What is work done factor ?
fl t ~ 711.13" 4.20. Work done fnclor - - as the number ofaxial now compressor siage increases.
(e) Pressure developed 4 .21. Delin e stage loading .
4.22. Define reaction ratio.
oP = p:.. ~tLW5 4.23. Rcaclion ratio of n axial now compressor slage is
1.11:1 )< MJ.395 =
(il) R ¢ tan /3",/2
(b) R :;;: rp tan Pili
= \)1.H1 N / m'!. (c) R :::: 2tfJ Ian /3111
4.24. Ddine now cocfficienl.
4 .'.!5 . Define reaction ratio for incompressible flow machines.
4.26. For a reactio n ratio of 50 per cent
l (a) the stat ic enthalpy and tcmperalure increase in the stator and rotor arc not
9.46 :x IO- rn
equal.
= 9,46 10m of W .G. (b) Ihe superimposed velocity diagram is nO{ symmt.!lrical.
(c) none of the above.
4.2.7. For a reaction r<llio of more tha n 50% the stalic enthalpy ri sc in the rotor is
SHORT QUESTIONS greater than in the stalor. (TruelFalse)
4. 1. \Vh;'!! is an a:dal now compressor? 4.2B. When rcaclion ratio is less than 50%. the static pressure and enthalpy risc Bre
.J.2. \VII;l! arc [he :Jdvantagcs and disudvanragl!s of an axia l now compressor? greater in the stntor than in the rOlor. (Truc/False)

- 4.3 . Thl.! axial !low comp resso rs arc idl.!al for conSl<lnt load :applic:uions. Why'!
-1.4. Thl.! cflicicncy of the axial now compressor is vcry sensilive to Ihe mass !low
r;ue . (Trul.! or F;)lst!)
4 .29. A reac tion ratio of 50% is widely used. Why?
4 .3 0. A rcaclion ralio of 50% is the condition for maximum tempt:raturc rise and
efficiency. (Truc/False)
 170 ~ TI :nno M"nIlNt:s AXIAL FLOW CO~'I'RE5SO ltS "NLlF"'..:~ ...; \11

Till! dcgrcc or fI..'Ul:[lun can also be found from (a) Overall efficiency
C" '1m X '11 = 0 .9 X 0 .79
R 2V (,an fl ' + 'an Ii,) = 71.1%
~ (lan,81 + tan ,82) (b) Power required
0.245
- - ([an76.23 '" +lilO 10"' ) ,it (/).;)
Ideal work. tv
2
0.522 or 52.2% U2 .
':"P / p - x V'
1
Example 4.15 An axial blower supp li es air 10 a furnace nt the ralc of 3 kg/s. rrDIIIN
lllc u[m osphcril: condi tions heing 100 kP" and 3 10 K. The blower cfficlI!ncy is HO~f. Ml!an vc\ocity. U = 60
<.lOt..Imcchanicul dlicicl1cy is 85%. The power supplicd is ~O kW. Estimu[c thc overi.ll
effi~lenl:Y :.tnd pres!'iurc develuped In mm \V.G. 0, + Dh
Dill == ,
Solution Or = 3 x 0.26 = 0.78 III
111 = ;\ k~/ s P, = 100 kPa T,=310K 0.78 + 0.26 = 0 .52 m
= 0.85 Power input = 30 kW 2
'I" = D.H I/m

rr )( 0 .5 2 x. 750 = 20.42 m/s

(a) Overall efficiency andU= 6U
Now
'In 'III )( '1m = 0.8 )( OJ~5
/).P 20.42' 04
= 0.68
p
= -- x .
2
(b) Pressure developed = 83.395 J/kg
/).P
,it(/).P / pl -, m
'10 = p
Power inpu t
= 83.395 x 3.5
p P/RT =100 , 10'/287 x 310 = I. 124 kg/Ill"'
= 291.88 W
0.68 x 30 x 10'
/).P x 1. 124
3
7M3.2 N/m' Power n:quircd
'1m
/).H = 779.12mmW .G. 291.88
0.9
Example 4.16 An axia l fan without guide vanes has a preSSl1re coefficient of 0.4 324.32 W
and delivers .' .5 k~/s o f nir al 750 rpm . Its hub diameter is 260 mm and hub [0 lip
ratio is 113. 111C sliui(.· properties al entry 98.4 kPa ,md 35 uC. delcrmlllc (a) ovcrnll (c) Flow coefficient
efficil!ncy. if '/111 = 0.9. (b) power required. (e) now c:ocfficicnt (d) rowr inlet and exit
ttl
angle . (c) 6P in mill ofWG ir 'If = 0.79 .
c" pA
Solution
p =
2 = 98.4 X 10' = 1.1 ]J kg/m'

= OA rit 3.5 kg/s N 750 rpm Tt = )5°C RTt 287 x 308

'D"" = 0.16 m
D" 1
P, = 98A kPa ':.(D 2 _ Dh') = ~(0.78' - 0.26')
4 ' 4
D, 3
'1m = 0.9 'If 0.79 0.425 m:!
 16H ;. T! /fUH) MM' I IiNES AX I AI.Fl.owCOM I' I( ~SSOlISI\NI)FA:-;~ ...;. 161)

whc.:r~ Dm is [h e Ill l!an rotor dium cter 22.62(22.62 - 5.542 tan 10 )

D, + D" 0.6 + 0.3 = 489.56 J/kg
Dill .- = = 0,45
2 2
Jr x 0.45 x 960 '" = pQ = 1. 11 25 x 1. 175 = 1.322 kg/s
U/U = = 22.62 m/s
60
C" = 0.245 x 22.62 = 5.542 m/s :. Workdonc m( Wjm)
The now rate, Q = 0.2 12 x 5.542 = 1.322 x 489.56
647.198 W
Q= 1 175m.1/s
(b) Static pressure rise across the stage Ovcm ll cftici ency
Work du ne
(l!.P)" = -2I p(W,-, - ,
IV;-)
-
'1u = Power rc.:qui red
647. 198
hu,
1000
wf = U~ + C,; 0.6472
~m d 64.72%

Example 4.14 De termi ne for the fan Slil gC in prob lem no. .:.I. U
(a) rotor bl>1de ang le at the r.:ntry (b) dt!grec of reaction

Solution
1 IV'- + C,;, - C,;, - , ta n-, P2)
(l1P) ,u = zP C(~
(a) Rotor blade angle at the entry From !hI.: in let vd oc ity tria ngle for fnn
1 , . , , stage w ith out any guide vanes (Fig. 4. 11 ),
= ZP IU - - C,; tan- flll U
lan /31 =
C,~ C"
= 'iI PU 2II- u1
-,C
1
tan- fll ! 2 62
fl, = tan -.- ).
I) " 5.542
= lPU- II- .p- tan-fll !
_.
fl, 76.23<=
Figure 4.11
U)2 x loj
p=P/RT J
='---:;-:--0 = 1.125 kgjm (b) Degree of reaction
287 x 3 16
:;1 x 1. 125 )( 22,6:2-[
" 1 -0.245 x tan::! lOll ) R= (.o.P),OJorl(.o.~o)nat:c:

= :2R7.27 Njrn ~ For an axia l fa n stage co nsis ti ng of only a mtor,

= 0.029 m \V.G . (.o.P)rolor (l1P)SLa1: C

(c) The overafl efficiency 2S7.}? N/ m'

= p( W / 1/1 )
1.1 25 x 489.56
Sincl! e = 0,
,j 550.76 N/m'
\V / m = uC.r~ U(U - IV,, ) 287.27 _ 5'2
:. R 550.76 - o. -
= U(U - C"tan/h)
::: 52.1%
166 ,. Tllltll O MAr· tU NES
(b) Power required to drive the fan
-
(e) The overall tota/-ta-total efficiency
W mCp ( Tl - Td
Tow l pressure at stator exit
= 2.R2 x 1.005(325 - 3151
PO.' = Tolal pressure at stator inlet - (6 PO)sllIgc (or at rolor ex it ) IV 28.34.IV
= 4.78 - 0.35
= 4.4) cm of waler (c) Stati c fan Efficiency

Theoretica l tota l en th alpy change across the stage

(6Ptl)st~ll c
P
1000 x 9.81 x (4.43)
Pwg hul 100
--=--~~::::..!...
p 1.184
367 J/kg

Thl!n,

(ll.hn, h lllGe (AhOshulgc :. 111 = 325-315

'It -, 63 _06%
( A hO)5IilGc (6 h oholor
367462.98
Ex ample 4 .13 An axial fan stage consisting of onl y one rotor has th l! following
79.3%
data:
(f) The degree of reaction for the stage rotor bl<Jlk air angle at ex.it: 10°: tip dia: 60 cm: hub dill: 30 cm: speed: 960 rpm:
power required: I kW; now coefficient: 0.245; inlct fl ow conditions: 1.0:?' bar and
ell PhOlor 3 16 K.
R = (6 Phtngc
Determine the 1low rate. the s\;l lic pressure ri st! .md the ove rall d li clency.
IMKU-Ap,·il ·Y51
357.93
357.93 + 101.58 Solution
77.9 %
D, = 0 .6 m D'I = 0 .3 OJ N == 900 rpm Powe r
Exam~le ~.12 An ax ial flow rim takes in 2.5 m J /s of air at 1.02 bar and 42"C
PI = I.02bar T I ~:"\16K
antJ c1ch\'crs H at 75 em W.G. and 52° e. Determ ine the mass now ralC throuoh the
fan. Ihl! power rcquiretJ 10 drive the fan and the static fan efficiency. (MU Dc; '97)
(a) Flow rate
Solution
Q=2.5 m .l /s P,=1.02bar T, =3 15K t:. H= 0.75mW.G. T,=32sK Q = AC"

(a) Mass flow rate II "('

"4 Dr - D;;')
1/1 pQ = ~ 2
(U.6 - 0 .3')
P, 1.02 x 10' 1 D.21:! m:!C rr = q,U
p = RT, = 287 x 3 15 = 1.128 kg/m- =
rr DmN
//I 1.1 28 x 2.5 U =
6U
= 2.82 kg/s
 l'

AXI,\I . fl.ow COM I'IIESSOIIS "N il F ,.. .... s .... 16:'i

Arca of IInw (b) The static pressure rise across the rotor

A= ~ (D; - Di) = ~(o2' - 0125' ) (Do P )rOlor (6. Po hOlor - p (ei - en /2

= 0.01914 m' C, ell = 22.1 mjs
TI1C axia l veloci lY
C, !c,;+·cI
0.5
III
= /22~I:! i:15. J j2
pA .184 x 0.0 191 4
= 2::!.1 mjs = 26.78 m/s
: . (Do P hOlur 493.35 - 1.1 84(26.78' - 22.1' )/2
M~all mill!" bl;.lllc vdOl.:ily
= ~93.35 - 135.43
u =
IT(D" + DdN 357.93 N/m'
=
2 x 60
IT x (!I.1!5 + 0.2) x 3600 I !':l P lrmnr = J.tiS em o( watcr

120 (c) The static pressure rise across the stator

30.6 m/s
The ilt:llml :.t:Ult: ~Iltha lp)' I.:hange at:ross the stator is
The aClu;1I IOI~I I.!lllilalpy risl.! :lcros.~ [he rotor is
l6.h)SI01I0r (ci - Ci) j1
( 6 h O)rt',or = U 6Cx = U(C X1 - eX,)
(26.78' - 22. 1')/2
,Sin!;!.! tlie !lawai inlet is axia l, Cx , = 0 and (rom velocity lrianglcal oUllet (Fig. --1.2) ,
114.38 J/kg
U - \\I.\"2 == U - CII lan fh.
Th.: thcon:tica l Sialic enthil lpy cha ngj.: across Iht.! stalor is
30.6 - 22. ) x .,n(P r - 20)
= .10.6 - 22.1 x Ian 35 0 (l:lh.r)stnIlJ, I1J;1011ur X (6h)nalor
= 15.l.lm/s 0.75 x 11~.3 8

(C!.ho),,,,,,, = 30.6 x ( 15.1 3 -0) = 462.98J/kg 85 .79 J/ kg

nl\! ise ntropi c Inial ~nth nl py risi! ,lC ross the rotor Till.! stalic pressure n s\! aCross the stator is

(6h o.)rt"or = 'Ie x (6hO)rOlor (6P)m,lIlr p(6 h "' )SI0110r

= 0.9 x r.t62.98J 71.1 K4 x HS .79
=
= ~ 16.7 J/kg 101.5 8 N/ m'
Thc tlHaJ pressure rist.! across the ro\Qr is 1.04 em or wakr

(APU)rOI(lr = p(6.ilo. )rolOr (d) The change in total pressure across the stator
1. 184 x 416.7
= 493.35 N/m' (/:).Po)mlor = (/:).P)~IDtor + p (C ' J - C')2 /'-
== 5.03 em or H20 101.58+ 1.184 x (-114 .38)
=
St;lgnntion pressure at [he rotor c:(i l = -33.85 N/OI'
,
(6.PO)rOlor - Prcssur\! drop a[ intnke ThaI is. thL! lotnl pr.:ssurc across the stator drops by all amount = :n.HS Njm-
= 5.03 - 0.25 or:: 0.35 em of wa ler.
 AXIAl. FLOW C OM1' lt ESSOltS AI'o:ll FAt>1S '" 163

162 ;. TURBO M .... CHINES

0'1.1 = 21.95·

Ian /fl. I.

fl~."
Vh - C" l , ~

12.5 e
CliVI
=
150- 11 5.]2
155.89 tanfJu

fJl.I
V, - C.{".
CIII.I

53.65"
=
250 - 57. IM
141.9 -
(b) Degree of reaction C " .. 192.2
tan rl'2.1 - - = --
Crtl .• 14 2
R = 53.54·
2U(Cx , - Cx ,)
U,- eX! " 250-192,:!
C
(~
'
flU,)
-~
,
(C(lloh)- tan/h" = C IIJ ,/
=
142
{h, = 22.15·
2U" (C,fH - C. . . !.h)
155.99)' (155.89)' (b) Degree of reaction
( cos 36.56°

( COl.,)' (C',Ih.,. ),
cos 12.Y'
2 x 150 x ( 115.32 - 34.3 1)
cas fiL l CO!';
0.5 R
2U, (C.(~ .• - C,q,,)
(3) Tip section
141.9 )' ( 142 )'
V, x 60 250 x 60 ( cos 5:'.65° cos 22. 15°
Tip tJimneler. D, = IT X 9000
=
IT X 9000 2 x 250 x ( 192.2 - 57. 18)
0.530 m 0.5
C'I.. 45 .75 x 0.265
- - x,, = = 57.18 m/s
'm 0.212 Example 4.11 A single-stage axial flaw blow!::, wi th no inlet guide vaneS run~
C XLn • 153.76 x 0.265 at 3600 rpm. The rotor tip and hub diameter are 20 and 12 ,5 cm. respectively. ·Illr.:
- - Xf,
rm
= 0.212 = 192.2 m/, mas!'; flow rate of air is 0.5 kg/s, TIle turning angle of the rotor is 20" towards Iht:
axial direction during air flow over the blade. The blade angle at inlet is 5Y If the
Axial velocilY at lip inlet atmospheric temperature and , pressure arc at I atm and 25°C. respectively. as!';uming
K I - 2C'..... 1., constant nxial velocity through the mnchine. find (a) the total pressure orthe air al the
exit of the rotor (the rotor total-Io-total efficiency being 90% and the total pressure
26686.125 - 2 x 57.18' drop across the intake is 0 .25 cm ofwaterl. (b) the slatic pressure rise across the rotor.
= 20147 (c) the static pressure rise across the stator. if the sta tor efficiency is 75%. (d) thl.!
141.9m/s cho.ngc in 10 131 pressure across the stator. (c) the overall total-to-total cfliciency and
(I) the degree of reaction for the SIi1ge .
Axial velocity al tip Dullet
Solution
, K,_ "lC' +?(C.,2.< c. f
C.;~ , = - "" .1' , ~ -- - --
..,)
wr,-, (a) Total pressure of air exit of rotor
-, " "
,
26621.:'1 - 2 x 192.2- +2
(192.2 57.18) , N = 3600 rpm D, == 0.2 m D,. = 0.125 m P, = 1.013 bar
= 0.265 - 0.265 x 942.5 x 0.265- ~, = 55"
m::;: 0.5 fh-~2=20"
20 1H5.51
The pressure changes involved arc small so th3lthe flow may he treated as IOU'Ill '
:. C.,2 ., == 142 m /s pressihle . At the inlet. the density of air is
(a) Air and blade angles
1.013 " 1()~
C'I.' 57 . 18 Po = -Po = .:..c::~~-'- = 1.184 kg/m '1 = p
tan Cil., RTo 287 x 29R
C"l., = 141 ,9
160 ;. TlJlOlO MACHI NE-I; AXIAL flowCOMPRESSORSANOFANS -4: 161

Si milarl y. For forced . . orh!X design

rno 45 .75 x 0.159
lana:!., = tana2.m· -
r, x rh:;:
0.2 12
:;: 34 .31 m/s

Ian 45.71 x 0.8 = 0.82 153 .76 x 0.159

x rh= 2 =115.31m /s
.'·O':!.I = 39.4 0 • O. 11
Axial velocity at hub inlet
and
u,
tan /12 .1 e- jj
-tuna ... ,- .
when:
"50 , ,
~50 - tan 39.4
0
:;: 0.85 KI C';l.m + 2 C.~, ..,
:· th.1 40.4 0 = ISO' + 2 x 45.75' = 26686. 125
:,Co' = 26686. 125 - 2 x 34.31' = 24331.77
Degree of rC3c li on C
L' 155 .99 mt s
IlLl, :::

Ci/(tan .8 1" + lOIn th. ,) Axial velocity at hub outlet

R, = 2V,
150(I.n 54.9" + l.n (40.4 "))
= 2 x 250
R, = 0.681 where

Example 4.10 An alternative design proposal to that in example 4.9. is to have =

forced vorl ex blade design . What then will the air und blade angles and degree of
reaction be. Take rota ti onal speed as 9000 rpm .
=
,
150-+2 ' (-
x I53 .76--2 153-
.76- - - x ( 2rr x 9000) xO'I'-,
45 .75)
0.212 0.212 60 .- -
Solution = 26621 .32
(1) Mean section 115.32 34.31)
= 26621.32 - 2 x 115.32' + 2 ( - - - - - x 942.5 x 0.159'
The parame ters arc calcu latcd in th e same manner as in examp lc 4.9. The v3 1ucs arc 0.159 0.159
a \.II1 :;: th.m = 16.96
0
= 24303 .8
0'2. 111 :;: fJl.m = 45 .7 1 0
and = 155.89 m/s
R = 0.5 (a) The air and blade angles
(2) Hub section 34.31
C"I.I'
- - = --
tanal ./r =
C Hl.h 155.99
Hub diameter. Dh
rr x N rrx 9000 al, h = 12.4"
0.3 18 m VII - C IU 150 - 34.3 1
Vm x 60 200 x 60 tan fJl.h = =
Mean diameter. Dill = CII !.", 155.99
rr x N rr x 9000
{Jl.h = 36.56'
= 0.424 m
C" .• = 115.32
C.rl.~' :::: C, ' tan Ct l.m :;: 150 x Ian 16.96° = 45.75 m/ s
Ian a2.h = Co,", 155.89
C I ~ .... ;::: CII · lan a2.m :;: 150 x tan45 .7.1 ° = 153 .76 m/s r::t2 .h = 36.5"
 AXIAL FI.Ow COMI'ItE.<;SORS .,NO F,,:-;s ... 159
15S i> Tormo MACHI NES

and rrom lhe reaction ratio

or
rm
2RU", 2 x 0.5 x 200 tan 0'2.11 tan a2.m .
rio
tan fJLIII + lan Ih.m ;:::;
c::- == 150
= ta n 45.71 " x 1.33
Ian fJ I .m + Ian {h.m == I.D ~)
= 1.363
So lvin g for Pl.", and {h.m
O'~.h = 53.73"
tan fJl.m = 1.33 + 0.72 = 1.025
2 and
= 45.71'
tiln Ii?.h =
Vh
- - t,m Ci2.11
C"
Since
~ - tan 53.73 '
= 0.5 150
0'2.111 = Pt.m = 45 .71 ' -0.363
45. 71 ° 112.1, -19.95'

Substituting fJl.", in equation (I). we get Degree of react ion

tan Ihm = 1.025 - 0.72 Cu (tan {hh + tan /hh)

2V
Ihm = 16.96
150(tan30.7I ' + t.n(-19.95"»
Si nce Rm = 0.5, alo", = fhm = 2 x 150
Ct'l.m ;:::; 16.96°
= 0.116
(b) Stage air and blade angie at root (or) hub For a free vo rtex design. For free vortex conditi on.
(e) Stage air and blade angle at tip
IC.1").h . r h = C-,"j .m . rm I C.fl ./· r/ = C,II .m· r",
(or)
or
CII tan O'l,h . rh = Cn13na l.m "m
C" . tan au . r, = e,l·tanO' I .m · r",
rm rm
tan O'I.h = tan 0'1.", .-
tan 0'1.1 = Ian Q'l.m . -
r/, r,
rm Vm = 200 = 1.33
rio
=
Vh ISO
rm V"' = 200 = O.K
r, V, 250
O'l.h = 22.1 ' tan 16.96' x 0.8
lan a I.t
From velocity triangle [Refer Fig. 4.2]. :. al./ = 13.71 °

Vh = C,,(lan au, + tan fJl.h) and

150
Ian fJl./J = - - tan 22. 1 = 0.594 V,
150 tan .B 1.1 = -
Co
-lanai
.
I

PI), = 30.71'
250 _ tan 13.71' = 1.423
=
Simi larl y. 150
= 54.9"
 150 :,.. TllItBO M ..... CIIINES AX I ALFLOWCOMf'ItESSORSANllfMIS , 157

= 10:;0:;5..;.x.:...:2::0~_
'on 6 1.4 _ ;;-;:-.-:..: (c) Stagnation pressure ratio
0.94 x 275. 15 x 150
= 1.316 POl ~'6ToJ,o,
Po,
= [ 1+ -TOI-
:.fJl = 52.77°
I "
0.9 x 20]'-'
(b) Mass flow [ + 300
11/ P I A , C II 1.226
P,
p, = power required ;; /;\C/1tlTO
RT,
;; 27. 197 x 1.005 x 20
P, POI
T, )'; ' -'
( -To, 546.66 kW

" (d) Rotor air angl es

I , C~~T' rr DhN IT x 0.35 x 9000
U" = (;(] = 60
= 0.87542 bar
= 164 .93 ml s
0.87542 x 10'
p,
287 x 208.8 1
1.056 kgjm" U, 164.93
tan {JI = C, = 150
A, i (D,1 - Dl) :· fl, = 47.71"
D" 0.6 D, = 0.6(2 x 0.292) = 0 .6(0.584)
and
= 0.35 m C1J 6. To
tn.n tho tan 131 - - - -
= ~ (0584' - 0.05') AUhel/
1005 x 20
= 'an 47.71 - ~c:--:.=:;,.:.:,.;=-=
0.94 x 164 .93 x 150
= 0. 171 7m'
= 0.235
(or) Flow ure<l :.~, = 13.23"
Example 4.9 An axial fl ow compressor stage has blade root, mean and lip vcloc·
A = 2rr rlU " itics 150.200 and 250 mls respectively. The stage is to he dcsigncd for a stagnation
(0.584 0 .35 ) temperature rise of :20°C and an axial velocity of 150 m/s which is constant through-
-2- +--
I'm =
(', +- =
- "I 2 out. The work donI! factor is 0.93. Assum ing 50% reaclion al mean radius. calcul ul!:
the stag.e air and bl>1de angles >11 mean, rool and hub and degree of reaction for a rree
2 2
= 0.2335 III vortex design.
C.584 0.35)
T Solution
"= = r, - rll;; -2- -
U, = 150 mls Um = 200 mts U, = 250 mls
I- = 0.93 Rm = 0.5
0.117 m 6To 20"C= C" = 150 mls
A = 2;r X 0.2335 X 0. 117 (a) Stage air and blade angle at mean From 'he work done pcr Slage
= O. 1717m 2 express ion . we have
1.056 x 0.17 17 x 150 C p 6TO 1005 x 20
IiI =
tan Ih .m- tan {h.m = )"'U",C(I = 0.93 x 200 x 150
II< = 27 . 197 kg / s (II
Ian 13 1.111 - tan fhlll = 0.72
 •
AX IAL FLOW C OMl'RESSOllS /l. NoFANS "" 155
15·' ;,.. Tl"WO MACIilNES

303 [(2) Vi - I] Solution

= D'l ;: 0.6 ). = 0 .94 q, = 0.9
=
n.83
79.95 K
N = 90110 rpm '" To = 20°C D,
C, = 150 m i s Pu , = I bar r
' u, = 300 K M,.I = 0 .92 (at tip)
The work done per stage is
Assum ing nxial inlet (si nce no inlet gu ide vanes). the ve lOCi ty triangle at in let can
IV be drawn as shown in Fig. 4. 12.
-no = CI.(T" - T,) = U(C" - Cx ,)
C'
T, = TOI - - '
u(e.. ] - C rl ) U6C.1 2C,I
or (T" - Ttl = - -
ISO:!
C I• C I•
301J - 2 x 1005
U(0 .235 U )
- - --
Lj"
79 .95 =
1005 = '288.81 K
U = 584 .7 m /s
U x 60 584.7 x 60
IV, M,., (F ili,) I
'1
111
Speed. N --- = 0 .92 ( J 1.4 x 287 x 288.8 1) C,= Co
"xD " x 0.5
= 22334 rpm = 313 .39 Oll i s
(b) Absolute velocity of air Sin ce, the ve loc ity diagram is symmetri cal.
R = 0.5.
Fig/lr~ 4. 12
2U -(C.,., +C,,)
R = From the vel ocity triangle
2U
C, 150
- 0.5(2U) + 2U = U cos fi t = IV, 3\3.39
C" + C." = U = 584.7 m/s 61.4<:
:. iJ, =
and C"2 - C'rl = 0.235 U = 137.4 m/s
and
So lving for C'II and C r1 • we get
u, = W, sin (:II
Cr~ 361.05 ml ' 313 .)9 x sin 6 1.4"
C XI = 223 .65 m /s
= 275 . 15 ml'
Fro m inlet 'Jclocity tri:.IIIg lc I Refer Fig. (4 .2)].
la) Tip radius
C, = jCj"+-c,}: CII = 0.47 x 584.7 = 274.8 1 m/s U, x 60
J274~81j +223652 = 2" N
=
= 354 .3 2 m/s 275.15 x 60 ~ 0.292 m
r, = 2n x 9000
Example 4.8 TIle firsl stage of an axial flow compressor is designed ror free
r. 0.29 2 m
'Jorl e" condition . with no inlet guide Vil nes. The rotational speed is 9000 rpm . and
Slag nalion tcmpelTl turc rise is 20c e. The hub·lip ratio is 0.6, the work done raclOr
Now.
i!'; 0.94 .md isentropic efficiency or the stage is 0.90. Assuming an inl et ve loc ity or
C1,tJ.To
150 mt!'; and ambien t conditions or I bar and 300 K. compute (a ) the tip radius and
corresponding rolor ang les. ir the Mach number relative to Ih e tip is limited 10 0.92.
(tan Il, - tan flo ) = AU,Cn
(b) mass now en tering th e stage (c) stage stngnatio n pressure ratio <lnd power required CI'tJ.To
tan th. = t.1n fi l - AU,C"
and (d) the ro lor nil' ang les at the roo l seclion .
 AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS AN D F ANS "'" I S3
1:'2 :;:.. TlJ ltnO ~'l "CIl I NES

= C,,(To,v-t-1 - TOI) (b) Stage efficiency

1005(484.6 - 290) T'\s - TI
N = 0 .85;.: 180 )( e,r x,(tiln-t..t ' -I an 1:\" ) 'Is- = - --
T] - T\
The :Ixia l vd oclt), is
U
=
T'[(;:)", -IJ
C" T., - T,
U 180
C,,=--'---::'-~ 308 [(1 .3)'I:l-I]
tan Ih + tan Ifl Ian I1 D+ tan 44 '
= 30
= 150.4 m/s
195573 '/.1 = 79.92%
N
16909. 1
(c) Reaction ratio
11.6
(tlh)rOlOr (6T)ro'OI
N 12 R = =
(tlh)mgc: (AT) m gc
Tht:: l1umh~r of SHigl.!S is 1:2. TJ. - T\ 55 - 35
= ---=---
(b) Change of entropy T..'\-TI 30
R = 0.67
TO N-t-I PO""T I
C" ln - - - Rln - -
Ttl l POI Example 4.7 The first stage or an axial How compressor dc:vclaps a pressurc rUlia
484.6 of I :2 . The inlcl pressure and temperature arc 1.01 bar and 30"' C n:speclivcly. The
= 1.0051n 290 - 0.287 111 5 overa ll efficiency of compressor is 83%. The How coefficicnl is 0.47. The vclocilY
0.054 kJ / kg - K diagram is symmetrical and at Ihe mean radius the ratio or change of whirl vc:iocilY
10 ax ial veloci ty is 0.5. DClcrmine Ihe compressor speed ir the mean diamclcr is 50
Example 4.6 An :Ix ia l compressor has a mean diameter or 60 em and run s at cm. Also find Ihe ahsolute velocity oflhe ai r leavi ng the siali onary inlet guide vanes.
15.000 rpm . If the actual tcmpcralUre risc and pressure mtio developed arc 30 D e (MKU-Ma)' '97)
and 1.3 rcspeL:livdy, dctermine (a) p ow~ r required {O dri\'c {Iic com pre sso r whilc
lkJivering 57 kg/s of air, assum in g mechanical efficie ncy 86% and initia l tcmpcraturc Solution
llf 35"C (b) Ih e slage efficiency and (c) Ih e degn!c of react ion if the temperature <It
th..: mlOrexit is 5S u e (MKU·April '97)
PJ
P, - -
_? P, = 1.01 bar T,=303K q, = 0.83
<I> = OA7 fiC ... I CI/ = 0.5 D = 0.5 m
Solution
D = 0.6 Tn N = 15.000 rpm (a) Compressor speed
. p,
t!. T = T, - T, = ,(l"C -'-
P, =11
.. 11/ = 5 7 kgjs D.C, = C,'} - ex, = 0.5 ell
'Jm = 0.86 T, = :'5''C 7o! = 5Soe c.
Ti = 0.47
(a) Power required. '"
C" = 0.47 U
Work done IV mC 1,6.T
6.C.t 0_5 (0.47 U)
L =
57 x 1.005 x 30
17 1H.55 kW
= 0.235 U
TJs - TI

WI',,,,
q,. =
T,- T,
...... Power input
= 171 H.55/0.R6
T,[(~~r -IJ
= 1998.3 14kW
TJ - T, =
lie
 -
AX IAL FLow COMPRESSORS ANU FANS ..;; 15 1
150 I> TURBO M ACHINES

The compressor power

(c) Overall isentropic Efficiency

m C I'(ToN+1 -T01)
IV
- - +T0 1
mC"
4.5 x IOJ (
TO,"+,,, _I)/(TON., _I)
= +288 TOI Tal
20 x 1.005
= 223.9 + 288 hut from isc.:nlropic relation
= 511.9 K

(a) Pressure at compressor outlet

Pressure at compressor ou tlet is detennincd from the following re lati c n.
und
TO N + 1 )'II'.rlr-l ,- ,
70 . . . +-1 51 1.9
( TOI (PO N " ) '"
288
= 1.7 8
Il'hli .4
TOI POI
511.9)"r Jil' N+ 11o
(6. 12) '"
r-J = 1.68
( 288 =
TOI
6. 12
'. 'Ie
_1.68_ - _J =0.872
:. Po N + 1 = 6. I 2 x 1 = 6.12 bar 1.78 - J
= 87.2%
(b) Number of stages
Si nce pressure ratio for eac h singe is same. Example 4 . 5 An axi<ll fl ow compressor of 50 % rcaction design has blades wllh
in let and outlet angles of 44° and 13° respectively. The compn!ssor is to produt.:c
POl _ POol _ P04 _ PON + 1 a pressure! T<llio o f 5: I with an ove rall isentropic efficiency of 87 % when the inlet
POI - POl - ~ - ---p;;; te mperature is 290 K. The mean hl ade speed and axial velocity arc co nstant throughoul
the compressor. Assuming a blade veloci ty is 180 mis, and work input factor is 0 .85.
where _N is the numht:r of stages. Find the numher of stages required and the change of entro py.

PON +! P02) N Solution

.. POI = ( P OI a) Number of stages
In (PoPOI+, )
N
R 0 .5 /31 02 = 44° /32 = 01 = 13"
or N = PO N +- l 0.87 = 290 K
5 'it- = TOI
In (PO') POI
POI U = C" 180 m l s I- = 0.85
where

(~:) :~ = G~:) '1W

'.:J
Pm
POI
= TOI ....... 1!, TOI (PON
POI
+') ,
1.24
290(5) '"
n
=: 459.3 K

In(~) =
_T.: cO,"'N.!C+!!II,!..---'T0:..c
' + TOI
N ~,
In (1.24)
459.3 - 290 + 290 = 484.6 K
= 8.42
0.87
:. Number of stages is 9.
 , .. 8 :,.. T U RBO M ACHI NE.S
T AXIALFLOWCOMPRESSORSA:-.;oFt\NS ... 1"9

488.9 - 293 3
= +'29
(c) Air velocity in delivery pipe 0.9
= 510.67 K
= N x UC,,(lana:! - lanai)
1.005 x 10-1 (510.67 - 293)
tan a2 - tan al =
438 ( 3_) "n
3) = 1.45
(8 x 188 x 100)

419.13K
Since a:! = fJ l . th c n
Now, tan PI - tan al = 1.45 (II

= T.,- + 2Cr
C;
- -- From inlet velocity configuration (Fig. 4.2),

= J2Cp(To2 - T,) = Cu( tanal + tanfJl )

= J2x 1005 x (438 - 419. 13) uma l +ta n {J1 = !:!... = ~ = 1.88 (2)

= 194.75111 /5
e" 100

From (I) and (1),

Example 4.3 An e ight siage axia l fl ow compressor provides an overall pressure
ratio of 6: I wi th an overall isentropic efficiency 90%. when the tempe rature air or tan fil =
1,45 -+- 1.88 = 1.665
ill inlet is 20°C, The work is divided eq ually nelwcen the slages. A 50 % reaclion is 2
lI sed with a mean blade speed 188 m/s and a conSl ant axial velocity 100 m/s through =
the compressor. Es timale the power required and blade angles. Assume air to be a
Substituti ng the value of tan PI = 1.665 in (I). we get
perfect gus.
tanal = Ian III - 1.45
Solution
PON = 1.665 - 1.45 = 0.215
N =8 . POI =6 • ~, = 0 .9. TOI = 293 K. R = 0.5 . U = 188 m/s.
:. al = 12"=1l2
C!! = 100 m/s.
For 50% reaction turbine, the blades are symmetrical and 50 the veloci ty diagram s Power required per kg of air/so
art! identical. 0'1 =
fh and a2 = PI·
If the compress ion process were isentropic then the temperature of air leaving the = III C,., ( TO N... , - Tud
compressor stage wou l9 be = I x 1.005(510.67 - 293)
.._, 218.76 kW
TOI (PoPO I
N
+> ) -'-
Example 4.4 A multistage axial flow compressor absorbs 4.5 mW when de·
L livering 20 kg/s of air from stagnillion condition of 1 hilT and 288 K. If polytropic
293(6) "n
efficiency of compression is 0.9 and if the stage stagnation pressure ratio is can-
488.9 K sl:lnl. calculate (a) pressure at compressor o utlct . (b) the number of slages . tcl ovt!rall
isentrop ic efficiency of compressor. Temperature ri se in the first stage may be taken
The overall isentropi c efficiency is given hy
as 20°e.

TOINot.•" - TO I Solution
'1c =
TON+ l - TOI
IV = 4.5 mW POI = I bar TOl = 28K K
/1p = 0.9 tlTo = 20"C T02;; TOl + tlTo = 288+ 20 = 308 K
:. To 1J +.
 146 ,. TUROO MACHINES

(a) Air flow angle ("'1) Since R = 0.5. 0'1 = Ih and

-
but. Ih ,f!. - 30\) = 30° 2 x lOs .
PI
:::::::::.....:.:;-:-;: = 2. 11 kg/ m.l
:. 0'1 _ 30° 287 x 330
: . 111 2. 11 x 8.797 x 10- ;\ x 11 4 .27
(b) The pressure rise
111 = 2.64 kg/s
WI'" u 6C.1- = C,,(T2 - Tt)
(d) Power
Ul;C
- -x +T, HI mC,,(T! - TJ)
Cp
2.64 x \.005(356.26 - 330)
Blade mean speed
IV 69.7 kW
Tr DN Tr x 0.14 x 36',000
U Example 4.2 The following data refers to a lest on an axial now compressor.
60= 60
Atmospheric temperature and pressure at inlel arc 18°C and I bar. TOlal head temper-
= 263.89 m/s atu re in delivery pipe is 165"C. TOIal head pressure in delivery pipe is 3.5 bar. Static
263.89 x 100 pressure in delivery pipe is 3 bar. Calculate (a) lotal head isentropic cniciency. (b)
:. T, 1005 + 330 polylropic cficiency. i\nd (c) air Velocity in delivery pipe. (M'!U-ApriJ '9/)
356.26 K Solution
A ssuming thm Lhcre art! no losses in Lhc cam·prcssor, the pressure ratio cn.n be deter- POI = I bar TOI =291 K
mined from To, = 273 + 165 = 4)8 K Po"!. == 3.5 bar Pt. = :\ bar

= (T')"'-'
T,
= (356.26)&l
330
(a) Total head isentropic efficiency
T02, - TOI
rye
1.31 x P, = 2.62 bar To> - TOI

Pressure rise
T02, = TO! (Pm)
- ~
POI
l; P = P, - P, = 2.62 - 2 = 0.62 bar

(c) The amount of air handled = 291 C.

I
-
5
) 1::
= 4 16.24K
m = PIA ICn
416.24 - 291
:. rk = 438 - 29 1
Axial velocity, C a , is given by
85.2%
2U .R
Cn (b) Polytropic efficiency
Ian 13, + Ian 13,
2 x 263.89 x 0.5
Ian 30" + tan 60"
In (Po,)
-
POI
114.27 m/s
_ ' In
, - I
(TO')
TOI
Flow area, A J = IT Db In 3.5
= Tr x 0.14 x 0.02 =
I n (4- 38 )
1.4
-
8.797 x JO-J m' 0.4 291
= 87.5%
 AXIAl. FLOW COM i'R ESS01LS AND FANS
J -i..J ;... T IIIWU M ACHINES

(5) Frontal Area

Ce ntrifu gal compressors have a larger front a l area than that of an axinl now co m~
pressor fo], th e same rating. Thi s makes the a xial now c ompressor mo re s uilnblc for
aircraft wo rk .

(6) Working Fluid

ThL' pL'rfonnancl! o f cc:n[rifuga l co mpressor is not much afl"l!l: tcd by the acc umul a-
,"
,I
tio n o f de pos its 1m the surface of now passagc whcn workin g with con w minill ing
Jluiu s. Unde r s uch co nditi o ns, the performom:e of a .x ial no w c ompressor is gene rally
Il11pilircd.
'I (7) Starting Torque
Ce ntri fugal compre ssors need n lo wer s tarting torque than axiat now c ompressors for
the sam e capac ity. o 0.2 0.4 0.6 U.S

(8) Construction
Centrifugal compressors IlI.I ve a s impl e, ri gid and re lati ve ly ch e np co nstru ction and Figure 4.10 A-riaf 11011' compressor cllLlractuislic Clfrv~.l
al so tess pro ne to ic ing [TOubles at high altitudes.
2. A small increas..: in mass How will lead to a sharp drop in pressure r:lli~ to point 2.
(9) Multistaging The dens ity also drops sharply so that e l l incr":3ses. l1tis re~ult s III .the .Iarge:
dec rease o f the incide nce a ngle in the rear stages , then:by c au smg stalling III the
l\'1ultis tag in g is m ore suita ble for a n a xial now compressor wh ere it g ives an increase
rea r slngcs with negati ve incidence . .
in pre ss ure w ith neg ligihle losses. Th e number of s tages for the a xial no w compressor
3. The o pe rating poinl m o ves to point 4 if the. spced of the co~prt!.ssor IS. redu.c~~
vari es from 5 to 1·"
Both m and e" fall fas ter than the blade spt!cd U resultmg 10 un IIlcft:asc
(10) Application inc idl!nc e a ngle and possible stalling in the first stage . ..
4. Whe n the design speed is increased to poinl 3, the charactensuc I!vcntual1~ be·
C .:: ntri fugal co mprL's sors .huve be e n s uc cess fully used as blowing machin es in sleel
c omes almost venic;l1 . Thi s will increase bmh the de nsity and pressure rallo as
mills . compressors for low pressure rcfrigc r.ltio n a nd industrial gases and tur b oc h a rg~
tb e incrc,lst:d s peed allows more air to be passed through the compressor. B~t at
t! rs and supe rc hargers in internal combustion e ng in es . They hnvc also bee n employe d
the inlet. the mass flow increases faster than the density und ..:hoktng atthc mkt
as compressors for s mall gas turbine airc rafts.
is usuall y the first to occur.
Axi al nmv compressors are m os tly ust:d in gas turbines and high pressure unit for
ind usu ial and large marine gas turbine pl 'lIl[ s. All the limiting c o nditions disc ussed above should be avoided tlt ulllimes since they
leud to unstable or inefficient operation.
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Fig . 4 . 10 s hows [h e c harac te ri sti c c urve of a multi sl<1ge a xial flow c ompressor. C om-
parin g th is c urve with th a t of th e cCnl rifugnl compressor, it is o bserved [h"l1 the pn.:s- Example 4.1 The following data refers to an 8)(inl·fiow compressor: Pt ;;:: 6Qf .
s urt: rati o o f the cl: ntrifugal co mpresso r is less se nsitive (0 maSs now vuria[ions at a turning angle = 300 and 6,e~ ;;:: 100 m i s, degree of reaction ~O% . rp~ ]6:~. ~~an
give n speed than in the a xia l c ompressor. The charilc terist ic curves have [he foll o wing blade diameter 140 mm, inlet pressure and temperature 2 bar <lml 57 C rcspcc~lvcl~.
sLllicn[ po inl s. Find al , the pressure fi.SC, Ihc amount 0 f atr
. h 8n dl cd and power if the hladc height IS
:!Omm.
I. Th e desi g n mn ss now and pres sure mli o are at point 1. It is seen Ihut th e desig n
po int is vl.! ry c lost! to lhcs urge line (poin15 ) and if the mass now is only s lightl y
re du ced , the press ure ralio and d e ns ity in the rcur sttlges will bo th inc rease. Since
Solution
= 3~' D.C, = 100 m/ s
L ell = m /pA . the a xial vel oc ity will dec rease a nd hence the incide nce an glc at
will in cre ase sharpl y in the re ar stnges, the reby c ausin g stalling in these stag es.
~, =60'
R = 0 .5
~, -~,
N = 36. 000 D =0.140m
b = 0.02 m
PI := 2 bar T, = 273 + 57 =)30 K
 AX I,\I . FLOW CO"II'ltF.5S0IlS AN I) r ANS '""' 1·13
1.. 2 ;. TURIIQ MACIlINES

If it is a~s umeulhat we 11<1\"e equal tCllaltcmpcralure risc. in e<ll:h st<lge '.IOU denotLng
~~(N+ l )
the in let i.:onditions by () I and oUl lct conJi tions allllc last siage as ON+ I . then ror 'N'
stages
i PO N+I/ PtJI = (1"iIN + t / TO\)'j,.r W ':' 11

Also

P, TON+I / Tol = (Jill + N6To) / T,II

I where 6, 7i, is the stage IUtal tcmpcrature ri sc o It is also usua l to assume th ai the
I poly tropic ant.! tOI:1I . tO· IOI:11 stage isentropic d lit:H:ncies are equal at a va lue (I f abuu l
2S 2 O.H~ .
I
I Using thi s metlwl.i . a very rapid calculation or pressure risc th roug.h the cOll1pre~sm
I
can he made .

COMPARISON BETWEEN CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR AND

AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR
FiguTt 4. 9 Comprt!ssion pro(."l!.r.J jn n multistage compressor The comparison bet wee n the main fC;;l.Iurcs of cenlri fugJI and ax.ial How compressors
arc given below
and the ise ntropic efficiency of tbe co mpression is
(1) Direction of Flow across the Compressor
~, = ("(N+ I), - I")/(/' N+ , -I,,)
In centrifuga l compressors. the flow through the compressor impeller takes place
If we now. compress from J to 5 in <I number of small fi nite s tages. the isentropic largel y in a pla ne which is perpendicular (0 the axis of the compressor.
work done IS In axia l !low compressors. lhe now proceeds throughout Ihe compressor in a direction
essent iall y parullC\ to the axis of I..h e compresso r.
Wt/m = (l12.J - "I ) + (IIJs - "2) + (11<1.1 - "J) + (lIss - /14)

and for similarly designed stages. the efficiency ''Is' is the samc . Hencc (2) Pressure Rise per Stage
Centri fugal compressor hJS a hi g.h pressure rise per stage (4 : I l, TIle ax ial now corn-
'Is = (Ws /m)/(lIN+l -/q)
pn.:ssnr however gives a pressure ratio of on ly 1.2: 1 per stage. To achieve Ihe desired
where th e n~merator cons ists of a number of isen tropic enthalpy inc reases. But. as rn:ssurc ri :;e. the axial now unit has to be provided with a large number or stages which
lhe entropy Increases through the co mpression, the constant pressure lin es diverge makes the ax ial now compresso r less compact when com pnrcd with the cqu ivalent
and ccn trifuga l unit.
(lIb -/'1) + (IrJ.t -112) + (l14s - IIJ) + (!l5s -1r 4) > (/I (N+ I), - II I)
(3) Isentropic Efficiency
and thus The isentropic cfficcnc.:y or centrirugal compressor:> is as high as 80%. Emlier axial
now machines had a low isentrop ic efficiency, but with aerofo il blading. a multislilgc
I~, > llel axia l now co mprcssor surpasses the maximum centrifuga l compressor efficie ncy by
Th~t is. the ave.ra ll sin gle isc~ tropic comFression effi ciency is less than the stage abo u1 4 per ce nt . Tl lc efficiency in bot h cases however declines at high pressure rati o~.
effiCiency. The d ifferen ce also Increases with pressure ratio and with the number of
stages . (4) Range of Operation
TI1C overa ll stati c pressure ratio o f a multistage co mpressor can be exprcssed in termS Cc ntri fug ,11 co mprcssors have a wide range of openllion between surging and choking
of small stage efficiency as limits. A greater flexibility in operaLion can be achieved by lhe usc o f adju stahlc
prcwhirl .alld din-uscr vanes. High efficiency for uxial now compressor is attainet.!
I PN + l/ P [ = (TN+ t /TI )'I,..r/(r - 1J I only wit hin a n<l rrow mnge of speed al the design pressure .
 AX I,'!. FLOW COMl'Rli:SSORS ",,"I) FANS "'" 14\

llll..'lI .
2;rN
where w =- - - and
60
= WI
. (CJ ~",rlll
- -- -
C II "' /"111)
- .- -
r ,.
WrlJl(C'~ m -C\· I N,)==Wt. I"::! - \"11

= COnS(nnl
For forced vortCX desi gn, C.I~ = rx~ and C... , = rx\
T hU !<o ..i1 m;lchine w ith free vone,X hlades is n const:JnHvork mnchine .
Re,Lclron Ratio
:.w = Ur(x1 - xd
C"
R '2U ( Ian fil + Ian fi~)
In this type of blnde !.he energy transfer increascs from root to tip (Fig . ..UHa) & (b» .
[
= 2U (Hl rl + IV I !) There is il limit to hub/tip ratio in order to provide a prnctical minimum value of

[
axia l veloc ity Cfl ·
2U I<U - C,' 1+ (U - C"II (bl Allip
(II) At hub (or root)
lU -(ell + Cr~)
C,
2U
and for f"n:e voncx co ndition c. w,r>(\C,
R= I _ XI -I- x:! _ J _ XI + .\"1
~
2Ur - 2wr1

· :~l~ re':~I~~n rati ~ varll:s with t!lC r"diu ~. Tht!reforc. Dt one dcsig ned point o nl y the Figllre 4.8 \Vtlrk dOlle in aJorced varIa blade
dl.~I1;1I rl: •.lllion rall o can bl.! ohtalOcd. Th iS hladi! dL!sign method has the disacJvanwgc
Ih .1I Ihl.' hl !,! hl.' sl Mach I1I1.Lnbl.'rs occur nr the rotor tip ,llld :11 th c s talur huh.
(c) Constant Reaction Blade
(b) Forced Vortex or Solid Rotation Blades For true radial cqulibrium, Cli should vary with radius , but conslant reaction blades

For Ihi s Iype of now Ihe condition is

have been co mmonly used wiLh constant en.
As WI and C:! decrease only slightly
frolll tip to root , almost constant Mach number occurs at different radii.
So, in constant reaction blade, the altial velocity C II and the reaction ratio' R' are
c,'
I
= C..., constant at all radii i.e from lip to rool. • R' is equal 10 0.5.
- = x(cu nslant)
1"1 1"1

Til ~ L .: hic \'e Ih e rndial equilihriulll Ihl.! axial velocity del.Teases I"rorn rom 10 lip . SHI~e MULTISTAGE COMPRESSION
C". I~ 1101 constant a ln~ g Ih e hl<ld e. hci ghl , it is dt!tcrm mcd at a particular se~,jnn. usi n ' 111C lolal pressure ratio ncruss a single sUlge is dependent upon the lotal tcmpl.!ratun:
Ihl lolJllwlOg express ions. . g ri s\! <lcross the stng!.!. whereas, in Olultistage compression, the rise in pressure across
Allllkl : cach slagc for Ihl.! same temperature risc per stage is not equal. For e)(ampll.!. if' Pur'
is tile pressure ratio for one stage, tnen the total pressure ratio is given by (P"r)N •
wherc 'N' is the tOlal number of stages. This condition is not true.
The difference is seen in !.he Mollier chan (Fig. 4.9). For the same Icmpa8turc: rise
per st~gc, as Ihe enlropy increases, Ihe pressure ri se dccrt:ast!s.
W hl... C ,. = scction radius and K I = C~ + 'C~ If we compress in a si ngle comprcssion from I to 5. the isentropic work done is
:\llllIlh":l: '11.111 - .\ 1.111

C,', = " , _ 2 (C,,)'. ,., + (C" C,') ,

1_ _
r
-J -
r
- -
r
(Vr- I IV/m = (Ii(N+I), -Ii,) I
 AXIAL Ft.ow COMI'RESSollS ,.,NIl FANS ....: 1W
138 ,. TUHIJU MACIIiNES

RADIAL EQUILIBRIUM THEORY c2 dC.l dell {4 .J6al

. -..:!.+c , ~-+C(I-d =()
. ,. ' dr r
If the ahsolutc velocity C is res olved into three compont.!l1ts in the tangelltial. axial
and radial directinns. This I!ljuHlilln is t!quivalclll to
2
[C = C~ + c} + C; I 1 d
--(rCr)--I- -(C II )
, d 2
=0
tlr
,.2 . dr
TIlt.! stagnntion pressure Illay be writtt.!n as
Becnus!,!, differcntiating eqn. 4.37 . wt: gel cqn. 4.36a.
Po = P + pC'/2 t + 'c" . dCI
. C r df
-
dr
+ 2rCr r . dC
dr
-
elr
Po
22
c2 +2C.l~-
de.\"
+2CIl
dC"
-
r dr dr
For stcudy nuw cunditions along concentric stream lines. the ve locity. static pressure (or)
and density arc constant with timc anddCr = O. LeI " be the radius ora ny cnncenlric
strcamlinc. Thcn dilTerentiuting. with respect to r. we get
dPo dP dCx dC,
dr
= -
dr
-I- pC.r~-
dr
+ pCr!~-
dr
(4.341
TYPES OF BLADES
But from fluid Tlwchanics. for plane circulatory flow and for r;]dial equilibrium.
(a) Free Vortex Blade
,{p C'
fl2 In tilis cast.! the tangential veloc ity distribution tws to hI.! such tl1"l(
dr r
dPo C~ dC r
p---..:... +pC.\--
dC"
· +pCu - - (4.35)
IC I' I' - co nstant I
dr r tIr dr
With this condition. the equation 4.37 becomes
The energy IransfelTcu to the blades is at the expense of the energy in the Iluid LInd
may be c:'(pressed in tcnns of tile stagnation enthalpy change dll". dell
Writing the TcI.'i equation using stagnation properties. we havc d,.
= 0
'. CII constant
lTd.'; = dho - ~I . I I ., C ·,s constant 'dong the blade height i.c. from rotor
,S0. ilXlil ve UCl y I I ' .
lip 10 st;lIor
hub. And reacti on ratio R varies with radius. i.c. it decreases from up to huh.
Differentiating w.r.1. 'I"

Tds dllodPo Work and reaction ratio in free vortex blade f=rorn Euler's cqualltll1.
dr dr pdr
dP" dh oTds
- - --
IIV = ute, - e, 1 - wr(e, C.,) I
or ~­ (4.36)
pdr dr tlr
For fn.:c vortex bladc. the condition to be satislit.:d is
SuhSlituting equati{ln 4.~n in equation 4.35
err = constant
£III" Tds c~ dC I dC"
dr dr
---'-
r
+ C.I• - -
dr
+ Cu~­
dl" i.c. ,h ,'... whirl velocit)' is in versely proponionai to the radius. Applying the condllllHl'
bctween \Wo sections.
To simplify this equation the foll owing assumptions nrc made
dill!
C.I' 1 . r = C X 1.,"· rill = x t constant
~-
dr
= 0 (Since energy transfer is constant. at all radii) C. r~ .r = C Xl .,"· rm = .\"2 constant
Td.,
and - -
dr
=0 where subscript III refers (0 values al th\! mean radius 'II! '
 AXIAL FI.ow COMI'RES.sOrlS AND F A NS .... 137

Thu . .
this results in [lositive incidence. At starting and low speed operation, lillIe pressure
(IlPlp) 'h (.6.11 Lf'/ ri se lakes plaee. Where as at the design poinl (i .e. at higher rpm) of the cumprl!ssor.
.'. (.6. p)u r:,!p 11.U . .6.C-r largc pressure rise occ urs from firs! to the last slage. Thus in a 10\\1 spel!d upcra!ion. the
(4.16)
abse nce of pres sure in the last stages leads to higher values of elf than thl! designed
If C I = L.l . then IJ.. i.. it very c luse :Ipproxirnation of tht! 100al -lo-tmnldTiciency ']11 . o ne. and this leads to choking . Choking limits the flow rate and thi s in turn increase!.
h.lu - hi the posilive incidence in the first stage and bence there is a possihililY of slall. Low
'1.1 speed sta ll occurs in front stages. Al high speeds, the las t siages are more like ly 10
II] - hi
stall because their characteristic is steep and a small reduction in now ratl! produl!es
11 03" - hOI
a considerahle reduction of velocity and thu s a large change of incidence.
hOJ - hol
All lhe hladl!s arc not slalled at lhl! same lime. but a stall is propagated from bladl!
to blade in a direction opposite to the direction of fOHliion. This propagation spl!l!d is
low comparl!d to the rpm (compressor) . TIlUS the stall appeOJrs to he in Ihe dirl!clion
n _ h Ju -hJ
." - of rOintiun. This phenomenon is called ' propagatiolJ' or . rOlatilJg sral/'.
"3 - hi (427)
Consider a portion ofa blade row shown in Fig. 4 .7. Lei the bladl! A be: sla lll!d. This
Allhaugh Ihe .ahovc expression:; ilrc derived for incomprcssihle now they art.! ncv- incn!asl!S the incidellcl! to thl! left of blade A, and' rcducl!s the incidence of the nuw
l'r1heless. ~ va!ld aprn1Xi ma(~on for compressible now, if the slage tempcrillurc (and on lO the blades on thc right. The blade B will be the nc)(tto stall.
pressllrt.!) fiSt.! IS sma ll .
Inc~cnscd /
/
/ Decreased
PRESSURECOEFRCENT I'.) IIlcldenr /' [inCidence

It _i~ deJ,i ned a~ [he r;Jtio Ofille actual slagnmion enthalpy change to the kir1l!Lic energy
(lJ .l Hurd. whi c h has th(! same .'ipeed as the hladl!s. Thus

(4.2R)

2).,CI/(ti.ln PI - tun fh)

U
~~---- Stall propagation
= 21.1' ltan fl I - ton fl,) , (4.29)
If Ih.e st.t£e pressure change is so sma ll then thl! nuid can be considered as incom - Figllre 4.7 CVII/pus.sur .n ull
pressible, '
S unicienlly extensive stall results in a 5unicienl reduction of lolal now and surging
Ililu = III Po) 1 p (4.30) .takes plac e. So, sta lling leads 10 surging . .
So That
RADIAL EQUILIBRIUM METHOD
The assumption of two dimensional flow is no longcr valid w hcn Iht! ratio uf huh/lip
14.3 1)
is less than 0.8. In thl! case of nir craft comprl!ssors. mass flow is high und fronlal
area is s mall. To meet this requirement, longl!r bladt!s on a smallcr hub is uscd. So.
The press ure l:lJdJicielll usually ranges from 0. 4 to 0.7.
radiOJI wlocities Sl!t up in the bladl! row changes the muss fiow and Ihl! outll!t vdocily
This dcfinilioll for v; I' has a llume ri cal value twice Ihe numerical vulueofthe equ:uiull distribution . In such cases, thl! blades should not be dcsignl!d on two diml!nsional
l/J11 = )"rP(tOJnCt:! - wner ,) principle . RadiOJI now is l!ausl!d by a lempornry imhalance ht!twl!l!n the cl!nlrifugnI
and r<ldial pressure forces acti ng on the fluid. When thesl! forces balance each othcr.
there is no r<ldial vcl oc j[y and [ile fluid is said to be in radial equi librium . ThIs method
COMPRESSOR STALL AND SURGE of analysis is known as thl! 'radial equilibrium method'. This analysis exuminl!s the
:-he rn~ s t s i~ni fican! pIH:: no~leno~ affecting the pl!rformance or axial flow compressors pn:ssurc forces acting on an clement of fluid and equates these forces 10 thl' centrifugal
I~ the .\ulll. rhl! blade stall IS mi.lIl1ly due 10 Ihe reducl!d now rale (or reduced ell) as force s aCling on the fluid.
1}.j ;.. Ttm uo MArltl NES

Across the sWim row. Po is cons t<lnl nnd the equat ion is
When R = 0.5.
, . L201

Addi ng tin: equation (4. 19) and (4 .20).the pressure rise in eac h row and co n:' Il.l cnn t!
Su. when the ou tlet and inlet ve locity triangl es arc superi mposed, the resulting
vdo!.:i t)' diagram is sy mmetrical (Fig. 4.6a).
a normal slagc (C.l = C,' .giv!.!s
,
(P, - PI> )( :: = Ie; - W;) + (lVf - Crl \4 .2 1 t
Case - 2 When R > 0.5. . p
frnm the equation of react ion ratio (4 . 17), il is seen Ih a l th. > a l . and from equa tion
4 . 1N( .1). the stalic enl halpy risc in the rotor is greater Ihan in the stOllar. (t:J.P).'i,,, ~t = (t:J.P)R," ' I( + (6 P )swllIr
Si nce f1"!. > 0'1. the superi mposed veloc ity trinngie is skewed to the rig ht (Fig. 4.6b)
From the velOC ity triangles. th e cosi ne rule givt!s
Case - 3 Wlll:n R < 0.5.
From tllc equat ion ror reaction ratio 4. 18(01). it is found th at th e s tatic entha lpy rise
and pressure rise arc grea tcr in the s ta tor th a n in the rotor anll from elln . 4. 17. we ge t
c' u1 + W 2 - 2UlV COS(~ - fJ)
112 < a t So. th e super im posed ve loc ity trian gle is skewed to the le ft (Fig . 4.6c). a nd \V sin fJ IV,

or

~
Il. a, II, (4 .221
0,

w~ c, Subs tituting. t!quati on 4.22 in equatio n 4.2 1

w. C~

U = (Ul _ 2UlV .'J)_(Ul_2UlV'tl

U
Ib)R >O.5 2U( Wq W.,~)
1;1 ) R=U.5 = -

From the vdocll y diagram . we get

Vt = U2 =U
:. Wrt + C.II = WI 2 + C.I :
U or WIt - ~1'.1"2 = C .l"l - Cit
(c) R < 0.5
·. (P.• - Pil ip U(C.1· : - ex,) = II ]. - 111 14 . 2~ I

Figure 4.6 Effect of reClctioll ratio on tile velocity triangles Since, fllt" an ise ntropi c prm:css .
1\ reac tion ralio of SO per ce nt is widely used as the ndverse pressure gradie nt over the
slage is s hared equally by the stat or a nd rOlor. TIlis c hoice o f reaction mini mi ses the
Tds = 0 = rill - (dP/PJ an d th t!reforc (t!. h)j" = t:::.P/p.
tendency of Ihe bl ade boundary layers to sepa'rale from th e so lid surfac es, thu}i avoid-
T he pressure rise in a renl stnge (i nvolvi ng irreversible prt)f.:essJ pill he dClertmm:d .
ing lar!,!e stagnatio n pressure losses. A reaction mlio o f 50 per cent is the conditi u n
if the stage dl iciem.:y IS know n.
for maximum te mpera ture risc a nd effic ie ncy.

STATIC PRESSURE RISE STAGE EFFICIENCY

The main fun c ti on of II co mrrcssor is to ra ise the s tatic pressure o f ilir. TIle ideal Stage eflicil.!ncy is ddined as the rati o of the ist!lI trop u..: enth alpy rise to Ihe al.:tual
compressor stage is conside red first. wh ic h has no stagnati on pressure losses . Across en thalpy ri se corre sponding to the same Ilnite pressure chn ng..: .
the rotor row. Po", is f.:o ns tanl and the equalio n is
61r.1 (4 .25)
'1.1 = =
(4.19 ) (6")(1, ./
 AX IAL F LOW CUMI'RESSOH.5 A-":I' F.A,t-.'S ...: 1 D

I C'I Ian fJ2 - CII tan a I

REACTION RATIO = 2+ 2U
The reacIi(lll ratio is a measure of the sialic enthalpy ri se that occurs in the rOior I CII (tanti! - lllna,)
expressed as <l pcrclo!n lagc of the 100ai SIal ic en thal py risc across Ihe stage . II is defined -1 +-
U :2
:I S
R = [I +¢( tan {J2 - tanail l/::! (.l.I7 )
St;Jlic I.!n thalpy rise in rotor
R= Similarl y. subs tilUti ng ror WI2 in equation (..L 15)'
SUllie e nthalpy rist! in stage
/I '1 - li l (4. 13)
W('2 = u -eX!
II '}. - /q
lVI I +U - C ,I !
R =
2U
2
Si nce linln'l = h{)~rd then."'1 - hI = ( W 1 - Wf)/'1.· I Wq -C. I !
Also if C 1 = C" lhcn , 113 - III ;;;; (hOJ - "OJ ) = U(C~, - ex,) = -2 + 2U
a nd suhsti tutin g for (II'!. - "" t> and (11 3 - III ) in cq uatio-n 4.13. I e,l Ian Ih - e'l Ian 0':0
(4. 14)
= - +
2 ~U
R (lYf - WiJ/ 12U(C" - C,,)]
~ + C, canPI - tana~)
(CI~ + w';)) - (CI~ + W}2) ] =
1 U 2
12U(C" - Cx , )]
I ('un PI -tuna2)
(\V.,., + lY"H W" - 11'.,,) = 2: + <p ~
{2U(C·, - Cx,)] (4. IHI
R = [I +<p('an~, tan 0'2>1 / 1
BUI C,I: = [j - \VJ'l and ex, = U - IV \1" Therefore, For the case of incompressibl e and revt.!rsibk flnw. tht! t.!xprt!ss ion ust:J for reacti on
ratio is of static press ure rise in the rotor 10 the stalic pressure ri se in the swge
(CJ 2 - C.II ) = IV'I - WI !

I-Icncc. IR = (P, - Pd / (P, - Pil i

R = (lV" + IV" )/2U (4. 15 ) In th e case of compressi ble and irreversible now. a more general dl!li nition of R is
= C,,(ton fJ, + Ian /h)/2U in terms of static enlhalpics.

= UC"
tnoll", R = (Ii, - /lI )/(Ii, - I,, )

= rp Ian Pm (4 . 16) EFFECT OF REACTION RATIO ON THE VELOCITY TRIANGLES

where. tan {J", = (ta n /31 + ~an 131)/2 Case - 1 Whe n R = 0.5 .
/Jill - mean relati ve ve loc ity vector angle and fl ow co-efficient The reaction ra ti o R is

<p = -
e'l axia l vei ocilY
= ~:--.,---,.:.. R= 11 ,- -
(I'J - Ii ,)
"I
+ (II, - I,,)
(4 . 18(a))
U blilde ve loci ty
when R is 0.5
Similarly, the rc'lction r~Hi o c,m be ex pressed in diffel'l.:nt forms as follows:
Substituting for WI 1 in t.!quulion 4. 15

u- e l·, For a reac ti on rmi o of 50 per cent. the static en thalpy and lempCrDIU re Increase in the

R
u - e.q + Wfl stator and rotor ;.tre eq ual.
2U Also from Ihe cquution (4. 17 ),
1 _lI...:'.,,,,::--,.,.:C:.;:.<,,,
-+
2 2U
R = [I + <p( lan /l, - 13nc,,)[/2
 lJO ,.. TUlmo ~ ACJIINES AX IAl . FLOW CO"'U'ItESSfl n S AN n F ... I'S .c,;: I II

the 'H.ia l now compressor receives no contribution from the change in tangential lip 1.0 r------~" ......:----,
ve loci ty tU).
TIle isentropic or overalltOlal-(o-total efficiency is written us

Idea l isentropic work input I

Actual work input
4
Total isentropic enthalpy ri se in th e s lage
=
Actua l enthalpy risc between the same total pressure limits

= _-- -hOI
."n.l.r.1 -
110.1 - "01
c~, mca n
which reduces to
Figure 4.4 \'£1,;at;o" "I axial I'cluci,.\' a/llII1: tJ bl{J(iI'
(4.7)
TIle v'lriotion in work done fa c tor ().) with s tage number is show n in the Fi!:! . 4.5. II
Putting POJ / PIII =
(ToJ.u/Tot>",-1 shows that A decreases as the number o f compressor stage increases.
the pressure ratio becomes
1.0
(4.8)
~O. 95
The energy input to the fluid will be absorbed in rai sing the pressure and velocity of 9u
th e air and some will be wasted in overcoming various fricti onal losses.
However. the who le of th e work input will appear as a stagnation te mperature rise
'""
c
o
0.9
"0
in Ihe air regardless of the isentropi c efficiency. 'C 0.85
Equating th e work in tenns of tempe rature and air angles.
~
I(To] - TO]) = UC"Oan /l , - ,anfh)fC" I (4.9) o.8 '=0--4c--:::8--1:'::2:--1:':6:---::2U~
S tage number

Figure 4.5 Variatiol/ oj wo,k dOl/e fac tor with nUll/her of SllJNt'·(
WORK DONE FACTOR
In practice 'CII ' is nol cons tan t along the le ngth of the blade and. 10 account for this. STAGE LOADING (OR) PRESSURE COEFFICIENT
o work done fa c tor is introd uced. h is de fined as
S tage loading (1/1) I' is defined as the ralio o r the power input to the te rm m U ~ .
Actual wo rk absorbing capacity
Work do ne factor. A = ===c;:-==c:-'':-:-':''-'''''':'
Ideal work absorbing capaci lY Work input
1/1,,:;::; 111
U..,
~

He nce.

(To.1 - Toil = AUC,,('anfj, - 'anfj,) f C" (4. 10) V'/I W/mU

2 = (hoJ - holl/U!
C = A(C.,,-C.• , )/U (4.111
A graph is drawn between thc percentage of blade Icngth and (I (Fig. 4.4). ).(C,,/U){lana2 - tanad
CII • mean
It iJlus trntcs th at it is only at the inlct of the machine th a t the velocity profile. i.e ell . VI (I AI/> (lana1 - lana i) (4.121
is fairly constant As Ihe air moves through the compressor the change in ell is morc.
11lis is due to the innucnce of the solid boundaries of the rotor and s tator. wbcn.: rp is the flow coefficicnt.
 AXIAI.FLOWCOMI'IU:.5SOKSANDF ....NS ..:: 129

diffusion of llil' ab~olul': velocit y IJkcs place in the sli.Hor, where th e Jbsolute ve locit),
vector is ilgain lurncd lowards Ihe Jxial direction and a further sUllie prt:ssu re ri sc h POl
02 , ....- P",
n..:cu rs.
0)
NOle Ihal all angles arc referred to Ihe a:(ial velocity vector C II . TIle diagra ms arc 0), P, ~
Jrawn wi!h n brgl.! ~ap (for clarity) hClwecll rOlor and stalor blades. But in prnctice, 0355
v
(herr.: is o nl y i.I sma ll 'Clr.:arance between the lll . )
]ss ),
~
ENERGY TRANSFER OR STAGE WORK Pul •et ~U'

Pm ..,
The cnl.!rgy gw..:n tn 'he- air per unit m,I.~S How rate is given by Euler's equation. Olrd P,

IW/III = U'].C,.~ - U,C XI I

nr

E = (V,C.,., - V, C." )/g (4. 1) P,

From Ihl.! ve loc ity triangles. CII is constant through th e stage and VI = U']. = U. h ul = hUl
hOI ",,= hlf,!",.

:lI1d
Figure 4.3 Mollia charI for an w:iol flow compressor S/{Jlft'
C.q = U - ell Ian /31 Then 1102 - "01 = (/'2 - ht> + (C;~ - C;,} /2 = U(C XI - CZ,)
C~! - C q ell (Ian PI - Ian fh) or (h, - I,,) - (C" - C,' )[2V - (C" + c,' ))/2 = 0
Rearranging
Thererore
(h, - I,,) - (C" - C."II(u - C.,,) + (U - C, »)/2 o
E = VC,,(tan ~, - Ian Ih)/g (4.2)
(112 -lit) + (\VAl - w.,.)(W'·2 + W-t,)/2 [I

The energy transfer may also ~c written in Icrms of the absolute velocity flow angles. (":! -"t)+(W}~ - W;,)/2 o
£ = UC(j(tana2 - tunadlg (4.3) Ilul
(W.~~ - wil) = (\Vf - Wr). sin ce ell is constanl. Therefore
Equlition (4.2) or (4.::q may be used depending upon the information available.
\V; ~r
h"+-- =h l + - 2 (4.51
MOLLIER CHART - 2

The How throu gh Ihe axial flow compressor singe is shown IhermodynamicaHy on (or) "O~.rd = hOl.rti

- the Mollier chart (fig . 4.3) and is simi lar to that of a centri fugal compresso ....
Assu min g adiaba tic now through the swge. 110]
s upplied is
=
11 02, and so eq uation for work
where tht! relalive tala I enthalpy is based On the relative velocity.
Eq unlion (4.5) shows thaI the to tal enthalpy based on relative velocities in Ihe rOlor
is conSlan l across the rolor and thi s result is also valid fo r the' axial 1'ow gar tu,bi"e
r010,'. II is already proved that the change in enthalpy for a centrifugal compressor
\V 1m = "02 -1t0I (4.4)
is (1 = "OJd - U~/2J.

Writing (4.61
c'
"0 = "+., A comparison of equation (4.6) with equation (4.5) indicates why tbe t:nlhalpy
change in a single stage 3:(ial flow compressor is so low compared to the eentri·
fugal compressor. The re lative velocities may be of the snme order of magnitude:, bUI
 116 l> TURno fl.lf1CIlINES

VELOCITY TRIANGLES FOR AN AXIAL FLOW

I
G COMPRESSOR STAGE
S It V In studyi ng the now of the nuid through an axial compressor. it is usua l to consider
the changes tak ing place through a compressor stage. The analysis ror now through
the slage is assumed to be two dimensional and 10 take place at a mean blade height.
The rOlor and stator rows of n stage ilre shown in Fig . 4.2.

)---!O=!'LlbdlJ~liJ:L ~ ~:;~::
Stage - " = - -_ ..
'>___-"~~---------------~---{Discor
OJ hub

Figure 4.1 All axial compressor stage'

not fonn part of the compressor stage bUI arc solely to guide Ihe air at the correct
angle onlO the fir~ 1 row of moving blades. The blades heighl is decreased as the nuid
moves through tbe comprcs~or..This is to maintain a const::mt axial velocity through
the compre~sor as tl.H~ ~ensJty m~reascs from Ihe low to hig h pressure regions. A
constant a~]al velo.cHY J~ convenient from the poi nt of view of design. but this by
no means IS a r:cqUJremcnl. The now through the siage is assumed to take place at a c.,
mean blade height. where the blade peripherol ve locities at inlet and ou tlet are the
same. There is no now in the radinl direction. Whirl components of velocity exist in Figure 4.2 VelucilY triangles for CUI (J.dal flow compressor 5Wf.:t'
the direction of blade mOLion.
A stage consists o f il row of moving blades aUilched 10 the periphery of a rotor hub
followed by a row or fixed blades allached to the walls of the outer casi ng.
WORKING PRINCIPLE Th e compressor is made up of a number of such stages to give an overall pressure
rati o from the inlet to outlel.
The kinetic e nergy is imparted to the air by th e rotating blades. which is then con-
Air exits from the previous row or Slator bladers at an angle 0'1 with absolule velocity
verteu i'l1to a pressure rise. So. the basic principle of working is simi lar to thilt of Ihe
C I. nle rotor row ha s tilngcntinl veloci ty U. and co mbining the two veloc ity vcclUr~
cenlrifugnl compressor.
gives the relntive velocity vector lV I ilt an angle fJl. At rolor row outlet the absolute
Refer:i~g to Fig. 4.1. the air enlers uxially from the right into the inlet guid~ vanes. velocity ve.ctor Cz movcs into Ihe stator row where the now direction is changed from
w~ere II IS denecled by a certain ilngle to impinge on the first row of rOlaling blades
az to O'J with ilbsolule velocity C,l. If the following stage is same as the preceding
~nh I~C proper angle or l.1uilck. The rOlaling vanes add kinetic energy to the air. There
one. then the s tage is sa id 10 be normal. For a nann ill stage
15 a sllghl pre!'sure risc 10 the air. The air is then discharged al the proper :mgle to
the fi~st. row of ~tator blades. where the pressure is further increased by diffusion. anda t=O'J
Cl=C3
The air ]s then directed to Ihe second row of moving blades and the same process is
repealed through .the remainin~ compressor slages. In most of the compressors, one 1\'2 is less than WI, showi ng thilt diffusion of relative velocity has taken place wit h
10 Ihrc~ rows or diffuser or stfillgh~ener blildes arc inslalled at Ihe end of the lasl stage
some static pressure rise across th e rotor blades.
10 !;trmghtcn and slow down the air before it e nters i!Ho the combusti on chamber. The :lir is turned lOw:lrds the axial direction by the bluc.k ca mber and the effective
now area is incrc'lsed from inlet to outlet. thus cil usin g di ffu sion to liike pl:lcc. 5il11il:}r
AxiAL FLOW COMPRESSORS
ANOFANs

INTRODUCTION
Axial flow compressors and fans arc turbo machines Lhal increase the pressure of lhe
gns flowing continuously in lhe axi al direction. Due to lack afknowledge oflhe aero·
dynamic behaviour. a reversed rcaclion turbine was used as an axial How compressor
in carly days. The efficiency was less than 40 per cent. Then, study of aerodynumic
behaviour hdpcd in designing the blades for axial flow compressors. Nowadays. the
efficiency of the axial flow compressors surpass the maximum centrifugal compressor
efficiency by about 4 per cent. But the efficiency o[the axiaillow compressor is very
se nsitive (0 Ihe mass flow rale . Any deviation from the design condition causes Ihe
dficit!ncy (0 drop off drastically. Thus the axial flow compressor is ideal for constant
load applications such as in aircraft gas turbine engines. Th!!y arc also used in fossil
fuel power Simian s, where gas turbines arc used 10 meellhe load exceeding lilt: normal
peak load .

Advantages of Axial Flow Compressors

I . Axial !law compressor has higher efficiency than radial now compressor.
2. Ax inl now co mpressor gives higher pressure ratio an a single shaft with felalive1y
high efficiencies.
3. Press ure ratio of 8: I or even higher can be achieved using muhistagc axial flow
compressors.
4. The greatest advantage of the axial flow compressor is its high thrust per unit
fronlal area.
5. It can handle large amount of air, inspite of small fronlal area.
The main disadvantages are its complexity and cost.

DESCRIPTION OF AN AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR

An <Ixial now compressor consists of fixed and movable set of blades in ahcrnating
sequence. Moving blades are altachcd to the periphery of a rotor hub followed by
fi xd blades allachcd to the walls of the outer casing (Fig. 4.1) AI the inlet of the
compressor, an !.!xlra row of fixed vanes called inlet guide vanes arc fitted . These do
 I;!;! :.- T1 11U!\) tvt ,\I ·IIINI·.S
] .26 . A I.:cnlrirugnl compressor works Wilh no whirl al entry and has radial cxit. n,!:
slip ractor is O . ~J. The rolortip speed is 625 m/s. The mass now rale IS 15 kg/s o
l'lC ambIent comJilions arc 98 kPa and 23 fJ C. TIle pressure rauo is 7. Cakulate
(a) isentropic efficicncy (h) work required per kg of air (c) power supplied for
a mcchan ical efficiency of 97%.
[Ans: (0) 62% (b) 355.47 kllkg and (e) 5496.93 kWI
.~ . 27 . The foIlClwi"f! d<lta refer 10 a centrifugal compressor. Impeller tip diameter;;
100 cm. speed;; 59jO rpm. mas~' f1ow rale of air::: 30 kg/so Stalic pressure nHlO
P~ j Pt ~ ~ . I J:5: atmospheric pressure and lemperature are I bar and 25 ·~ C. Slip
faclUr = O.l}() .lOd mcchanical efficiency = 0 .97 . Find (a) the adiabatic effic iency
of the Impeller. (bJ the Icmperalure of the air at the exil. (c) the shaft power
inpul and (d) Ihc pressure coefficient.
(M KV·April·1 ~~~)
IAns: (a) 82.J'W (b) 385.3 K (e) 2709.3 kJ/kg and (d) U.742 1
3.18. A double -sided cenlrirugal compressor has impeller eye root and tip diamclers
I XO mm unu ~OO 111m and is to deliver 16 kg of air per second at 16.0000 rpm .
The design ambir.:nt conditions arc 17"C and I bar. Calculale su iHlhle valul! ... for
lhe impeller vane ang les al rom and lip of the eye if air is giwn 20" measured
from thc radial direction of prewhirl al all radii . 11le ux.ial component of inlet
velocity is constant ovcr the eye and is equal 10 150 m/s.
[Ans: ("157.33" and (b) 37.H·1
.3 .29. A cenlrirugal blower takes in 180 mJ jmi n of ai r at PI :::: 1.01 ~ bar and
'1 = 43 ~' C .1Od delivers ill'll 750mm \V.G. Taking the effiCIencies of the blower
and drive as 80% and 82% respecti vely. delcrmine the power required to drive
the blower and the statc of air at cxil.
(MV-April '97 & OCI'99)
IAns: (aJ 33.65 kW (b) J .0866 bar and 324 .1 KI
330. A ccntrifugnl fan wilh a radial impeller produces., pressure equivalent to
100 cm column of water. The pressure and Icmpcr<lture at ils entry arc O.YS
bar and 310 K. TIle e lectric malar driving the blower runs at 3000 rpm . The
efficiencies of the fan and drivc arc 82 % and 88 %. respectivel y. The radinl
velocity remains constant and has a va lue of 0.2 U~. The velocity at the inlet
eye is 0.4 U! . I f the blower handles 200 m J Imin of air ill thl! entry condition s.
determine (iI) power required by the electric motor (b) impeller diameter Ie)
inner di::Jmeter or the blade ring (d) blade air angle nt e ntry and Ie) impell er
widths at l!n lry and exit.
IAns: (a) 45.3 kW (bJ 66.4 em (e131.9 elll idl22.6' and
(e) 15 .95 em and 7.66cml
3 .3 1. A fan running at 1480 rpm takes in 6 mJ / min of air at inlet co nditions o f
Pt = 950111 bar and'l =
15°C. If the fan impeller diameter is 40 cm and
the h lade tip air angle is 20 a , determine the lOtal pressure developed by the fan
and the impeller widlh at exit. The r;Jdial velocity at the exit is 0.2 times the
impeller tip speed . Stale the assumptions used.
IAns: (aJ 50.67 mm w.G. and (b) J .28 em l
3.32. A eentri fugal compressor runs at 15,000 rpm ::Jnd produces a stagnation pressure
ratio of 4 between the impeller inlet and outlet. The stagnation conditiuns of air
<II lhl! L'llmpressor intake arc 1.01.3 25 oar and 15"C reSpel.:l l\·c!Y· The ahs(lluiC
velocity al lhe compressor in ici IS .. xi,,1. If Iht.: l:omprcsstlr h;JS rildial h lallc'>
at [he exit s uch tital th e exit n.:lativL' velocity is 1.15 m/s and the comprc'isnr
t(1tal ~ l o. t owl cf!iciel1 cy is 0.78. Compute the slip, slip l:(u;ITkil!nl and ahsolulC
vel (l{:i ty ;11 Ihe compressor ex it if Ihe: rutor diameter ;\I Ihe \lutlet IJot 5KO 111111 .
[Ans: (a) 45.9 mls (hi 0.~993 and (e>·n U 10/, 1
3.33 . An airera!'t engine is fillL'd with ;} s ingJc~sidcd ccntrifu£al l:ompres:.or. Thc
nirl:raft lIi cs with a speed of 850 km/h at an altitude where [hl! pn::ssure is 0 .2.1
bar and the tempera lUre 217 K. The inlet ducl or the impclkr eye r.:onlam'>
li xed V;:1I11.::. whir.:h £i ve the air pre-whirl of 25 r - al all raJii . The inner '--'lit.!
lluler lIi:UllI.:lcr o r thc c\'c arc 1HO ilnd 330 mOl rt.:!otpet:l1vcly. The dialllcter " I'
Ihc impdler tip is j.H} ;11111 and the rotalional speed Ifl.OOO rpm. ESlim;JIC Ihc
s litl!n;Jtiull presJoture allhe cllInpressu r o utlet wllcn Ihc mass /l ow I'> 216 kg/]lIll1 .
AS~UIllC lht: ise llirnpi..: dfi cicllq· (0 he O.};. T~ke (hc slip r:II.: (()r it'> (I .Y ~nllIIH:
pllwer inrlll fa clor 1IJot 1.0-1.
IAns: 1.6:\ harl
3..14 . A centl'lfugLlI fan wilh nn errlcienc), Df 80% runs al 720 rpm . It s imrdlcr JI -
allleh.:r i ~ I 111 . The imrcllcr lip nngle is backward curved 10 51 (.1 langcnt [1 1
the wheel. Thl.! density or Ihe 'Ii r is 1.25 kg/ m '; nnd lll::Jss now riJlt: is .~ kg/!'.
The impcl1cr width at the exit is 10 em. Detl!rminl! the PQwer reljuircd. pressurt:
coeffklCI11. stagc reacti on. pressure hcad L1cvdopcd. and flow codlieicnl at c.\ il.
Assume I.ert) whirl at inkl ;:md the me(;hanical crflcicncy is "2':''''.
1Ans: (aJ 4 ..15 kW (h I 1.34 Ie) 0.58 Id I 1. 188 kN / m' Hnd (e iCl.~O.1 I
3.35. Air nllWS through a bll1wcr where its lOla I pressure is increilsed l1y 15 el11 411
wa leI' head . The inlcltll[;ll pressure and lemperalUrl.!·arc lOS kPa ;Jlld lS ':C. TilL'
IOlill~l o-tu tal efficiency is 75%. Estimate
(;) exit to lal pressure and tempe rature and
(b) isenlropic and actual change in lOla I head .enthalpy.
(MU'''pri( 'C;(J\
[Ans: (H) IOfi.5 kPa. ~S9 5 K and Ihll.152 kJ/kg. 15.16 kJIl.I
.1 .30. A cenlriru~al cllmpressor compresses .30 kg or'!If per SCL-. JI run o; al 15 .000
rpm . ' nlC •.111' cntcrs the comprcsso r axially. The rndius at exi t of blade IS ~OO
III Ill . The rcialive vcineilY or aIr ell exit lip is I DO m/s. Tht: rclalivr.: air angle at
(.;xil is XI) . Find thl! power and idc al head dcvelopeu.
tMU-April ' W}I
IAns: la16416.5 kW and (hi 213.9 kJ /kgl
 12U .... TUIUlO I\I ,\ C III NES
-' . 16. Explain Ihe phenomcna of surging. sla lling and choking in cCnlrifugal com-
pn.!SSOI' sJnge? What is their drcct on [he performance? How 10 minimise or
prevent them . .
~ . 17 . A 5RO kW mOlOr drives a cemrifugal compressor of 480 10m OUler diamelCr al
a spl!l!d of:20.000 rpm. AI till! impdler o utIet the bludc ang ll! is 26.5 ° measured
from the radial direction and th e flow velocity at ex'it from the impeller is 122
m/s. If a mechanical er-ficiency of 95 per ccn! is assumed . what air now i!<. to be
expcclcd? Assume thert: is no slip. What arc [he eye lip and hu b diameters if a
radiu s ratio of 0.3 is chosen fo r the impcller eye and if the velocity m inlet is
9S Ill/s wilh i'.l!ro whirl? What wi ll he the overalltota l-I O- tOlall scmroplc dfi-
cicm:y if an llvcralllOw l pressure fLltio nf 5.5 is rl.!quircd'! Assume thatlhc now
inlet is incompressible and ambient :lirconditions are 10 1.3 kPa .:lOd :!8R K.
IAns: (a) 2.47 kg/s, (b) 172 mm and 51.6 mm (c ) 81.8 % 1
-' . 1H. A centrifugal compressor impeller hilS 17 radial vanes of!ip diameter 165 mm.
It rotates al 46.000 rpm and Ihe air mass flow rale is 0.6 kgls with no whir l at
inlel. (,, ) Calcul:ite the theoretical power trans ferred to thl.! olir. AI inlet 10 the
impe ller, the mean diameter of the ey e is 63 .5 mm while the annulus height
at the eye is 15 mm . The static press ure and temperature at the impeller inlet
:Il"e Q.'\ kPa and 293 K respectively. Determine (b) the bludc angle ut the menn
diameter at impeller inlet (c) the stagnation temperature :u impdler exit, and
(d) the stagnation pressure at impeller e.'( it if the lotal-Io-total efficiency of Iht!
impeller is 90 per cenl.
IAns: (a) 83.76 kW, (b) 35.4°, (e) 437.8 K, and (d) 338.67 kPaJ
3. 19. A centrifugal compressor is desired to have a total pressure ratio 4 ; I. The inlet
eye 10 the compressor impeller is 30 Clll in diameter. The oxial velocity rll in lt.!t
IS 1)0 m/s and the mass flow rate is 10 kg/s. The velocity in the de li very duct is
I 15 m/s . TIlt! lip speed of the impeller is 450 mls. runs at 16.000 rpm with to[al
head iselltropi c efficiency of78 % and pressure cocffleienl is 0.72. The amoient
conditions arc I bar and 15'J C. Culculate (a) static pressure and tcmperature at
inlet and exit o f compressor (b) slatic pressure rati o (c) work do nelkg o f air
(d) theoretical power required to drive th e compressor.
(MKU-Apr;1 1993 ,\pr;1 1995)
IAns: (n) 279.6 K, 0.9 bar and 3.89 bar, 460.86 K (b) 4. 31 (e) 180.34 kJ/kg
and (d) 1803.4 kWI
.1 .10. A single -s ided centrifugal compre ssor deli vers 8. I 5 kg/s o f air with a press ure
ratio o r 4.-1 [0 I at 18,000 rpm . The t!ntry 10 thc eye for which the internal
diameter is 12. 7 em is axial and Ihe mean vcloicty at the eye section is 148
m/s with no pr..:whirl. Stntic conditions nt the eye sectio n arc 15"C nnd I bar.
The slip factor is 0.94 i.llld Ihe isclllropi c efficiency of compress ion is 78 %.
Nt.!g.lecling losses calculale (a) the risc in temperature during compression if
the kinetic en ergy is neg li g ible ( b) the tip speed of impeller eye and tip speed
nf impdler outlt'! and (c) ou ter diameter of impeller eye.
(MKU-Nol'. '92)
IAns: (a) 202.2 K (b) 257 mi, and 464.95 mis, and (c) 49 cm]
CENTRIFUGAL COMl'ltESSOJ{S ..... NO F ..... NS "'" I:! I
3.21. The data of a centrifugal compressor nre given bdow.
Outer diameter of the impeller = 50 cm
Tip diameter of the eye = 18 em
Huh diame ter to the eye = 14 em
Specd 16.000 rpm
Mass of air handled = 10 kg/s
Inlet total pressure = 1.15 bar
Inlctlotal wmperaturc = 20(J C
Slip factor = 0.91
Total-to-total emciency ::::: 75% for zero whirl at entry. Detaminc Ihe total
pressure ratio developed and the power required to drive the compressor.
(MU·Ocl. '97)
IAns: (a) 3.3 and (b) 1596.7 kWI
3.22. A centrifuga l compressor has inlet guide vanes at the eyc such that fn!e vortcx
now is achieved at en try (0 the blades. A( the tip radius oftlte eye the inlet rdative
Mach number is not (0 excel!d 0.75 nnd an impeller (Olal-lO·lot<11 c.llicicncy of
0.9 is required. The air leaves the tip of the inlet gU ide vanes wilh a velocity
of 90 mIs, the impeller tip diameter is 0.45 m and Ihe outlet diameter is U.76
m . The radial component ofvdocity at exit from the impeller is 50 Ill/s and the
impeller rotates at 12.000 rpm. If a slip fnctor of 0.9 is assumed. find Ihe guide
vane inlet angle at the tip and the Sialic pressure III impdlcr outlet. Assumt.!
TOl = 288 K and POI = 101.3 kPa.
IAns: (a) 62.1 ' anJ (b) 247.2 kPal
3.23. A centrifugul compressor compresses ai r at ambient lI!mpcraturc and prt.!ssurc
of 288 K and 101.3 kPa respectivdy. The impdlcr runs at a tips peed of 365
m/s. lhe radial velocity at exit from the impeller is 30 mls and the ~ Iip factor is
0.9. Cnlculate the Mach number of the Howat the impeller tip . If thl.! impeller
tota]-lO-lotal efficiency is 90 per cent and the now area from the impeller b
0.093 m 1 . Calculatc the mass How rate of air. Assume zero whirl at in let and
radial blades.
IAns: (a) 0.876 (b) 5. 13 kglsl
3.24 . A compressor operating at a pressure ralio of 3.8 and n speed of 12.000 rpm
delivers 8 kg/s of air. The slip factor is assumed to be 0.92. the power factor
1.04 and the overall isentropic efficiency 0.82. Calculate the impeller oullcl
diameter. Assume lCro whirl. The Mach numberof lhe air leaving the impeller
voncs is to be unity so as 10 ensure that nO shocks occ ur. If the losses in the
impeller and the diffuser arc the same. what must he the 3xiOlI depth of the
impeller. AI inlet POI = 101.3 kPa and Tot;: 288 K.
[AIlS: (a) 0.659 Ol (b) 23.5 mOll
3.25. A centrifugal compressor with an over~1J pressure rati~ of 4 has... an impcll.er
. speed of 320 mls and the now area at Impeller oUllet IS 0.12 m-. TIle rad Ial
component of the velocity at impeller exit is 30 mls and the slip factor is 0.9.
Calculatc the absolute Mach number al the exit and the flow ralC if tht! total -
\o-,o'al emcieney is 90%. Take TOl = 288 K and POI = I bar.
IAns: (a) 0.7M6 and (b) 9.87 kg/sl
 J J II ,. TURBO MACIIINES

EXERCISES
3.23. 'nlt! tilL!0-rclical work done on the air in a centrifugal compressor is
101) OsUj 3.1. Draw the skl.:tch of a ce ntrifugal compressor slage mdicatlng the pnnclpal parh.
(bl U;/2 .1 .2. Draw skelches of the three types ofimpclh.:rs and the velOCity triangh.:~"11 theIr
It:) a.\-U,~
entries anJ ex.its.
.t2<t. Slip nccur~ even if the nuid is frictionless. (TruC!False) 3 ..1. Draw an enthalpy-entropy diagram for a centrifugal compressor slage showlIlg.
3.25. Define power input factor (or) work factor (or) stage loading coefficient. s tatic ami stagnalinn values of pn:ssure and enthalpy at variuus sectio ns .
3.26. The impelll!r constant is .
3.4 . Provc th<lt
la) J = ho u ' - U' /2
Ib) J=ho-U'/2
(c) I = "n.rd - \V~ /2
3.27. Dl!line uveralliotal-to-total isentropic efficiency.
3.5. What is fluid slip? Define slip factor. Give three furmulae \0 cakulall! the :-.llp
3.28. Deline pressure eoerricicnt.
:'.2Y. The pressure codficienl and overoJl isentropic efficil!ncy arc related by the factor.
3.6. Derive Stodola's relation for the slip factor?
foliowlOg equatJon.
3.7. What is pressure coefficient of a cemrifugal compn.!ssor stagc·.' Derive
(a) !{Jp = 'It . o.l/r,p
(h) I{J" = 'h- . OJ
(c) '/I- = ri'I,/q.,O.I
3.:m. A simple volute recovers 25~30 per cenl of the available kinetic energy at 3.8. Ddine rower input factor and comrrcssor overall isentropIc enit:iency.
impdler exit. (Trueif.alse) 3 .9. Prove thaI
The diffusion efficiency of a vanelcss diffuser is higher than that of a vaned
diffuser. (TruelFalsel
J.J2. In a v:lfled diffuser. a more uniform tolal flow occurs when the number of where 'P,,-pressure coeffiCient. lit- is compressor eiliL'lenc),. a, ~ :-.llr factllr and
diffuser passage is less than the number of impeller passages. (TruelFalse)
f{J ~ power input factor.
lllC divergence angle of the diffusion passage is in the order of
la) R - 10" :U O. Write short notes on
(h) 20-40" (a) Volute or scroll collector
(el30-45" (b) Vancless diffuser
.1.34. DeflTlc diffuser efficiency. (c) Vaned diffuser
3.35. Dl:fine dcgree of reaction. 3.11. How is the degree uf reaction of a centrifugal compressor stage Jdincd .
3.36. The degree of reaction for radial vanes is Prove that
la' R = (I + r/J~)/2
(hi R = (I - r/J~)/2
Ie) R = (I-<p~)
J.37. What arc the different blade shapes of centrifugal impellers? where r/J IS now coefficient and {j'J. is hlade outlet <.Ingle.
3.38. It is more difficult to decide on a choice of motor for radial and forward facin o 3.12. Deduce thal the degree of raction R for a centrifugal compressor With raJI,,1
wines impellers. Explain. . e impeller vanes is given hy
:l.3Y. Forward fucing vanes have higher pressure ratios . (Truc!False)
3.40. Better efficiencies can be obtained from backward facing vanes. (TruelFalse)
R = (I -1>1)/2
3.41. Vane impelll.!rs arc usually preferred in centrifugal compressors. Explain. 3.13. Bndly explain the effect of cach impeller vnne on the perfofl1wnt:c "I ( . :n-
3A2. What are the advantages of inlet guide vanes? lrifugaJ compressor. Why is the radial tipped impdlcr 1110:-.t cOllllTlonly u ... ed In
J ...U. What is surging?
centrifugal compressor stages?
JA..t. How can thl: surging occurancc be reduced?
3. 14. Explain briefly the purpose of inlet guide vnnes.
3.45. What is rotating stall'! 3.15. How do Ihe Mach numbers al the entries of the impeller and diffu ... er affcCllhL'
3A6. ROlating stall is a result of reduced mass flow rate. (True/False) no\\' and d 'riciency of i.l centri fugal cumpressor slag.e'! On wh,1I considcratltln\
3.47. The stall propagates in opposite direction to blade motion and its spl:ed is /011'
,.II"l: thc limiting values of these Mach numbers decided?
compared to Ihe compressor speed. (Truc!False)
jlfi ;.. TUIHlO M ,\ CIIINES CENTltlfUGAI. CO!">II' IH:SSQI«S AN D E\I'~S "" 1 17

(c) Power input · SHORT QUESTIONS

Work don~/sec
.1. 1. What is centri fu gil l compressor'.'
II",
3.2. Centrifugal compressors and fan s arc employing • dfccI ~ It) ilU.: rca~l·
Work L1llnl.! / Sl.'C = II/ I "o~-"1I1 1 tht.: prcssun.! of the gas.
=m- U; - U'1 +II"-wi
1 _ +C;-C']
_ I
3.3 . Ccnlrifugal comprl.!ssors ean handl!.! contaminated ga!! . (TrudFabt.:1
[ 2 '2 2 3.4. What arc til L.". ad"unga tes and disadvantagcs of centrifugal compre~snnl·.1
3.5. What arc the applic<ltions of centrifug<ll comprcssms'!
= 0.5121.78 + 55.5 + 921 3.6. DifTcn:ntiatc between the fullowing terms.
= 84.64 W
(a) CIJmpressor
84.64
:. POW!!l" input = (b) Blowe,
0.78 (e) Fon
= 108.5 W
3.7. Tht! im pell er vaneS at the eye ure benl why?
Example 3.14 A centrifuga l fan rises the static pressure of air by 14 cm of water, 3.8. Th e dircclion of now o f gas in the impeller of II ce ntrifugal cn mpn:ssor i!>
whik run ning at a !! pl.'cd of650 rpm nnd consumi ng 85 metric HP as power. The s tatic (u) Axial
press ure ilnd wlllpcram rc of the ai r at the f:ln intake arc respec tivcly 75 cm Hg ilnd (b) Radia l
::!jt.c. while th l.: mass How nlle of ai r is 160 kg/ min . Find the exi l static pft..'ssure and (C) TangcllIial
Ih..: vn lumc now ralc in m·l /mi n. (MKU - April '9-1)
3.9. Impe lh.:r of a cenlrifugal compressor convCriS all the mcdlilnicul energy sup ·
Solution plied inlo
L\ //:;:: 0 . 14 III or H:!O N = 650 rpm (al pn:ss un.: energy o nl y
Pll\\'l.'r = H5 MHP H, = 0.75 "' of Hg (h) kin ~t ic energy only
(e) ki neti c and pressure energies
1'1 = 27:1 + 15 = ::!9X K //I = 260 kg / min

Inh.: tril' H.P =

0 .735 kW 3. 10. What is the function of a diffuser in n centrifugal compressor'!
3. 11 . Draw th e pressure and velocity variation across a ce ntrifugal cumpn: ssur
(a) Exit static pressure 3. 12. It is conventional 10 measure blade angles from - - - direction III cCnlflfu!!a l
1', p,+c, p compressors
1', PII ., g H, = 13. 590 x 9.8 1 x 0.75/ I 0' 1. 13 . Thl! air ,now angle at inlet, measured from the radial direc ti on is
99.988 kPa (a) 45 0
(b) 90"
and (c) OC
61' = p",gC,H = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.14/10'
3. 14. Draw the in let and ou tlet velocity tri.mg lcs for a centrifugal comprc!>snr wi lh
1.3734 kP. mdi allback ward-curved/forwanJ ·curved hlade impeller.
= 99,988 + 1,3 734 3. 15. What is no-shock condition?
P'}. 101.36kPil 3. 16. What is no-s lip co nditi on?
.1.17. Angle fi~ is - - - tilan angle {h due to s lip .
(b) Volume flow rate 3 . 18. Define n-uid slip in centrifugal compressor.
3.19. How can the nu id s lip be r~ducl!d in cen trifug al compressors?
Q III /P I
) ,20. Define s lip faclor.
'!.60/p,
3.21 . Write the Stodo la slip factor equation.
I', = 1', / RT, = 99,988 x 10' / (287 x 298) 3.22. The Stn nill. slip f.aclor ..:q uation for radial vanes is
1.169 kg / Ill' (aJ OJ =I- 0.63rr /r.
c. Q 260/1. 169 (b) a, = I - 0.63,/rr
222.4 III 3/ min (cJ a, = ( I - 0,63rr i/'
;
I
CENTRIFUG .... I. COMPRF_'iSU llS ANIl FAf'.;S -.i. I I~
r j.J ~ TwUJo M .... ClIINES

I,
·1 From the outlet vel ocity tri angle (Refe r Fig . 3.J(b)) . Solution
I \V q U:! - C x = D,= O. 18 m D'1 = 0.2 m C, =2I m/ s c:! = ~Sm / s
= 117.8 1 -98.96 WI ': ~ U m / s W2 = 17 m/ !. N = 1450 rp m
III = 0.5 kg/ s IJIII = 0.78 p = 1.25 kg/ m"
= 18.85 lOis

;lI1d
(a) Stage total pressure rise

Ia n fi2 =
C,! 6 Po = p( h., - ho, )
WI":
~, = ' ( -57-
t n ll ~
18.85/
I hUI

flo = 71.7"

(b) Power input ;,md

'" [\ 17.8 1 x 98 .96) / 10'

·nercforc . tht! sti.lgc total pressure ri se is
= 11 .658 kW I (kg/s)
(c) Exit stagnation pressure P U;_ - U' IV' - IV;_+ C' - C' ]
1+ I 2 I
.6Pn = [ 222
,/. =
10 1 [(po~ ) '~ - ]
Po" ,
I
U, =
IT x 0.18,1450
~:....::.~~:..:.::.::
60
= 1.1.67 m/.:;
To:! - TO I IT x 0.2 x 1450
U, = . 60 = 15. 18 m/s
T02 - TOI = IVl mC" = 11.658/ 1.005
15. 18' -1 3.67' 20'-17' 25'-2 1' ]
= 11.6 K 6 Pn = 2 + 2 + 2 x 1.25
[
Pm [ 1 + 'kITo, - TOil ),'-' = 12 1.78 + 55.5 + 921 x 1.25
=
Po, TO I t:l Pu = 2 11.0 N/ m'

[I 0.75 x 11.6] '"

" (b) Degree of reaction
= + 298
(6. P )mrur
R =
= 1.1 06 (6. PO)mge
p(/12 - 'Ii)
Po:! = 1. 106 x IO U25
= I J ::!:.07 kPa = p_ U; - U'1 +1 IV' - IV.;' ]
_
P Il:!
[ 2 2
Ex ample 3.13 A centrifuga l r.m has the fo ll owi ng data: inner diameter of the 1.25121.78 + 55.5 1
=
impeller - 18 em. ouh.: r diameter of Ihe im peller -20 em. the absolute ve loci ty al cn lry
is 2 1 m/s and at exi t is 25 mIs, re lative veloci ty at inlet and ex it arc 20 mrs and 17 = 96.6 N/ m'
m/s rcspl:c livc ly. speed - 1450 rpm, now rale - 0.5 kg/s, nnd m olOr efficiency 78 %. 96.6
Determ ine (a ) stage lotal pressure risc (b) degn:c of reac ti on and (c) powe r required
R = 2 11.6
to drive the fan. Assume densilY or ai r as l .25 kg/m J . IMU-Ocl '98 ] R = 0.457
 II:! >- TURno MACIIINES CENTRIFUGA l. C OMI'R ESSOKS ANIl FANS ...;: I I J

to the impclkr is 3 kW. Dctenninc th e: fi.ln efficiency, prt!ssurc coe ffi cient, degree: of (c) Degree of reaction
rcactillil . ["olUtion:!1 speed, and impeller width at c~it.
J C1·,
R :;: 1-- -·
Solution 2 U"!.

111 = 30e D"!. :;;: 0.466 m

= I (19.86)
III ::;: --l .29 kg/s l:> N = 0.063 mW .G . I - '2 35.03
C,
¢~ = U; = 0.25 IV = , kW = 71.7 0/,

(d) Rotational speed

(a) Fan efficiency
U? x 60 35 .03 " 60
(lIPo) N =
Ideal work d01l1;! = IIlp rr D? rr x 0.466

Ql:>Po = Q(pg l:> N)

= 1435.7 rpm
=
= 3.82(10' x 9.81 x 0.063) (e) Impeller w idth at exit
= 2.36 kW 3.82
Q
Actua l work done = 3kW b, =
rr D?C,: rr x 0.466 x 8.711
1.36
.'. Fan effi ciency = = 0.298 m
3
= 78.7% = 29.8 em
'If
(b) Pressure coefficient Example 3.12 A cen trifugal blower runs ut a spccd or 3000 rpm . Till.! impelh:r
ouler diu meier is 75 em and the blades of Ihe impeller arc dcsigncd ror a constant
2C.
r1 radial veloc it y of 57 m/s. TIlcrc arc no inlet guide Vi1!'l ;":; so Ihallhc absolute vclocil)'
V'/I :;;: - -
U, at the: inlt!1 is axial. If the degree o f reaction is 0.58. compute th!.! t!x;it hlndt! i.lngle:.
A lso delcrminc the power input to the blower (tola l-to- lOlal dficit!ncy of 0 .75) and
From nutl!.!t vdo~ilY triangle ( Rdcr Fig . 3.3(h)).
the exit stagnation pressure. Take Iht! tOlal prcssurt! and temperature at the inlel a!l
I aIm illld 25'·c rcspcctiveiy. (MU-April '98)

Solution
N = 3000 rpm D, = 0.75 m c" = 57 m l'
C.q = 0 C, = ell R = 0.58 'Ie = 0.75
:. x 10]
U, [U, - (0 .'25U, 1 Ian 30") J = (a) Exit blade angle
·1.29
057Ui = 699.93 7r D2N If x 0.75 )( :\000
Uz = 60= 60
Ul = 35.03 m/s
C" = 0.25U, = 0.25 x 35.03 = 8.76 ml' = 117.81 m / s

C.I ! = U"!. - (C'2 / IUn fh) Tile degree o f reaction is

:;;: 35.03 - (8 .76/ tan 30°)
= I Cx !
= 19.86 m /s R
2U,
2 x 19.86
= 35.03
2(1 - R)U, = 2( 1 - 0 .58) 117.81
= 1.134 = 98.96 m /s

--
 CENTIUfUGA LCOMi'RESSU H.S AND F ANS ..{ III
110 j. Tormo M ,\ CIIINES

(b) Volume rate :. ex, = 33.55 - (9. 15/ I.n39" )

= 22.26 m/s
Q m/p
IV / 111 33.55 x 22.26
3.317/ 1.128
746.823 J / kg
2.94 m' /5

(c) Exit properties of air Ideal work done / kg

Fan efficiency '1J =
Actua l work done / kg
P, - P, = 6.P
613 . 13
7357.5
P, + 6.P = 100+ - -,-
ID
746.823
= 82. 1%
107.36 kP.
Wlm Cp(Tz - Tl) (b) Discharge
T, = T, + ~ = 309 + 8256.47 Q rrD2b,!C r
mC II 1005
rr(0.89)(0. 1)(9.15)
T, = 317.22 K
= 2.558 m' /s
Example 3.10 A backward-swcpl centrifugal fan develops a pressu re of75 mm
w.G. It has an impeller diameler of 89 em and runs al 720 rpm . The blade air angle . , (c) Power required
lip is 39° and th e width of the impeller is 10 em. Assumi ng a conslan t rad ial velocity
of 9. 15 mls and density of 1.2 kg/m J , determ ine the fan efficiency. discharge, power
m pQ = 1.2(2.558) = 3.07 kg / s
required. stage reacti on. and pressure coefficient. :. IV = m(IV / m) = 3.07(746.823)
2292.7 W
Solution
= 2.2927 kW
6. 1i = 0 .075 In W.G. D, = 0.89m
N = 720 rpm 13, = 39" b, = 0. 1 m C, = 9. 15m/s (d) Stage reaction
p = 1.2 kg/m' I _ ~ C.l l
R
2 Uz
(a) Fan efficiency
= I _ ~ (22.26)
Ideal work done/kg 6.P/p 2 33.55
= (p"g6.H) / p = 0.6683 or
(10' x 9.81 x 0.075) / 1.2 66 .83%
613. 13 J/ kg (e) Pressure coefficient
Actual work donclkg
= since
IV /m = U,C", 1/1"

From outlet velocity triangle (Refer Fig. 3.3(b)}, 2(22.26)

33.55
Uz - W.l 1
= 1.327
U, - (C, / lan/3,)
rr D,N rr x 0.89 x 720 Example 3.11 A backward-swept (fJ 2 = 30°) centri fuga l fan wi th impeller di -
---w- = 60 amctl.!rof 46.6cm is required to deliver 3.82 mJ /s (4.29 kg/s) of air at a total pressure
nf6J mill W.G. The flow coeffi cie nt at the impeller exit is 0.25 and the power supplied
= 31.55 m/s
 CENTRIFUGAtCOMPItESSOR5ANUFANS .... lOll
10K ;... T URIlO MACHINES

(a) (ii) Impeller eye hub speed .. \V, = jW}, + cj :;: ./206.4 7 2-+15i!
If D"N 256.39 m/,
• = 60 256.39
Mr. I =
7rx 0. 175 X 16.'000 JI.4 x 287 x 274.98
60 Mr. 1 0.77
= 146.6 1 m/s
Example 3.9 A ce ntrifugal blower takes in air at 100 kPa and 309 K. It lh! \'c:lops
From thi! vt.:inl.:ity triangle at inlel. a pressure head o f 750 mm \V.G .. \\.'h ile consuming a power of 33 kW. If the blowe r
effic iency ('1IJ) is 79% and mechanical efficiency is 83%, determinl! the mass rale
c, c
-.-"- lat :0 9() - ::!O" = 7Q"1 \--- U'-----'i Jnd volume rate and exit properties of air.
sin 0'1
15~ Solution
- - = 101.76 m/s
sin 70" P, = 100 kPa T, = 309 K AH = 0.750 m W.G.
T, TOI -
e'
- ' = 2MB -
161.76'
-=-::.c.:.:-,,-- input power = 33 kW liB = 0 .79 11111:;:: 0.83
2e 2 )( 1005
274.98 K "
(a) Mass rate

Po, ( -T, )''' - i = 100 (274 .9R),n

"
p =
P, 100 x 10-'
RT, = 287 x 309 =
1.128 kg/m
J
To, . 288
85 .05 kPa 6> P = pgAH = IO J x 9.81 x 0.750

.'. p, =
P, 85.05 x 10' 1 = 7357 .5 N/m'
RT, = 287 x 274.98 = 1.078 kg/ In '
e" =
.,.,.---"--,- e" Ideal work done/kg = 6> P / p
U" - C., VII - (CII/tall 0'1) = 7357.5/1.128
IS:!
lan fll.ll :::; __~---'-,--~ = 1.665 = 6522.6 J l / kg
146.6 1- ( 152/," n 70")
Ideal work done/kg
Actual work done/kg
and ~B
6522.6 1
tanfi1.r e" =
VI - (Cu / lanad 0.79
152 W/m = 8256.471/ kg
261.79 - (152/ 'an 70")
::; O.7~62 Actua l power inpul == Motor power input )( t7m

.'. /3,-, = 36 .36" = 33 x 0.83

IV 27.39 kW
(b) Maximum Mach number at the eye
tI,·la ximum Mach number occurs at the eye lip Therefore. the mass now rate

WI W
m =
Actual work done/kg
JrRT,
lV.,.• = VI -ex, 27.39 x 10'
261.79- (152/ ,"n70")
= 8256.47
3.317 kg/'
206.47 m/ s
106 j;> TURBO MACIIINES
r CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS AND FANS ... 107

From outlet veloci ty triang le (Refer Fig. 3.3(b» , From the isentropic relation.

C2 Jeil + e;l "

347.95)"
P, 2.806x ( - -
C.I l as· U2 = 0.9 x 3jO = 315 m/s 397.7
C, = )(3 15)' +(28)' = 316.24 m/s 1.758 bar

Since Therefore.
T02 - T01 = GsUffe p 1.758 x 10'
0.9 x 350' p, = 287 x 347.95
1005
109.7 K = 1.76 kg/m'
IlL 1.76 x 0.08 x 28
:. T02 109.7 + TOi
109.7 + 288 IlL = 3.9424 kg/s
397.7 K
Example 3.8 A double· sided centrifugal compressor has impl!llcr cyc:.root ant.]
Now, lip diameters of 175 mOl and 312.5 mm and is to de liver 20 kg of air per seconD at
16,000 rpm. Thcdcsign ambient conditions afC 288 K and 100 kPa. Calculate 5uilablt:
c~ values for the impeller value angles at the root and tip of eye if the air is given 20
T02 - ---
2C p deg. of pre-whirl at all radii. The axial component of inlet velocity is constant over
the eye and is about 152 m/s. Also compute the maximum Mach number at the eye .
397.7 _ 3 16.24'
2 x 1005
So lution
= 347.95 K 111 double-sided centrifugal compressor impeller. there is an eye on either side of the
316.24
Mz = irnpeller and the air is taken in on both sides. The double-sided compressor has the
.j1.4 x 287 x 347.95 advantage that tbe impe ll er is suhjected to approx imately equal slrcsses In the ax.ia l
M, 0.8458 directi on.
(b) Mass flow rate = 0.3 125 m m = 20 kg/s
D" = 0.175 m D,
N = 16. 000 rpm TOI = 288 K POI = 100 kPa ell = 152 m/s
m = pz A2 Cr1
P,
PZ = RT2
Allllu lus arca of flow at the impeller eye

Pz =
PQ2 is dctcnnined using isentropic efficiency value.
Poz
c't-
Toz
rr,
4'
rr
,
-(D- - D-)
,
h
,
4 (0.3125- - 0 175-)
0.0527 m Z
TOI [ '-']
Po' t
(po;) -I
(a) (i) Impeller eye tip speed
rye = T02 - TOI
rrD,N
Poz [I "
+ 0.9(109.7)J'" U, =
60
POI 288 IT x O.3125 x 16,QO[)
2.806 = 60
Poz = 2.806 X I = 2.806 bar 261.79 m/s
10... ;.... T URIIO !', ,!,\CIII NES
C~NTR'FUG A L COMI'RESSOHS A.NO FA.NS "" 105

C' PO .. With IGV

7ill - ---.L = 335 _ - . 1-
2e" 2 x 1005 Air an gle atlGV exit
= 327.8 K
W :c C~
IV, C" p, =90

I
tan al = - =-
1', ) ,-:, 327.8) H V, V,
Po, ( -
To,
= JO~
(- -
335
U,= CIII C ,
94.53 kPn '" = '.n
_ , (,20.66)
--
65.97
",
= 61.33
94 .5 3 x JO' '"
1', = 287 X 327. 8
= 1.005 kg/In' Now.
ond Cu / sin a, = 120.66/ sin 61 .33
//I 5 = 137.52 mi'
c, = l. IlOS x (Jf x 0.175 x 0 .075)
p, (rr D",b )
= 120.66 m/ s C'
Since the valucs o f PI and C] are approximately equal to the last iter.llion values,
.'. 1', = TUI - - '-
2C /l
lhe iterati on can nClw be stopped. Thus, 137 .52'
p, = 1.005 kg/m ' = 335 - 2 x 1005

C, = 120.66 m/, = 325.59 K

111l:n.
VI := rrDIIIN=rr x O.175 x I20
= 65.97 m/, Mr. I = 0,
From thc inlet veloc ity tri<lnglc (Rerer Fig. 3.3(a)) .
",120.66
C, J l.4 x 287 x 325 .59
tan fJ, = -V, Mr. I 0.334

Note that the inlet relative Mach number is reduced when IGVs are used .
.'. Il , tan _ , (120.66)
- -
65.97 Example 3.7 Detcnnine the absolute Mach number of thc now al the l!xit of a
6 J.33 " radial vaned impeller of a cemrifugal compressor when the radial component of the
This is the air angle ,It entry to Ih e in ducer blade and sin fi, = ~
W,
. velocity at the impdler exit is 28 mls and the slip factor is 0.9. The impeller lip speed
is 350 mls. If the impeller area is 0 .08 m:!: and the lolal head isentropic efficiency is
90 %. determine the mass fl ow ratc . Take TO! = 288 K, POI := I bar.
W, = C,/SinfJl (MKV·No\' '95)
= 120.66/, in 61.33
137.52 01 /' Solution
Cr~ = 28 m/s (i.{:= 0 .9 U2 = 350 m/s A = 0.08 m:!: fie = 0.9
W, IV, 7i,; = 2R8 K
M r. 1 = =
", J rRT,
137.52
(aJ Exit absol ute Mach number

= J I.4 x 287 x 327.8

M r. I 0 .379
 C ENTIUFUGALCOMI'Rf:.SSOKS ANDFANS '" IO~
IO::! » TURBO MACHINES

. d " d ' I cloc ily component at lhe inlet of the inducer seclion arc
rrD,N " x 0.325 x 16. 500 SlIlce the cnsllvan aXla v
v, unknown . their \'~lu es are determined by trial and error method .
60 60
280.78 m/' Let
Po,
p, = 13n -
1
(~:) p, P OI = RTol
102 10.1
'.n-' (~)
X

280.78 287 x 335

p, . 23.14° 1.061 kg / m'
m
(b) Static conditions at exit c,

TOl _ _ 1_
c' where Dm is impe ller ml!an diame ter and b is the impeller hlm.lc 11I.!lght.
TJ = . 2C I ,
0. 1 -1-0.25 = 0 . 175 m
TOJ To, -I- 185.67 = 298 -I- 185 .67 2
483.67 K
and
120' 0.25 - 0 . 1
1.1 483.67 - 2 x 1005 b =
D. -DII
= 0.075 m =
2 2
5
1.1 = 476.5 K
.. C, = 1.061 x In x 0.175 x 0.075)
Eltit s tali c pressure 114 .3 m/ ,
=

Pl = POl Cl)",-'
-.- 10J
Now.

=
4 ( 476.5 ),H p, RT,
=
483.67 C' 11 4.3'
P.1 = 3.796 bar T, = To, - -'
2C p
= 335 - 2 x 1005

(c) Power required = 328.5 K

IV = mC I' (T03 - TOI) P, = POI (T'rS

TOI
- = 102 C I8 5 "
335. ),,'
= 8.3 x 1.005(185 .67 )
= 95 .24 kP"
IV = 1.549 mW
p,
95 .24 x 10' = 1.01 kg/m'
Exam p le 3.6 The rollowing data refers to a centrifugill com pressor': tip diam · 287 x 328 .5
eler or the eyc·250 mm, hub diameter of the eye·! 00 mm, speed. 120 rps, Mass of
air hand lcd·5 kg/s o Inle l stagnation pressure· 102 kPa. inlellolallemperature·335 K. nnd
m 5
Detemlinc the air ang le al inlet of the inducer blade and inlet relati ve Mach number.
If IGV is used thcn determine air angle and rel ative mach number al the exit of IGY.
c, p, (" DmiJJ = 1.01 x (n x 0. 175 x 0 .075)
1M V-Oct '96] 120. 1 m/s

Sol ution Th~n

D, = 0.25 m 0" =0.1 m N= 120rps

m =:: 5 kg/s POI = 102 kPa To, = 335 K
 CEN1.RI FUGAI.COMI'IU:'SSOKSA~DFANS "" 101
100 :,.. T URtlO" t ,\Cl-UN!:S

and (i) Eye tip diameter (D,)

PI1T
(~'Y~
"J .,
-(Di- Dk)C"
Po~ Po '" 4
4111
D2, _ D~ =
"
-._> (452 .29).1.5 rrpi e'l
373.28 4x8.> +0.16'
Pm = 4.:n bar D', 1fx 1.0998 x 120
D, = 0.325 m
Toml head isen tropic efficiency
(ii) Impeller tip diameter (D2)
(~) ~ -I)
TO] [(~fj -I]
TOI(

T02 - TOI
=
I)
rye
TOl -
(~)O."6 _
TOl
288(
1.013 298 [(4)1'i -I]
164.297 To, - TOl = 0.78
= 185.67 K
=
'I,· 90 .9 % Also
TOJ - TOI = '-lJosUi lCp
Example 3 .5 In a rJdial blade cc nlrifugal compressor running at 16,500 rpm,
Ihl.! tolu1 press ure ruti o is 4: I when Ihe atmospheri c pressure and temperature arc 'l'a, = 'l'1' /q, = 0.7/0.78
I atm and 25° C. The dillmclcr of th e hub at impeller eye is 16 cm. The axial veloci ty
= 0.897
al inlet and .the absolu tc veloci ty at th e diffuser exit arc both 120 mls . The mass now
fate is 8.3 kg/so If the ndiabillic lotal-IO -total efficiency is 78% and pressure coefficient
U, =
1005(185.67) J I"
is 0.7, find the main dimensions orthe impe ller. sialic conditions al exit and required [ 0.897
power to drive Ihe compressor. (MKU-April' 94.) 456.1 m/s
Solution U, x 60 456.1 x 60
~ = 1f x 16. 500
N = 16. 500 rpm POJ=4 POI=lbar TOl = 298 K
POI = 0.528 m
011 =0.16m e" = CI = 120 m/s ","" I = 0.7 C) = 120 m/s
//I = 8,3 kg/s q, = 0.78 (iii) Blade angles at eye hub and eye tip
rrDhN = 1f x 0. 16 x 16500
(a) Main dimensions of impellers
60 60
e~ 120~ 138.23 m/s
TOl - _ , = 298 - =---,-,=
2e" 2 x 1005 From inlet velocity triangle (Refer Fig. 3.3(a)),
290.8'1 K

P, = POI - - - In
T, )"' - ' = I x (290.84) {Jh = IaO-
1
(~:)
( 'Ii" 298
0 . 91~ bar
-I ( 120 )
= Lan 138.23
P 0.9 18 x 10'
:. PI = I _
RT, - 287 x 290.84
=
1.0998 kg/ m'
{J" = 40.96°

-
 .......
98 ,. TURUO MACHINES
CENTRIfUGAL CO/lll'nESSORS AND FANS
" 99 •
11"I = W"!. +C"!.

[ '-']
CpTO' (PO,) - I
P02 --,-

IV,
=
=
XI

(231.92)'
247.34 m /s
(1 /

+ (85.98)'.
o/I P =
Ui ' 91.5'1
T, = To, - Cj 12Cf. = 288 -
2 x 1005
1005 x 288 x [(4)11 - I]
T, = 283.83 K
VJ =
0.749 0, = J rRTI = J I.4 x 287 x 283.83
U, = 433.6 m/s III = 337.7 m/s
U, = rrD"!.N
U, Inkl relative M'lch number
.". D2 =
"xN
433.6 IV,
- --
" x 200
M 1,r
a,
0.69 m 247.34
= =
D 69cm 337.7
=
M1.r = 0.732
Example 3.4 In a centiirugal compressor with inlct guide vanes, air leaving the
guide vanes has a velocity of91.5 m/s al 70dcg, to tbe tangential direction. Determine
the inlet relative Mach number, assuming frictio nlcss now through Ihe guide vanes
and impeller tota l head isentropic efficiency. The olher operating conditions are rr D2N rr x 0.762 x II. 000
a) Impeller diameter at inlet - 457 mm ' 60= 60
h) Impeller diameter at cxit- 762 mm 438.88 m/s
c) Radial component of veloc ity at impeller cxil- 53.4 mls
d) Slip faclO, - 0.9 and
c) Impeller speed - 11,000 rpm
<.I) SIalic pressure al impeller c;.;.il - 223 kPa (abs)
Cp (TU2 - Tod = 0.9(438.88)' - (263.21 x 31.29)

,
g) Take TOI = 288 K and PIlI =
1.0 13 ba,.
T02 - TOI = 164 .297
Solution ' T02 = 164.297 + 288
C, = 91.5 m /s I, U,
Crl
= 452.29 K
Cx , = C, . cos 70" = 53.4 m ls
70
= 31.29 m/s C~l = a, . U, = 0.9 x 438.88
Ca ,
C,I = C x ! . (an 70Q ·C, = 394 .92
W, .. cj 'l
+ C'12
= 85 .98 m/s = C .(!
Wx1 = VI - C.r l = (394.92)' + (53.4)'
U,
rrD I N C, = 398 .51 m /s
=
60
" x 0.457 x 11.000 .". T2 = To'- - ---
C;
= 2C
60
"(398.51 )'
= 263.21 OIls
= 452.29 -
2 x 1005
W1'I = 263.21 - 31.29
= 373.28 K
231.92 m /s
96 ;.. TlIitRO M "'·IIINF.S CE:-lTR1FtJGAL COMI'IU~.s so)l..s AND FANS ....: 97

:. 'nle hlnde angle at impeller inlct is :W. 9". or

Peripheral velocity or impcllt!f lOp ilt outlet
20
rrD..,N b,
u, = --=--
60
= (n x 1.1 x 501l01lfiO
b,
2 x n x 0.3 x 60
0 , 177 m
= 314. 1601 /s
.'. The breadth of impellt!r blade ut inlet is 17.7 em.
Whirl f.:ompOIlt!11I or absolult! vclocity C.\·l is obwincd (rom Now
C,,(7; - T,) U:!C t ! P::,! V:! PI VI
It- I
=
T, ( Pp',) .,. = 2BB( 1.5) "'".' T, T,
P,V, T,
= 329.68 K
:. \12 = - - x "'::
T, P,
1005(329,68 - 2BB ) I x lOS x 20 329,68
:. C.f! = x
314 , 16
133,33 m ls
288 !.5 x la'
v, = 15,26 m J Is
Now
The n
W.r2 U2 - ex 2
31",16-133,33 Q2 = V:! = 2rrr:!b2Crl
180,83 mls 15,26
b, = 2 x rr x 0.6 x 60
From the oullet veloc ity vector diagrDnl.
b, = 0,0675 m
C"'
lana, = -
- Cr~ The bn:ildth or impeller blade al oUllet is 6.75 em.
or
c, Example 3.3
(13~033)
A single sided ct!nlrirugal compressor is 10 deliver 14 kgls of air
IOn -, when operating at a stagnation pressure ratio or 4: I and n speed or 200 revolUlion/sec ,
TIle inlet stagnation conditions may be taken as 288 K and 1..0 bar, Assuming a slip
24.2°
faclOr of 0.9, a power input factor or 1.04 and an overall isentropic dficicncy orO.M.
The illade angle i1t inlctto casing is 24.2". cSlimah! the overall diamClcrorlhe impeller. (MKU Nt)l'. /99/)

C" Solution
tan fi2 = if Xl Given
or //I = 14 kgjs POI = I bar
IJ, tan - I -60
_)
( IBO ,B3
Po:!! POI =4 TO! = 288 K

13, I B.36" .
N = 200 rps 0'" = 0.9 <It = 1.04 rJlI = 0.8

The blade angle at impeller outlet is 18.36 n The pressure cocOicicnl may br.: wriuen as

b) Breadth of impeller blade at inlet and outlet

IrQ 1 is the dischargt! in nr' /s then = 0 .9 x 1..04 x 0,8
0 ,749
94 ,. TURBO MACI liNES CENTlUFUGALCOMPRESSORSANDFANS "" 95

or iv) Eye external diameter, (D.)

Density of air ill enLry.
TOb - TOI
P , l x lO ' J
(450.32 - 304 .IY) / 0.8 p, = RT, = 287 x 293 = 1.189 kg/ m
182.7 K Eye annulu s At = '!..(D 2 _ D2)
4 ' ,
ii) Impel/er tip speed and impel/er tip diameter Now,
From Euler's equation m = PIAlel
rr, ,
10 = 1.189 x 4 (D~ - 0.15-) x 150

but D, = 0.306 m

lV/m C p x actual rise in total temperature :. The eye external diameter D t = 30.6 em

= C p (T02 - Toil Example 3.2 20 m) of air per second at I bar and IS"C is La be compressed in
= 1.005 x 182.7 a centrifugal compressor lhrough a pressure mtio I .S: I . The compression follows the
law PV 1.5 =con stanL The velocity of flow at inlet and outlet remains constant and is
= 183.61 kl/kg equal to 60mls . Ir the inlet and outlet impeller diameters arc respectively 0.6 m and
1.2 Tn and speed or rotation is SOOO rpm. Find (a) the blade angles al inlet and outlet
of the impeller. and the angle al which the air rrom the impeller enters lhe casing:
and (b) breadth of impeller blade at inlet and outlet. It may be assumed no diffuscr is
C" filted and the whole pressure increase occurs in the impeller and thatlhr.: blades havr.:
= 0.95 a negligible thickness.
U,
IB3.61 x 10) 0.95U, x U, Solution
U, = 439.62 m/s Q, = 20 mJ Is P, = I bar T, = 288 K
p,
Thus the impeller tip speed is 439.62 m/s -"
P,
= 1.5 C, = C" = 60 m/s D, = 0.6 m
If 0, is the lip diameter, lhen D, = 1.2 m N = 5000 rpm
JrD,N (a) Blade angles and flow angle
60
Pcnpheral velocity or impellcr at inlet
U, x 60
D, = rrN lTD'IN
U,
439.62 x 60 60
" x 0.6 x 5000
rr x 20,000 = 60
= 0.42 m 157.1 m/ s
:. lip diameter = 0.42 m or 42 em From the inlet velocity vector diagram .
iii) Power required to drive the compressor C,

~
tan{J1
Power required x Work done/kg
U,
til u,
or fil tan _ I ( _60_ )
= lOx 183.61 157.1
= 1836.1 kW /3, 20.9' c,
 CENTIUfUGALCUMPRESSOR5AND FANS'" 93

SOLVED PROBLEMS
The areas in equlJtions 0.24). (~.25) lJnd (3.26) rerer to the now areas at the respective
locatio ns.
Example 3.1 10 kg of llir per second is 10 be compressed in an uncooll!d
Design centrifugal compressor or the si ngle s ided impeller type . The ambient air conditions
point arc I bnr and 20 c C, TIle co mpressor runs al 20,000 rev/min. has iSl!n lropi c efficiency
o r 80%. and compresses Ihe air from I har slatic pressure to 4.5 bar total pressun: .
4.0
The. air enters the impeller eye wilh a velocity 150 mJs with no prcwhirl. Assuming
thallhe ratio of whirl speed to lip speed is 0.9S. calcu late: i) rise in Iotallcmpernture
e::.= Surge during compressi o n. if the change in kinetic energy is negligible. ii) the impeller lip
~.

0: line speed and lip diamcter, iii) power rt:quired 10 drive the compressor, IV) lhc external
~ .1.0 diameler or the eye, for which the internal diameter is 15 em.
i§
Solution
"
~
~
i) Rise in total temperature of the compressor
~
"- 2.0 m = 10 Kgls P, = 1 bar T, = 293 K N = 20,000 rpm ry, = 0.8
Po, = 4 .5 bor
C, =150 ml' Cx ' =0 Cxl/U, = 0.95
Stagnation Icmpcrilture at inlet
Design muss flnw ,
0.5) /. To, = T, + C-/2CI'
1.0 Ll..::J.,J...,LJ-,L ...L,J:-Jl...-":...L.L.J 150'
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
mT[II~2/ POI(rclative to design v'lluc)
= 293 + 2 x 1005
= 304.19 K
Figure 1.10 CelltriJlIgol CDmpressDr characterisTic curves
Stagnation pressure at inlet
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
Fig. :\.::!O shows the o\'t.!ra ll pressure rutio lind dticicncy ploued againstm Td(~ / POI at Po, = p C)"'-'
...E.!
T,
fixc:d speed intervals.or N / 7~1\r.!. 11 is usual to transrcr consta nt e fficienc y points onlO
1(304 , )9) U /O.4
the corrc:sponding con stant s rccd cu rves or [ht! pressure ratio characteristics Hod Ihen = 293
join those points togclhl!1' 10 form conSlmll efficil!ncy curves . The foll ow ing salient
fea tun.:s can he o bscr\'cd from Ihe graph. = 1.14 bor
I. Al all speed s the r<loge or mass now o\'cr whic h Ihe cenlrirugal co mpressor will
The Icmpernture after isentropic compression from POliO P02 is
openlle beJore surging ur choking occurs is quite wide, but this runge: decreases
as IhL' s peed incre ases.
PO,)'·'/'
2. MaKrmum cfliciel1cy (d Olled line) occurs wt.:lJ within the surg.e point. nlakin£ this
Iype of compressor rdalivc:ly insensilive to muss now c.hangc.~.
= TOI ( -POI
3. For a particular speed, Iht.! mass flow rate dccreases as the press ure rati o increases. 4.5 )0.' /1.4
4 . For a gi ven pressure ratio, the ma ss fl ow fLltc increases wilh increase in speed. = 304.19 ( -
1.14
Under s uch cond itions. the dficiency howeve r fall s rapidly. 450.32 K
111e onset of surge occ uring at increas ingly high mass flows, as the speed increases,
while the loc us of the lim it of s tabili ty is ca llcd the surge linc. The limit o f ma .. imum Actua l rise in IOta ltemperalure is determined from the definition of isentropic effi·
flow is usually SCI by chuking in the impeller, while Ihe surge limit of minimulTl mass ciency

- now is sci by s ialling o r the now into the diffuse r va nes.

'Ie =
TOll -
T02 -
TOI
701
 90 > TUllDo MACIIJNf:S
CENTlUFUGAl COMPRESSORS AND F ANS "'\ 91
I'
Increased angle of attack 1: cho~jl1g o;curs when the relativc veloc ity equals the acoustic velocity
(I.e H'I- = OJ =
r RTI), the above equation becomes
/ / // ?ne~~e:;red
~ attack
B A
and dividing by TOI gives

Tr rRTI V;l
-+-- - --
TOI 2CpToi 2C/,T0I
u1
1+ - -'-
2e TO! .!!..
Tal
(I + 2e.0..)
" rR
'l
( Since ell =
Direction of stall propogation r- I
Flguu 3.19 Air flow direction in rototing stall phenolllenoll 1+--'-
U'
2e"Tol
-
TOI
T'( 1+--
r-I)
2
If the air angle of incidence onto blade A is excessive, perhaps due to a partial T,
blockage (or) uneven now in the diffuser the blade may stall. Because of this, the
__
2 [ 1+ U'I ]
TOI r+I 2e To l (3 .22)
mass flow decreases which in turn increases the angle of incidence to the left of blade
"
A. [due to the low mass now rate through the passage, the entering air gets deflected. For ise ntropic flow,
res ulting in large angle of incidence] whereas angle of incidence decreases to the right
'0
of blade A. Thus blade B will be !he nex' stall while blade A will be unstalled and
the process is repealed about lhe periphery of the disc .
IPi/Pol = (T,/Toil ' / r-' I
Prolonged cyclic loading and unloading of the rolor blades can lead to fatigue failure From the conti nuity equation.
or even immediatc ciltastrophic fnilure. The stall propagates in the opposite direction
'to the blade motion at a frequency related to shaft speed. In compressor tes ts. 'rotatin g If! = pAa
stall may be audibly recognised as a high frequency ·screech·. m j A = pa = Po taodTi/ Tod ("+ II /2tr- tJ (3.23)
At low speed and starting the front stages arc morc likely to stall. But at high speeds, [a = aOI x (TI/Toil'/2]
the stall occurs in the last slages. Low speed and slarting slall may be eliminated by
Since 110' T 1!2 . Substituting from cquation (3.22) and rearranging.
variable inlet guide vane rows.

Choking 'II / .'1

,
= [ rPOIPol[2 ( 1 + Uj'/2C p Toil/r + I]
I r +I/2(,.-1)
(3.24)

When the mass flow is increased to the ri~ht of point-3 on the negative slope of the
characteristic curve (as in Fig. 3.18) a poinl-5 is reached where 110 fUrlhcr increase in [aOI = j rRTo; = jrPOI/PoI ]
mnss flow is possible no matter how wide open the flow control valve is. This indicates
thallhe now velocity in the passage reaches the speed of sound at some point within Equation (3.24) imp li es Ihat th..:: chnking mass How rate increases with impeller
speed.
the compressor and the flow chokes. Ch oking means fixed mass now rate regardless
of pressure ralio. Choking may take place at the inlet, within the impeller, or in the MJ.'<imum mass now rale equat ion for isentropic now at the throat of a covcrgin'
nozzle g
diffuser section. II will occur in the inlet if stationary guide vanes are filled .
In ~uuionary passages like nozzles. the ve locity that is choked is the absolute velocity.
In the rolating impeller. it is the relative velocity 'W' that is the choked velocity.
III / A = [rPooPOO [2 / (r + I)](r + I)/ r - ') 1/2
0.25)
Now
In .thc diffuser passilges, equation (3.25) is also valid with the subscripts changed to
the Impeller oUllel conditions.
"0' = ",+Cr/ 2
= I" + (IVf - V,')/2 III/A = [rP02Pol [2 /( r + I)](r + I) / r - 1]'/2 (3.26)
 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS ANa FANS "" 89

thl! 0plimum \';llu~ of ooth cnn be determined. Tllis maximum value is then \!quilted
1(') the kfl hand sick of equi.ltion 3,21 and the maximum mass !low rate is determined.
rig . 3.17 shows thai the hladc angle is almosl co nstant at 60" for maximum mass
Jill\\,. Su, oy specifying. the relative Mach number (M, rel), the maximum value ur mass
tlnw mav hI.! ca lcu lall'd.
Rdati;e Mi..H:: h numhers arc usually restricted to about 0.8 to ensure Ihalthcre is no
shock · WOl ve formation iH the impell er inlet.
MACH NUMBER IN THE DIFFUSER
Further increase in mass now reduces the pressure ratio 10 statc-3. BUI atlhis point,
the efficiency is maximum compared with state-2. Thus the value com,:spolllJing 10
poinl-3 is said to be design mass flow rale and the pressure ralio.
Further increase in mass flow decreases the pressun! ralio ilnd rCilclH':s zero pressure
ratio ill point-4, Corresponding to this point, all the powt.:r absorbt.:d hy the compres-
sor is used 10 overcome the internal friclion and thus the compn:sslOn dlkicncy is
zero . Poinl·4 could be reached only theoretica ll y. So, the curv\! just d..:scribcd is not
obtainable practically.
Butlhc ill:tual curve is differing from the ideal curve dul.! to the fulluwing rcasun~ .

Thl! ahso lutl! rvlnc h numht.:rof the Ouid leaving the impeller may exceed unity. T here is Surging
nllioss in crJiciL'n cy CiIllSCt! h)' the f"rmafi on of shock waves as long as the radial Oow
vdoci tyen is suhsonic. When the consti.ln[ angular momentum with vortex motiun The phenomenon of a momentary increase in the delivcry pressure re~uhing in un-
is maintain~d in Ihc v:mdc.:ss space hClwl!l!n impe lle r lip and diffuser, the sup!.!l'so nic steady. periodic nnd reversal of now through the compressor is called surging. Can·
di rfusion .,;un takc pl,u:e ill thc \, ..tOeless spm:: e. Thi s redw.:es th e Much numher at inlet sider a compressor operating at point-:~ on Pm l POI - VS 111 J'lliI / Pol curve, i.e. on
th~ negative slope of the curve. A reduction in mass !luw raIl! (due 10 momentary
lothc dirfusl'r vatle~ til ahnut (Ut
High Mm:h numhcrs <II inl!.!1 [0 Ihl' dillust.!r vanes will ca use high pressures at the blockage) makes the point to move on to the lefl. Further reduction in mass !low rate
stJ.,gn~tion pllinl s on th l' diffuser VilllC tips. which leads to n variat ion of static pressure incrt.!ases the prt!ssure ratio until it reaches the maximum v;Jiu{!, Ope raling the com·
around the c i rc umr~I'I..: nc..: I)rtllt.! diffu ser. ThiS pre ssure variation is transmillcd radially pressor on Ihe nl!gi.ltive slope region (1-2) establishes 'slnhlc operation' . Because, the
JC(I.)SS the van!.!lc ss spacl! and can cause cyc lic loading orthe impel ler which may lead
delivery pressure' PO]' increases. which in lum will controltht! rurtht!r rcduL:tion or
flow rale. It is self·correcting.
to L'nrl y raligue railure .
Now, tile compressor is operaling al point 6 on the positive slope (2-4) Oflhc curve.
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR CHARACTERISTICS Upon mass now reduction the pressure ratio decreases, until it reaches the POl l POI
ax is i.e. z.ero mass flow rate , The maSS flow even becomes negulive through the
Using the groups of variablt.!s, the characH:ristics of compress ibl e flow machines arc compressor.When the back-pressure PO) has reduced itself further sufficiently dUt!
usuall y dcsc rihcd. The characterist ics 3re generall y gi ven as a series of curves of 10 th e reduced now rate, the positive flow becomes established once again and the
m.JfOi . compressor picks up until the "restricled mass flow rale" is reached again. wht.!n
pUJI PUI plolled against the mass flow parameter - p- - for fixed speed IIltervuls or'
01 pressure reduclion takes ploce once again . The compressor operates in un unst4!blt.!
N /.JfOi. rashion .
An idealised flxed- spl!l.!d characteristic is shown in Fig. 3. 18. The pressure therefore surges back and forth, if the dowlIStream co"ditjollS are
Cons id er a centrifugal compressor deli vering throug.h a flow control valve situated Ill/changed. This phenomenoll is known as ',rurgifl8' or 'pumping', Thu~, when the
ariel' Iht! diffuscr. Th!.!re is a cer- compressor has 10 ope rate at reduced mass flow rates, the air surges and pulsates
lain pressure ratio POJ / POI, cVl!n throughout Ihe comprl!ssor and Ihe compressor docs not givt! a steady flow of air,
if lite valve is full y dosed , and is 2 Surging, if severe cnough. could lead to failure of the comprt.!ssor pans. Surging
6 )
occurence can be reduced by making the number of diffuser vanes an odd·numtlcr
indicall.!d hy point I. ntis pres-
sure ralin is so lely due [("I th e muhiple of til e impeller vanes. In this way, a pair of diffu .~er passages will be supplied
\';.lIles moving the air anoul In wi lh air from an odd number or vanes and pressure nUl.:tuDlions ure more likdy 10
thl.! impcller. The rrl.!ssurc head 5 Chuk;ng pnin! be evened ou t around the circ umference than ir exact muhiplcs of diffuscr vanes arc
sO dl'veinpcd is called "shut of1'" employed.
ht.!ad . As the flow cnntrol valve
IS opcncd. Ih e air .S\:Irts flowing Rotating Stall
nnd the diffus l.!rco ntrihute .~ 10 the
The phenomenon oj a reduction ill mass flo II' raIl' 1hrollgh Ihe blnrle PCl.I":w,r:r: (Jl hight'r
pressure ratio . Thus. al point 2,
angles of incidellce is kilOit'll as rotating :Hall. It is a separate stall phcnornl!llon, which
the maximum prl!ssurt! ratio is
Figure 3.18 Idealised Jued speed clwracleri.rlic may lead to surging but can exist on its own in a stahle operating condition. Figure
fl.! ilChed hut the cfficit.:ncy is jusl
oj cenlriJugnl comprt's.rnr 3. 19 illustrates the air flow directions in a number of blade passages.
below the mu .ximum efficiency.
 -•
Ct:.NTIU FUGA I. COM I'It ESSOI1.S ,\ NOFA NS ..;: :n
Sti ... Tunno MAC'HINtS

We know
,
The nClw area is

A, =
=
IT(R' _ ,')
ITR\I_r1/R 2)
no,
a, (rRT,l'
(r RTOI)!
,
and
-
= IT R2k 1l1ercforc,
:. 111

and w
=
= U,/R
p,(rrR'k)C,

al TI
[I
DO, = (TO,) l = + ",(,_-_I:...)A_1.ci ] l
2
(.\. 19)

.. , III p, (rrU~k)
--,- C,
w- C,
101, =
~h..:rc 'Uj'
IS
is llll! inlellangcnliaJ vdocity orthc im '11'
thL' angular vl..' locity.
I' 'I .
pc cr al t Ie s lroud radius and 'w'
",
-M,- = 1v11 .n:1
cos fJl
= U~C,
(or) M, MI _rd cos fJl
IVI(sin' iJ,) . (cos iJ,) (3.15)
Substituting foral and M\ from equations (3.19) and (3 .20) respective ly in equation
For isentropic relationship
(3.18).
, M,J , (sin'~, )(eos #,)
mw" ." (3 .21 )

]
] r_ I / ~(r_l)
ITkr P OI(rR T OI)1/2 r- I , '1

[
I + -2- Mi.,,'(cos- #,)

= ;~: [I + ' ~ IM~t [I + ' ~ IM~J Mach number

Po,
To,
[I +-Z-M,
' -1 'J;;'!n 0.3
C:t 1 ::=O
r : 1.4
PUI: 10 I.:\kPa
T01: 288 K

Nuw p, = P,/RT, '"

~
0.25
Ml . rel
.~ 0 .2

(:;~,) [I +' ~ IMIJ.=I

;; 0 .9
0
p, (3.16) ~
u 0 . 15 U.MS
~
c
O. ID 0.8
Suhstituting for PI from equation (3 . 16) In
. equation
. (3 . 15), '":x: 0.75
'" 0 .05
Wr(sin PI )(C05 PI ~
2
mw2 RTol/ITkPol = . (3.17) o 10 20 3D 40 50 (,(J 70 80
.[ I +,--
-IM 'J~ Relative now angle PI at the shroud
2 ' (deg)
Writing the relati ve Mach number based on the relative velocity IV Figllre 3.17 Oplimisution of the mossflowfllflcriull
"
It should be remembered that equation 3.21 is applied allhc shroud radius' R' . 'nlc
H'I = Mlrd ·al
relativc blndc nng!c at radius' R' is {J,. At this radius' R·. the 0l3;(imum vu lul.: or
11In., 2RTOI M'
. I.rtlalJ("
sm- fJI )(cos fJd
= (3.18) relativc veloci ty onto the blade occurs.
IT k Po,
[ 1+ -z-Atl]-L.
r -I
,-, So. for a gas of known inlel stagnation cond itions (e.g . the allllosphcrc).lhe right hand
sidl! of eq u<lliull J.2 J may be plotted with the change of blade an~!;.! tJ! forum whidl.
,,
,
CENTRIFUGA L C OMPRESSORS A1"1J F A/I.'S ...: H5

INLET VELOCITY LIMITATIONS

~CX2~
W~ U:r
u, Controlling the Mach numbe r allhc eye of a centrifugal compressor a ffc c ts thc Inkt
W2

rK
rclntive velocity \VI , Two cases may he e)(umined for the same mass flow rate.:. having
P,= 96...-.,....-- C, uniform absolute velocity Ct, with i'.ero whirl velocity (C,(, = 0) at the entry to a
centrifugal compressor,

, Case 1: Large eye tip diameter From continuity equation the a~i al velocity
Forwa rding-facing vanes Rildial vanes Backward-facing Valle !; C I should be lo w em= PI A I C I ). Blade speed is high . These arc shown in the velocity
Iriangl e. (Fi g 3. 16(a))
Figure 3. J.I Centrifugal COlJlpressor ollilet velocit), triangles for I'or-yil/g blelde
(1 1111('1 lingle Case 2: Small eye tip diameter The a)(ial velocity is large. but the blade
speed is sm a ll. It is shown in the vdoc ity triangle diagram (Fig. J . 16(b»
PRE-WHIRL AND INLET GUIDE VANES
To restrict the M~ c h numbe r at inlet lo an aCI..'cptohlc value. pre-wh irl should be
impafled on Ih ~ air entering the eye. TIli s can be done by plac ing guide va nes at the
inlct. C,
Fig . J , 15 clea rl y shows thnithc inle t guide vanes impart a whirl component C,f l (0
the nuid, thus re.ducing WI to an acceptab le value, However, the work capaci ty is
u, ~
rcduccd since C r l is no longer zero.
\~u,
(a) (b)

Eye 'ip (or)

Ca shroud
radius
,

" ,,
\ WI
,
~
,
DE-,f--+-- Hub radius

Hub } E
, ,,
\
\ shroud ye
- - - -- WilhoUI guide vanes
- - - With g uid e \'anes
\'~
Figure j,16 Vo!lociry triul/glt! f or u) large alld b) small inlt!1 ar~u
Figure 3. J5 Effecl of inlet gllidl' L'tllle.)' 011 lhe inl!!1 reililil't! l'I'lnciry For bo th of these ex.treme cases, the relative velocity vector WI is high, hUI it must
It is nOl ncet!ssary to impa rt pre-wh irl down 10 the hub, as in th is region, th e nuid is reac h a minimum va lue when movin g from one extreme to another. After dctcnnining
nowhere neur so ni c condi ti ons due 10 the lowcr blude spcl'd , The pre-whirl is there fore thi s relative velociLy by proper design. the Mach number effects ca n be nvoided .
g rndualJy reduced to 7.e ro by twi sting the inlet guide vanes. Flow into the eye takes place through the annu lu s formed by the shroud mdius 'R'
Apart from reduci ng the Mach nu mbe r, the pre-whirl has another 'Idvant age of and th e hub r;.Jdiu s 'r ' ,
rl!duccd curvature orthe impe ller vanes at inlel. Pre-whirl vanes have the disadvantage For uniform a xia l flow into the eye,
o r int roduc ing additional pans and additional weigh ts, which s hould he a n important
param e ter to be co ntro lled in jet airp lanes. Also there is 3 danger o f possible icing in
the vilnes under unfavourable operating cond ition s i.e, at higher altitudes,
Limiting valut!s o f Mach numbe r arc usu a lly kept between 0.7-0.8, for fl ow oVer From the vel oc ity triangles (Fig, 3. J 6), we gel
the blades.
c, = W, cos il, and U, = IV, sin,8,
"
CENTnIFUG " L COMI'R~SSORS "I'll F ,\;..:s " >11
82 ):> TURIJO M"CIIINES
--.
The abo . . e equatio n is in the form E = a - bm, where a = Ui Ig and . p
b = U,co.p,/pgA. Forward-f.. cing
As 'm' increases, E decreases. The characteristic is therefore falling .
(ii) Radial blades
p, = 90"
cot 90° = 0
IE = a I
The energy transferred is constant at all flow rates and hence the charac teristic is
neutral.

(iii) Forward-curved blades Backward-

facing

IE = a + bill I "'
When incrcJscs. £ is iflcrcased. The characteristic will then be raising. fh would
'III'
Figure 3.13 Act/wI cJwraclerislicsfor varying blade ouller Ullg!t'
be lypically 140" for iI multi-bladed centrifugal fan.
Thest! equations arc plotted in Fig. 3.12. Forward-bl.!nt blades have higher pressure ratios. But the following disadv;Jn[;Jge:-.
arc the hurdles [or its wide range of applications.
I. Low efficiency owing to large s lip factor (between I nnd 2).
2. Operating range is closer to th e surge line even under normal running condition~
thus narrowing the stable operating range .
En~rgy J<E=------ ~2= 96 Bcttercfficiencies can be obtained from backward-bent blades than willi radial \';J lles.
but the pressure ratio is lower. So, when a high cor:-.pressor efficiency is desired.
machines with backward curved vanes arc u<;::..i.
The radial · blade impellers arc usually preferred because
I . Ease of manufacturing
2. Lowest unit blade stress for a given diameter and rotational speed (hence lightest
weighL.)
3. Equal energy conversion in impeller and diffuser giving higher pressure ratIO';
Figure 3.12 Theoretical characteristics/or varying ewrlel blade angle wi th good efficiency.

Actual characteristics for various blade ou tlet angles arc shown in Fig. 3.13 :
For hath radial and forward facing blades, the power is rising continuously ns the flow
rale is increased. In the case of backward-facing vanes the maximum efficiency occurs
in the region of maximum power. If 111 increases beyond 'designed 111' (mD), it will
resull in a power decrease. and therefore the motor used to drive the compressor may
be safely rated at the maximum power. This is said ( a be a '.fe/f limiting characteristic'
In case of the radial and forward-facing vanes. if the compressor molar is rated for
maxi mum power, then it will be under-utilised most of the time, and extra cost will
have to be incurred for the e,;tra rating. Whcreus. if a smaller motor is employed,
rated at the design point, then, if 111 increases above I1!D the motor will be overloaded
and may fail. So, it is more difficult to decide on a choice of motor for these vanes.
Due to these advantages the rndinl blade impeller.; arc used in aircrart centrifugal
compressors , Experimental result s show that the slip factor value for raLlial hladc
impellers is about 0.9. Hence. where a large pressure rise is required for a machine of
small size. radial blades are used. The reason forthe decrease in efficiency in [on"'ard-
bent blades is that . as the slip fa clor increases (C~~ increases). the energy conversIOn
requ)red in the difruser increases as a result of which diffuser inlet VCIOC ilY is higher
and the diffusercfllciency rapidly [ails. Therefore it is very rare 10 timJ lI1achin~s wt1h
forward curved vanes.
Il should be noted that the exit killetic ellergy Ci /2 increases quitt.: rapidly ;IS f/!
increases. But ma..:hines with large exit angles (lh) will be less efficient than machine),
with small exit angles.
80 ~ TURBO MACHINES CE:-.ITltln;nAi. CO,\lI'RESSCIitS A:-..I> F ,\I\:S ....: H J

For adiabatic deceleration of rhe fluid rrom absolute velocity Cz to C) with 11 corre- Substituting cquation (3.13) and equation (3.14) in the equation ror l1egrcc: of rCllC-
spond ing incrcase orstatic pressure rrom p:!. to p], tion. we gC I

"02 = "0] (or) ,

Vill-!./J2COlP2)- t '[
!Vi ' ']
cPi+(I-¢r!col!12)·
It ! + Ci/2 = II) + Ci/2 R
U;(l -
tP2 COl fil) -
, -,
DEGREE OF REACTION .pi + ( I - .p, cot Il,)-
J.( I ~:! cal th}
The dcgrct! or reacl ion of a centri rugal compressor stagc is given by
=
¢i + I + tfJi 2
fJ"! - '2¢"! COl fi2
C0l
Change in s tatic enthalpy in the impeller 2( I - .p, cot Il,)
R
Change in stagna tion enthalpy in the stage I _ ¢i{ J + cot 2 13).) + I - 2t/J2 co t Ih
=
2(1-q"cot,8,)
1r1 - It I
1102 - hot
1"0] - hot = hoz - hal as 1t 02 == liOJ] I _ rp5cost!c211]. +I- 2CP2 cot fJ2
=
2( I - <p:! cot {3,)
Ir the velocity o r Ihe gas approDching the compressor inlet is negligible (Ct '" 0), 2 - 21/J2 col .82 - ¢icOSCC 2.82 - 1 + 2rP"! cot /12
then" I ::::: hOI and "2 =
li 02 - Cir2 = 2(1 -.p, cot ,8,)
r-------::---:--,
(1102 - hOI) - Cil2 I - ¢Icosec 2.82
R = (11m - hOI)
R
2( I - q" cot ,8,)

h02 - hOI = VZCx 1 = UI(U1 - Wl"z)

For ~adial vanes (Il"! = 90"),
= (Ui-U ZC r lcotP2)
I ,
R -(I-.p;)
2 -
(3.12) and 1/Jp =
h02 - "01 = U';-(l - ¢2 cOlth) where '4>2' is the flow coeffi cie nt. because 1/1 1> = (I - ¢2 cot fJ2)
From the outlet-velocity triangle (Rerer Fig. 3.8(a)J,
Effect of Impeller Blade Shape on Perfonnance
, ,
ci CXl + C;l The diITerent blade shapes utilised in impellers of centrirugal compressors l'an h\."
and Cx~ V2- lV.r! classified as (rerer rig . 3.14)
C;! + (U2 - 0) Bnckward- racing blades (ji) Radial blades (iii) Farwan.l-facing blildc~
ci WJ"1)2
and lV...:! C'l cot th. (i) Backward-curved blades
, ,
ci C;! + (U2 - Cq cot 13'].) -
C;l + Ui(l - C'1!U"!.) cot.82)1
= C;l + uf(l - 1/J"1 cot Ih)2
We know rrom the outlet velocity triangle, Cx~ = V2 - C'1 Cal fi2
The energy transrer £ =
U2CX1!g
(or) cj Vi [(C;I vi) + (l - ¢2 .82)2] Cal Then,E = V,(U, - C" cot {3,)/g
(or) .
vi [.pi + (I - .p2 cot ,8,)'j (3. 13)

From Lhe stage pressure risc ex.pression (eqn. 3.9),

m
h02 - Ittll = Vi( J - ¢2 Cal .82) (3.14) where -
pA
= C,~
•
 78 >- TURBO MACIIINES
CENTRIF UGA L C OMrRESSORS AND FANS « 79

St.1tionary
diffuser
Diffuser
" passage

DifTuscr--~..!j\

,
,
"
b

/
.," I
," Free vortex flow
in diffuser passage

,
-ru
With diffuser
Volute

Figure 3.J J Vaned diflwer

Figun 3.10 \obn~lt!s.r difffUtT The points 10 be considered 10 fix up the number of vanes on the diffuser ring arc:
1. Diffusion increases with the increase in the vane number. But increasing the: vane
prbCr = P2'2b,C" number increases 'the friction Joss.
C, P2'2b,C,,/ prb
2. The number of diffuser vanes has no common factor with the number of impeller
If frictionless flow is assumed, then by conservation of angular momentum (mCxr) vanes, BUI. whcn the number of diffuser passages is less than the number of
impeller passages, a more uniform total flow occurs.
, 3. The cross·seclion of lhe diffuser channel shou ld be squared to give a maximum
I
hydrauI!c radius (cross-sectional area/channel perimeter).
"i' and ex = Cx2r2/r Change from tbedesign mass flow rate and pressurcratio will change the smooth flow
,~

I'
But ex »
Cr (usually) nnd so the absolute velocity 'e is approximately equal to direction into the diffuser passage Bnd will thererore result in lesser efficiency. This
I ex or may be rectified by utilising variable angle diffuser vanes. The velocity of air leaving
the diffuser should be as small as possible as this eases the problem of combustion
chamber. The diffuser outlet velocity is usually designed at about 90 m/sec.
. constant TIle diffuser efficiency
I.e. Cxr = CX]r2 =cons tant (or) C = ---
r
Our aim is to reduce 'e. To achieve this, 'r' must be large and therefore, for a large ~D=
~I..:cdc.:.:a::.I-c-c"nd::.',::a:.;Ip,"-y..:d"fO",p,-
-;-
Actual enthalpy drop
~uction in the outlet kinetic COCTEY: a diffuser with a l~e radius is required.
A vaneless diffuser has wide range of mass now rate. But because or long flow path
From the II - s diagram (Fig. 3.7),
with'tnis tYpe of diffllser, friction effects arC important and ~.~ : c!fi,cicncy ~s low.

(e) Vaned Diffuser 11)1 - h2

In the vaned diffuser as shown in Fig. 3.11, the vanes are used La diffuse the outlet
~D
II) - "2
kinetic energy at a much higher mte, in a shaner length and with a higher efficiency
n(T),/T, - I)
(length of Bow pam and diameter arc reduced) than the vaneless diffuser. = (T) - T2)
A ring of diffuser vanes surrounds the impeller at the outlet, and after Icaving lhe
impeUer,;the air moves in logarilhm ic spiral motion across a short vaneless space

T,[(~t -I]
before entering the diffuser vanes. Once lhe fluid has entered the diffuser passage,
the'controlling variable on the rate of diffusion is the divergence angle of the diffuser
passage, which is in the order of 8-] 0°, and there should be no separation of boundary =
layer on lhe passage walls .
(T) - T,)
 76 > TURBO MACfHNES
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS AND FANS <0{ T1

>/I" = C" (To,, - Tod

(a) Volute or Scroll Collector
Vi
Now, isen tropic work == aCluui work x iSl!lHropic effic iency . A simple volute or scroll collector is shown in Fig. 3.9 and consists of a circular
passage of increasing cross·secLional area. The feature of the simple volutt: is its
= C"(7iI:' - Tod x '1. low cost. The cross·sectional area increases as the increment of dischargt: increases
Thl.!l1. around (he periphery of the impeller and it is fo und that a conSlant average velocity
around the volute results in equal pressures around the compressor casing, and ht:ncc
, Cr (To' - Tod no radial i.hrusl on the shaft.
VIp =1]" -
U' , Any deviation in now rate from the design condition will result in a radial thrust.
which ultimately results in shaft bt:nding. Of the available kinctic energ y at impeller
BUI
outlcl.15-30 per cent may be recovered in a simple volute.

C p {T02 - Jill) = "'a~Vi

TIlus th e pressure coef-ficicnt may he wri Uen liS

AnOlhcr definition for 1/1 p is

>/I p = Work done/ kg Impeller

Vin.
(Aho) ,
,-
U' / ' :;¥----
Volute of
increasing
where, A~'O is rhe idc.d .s ta~mHion Cnlha lpy change across the stage. cross-section
If Ihe stage pressure fiSC IS so Sm:l llliJ cn the fluid can be treated as incompressible.
Figure 3.9 Volule or scroll co/JeclOr
(Aho )" = A Po / p
so that (b) Vaneless Diffuser
Here diffusion takes plnce in a parallel·sided passage and is governcd by the principle
>/If = A Po
of conservation of angular momentum of the fluid .
(pU}!2J
The radial component of absolute veloci ty is conltolled by the radial cross·secLional
This definition for 1/1 I' has a numerical v<llu e twice Ihat onhe equation area of flow' b' . A vaneless diffuser passage is shown in Fig. 3.10.
Mass flow rate' m' al any rad iu s r is given by
>/I" = (I - q" cotjJ,)

DIFFUSER 1m = pAC, = p(2rrrb)C, I

~~~~;Y~I~; i;Pp~i~~:J.n.t rolt! in rhe overill! compression process of a cenlrifugal compr. where 'b' is the width of the diffuser passage perpendicular to the peripheral area
. c
r Imparts energy 10 the ai r by incrcasin r ' . I ' .
~:en~~;;s .thi~i~parted kinetic e~ergy
into pressure risco r;r l~sr:~i~t~l~d:~~~~~~I:~.r of the impeller and is us ually the same as the impeller width. Let the sub.scriplCd
variables represent conditions at the impeller outlet and the unsubscripted variables
'II ,I .user oes c~mprcss and Increase Ihc pressure cql!alto 50 percent o[tl1" over'
,1 51,IIIC pressure fi SC. t: represent conditions at any radius 'r' in the vane less diffuser, then from contiouity
equation
 74 » TURDO MACinNES
CENTRlFUGALCOMPRESSORSANOFANS '" 75

u,
..,
•
Work supplied hal, - hOI

Cp(T02, - Toil Cr,

IV,
CpTOI (
To,' - I )
-
c,
TOI
Figure 3.8 (0.) Vtlocity triangle

From Euler's equation

IV
= (3.8) III
IV
vI( 1 - "" COlli,)
where Ro-stagnation pressure ratio III

From Euler's equation. VI( I - ¢2 COl 11,)

:. >/Ip
Work supplied = Vi
>/Ip (I - "'2 colli,) (J .III
= V,(V, - e,2COIIl,)
(e"
= v2, 1- U2 cot Ih ) Substituting equation (3.1 1) in equation (3.10). we get

= VI(I - ¢, col II,) (3.9)

R [
,I. V']~
Ro=~= I +~
POI CpTOI
Equaling (3.8) & (3.9),
In tcnns of stalic pressures. following the same procedure. we gc.:1
.-,
epTo,(R o' - I) = vf(l - ¢,COI (3,)
P, [
R=-= 1+--
",pVI ] ~
where 'cP2' is the now coefficient at the impeller exit. PI CpT,

¢2 = e" These twO ratios arc known as slage pressure ratios.

V,
Pressure Coefficient
The press ure or loading coefficient is also defined as the ratio of iscnlfopic work to
Ro = [ I + ( I- ¢'COIR')U'
~ 2J ~ (3.10)
Euler's work.
epTOI
Isentropic work
The loading or pressure coefficient is defined as
Pressure coefficient. 1/Ip = :.::;:.::;:.::;:.:.::...,-,::.::
Euler'S work

'" r = Work donc/kg

V'2

From the outlet velocity triangle fFig . 3.8(a) J. For a radial vaned impeller,
 r
72 ~ TilnUQ tv1.... CIIINE."i
CENTRJf"UGAlCOMPRESSORSANOFANS "" 73

. Since I J =
h in equllli o n (3.6), the ch ief contribution to the static ent halpy rise is
fl ow velocity ell at inlet must therefore be increased and this increases the loss due
trom the term (Vi - Ur)/2.
to friclion . A compromise is usually made; slip factors of about 0 .9 are being used
Usually, CJ.I = 0 is assumed in pre liminary desig n calculati ons. Although , th is is
for a compressor with 19-21 vanes .
no~ illwilYS ~he case, from the ilc tual energy transfer equation, th e work done on the
Jluld per UI1l! mass becomes It may seem that increase in '1/1' increases the energy transfer, but the mte of decrease
of isentropic efficien cy with increase in 1/1 negates (nullifies) My appnrent advanLage .
(W/III) ; E x g So, the ideal condition is to have n power input facto r of unity (l/I = I) .
"0 2 ~ " 01 == l/IusVf The press ure ratio increases with the impeller lip speed, but material strength shou ld
be more as centrifugal stresses are proponional to the square of the lip speed; and for
Subs titu tin g "0 == CI'To and rt.!urmnging the eqn ., we get a light alloy impeller, tip speeds are limited to about 460 mfsec . This gives a pressure
ratio o r 4 : I. Pressure ratio of 7: J is possible with titanium impell ers. Eq uation ror
10:2 - 7ill == v1osui/c" pressure ratio can be wrinen in terms of fluid properties and How angles.
wh.crt.! , C I' is the .menn specific heat ovc r thi s temperature rangc. aJ
Since I = rRTo t and Cp = rR/(r - I). then POl/POI = I I + TJc l/taA r - I )
S mce:. no work IS done in the d iffu ser, 1101 110] and so = , , '
Uiloo JJ f-1
The change of pressure ralio with blade Lip speed for various 'TJc ' is shown in Fig.
(3.7) 3.8.

With r~ fcrencc. 1O th e h- s diagram lind eq uation (3.7), a compressor' s ovcrnlltotal.

In ' lOtallsentroplc effic iency ''le' is de fin ed as
"01= 340 mls
7 "'(=1.4
A"
'h' -_ _;O~ln~l"i;se~n~l~ro~p~i~c~e:n~lh~":lp~y~ri:sC~bC='~'v~c~e~n~i~nl~c~l~o~nd~o~u~ll~e~1 cr=0.92
Actual enthalpy rise between same lOlal pressure limits 1jI;1.04

liO)" - " 01
ItO] - hOI .2
"§ 4
where the s~b~cripl 'ss ' represents lhe end st'.l(e on the lotal pressure li nc PO l when f:
th e process IS Isentropic. . ~
~
~

~
3
( To~u - To l ) 0..
'lr = (70.1 - Toll 2 -

.r «To],,)/ Tal - I)
'0 1
(TO] - Tal) 380 400 420 440 460 480 500
BU I. Blnde tip speed (mls)

PO.l / POI (TOlf) I To t )r/r- I Figure 3.8 Overall pressu~ ratio vusus impeller tip spud

; II -I- Ik(To) - Toil/Tod'N- 1i

= II + '7c1/!aJUi/(CpTody/r-1
~le s lip fac tor s.hould b~ as hig~ as possi ble, s in ce ilumils (he energy trans fer 10 th e
nUl d. eve n und er Ise ntropIc C?ndltions~ a.nd it is seen from Ihe ve loc ity diag ram s lhal
CJ."~. appro~ches U2 as (he s lip factor IS Increased . TIl e s lip faclor may be increased
h~. Jn ~rea~ lng tl~c nu~her of vn nes but thi s increnses the 'solidify' at the impeller eye,
n;suhlOg In decrease In the now area at [he inlel. To have a salTle mass fl ow rate, the
STAGE PRESSURE RISE A ND LOADING COEFFIC IENT
The stati c pn:ssurc rise in centrifugal stage occurs in the impeller, diffuser and the
volu/ e.
No changt: in s tagnation enthalpy occ urs in the diffuser and volute. !n th is sec tion, the
pressure rise or pressure ratio across the stage for an isenslIopic process is detcnni ncd .
 "

CENTRJFUGALCOMI~RESSORSANDFI\:-.IS .c{ 71
70 ,. TURDO MACIIINES

'1/1' is also known as 'srage loadillg.coefficient'. Upon leaving the impeller the gas Total enthalpy at section-I, i.c. inlet of the impeller. is
enlers a vanclcss spncc where it moves in a spiral path before entering the diffuser,
Cl
in which the static pressure is further increased . The clearance between the impeller "0' =11, + 2
blades and inner walls of the casing mu st be kept as small as possible to reduce leakage
and in some cases the blades themselves are shrouded. and since no shaft work has been done and assuming thaI adiabatic steady now occurs

MOLLIER CHART hoo ~ hOI (from S,F,E,EJ

Since we arc dea ling with a gas and since the risc in temperature and pressure causes Thus ,
the density to change. il will bcconvenicnllo examine the performance of the machine
in terms of Ihe Ihcrmm.lynamic properties of the gas and thi s is done through lhe CJ C~
Mollicr Chart. The II - of diagram for the compression process across the ce ntrifugal
110+ -
2
=111 +-
2
(3 ,5)

compressor is shown in Fig. 3.7.

, 2, Impeller
;
p., Work is done on Ihe nuid across the impeller and the static pressure is increased from
P lI O P2 . Writing Ihe work done per unit mass on the nuid in terms of enthalpy. we
C:
T
gel

wjm = h02 - hUI

£l From Eu ler's pump equation

P, 2
.c Po.
~
0.
-,; Equaling Ihe two equations and afler substituting for Ito
.c P,
E C2
UJ
I = hi + T-
C2
UIC.I"! = 112 + -f - U2 C.r'2
hoo =hOI where 'f' is the impeller constanl.
h02 =hOl In genera l

I = h+C'/2- UC,
+ (C; + C;/2) - UC~
It

Enlr0py, s = h + (IV' - W; + C;l/2 - UC,

Figure J. 7 Mollier chart/or a centrifugal compressor = ,,+ (\I" - (U - Cxl' + C;J/2 - UC,
W' U' C' C'
h + - 2 - -2 - 2...
2
+ VCr' - vex + 2-
2
1, Inlet Casing
~ h + W'/2 - U'/2
The energy equation along a stream line may be written as or
Total ent halpy."0 = " + ~ = constant
I' ~ "0,(,.1- 0'/21
1l1crcforc. for the nuid drawn from the atmosphere into the inducer sect ion . the total
enthnlpy is
where 1I0 .rel is the total entha lpy based on the relative velocity of lhe fluid. Thus
c'
"00 = "0 + ..J!2 11,- hi = ((Ui - uil/2l + «IVi - Wil/2) (3,6)
 68 ).> TUlmo M ACHINES CENTRlFUGALCOM I'RESSOllSANOFANS ..( 69

where A Pond B are functions of th. z andr2/ rt.

2e/sin ~l The SloIJilz slip joctor is given by

[ rI, = I - 0.63rr l td I - (C"I U,)col/'illli

Rehllive
eddy is best used in the range 80° < fh. < 90°.
Arc AB - 2](('2 /z If P2= 90° . then Us = I - (O.631f Iz). TypicaJly. slip factors li e in tht: region of 0.9.
while slip occurs even if the fluid is ideal.

ENERGY TRANSFER
,
, By Euler's pump equation, without slip

1£=l\IllIIg l
E CU2Cx:! - UtCsd lg
Figure 3.6 Th e fe /oril'e eddy be/weell impeller b/ode5 From inlci vclocity triangle (Fig. 3.3(a))
zc~o. Now. the impelle r has an angular veloc ity 'w', so that, relative to the impeller, [he
fluid mu st have an angular velocity '-w ' [0 match with (he zero-roralion conditi on. ex' = 0
If Ihe rad ius o f a ci rcl e rh al may be inscribed between two s uccessive blades at outlet For ideal condition, U2 = CZl' from outlet velocity triang le (Fig . 3.3(b»)
and .11 a tan gent to the surfaces o f both blades is 'e'. then the slip is given by

6Cx = we E = U2Cs 2 = Ui (3 .3)

g g
The impeller ci rcumference is 2]("r1 and there fore Ihe distance belween the blades
is 2JTr~ /z if we ha ve 'z' blades of neg ligible thickness. TIlis may be approximated to and with sl ip, the theoretical work is
2e!s ;ll p~ and upon rearrungement

~
,V;
e = (1fr'lI .. ) sin fh E=---
g
(3.4)
6Cx ;: (U2!zrJ)(rrr2 sin fhJ
= (U'1rr sin fh)/z Although equation (3.3) has been modified by the slip factor 10 givr.! equation (3.4).
equation (3 . 1) beco~es usU; /g is still th e 'theoretical work' done on the air. si nce slip will be present even
if the nuid is fric tion-less (ideal nuid) .
_ U-",,,"-os,,,in::..;::~=-,-::-:- In a rea l nuid some of the power supplied by the impeller is used in overcoming
as:::: 1 - -;o;-"
z(V, - Cr,cOl~,) losses that have a braking effec t on the wr conveyed by the vanes, and these include
For ~urely radial blades, which are often found in a centrifuga l compressor, Ih wi ll windage, disc fr iction and casing friction . The total power per unit weight of flo w is
be 90 and the Stodola slip factor becomes therefore modified by a power input factor.

1IT, = I- "Iz(since cO! 90° = 0) 1 POWER INPUT FACTOR

With radial vanes, a very high pressure rise can be obtained, and arc s uitable for The powe r inpul factor (or) the work factor
high-s peed mnchint:s.
_ Actuol work supplied
The Stodola slip factor equa tion gives best results for the blade ang le in the range
C
20 < Ih < 30°. For the range 30° < fJ'1 < 80 0 , Buseman slip factor equation '" - T heoretical work supplied
may he employed.
'y,' ,ypicolly 'ok", volues from 1.03510 1.041.
So, the actual energy transfer becomes
(3.2) E = y,rI, Vilg
 66 }> TURBO MACBfNES CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS AND I; ANS "\ 67

u, u,
c,' w.~

. •.•• [<luI lura Il'pl

c, c,' IV, -- AeruIl1 wirh 110pl

cr,

!
'"
pz· Ac[ual bladc lingle
p;.Angle lit which the nuid ICllves the impdlc:r
C . Cin.:ulation around a single billde

Figure 3.4 Velocity triangles/or a badcward curved impeller Figure 3.5 Slip and ,'e/oeity distribution in ccnlrijllga/ ptunp impeller btado
When fiz = fJi, there is no fluid slip at the exit where /3' refers to the angle;: of relative
Slip factor is defined as
velocity vector.

SLIP FACTOR
The nuid tcaves the impeller at an angle Pi other than lhe actual blade angle 112. This
is due to 'fluid sUp'. Angle Pi is less than angle 112. Referring to the above figure, for the no-slip condition.
In centrifugal compressors. the air trapped between the impeller vanes is reluctant
to move round with the impeller. and this results in a. higher static pressure on the C.r2 = lh - Wz2
lending face of the vane than on the tmiling face of the vane. This problem is due and
to the in ertia of the air. Then the air tends to flow round the edges of the vanes in
the clearance space between impeller and casing. One explanation for this is that of W.r2 = COl/32 ' C, 2
the relative eddy hypothesis. Fig. 3.5 shows the pressure distribution built up in the C.r2 = U2 - Cr2cot f32
impeller passages due to the motion of the blades. On the leading side of the blade Sl ip factor
there is a high pressure reg ion while on the trailing side of the blade there is a low
pressure region ; the pressure lhus changes across the blade passage. Th~s pressure
distribution is similar to that of an aero foil in a free stream and is like· wise associated e;, (ex' - Aex)
witll the existence of circulation around the blade, so that on the low pressure side C.r2 = C.r;2
the fluid velocity is increased while on the high pressure side it is decreased, and a
non-unifonn velocity distribution results at any radius. Indeed. the flow may separate (3.1 )
from the suction surface of the blade. So, the mean direction of the fl ow leavin g the
impeller is fJ~ and not 112 as is assumed in the zero-s lip condition.
Stodola proposed the existcnce of a relative eddy within the blade passages as shown
Slip can be reduced by increasing [he number of impeller vanes and reducing the
in Fig. (3.6). By definition. a fricrion less fluid which passes t11rough t11C blade pas -
clearance space. Thus C.r2 is reduced to C~2 and the difference .6C.r is defined as the
sages have no rotation. Therefore atlhc outlet of the passage the rotation should bc
sl ip.
 64 j:. TUlWO MACHINES CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS AND FANS .( 65

ColleCl0r (VOlule)@ VELOCITY DIAGRAMS FOR A CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

Casing
The gas enters thl! compressor alme eye, in an axial dircction with an absolule veloc ity
) C I and moves into the inducer section , which cnn be in a separate form or be a pan
Diffuser of Ihe blades. The inducer section transfers the gas o nlo the blades and enables it 10
move smooth ly into the radial direction. Energy is imparted to the gas by the rolating
blades, thereby increasing its static pressure; as it moves from radius rl to r2, and the
gas moves the blade with absolute ve locity C2.
It shou ld be noted Ihat the blades !lIe ra-
dial i.e. the blade angle fJ'1 is 90" while
the relative velocity vector W'1 is tit angle u
fJ; because o r slip. Ideally, the compo-
nen l C ,r1 equals UJ,. But it is reduced due
10 slip. The re lative velocity vector WI is
obtained by subtracting U I fro m C I . The
Figure 3.1 Typical ceTltrifflgal comprl!!Sor nuid enters the blade passages with an p, w,
absolute velocity CI; here C I = Ca. So, u,
T he principal componenls are Ihe impeller and Ihe diffuser. Wilen the impeller is the impeller ta ngential velocity vector U,
rotating at high speed, air is drawn in through the eye of the impeller. The absolute is a L right angle to C I. Where UI = wr),
velocity of the inflow air is axial. The magnitude and direc tion of the entering relative 'w' being the angular velocity af the im-
ve loc ity depends upon the linear velocity of the impeller al the radial posi tion of peller. The resultant relati ve velocity vec-
th e eye as well as the magnitude ilnd direction of the entering absolute velocity. The lo r at the inlel is WI as shown in Fig. (aJ Inll!t \'t/ociry rriang /I!
impelle r vanes at the eye are bent so as to provide shockless entry for the entering fl ow 3.3(a)
at its re lative enlry angle. TIle air th en flows radially through the impeller passages due
10 centrifuga l fo rce. The lolal mechanical energy driving the compressor is transmitted
to the fluid stream in (tIC impeller where it is converted into kinetic energy, pressure
il nd heat due to fri ction. The function of the diffus~r is 10 convert th e kinetic energy;
of air that leav ing the impeller, into pressure, The air leaving the diffuser is colleCled
in a spirnl passage (scroll or volute) from which it is discharged from the compressor. - - - -Noslip
The pressure and velocity vQriatiqn lJcross the compressor is shown in Fig. 3.2. With slip

Diffuser
_1 ___ _v (b) Outid 'tIeloeity Iriangll!
Radial
Clearnncc
di stance Figure J.J Velocity Irianglt!S for a rtuljal imptllu

(refer Fig. 3.3(b) and Fig. 3.4). For "'TO slip si tuation. III = 90" and so C" = U,
and C,~ = W:! where C, is the radial component of the absolute velocity and is
perpendicu lar to the tan gen t at inlet and outlet. C"I is the compo nent of the inle!
ab'so!u lC veloci ly vector resolved into the tangential direction. W,r and Cor a.n: oflen
Pressure and ve loc ity called as the relative and absolute whirl components, respectively. All angles are
measured from lhe tangential direction.
Figure 3.2 Prt!ssure and ve/ocifY diagram/or celltrifllgal compressor When fJl = fJ;, Ihis is referred to QS the '/1 0 shock condirion' at entry. In this case,
the fluid moves tangentially onlo the blade.
62 >- TuRBO MACHINES

EXERCISES

2.1 . ~erive Ihe expression for energy transfer in terms of blade lift and drag c fti-
clents.
2.2. ExpJa!" (he blade terminologies with a nem skelch.
. oe

2.3. Explain the various cascade nome nclalures with a neal and illustrative sketch
3________ _ _.__ _
prove thaI E= 0 + ; - O.
2.4. Wrire nOles on cascade testing. Draw the cascade curves. How is the nom' J
value of deflection obtained? Ina CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
;.5. Enumeral~ and explain briefly [he different cascade losses.
_."6. A 16 m dmOlcter rotor is required to lift and propel a 2500 kg h I'
d f J C Icopter al a AND FANS
spec ~ 15 m s. Calc ulate power required by the helicopter assuming a drag
co~mclCnl of 0.0056 based on the rOlor area. Ambient condition is J bar and
22 C. (MKU-April '96 & MU-April '99)
IAns: 2.24 kW)

INTRODUCTION
Compressors as well as pumps and fans arc the devices used (0 increase the pressure
of a fluid. But, Ihey differ in lhe lasks they perform . A fan increases the pressure of n
gas sligh ll y and it is mainly used to move a gas around. A compressor is capable of
compressing lhe gas 10 very high pressu res. Pumps work very much like compressors
except that they handle liquids instead of gases.
Centrifugal compressors and fa ns are lurbo machines employi ng centrifugal effec ls
to incrl!asc the prl~ssure of the fluid . Single stage ccntrifugaJ compressors have the
pressure ratio of 4; I. The besl efficiencies are generally 3 to 4 per cent below lhose
obtained from an axial flow compressordesigncd for the same duty. However, at very
low mass flow rates, the axial flow compressor efficiency drops down rapidly.
The advantages of centrifugal compressor over the axial flow compressor arc (I)
smaller length. (2) wide range of mass. flow rale of gas. Although the ccnlrifugal
compressor has been superseded by the axial flow com pressor in jel ai rcraft engines.
it is usefu l where a short overall eng ine length is required and where il is likely thai
deposits will be (ormect in the air passages. Beca.use of the relatively short passage
length, loss of performance due 10 bui ld-up deposits will not be as great ilS the axia l
compressors. Therefore. the working fluid may even be a contami narcd gas, like ex-
haust gas.The disadvantages arc-larger frontal area and lower maximum efficiency.
If lhe density rat io across the compressor is less than about 1.05, lhe rcrm ,/0'" is
used to describe the machine. In that case the fluid is treated as being incompressible;
otherwise compressible flow cquations must be used . The Lerm 'blowu' is often used
in place of 'fan' . In this chapter, the centrifugal compressor and fan arc considered 10-
gelher as the theory applied to both machines is the same. The centrifugal compressor
is mainly found in turbo chargers.

COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

Fig. 3. 1 shows a typical centrifugal compressor.
flO ,. TURBO MACIlIN ES BLADE THEORY <i{ 61

= "n - ' [('an 65" -lUn400)/2] SHORT QUESTIONS

= 33. 13° 2.1. What is the function of bl<ldcs in a turbomachine?

2.2. Define an aero-foil sec tion .
-17.5 , x 9.81 x 10'' ) 2.3. Classify the.! aero-foil sections.
cos] ~3 .~3)
'. CD = 2 (0.9 1)
(
.."1,,,0-:-:::-:---;-;::;,-_
1.25 x 100' ( cos- 6:1 2.4. What is a symmetrica l aero-foi l?
2.5 . What is a non-symmeuic:al aero-foil?
= 0.0823 2.6. Define lhe terms lift and drag.
2.7. Describe the now pattern around an aero-foil.
(c) Lift coefficient 2.8. TIle dwg is made up of . drag and _ _ ___ _ drag .
2.9. Flow separation due to adverse pressure gradient
CI. lUll') cos alii (Iun 0' ) + Ian a:d + CD Inn am
(a) decreases lift and increases drag
= 2(0.91) cos 33.I3(w.n 40 -\- Irm65) + 0.OR23 tuJl ~ U J (b) increases lift and decreases drag
C,. 4.60 1 (c) decreases lift and decreases drag
=
2. 10. The lift is to the drag.
Example 2 .9 A jet plane which weighs 30,000 N and has a wing ;: rl',l or:2O 1112 2. 11 . Define (a) lin coefficie nt and (b) drag coefficien t.
nics al a velocilY 01'250 kmlh when the engine delivers 750 kW. 6S r; 1)1 lht! power 2. 12. Lift coeffic ient should be as high as possible for maximum energy trans fer.
is uscu to overcome the drag resisl<lnce oCthe wing . Calculate the cOl!rtic lcnls uf lift (True/Fal se)
anu drag for the wing. Take density of air equal to 1.21 kg / m]. 2. 13. For maximum efficiency, the drag coefficient should as low as poss ible. (Truc/False)
Solution 2. 14. Define blade loading factor ilnd flow cocflicient.
1\1 = .1 0.000 N A =
20 m' c =
250 kln/h = 69.44 m/ s 2. 15, For a wcll-dt:!s igned hlade, the optimum blade loading factor is
Power requ ired to overcome drag resistance (a) <p(cl.r)C,
(b) <P(cl s)C , / -fi
= 0.65 x 750 = 487.5 kW (e) <p(cls)C , / 2
Power required to oVj!rcomc drag rcsist'lOce in terms of drag force is £1\'1,'1) hy 2. 16. Li st the imponam blade tcnninologics.
2.17. Define (a) base profile. (b) camber line,
D x c 2. 18. What is <l cascade?
487.5 2.19. What is blade camber angle'!
:. D = - - x 10' = 7020.5 N
69,44 2.20. What arc ch ord. span and pilCh for a blade cascade?
But 2.2 1. Differentiate between ang le of incidence and deviation angle.
:!.22. Air deflection angle is the difference between the _ _ __ and the
D
Co =
O.5p c:!A 2.23. What is slagger angle?
7020.5 2.24. ang le represents me angle at which the blade is set in the cas·
=
0.5 x 1.21 x 69.44] X 20 cade.
CD = 0. 120 2.25. What is c~scade testing?
2.26. Why do (hI! rt:!sults obtained from cascade testing need corrections?
Tht! lift fmce should he equal 10 the weight of tht:! plant:!. 2:27. What is pressure loss coefficient?
2.28. The value or nominal denection angle in terms of maximum defleclion angle
L = 1\1 = 30, 000 N is
L
: . CL = 0.5pc:!t\
(it) 0.88 Ellltlx
(b) 0.9 Enmr
30,000 (c) 0.8 Emll •r
0.5 x 1.21 x 6904.1 2 x ~() 2.29. What arc the cnscadc losses?
0.5 14 2.30. What arc profile, annulus and tip clearance losses?
 58 l> TURBO MACHINES BLAOETHEORY '" 59

25 107.9 N/m'
"'; = 30+ -
2 107.9
,
"'I = 42.5° 0.5 x 1.25 x 75 2
0.0307
and
(b) Drag coefficien t
Ct'2 a~ - 11
2
CD == 2(S/C)(POm/pCfHcosJa",/cos ad
42.5 - 25
, am tan-I [(tanat +tnna2)/2]
Ct, 17.5°

(b) Nominal air angles = lan-' [(Ian 48' +1.n25°)/2]

,
i, = Q'l,n - 0'1
107.9 ) (COS'
38.25)
:.a1.n in +0'; CD 2( 1/0.9 1) ( 1.25 x 752 . cos248
5 + 42.5 . 0.0365

= 47.5° (c) liN coefficient

Nominal cxit~ ang le is dclC.DIlined....fr.ru!1.J,he~ng ~Cmpirical relcuion : CL = 2(s/ c)cosQ'm(LanO'I -lan ( 2) - CD lanam
1.55 = 2( I / 0.91} cos 38 . 25° (~1n 48° - tan 25°} - 0.0365 tan 38.25' ·
anal,n - tana2.n =
1.0+L5(~ 1.083
1.55 Examp le 2 .8 Air enters the test section ofa turbine blade (0'1 = 40°.0'1 = 65° )
Ian Q'l.n = tanat,n -
= 1.25 kg/m 3). The pitch-chord ririio of the cascade.!'
1.0 + 1.5 (~) cascade tunnel at lOOmis (p
is 0.91. The average loss in the stagnation pressure aerl1ss the cascade is equivalent
1.55 to 17,5 mm W.G. Determine ror this cascade (a) the pressure loss coefficient, (b-) dll:
= tan 47.5 -
1.0+ 1.5(1) drug coefficient and (c) the lift coefficient.

Lan Q'l.n = 0.471 Soluti on

Cl'2,n 25 .22° Ctl = 40° Ct, = 65' C, = 100 m/s p = 1.25 kg/m J
.r/c = 0.91 pO. m = 17.5mmW.G .
Example 2.7 . A compressor casc<lde has the ro ll owing data: velocity of air <It
(a) Pressure loss coefficient
= =
entry = 75 ~/s, air ang le al entry 48°, air <Ingle at exit 25°, chord-pitch ratio =
O.91, stilgn~[lOn pressure Joss = 11 mm W.G, density of air = 1.25 kg/m J . D'c tcrmine PO.m
loss cocfficlent, drag and 1m coefficients, '.
---,
= 0.5pC,
Solutio n 17 .5
(Of x 9.81 x I
0'
C, = 75 m /s at = 48° 0'2 = 25°
=
c/.r = 0.91 pO. rn=11 mm W.G. p = 1.25 kg/ m' 0.5 x 1.25 x 1002
0.0275
(a) Pressure l oss coefficient
Po,,,, (b) Drag coefficien t
0.5pcl CD =
11
PO,m = 10' x 9.81 x - ,
10
 56 :.- TUHliO M ,\C III NES
BLADETUffiRY ..;: 57

(d) Number of blades Since there is no incidence on the blade Cl'J = Q' I
Circ umfere nce at mean radius
= Pitch ilt mean radi us
9 = a t - Cl'1 + 0,2339
2rr r NI 45 - 15 + 0.2338
S 9 39. 11 0
2IT x 0.212
Alternatively
0.0296
45 E= 9 +i - "
Example 2.5 DCh.!fllline fo r!.l co mpressor hl .IlJe with u c ircular nrc.: ci.llnbcr line Since j = 0
anJ Ihl! fLlII l)wing JOlla. Pitch-c hord ratio - O.H. rd:.Hive uir angll! a t inlet - 45°, relat ive
air illlgie ,II out kt -15". Assume 7.cro inc idence. E 9- 0 =0 - 0.2339
(il) nominal ddll!C li nn an gle E
(b) Ihl.! blade camber angle
9
I - 0.233
tc.:) Ihe devi:.IIi on ungJc 30
(0 ) the blildc stagger =
0.767
Solution 9 = 39.1 10
sl,· = 0 .8 P , = 45° p, = 15 0

lllcrcfore. deri vation angle is

Note Ihat cascildc air a ngle is equa l to Iht: compressor relative air angle. That is

al = (JI nnd [X2 = f31 o = 0.233(39.11)

(a) Nominal deflection angle

" = 9. 11
0

Ii. The blade stagger

En = 0', - [X2 == /31 - /32
ascade the blade stagger is given by
= 45 - 15
= 30 1l
(b) Deviation angle
,- 1 Cl'l - 2
q, \ "
'" 0
8 mO(sjc) '/1 39. I I
= 45 - · - -
III 0.2:l(211Ic)' + O. I (a,/50) 2
25.45 0
For a drcular afC c.:ambcr 2a jc =I
:. m 023(1)+0.1 x G~) Example 2 .6 A compressor cascade is constructed from ci rc ular arc acre-foil
bl:ldes (camber nngle = 25°) SCI al a stagger ang le of 30° with a pitch-chord ratio of
0.26 1.0. TIle momentum thickness chord ralio is 0 .031 . The nomin al value of incidence is
o 0.26 x 9(0.8) 'I' 5° . Determine the cascade blade angles and the nomina1air ang les. (MKU-April'95)
o 0.2339 Solution
(c) Blade camber angle fl = 25° ¢x = 30
1l
sIc = 1 in =5 1l

9 (a) Cascade blade angles

but a; 0'2 - 0 e
:. 9 = [X~ - 0'2 +0
, 0
o'~ - 0'2 + 0.2330 </J,. = [XI - '2 = 30 0
54 }:. TURBO MACHINES

Solution
BLADE THEORY

Determine (a) the mean radius, (b) the blade height. (c) the pitch nnd chord and (d)
the number of blades.
..:: 55

-
IV =980N C=5m/s Co = 1.3 p= 1.22
Drag force Solution
C'
111 = 25 kg/s p = 1.1 kg/m] ell= 157 m/s
D = CO,p·Z·A N = 150 revls U = 200 mls Ilc=3 slc=0.8
(a) Mean radius
but D II' = 980 N
U
'. A = 980/ (13 x 1.22 x ~) = 2rrN
200
49.4) m 2 2rr x 150
Projected area of the hemispherical parachute = 0.212 m

A =
(b) Blade height
49.43 x 4 The blade height is found from the annulus area of now.
:. D =
J rr
= 7.93 m
A =
111

pea
Example 2.3 A wing ofa small airplane is rectangular in plan (10 m x 1.2 m).
The total aerodynamic force acting on the wing. moving al240 kmlh. is 20 kN. If the 25
= 1.1 x 157
lin-drag ralio is 10. calculale the coefficient of lin and the total weight the plane can
carry. Take p of air = 1.2 kg/m]. 0.145 m'
Solution :. Blade height
240 x 101
F=20kN LID= 10
A = lOx 1.2= 12m'
TIle total force.
C= 3600 = 66.67m/s
(C= 2:r-:;:;
0.145
F JD'+L2
2n x O.212
= J(O.IL)'+L' 0.11 m
F' 1.01 L 2

The weight lhal the plane can carry is the lifl force. (c) The chord and pitch
. span (I)
20 x 10-' Blade aspect rn\10 = chord ( C )
:. L = (1.01)'/' = 19.9 kN
1
and :. C
3
L 19.9 x 10 3 0.11
pAC'/2 66.67'
= 3
1.2 x 12 x - 2 - 0.037 m
0.622
Brade pitch
Example 2.4 An axial now compressor has the following design dala : 5 = Pilch - chord ratio x chord
mass now rate of air - 25 kg/so density - 1.1 kg/m]. axial velocity - 157 mls. rota-
tional speed - J50 rev/so Mean blade speed - 200 m/s. rotor blade aspect ratio - 3, = 0.8 x 0.037
pilch chord ratio - 0.8. 0.0296 m
 BLADETUEORY '" 53

3. Secondary loss This occurs at the hub and tip du e 10 the three dimensional
CASCADE LIFT AND DRAG COEFFICIENTS FOR nalure! of thc now and the blade curvalure.
TURBINE BLADES
4. Tip clearance loss Loss due 10 tip clearance is causcd due 10 the Jeaknge
Turbine rolor blades are designed based on Ihe cascade dal<\ whic h is. simi lar 10 th e
of the now from the pressure side to the suctio n side of the blades through lht! lip
compressor rolor h lades. The lifl and drag coefficients are obtained from the cascade
c1cllrancc. This loss is sometimes considered a.s a secondary loss.
data curves. The drag coefficient is expressed as
Losses in a blade cascade of compressor and turbine arc principally the same. The:
CD = 2(s/c)(Pom/pCrHcos3a",/cos2a:d magnitude and mechanism of these losses differ from compressor 10 turbine .

amI the lift coefficient

SOLVED PROBLEMS
CI. = 2(sjc) cos 0'/11 {Ian at(f}an a:d(9<:v tan Om
Example 2.1 An aerofoil having a chord length of 2.25 m and a span of 13.5 m
whcrc 0'/11 = l<ln -rl (tan a:Qtan 0'1) 2] moves aI a velocity of 125 mls through standard atmosphere at an elevation of 2500
_r..n!ssurC"IO'S'S~mntre1T" elermined and an estimation of the efficiency be made. m. The anglc or auack being 5°25'. Calculate the weight which the wing carries and
TIle drag coefficient must again be modified due to the blades actu::IlIy being in the power required to drive the aerofoil. Take corresponding to i = 5°25'. CL =
annular form. R.eal~xis l &lIthe hub and tip while the ideal How pauern is 0.465 ,nd CD = 0.022. Density of air = 1.25 kg/m'-
diswrbcd h~! the preceding and succeeding blades. We crag coefficient IS modified
by~ance @SI C ~c s a ow given by 7 5.,' 1cJ. :., ' Solution

~
~ CDC = flCl(kC' ISll ;-~ ) = > ~C(O'l\cll.o\(y \ .\~ T c = 2.25 m
c = 125 m js
1= 13.5 m
CL =0.465
= 1.25 kg/m'
_ ~I ~t ':-.>-t; :p 1.,> l'
CD = 0.022 P
,n"
f[CDS~ . weight carried by the aeroroil shou ld be equiJlto the lift force.
,
w~.w Ceil[ . C ween lhec<lsing ;lOcI blode lip whil 11 is taken as\lf.Bl c-
f£!f t!£:smouuc(j"FTa _and Q.~ or(~ ~ _ c_ - .:.. e..sl r 1C parameter). is estimated ... IV L=CL · P·-·A
2
['ron~unclional relationship of lilt.: form
125
0.465 x 1.25 x "'2' x (2.25 x 13.5)
). = [
Blade out Ie! area normal to
.
[( Bll.ldcs
now)' / (1+.Hub radiUS)
. 137.93 kN
tlli el area nomw llo flow TIp radIUS

Hcnc:c for a turhine, Drag force

C
ICDT =CD+CDC+CDSI D '
CD ' P ' -·A
2
wbere CD is obtained from cascade dala. TI1US the linear cascade data may be effect-
1252
Ively used 10 determine the lift and drag cocfticienls for lhc cascade and [hen be 0.022 x 1.25 x -2- x (2 .25 x 13.5)
modi lied by Ihc addition of annu lus drag and sccondary losses in order to apHfoximatc
the drag coemcie nt for an annular cascade. = 6525.88 N
Power required D x c
Losses in a Cascade
6525.88 x 125
11H! following losses occur in a cascade.
1. Profile loss This occurs due to the boundary layer growlh on the blade surfiJce.
= 8 15 .735 kW

111is loss increases when the boundary layer separates from the blade sur fa ce and ·is Example 2.2 Calcula!!! the diameter of a parachute 10 be used for dropping an
governcd by hlade profile fat given Row conditions. object weighing 980 N so that the maximum lenninal velocity of dropping is S mls.
The drag codficicnt for the parachute, which may be Ireal\!d as hemispherical, is 1.3.
2. Annulus loss This occurs due to Ihe boundary layer growth on the Hoors and The density of air is 1.22 kg/m)

- ccilings of the blade passages.

 50 }> TwU]o MACIIIN~ BLADE THEORY .:{ 51

,
,---------======-]1.5 1.0

o..'i
G'

o LL====::::;:=:=:::l~
2 - 20 - IS -10 - 5 0 5 10

~ t~-; ., <:.
Incidence angle:, I (deg)

c, t \:, 'V 'f Figur~ 2.14 Lilt and drag coeJJici~/lrs vasw inddl.'nu angle

Figure 2.13 Velocities and/or-us in a cascade

' 0< .
~
_I
----.. VI(
~ ._; '? '.0,------ - - - - - - ,
- -- -- O< I~

.,
The lift = C 2scosa ta - t~lL£ps!.txm.l..=..{sPOm..Eosam) tana~
llH!n the l ift ~fficlcnt CL = L/O.5pe!c 1.0

- - - - j o.,
= 2(s/c} cos Ctm(tan a l - lana2) - CD tan am 0.'
Th air inlet velocit ell the incidence angle j and the air inlet an Ie
known..Ihe.de,yjatiwUlllgle E. is read from e grag etw e a d i for the n
angle of incidence and Air O\IIJelllngl~ . nl (ikg)

Figure 2.15 Cascade lift co~ffici~nf vt!rsus air outlet OIlg/~

To the rofile dril a b e two further dra s must be added to lake the

owing (s/c), values of POm/O.SpC2 can be read from the same ra h (E. VS i)
for-vatimrs·'mel ence.angles nnd substitution of these variab es mto e ualions for CD
and C curves of C nd C a fie oHe against the incidence an Ie as shown
in Fi .2.14. Finall ainsl the'air Ie Q'2 whcr@ s lhq'bI,dc heigh\. 'n~:::=:::::::==:.J
for the nominal value o(,£n-!or-a-whele-sefics-o( different geomclry cascades. to give ~dary IOsi'cs by ...
the varHifion or C ( with air outlet angle for a particular (s /e) rauo (Fig. 2.15).
The drag coefficient is very small in comparison with CL nnd is therefore oflen
ITCos = O.OI8c!.! j
ignored. SO-lharcquauon ror CL becomes - - TIle Iota I drag coefficient is given by

ttE~sJcosam(tanQ'1 -tnna~ ICOT=CO+COA+Cos l

-(! (Oroll.--~ O .)
]...S ~
+-0,00 7..7-1- Q,018C L2
(le ,"
 48 ;.:. TURAO M AC lJlNES
BLAOETIlEORY "'" "9

incidence upto a maximum deflection angle (e IlUJ •f ). This is [he s[all p'o int where scp· ~endi"nt mainJ~gilchkhord ratio ((/J;
an'!€]. A plot between En and a l for
a:,arion occurs on the suction sl!I.fat:e-of-the..Qlade . Bu t thi s '-Ingle may not be well different values of (sic) is shown in Fig. 2.12. These curves are particularly useful
=::::::: --- to the designer when any two or
the three variables an: fixed.
\ .
.-"~ 1 40
I 35 ff»
E
u
'0
" ~
30
25&
"-
J'
Ii:u 20 "
u

6
U 0.3 Trniling
edge positions
~N_
-u
,~ Ji'.
0.2
~~
~ ~
c.o;'
c
.e
;; ~ 0.1 Mean
c
'"
"
0;
0
2 3 4 5 6 7
______- --A·ir-ou tangle, a (deg)
Distance along trailing edge of cuscade z

Figure 2.11 Cascade nominal defleclion angle versus air oull~ t angle'
Figure 2,/0 Cascade deflection Qnd preJSure loJS cun'es at om: ancle oj incidence
"\I'
r - - - - - - - - - ---,40 YJe.C() CASCADE LIFT AND DRAG COEFFICIENTS
----.-,<~-".
,fin ........ J
,.-----, FiS. 2.13 shows two blades of a cascade having chord. C and pitch. s. At sections I
- - - - r - )II ...G
and 2. the 100ai pressures are POI and Po2 respectively with corresponding . . e1ocities
0.100
: 20 ., of C] and C2 . ThefleilSi~ across the cascade is assumed to be negligible. The
c stalic pressure change across me. cascade IS g iven by S L.... --
, 0.075 10
~
:; . ,,,tot NI DIX' 7? ... 1.3
"U :!i (I'-, - PJl = p(C; - C~)/2 - (POI - Po,).. 5t"""
'"
.g
<;-f:!
0 .050
Minimum pressure los .~
Twice
minimum [
where the difference (POI - Pol) is obtained from the cascade tl!sl. It should be
noted thai POI > POl. because no work is in the cnscadc and the flow is proceeded
d.. 0 .025
irreversible. Hence , the above equation will be written as

- 20 -1 5 -10 -5 10 l'.P = p(Cr - Ch/2 - Po...

Incidence, I (dell )
where 6P =(P2 - P,) nn Porn =
(POI - Po,) ..
Figurr1;-l.l-C~afl deflection and pressilre Joss Cll,:!! The summation of all forces ac mg r JO me control volume x and)' directions
defined in some dcsi os and i[ is [aken as [h e angle of incidence, where lhe rmean must equal to me rate o~ change of momentum of the air towards these directions .
- pressorclass.i wic/! 100mu . epols ows al, orawidcrange ofincidence, Consideri ng the forces and the changes in velocity in the directions x and )', the
me pressure loss IS air y constant, and it is poss ible to select an angle of dcOection following relations are obtained for drag and lift.
En (ca lled /lominal dejlecIiOlI allgle) which is al so compatible with low pressure loss

as representative by Ihe panicular design , The I!~S nerally

[ Drag D = oS Pam' cos ani j
Dividing the drag by 0.5pC;IC gives the drag coefficient (CD)
taken as 0.8 times IDt!.JllllX.imum defl ec ti on angle (i.e. /I O.Be m . It has been
de termined from large number of cascade tests that lhe namm a
CD =2((sjc) (Po.../ pC,;) cos am
~----
 46 > TWlnO MACIII Nf:.s BLAIJETIlEOKY -.l ·17

De.viation angle nle diffcrence between the air angle and blade angle at exit is
referred to as deviation.
,
' (~ = ai -all •
It is different from the deviation angle for compressor cascade and the difference is "
due 10 the dirrerenl conven ti on useJ to define the stagger angle and the exit angles in Wind Fluid ou t
turbine cascades.
~
Air deflection angle The denection 'lngle for the turbine cil5cade is defined as
the sum of Ihe ::li r ang les al Lhc entry and exil.

cf~aJ+;P
ntis is again differe nl [rpm IhjH of Lhe comoressor cascade. It is also expressed in t...Blade cascade
terms of othe r angles as

<=0+;-6

Olord
line
Camlmr
line
tip ,
the blade row.

may necessary to carry 10

picture of the now in the blades.
Figure 2.B (0) ascade Ifomef/cfatllre
Fig. 2.9 is known ilS a lincilr cascilde and can be imagined a<; II row of compressor
. o r turbine blades unwound from the rotor to form the cascade.
CASCADE TESTING AND CURVES The air deflection <lIlgle and the stagnation pressu res at the inlet (POI) and (Po'!.) arc
measured in the trave rse along J . The results nre usually presented as in Fig. 2.10.
The flow around blades in compressors and turbines is different from now around The stagnation pressure loss is ploned as a dimensionless number given by stagnatior:t
isolated aero·foils. because of Lhe dfect of adjacent blades, i.e. Lhe gas flow around pressure loss coefficient = (PO I - P02) / (O .5pC~) . The pressure defect corresponding
a blade is affected by the flow adjacent blade. 1l1is increases as the to the regions close to the Irailing edges of th e blade represents the loss Llue to the
solidity (cf.t) increases. and bladc waneoS. caused by the boundary layer and possibly separated flow. In between
I the ,blades the nuid undergocs almost no loss of energy. TIle plOt of air dencction
of a blade section. ang lc shows thot th e air is not deflected unifo ~u \V'th the maximum clieLl llcar
groups of blades of conSlont profile are mounted in parallel fashion at the end of l c trailing e{ ge. Ie air c \ c n cades again is relatively unaffcclc .
a wind tunnel as s~own in the Fig. 2.9. The number of blades comp.~ ..1l:u;..cas. ~mbc'ror such curves are obtained fordiffercnl incidence angles and lhe mcan de·
~de has to be suffi clcn@mrtly-8"OrtOwTth an ~~) to eliminatc flection and pressure loss coefficient for each curve, E: mand [( POI - P02)/(O.5pC~) 1m
arc ploHed agninst incidence ;mgle Fig. 2.11 . The deflection increnses with nnglc of
 ~f
tl 1
4"- :0- TUROO MACIIINES

I The deviallon
its total curvature. 6
(/\ t
-=/ hi

isgiven by the empirical rcJruionship

BL.... OETIlEORY 0( 45

a~rc~ IS caused by the air not remainmg aunched to the blade over

ct3(S/C)I/i])
where

- ~£€l(a,~n
and N1.::::=, O. 2..-
~ . is the distance alon Ihe chord to the point of maximum camber. For a circular
nrc cambcr Ill!.!, \ 2a c) I , nnd this bin e ann is often eh_oscn.

oUl let air

\1£ =a,-a'r\
From the definit;ollS-Of.dirreren t..angles , 'l cID1.bJ?£c:n_tbaUhsy, are related by the
rollowing expression.
Figure 2.8 cascade flolllellt.'lalllres .

anglcs is called t~
'-----'
b) Blade camber angle The differcnce between the inlct nnd outlet camber
er all Ie cnote ·by O. Mmhcmmltnny
crGG21P
i) Stagger angle The angle between the aIial..difcet·ion-ilnd.Lh~Qfd is known
as stagger angle. denoted by® and it represents lheanglc al which the bI~j_S!!t
in the cascade.

c) Chord The c hord is 'Ihe maximum width of the blade profile in a direclion
parallel 10 Ihe chord linc, i.c. the distance between [h e blade leading and trailing
~R~~ CASCADE NOMENCLATURE
edges, and is dl!notcd by c. 1 ·\ .r- TIle setting of blades in a turbine cascade is invariably at a slagger angle (¢,), i.c. the
_ \ot"I~ r,.\~:r 't '" a.
chord lines of the trubine blades arc tilted lowards the bind..: curvature as showp in
d) Pitch Th pilch dr blade spitcing, desi nated s is [he distance between the
Fig. 2.8(0).
corresponding palMt IS expressed Cit er y Ihe pitch to chord
rallO (s c or a lernaUve y lhe so lidi ty (c Is). When Ihe hlades nrc evenly spaced Camber angle The tangents 10 the camber line althe entry and exit make: the
around a rOior. the pilch is Ihe circumrerence at any radius dividl!d by Ihe number or
blades.
camber angh!s a;and a;
with the aXIal olrectiOn.
- In contrast to the compressor cascade. the blade camber Bngle for l_he turbine cascade:
is defined a.i.!.~ sum ofmemlct and outlet camber angles.
e) Air angle Thl.! angle between the direction of veloci ty rdati ve c..bladc
and tht.! axis or the j] c row IS I C lr allg e an IS enOle The air angles at
the inlet and oU ll el arc at an a2 respecll vely. The cascade air ung le is equal 10 the (le=a;+jJ)
compressor or turbine relative air a n g l e . ' ". ,
The air ang lcs at and a2 nrc diffctent from the blade angles 0'; and 0'1
f) Angle of incidence the inlel air angle and the inlet Angle of incidence The difrerence between the nir nnd the blade angle at the
camber
entry is known as th~ angle or incidence.

li=al-a~1
g) Deviation angle As in Ihe compressor cascade, thc incidence angle can bt: positive or negative. Aow
at n large positive incidence is nssocialed with positive sl1lll, i.e. flow separation on
the suction side of the blade; conversely, a large negative incidence is associated with

- negative stall, i.e. now separation on the pressure side orthe blnde.
 BLADETIJEORY ..... 43
42 ~ TURBO M ACHINES

wt},f,;.Q;JheJla.Kthr.u"g!1.Qne blade passage of width ' 5' has been considered. The blade r Max. imum thickness
loading factor is given by Equally spaced
.. lations
Lending edge ""'"7 f---+----....:=--7\-E- Tr3iling edge
Power delivered
mU 2
(11110) / U ' x Position of
...K = maximum
C thickness
= Fx /(pC"isU)
I<----c
Base profile

",(c/s) sec {l",ICL -1- CD tan tI", I Figllre J.7 Pammf!fers u.red ill deJcribillg bladi' shnpes alld ro njif,:llrtlliutl.s oj blCJdt'J
? 2. Maximum thickness 11 is a use ful parameter forde:;cribing an aero-foil and
it is expresscd as a pcn:cntage of the blade length.
where f/J is call ed the now coefficient and is defined as.
3. Position of maximum thickness It is an another usdul parameter which
is spec ified as a perce ntage of the blade length.
cfJ = Axial velocity (ell ) 4. Leading edge (Nose) It is usually a circular arc blended into the main
Blade speed (U) profile and spec ified by its radius as II percentage of the maximum thickness .
5. Trailing edge It is ideally sharp. i.e. of zero radius. bUI as this is impossible
-
(~?r . um e fr.Jlclcncy
rna~ lI~ - Ihe mean !low angJ~1 ~
r::-: 1~~UY.Jl
· bou ~a nd. substi- from strength considerations. it is al so a circu lar arc specified as a percentage of the
tutlnE tl1l5 Into lie Blade loading faclor egua .on, the expression for optimum blade ma ximum lh ickness.
loading fac tor 1/1/1111' is obtained.
6. Camber line If the • • is of the
iineOlr pro fil e is g iven some predeter- Profile statiolls
.,. rjJ(C/S)[CL + Col mined curvature. then it is called cam·
'Plopt = ../2 her lill e. TIle base profile is fitted o n
\0 the curved camber line. This camber

If CD iSJTluch.smallillhan CL . .which usually occ urs in ,lhe case of a well-designed line is formed ei ther by one or more cir-

-
blade. then

.,. rjJ(C/s)CL
culOlr arcs or o ne or lwo parabolic: arcs .
A sing le circular o r parabolic arc is quite
common as it is geometrically simple
Camber line

[Fig. 2.7\a» ) .
IOf'tr'/'l = ../2

BLADE TERMINOLOGY CASCADE NOMENCLATURE

Blade profiles arc usually of aero-foil shape for optimum perform.lnt.:c. But. si mple
geometrical shapes composed of circular arcs and straight lines are used when cost is
more important than the efficiency. Many blade profiles are fomled by bending a sym-
metrical aero-foil sec lion on a curved mean line. The parameters used in describing
blade shapes and configurations of blades (Fig . 2.7) are as follows
A cascnde is a row of geomelricOllly similar blades arranged al equal d isLances from
each o th er nnd aligned to the now direction . The various impurtant no menclatures
(Fig. 2.8) of a compressor cascade arc

1. Base profile It is defined by dividing the major a;.:;is into equally spaced
stations designated as a percentage of the blade len gth and specifying the hcighi from
axis to profile at each statio n.
 .W :,.. TURBO MACHINES BLAOETIIEORV .;( 41

dfClpS nbruptly hecnuse the separmioo pain! moves bad 10 give a smaller wake Force acting in the direction of the blade rotation (.t direction) is given by
on the down strcnm side Qf blade .
In compressors, thl! blades form a diverging passage i. e the arCil at inlet is less than = L cos Pm + D sin 13m
at out lc t and therefore the nuid is decelerOled in the pussage . In turbines. the blades := L cos ,om (1 + (CD/CLl tan Pm)
form a converging passage. i . c. the area at inlet is grenter than that aI outlet.. Thus. the
fluiJ i~ accelerated in the pa ssage. ~W,
A nuid c nn be acce lerated over a wide range with high efficiency. but the process of
diffusion ca nnot be carried out so rapidly due 10 the onsel of separation on the suction
sid !.! of Lhe blad es, antJ consequent s lnlling . This is si.mililr to the includell angle of
a diffuser being too great nnd separation taking place nlang the diffuser walls. The
maximum ratl.! of efficient diffusion within the blade rows is cquivp.lcnt to a ~
angle of ahouCl c or 8)
'I he curvature of compressor blades is less when compared to the curvature o f tur-
hin !.! hlades. Becau se, if the rate or change of compressor b lade: profile is high. now
separation wi ll occurdlle to udwrst! pressure gradient. Whereas in II turbine, the pres-
sur..: gradient is favourable and with a vcry lorge curvature. i.e. 90° or even more, con
he employed without severe losses . As a result . the angular turning of [he relative I
veloci ty vector is much gre.lIcr in the turbine Ihan in th e compressor. Typical blade
seclions are shown in Figs. 2.4(a) a nd 2.4(b). Figure 2.5 Lift and drag forces on a compressor rotor blade
where
W, . D p.
CD = ,
(O.5plV;;A)
" .r----~-~F.
.
'" and
L
CL = ,
(O.5pWmA)
where the blade area A is th:::roduct
t
------- 0
of the chord 'c and th@ W lhl e,de

-
w~v 2
height) and putting F,
Figure 2.6 Ruolving blade forres
into tlrt dirt!Clion of rotation
(a) CUlI/preHOI' blude passage (b) Tllrbine blade pauuge
Figure 2..1
Co
lVm .= - -
cos fJm
ENERGY TRANSFER IN TERMS OF LIFT AND DRAG
COEFFICIENTS we have
----
Consider a rotor hlnde shown in Fig . 2.5. wi th relative velocity vectors 'WI and W2 pC,;(cI)CLsecjJm[l + (CD/CLltan/lml
at angles PI and f11. This system is similar [0 now ovcr an acro-foil. so that lift and F.r = L
drag forces will be set up on the blade. TI~ drag force is acting in tbe line of the
~e power delivered to the air is given by
mean velocity vector Will al angle /3111 to the axial direction and (hI! lilt lorce acts
perpendicular to Ihis . F,U = m(llilo)
..... The forces on the air' wi ll act in the opposite direction as shown in lhe Fig. 2.6. The
resultant force experienced by the air is therefore given by the vec tor R in the figure. where ~ho is the.change iQJolal enthalpy across the rotor and In '= EEllh .
 /

3R )> TIJIluo M . . . C\lIN!iS

aem-foil. Fig . 2.2 shows a non-symmetrical

BI.AI)ETItEOllY

and the pressure has a much lower value. wi th the nuid ncar the surface leaving in a
~ :w
-
aero-foil placed in a s tream o f gas. Unlike ~o~ encrgy region. called th~Fig . 2.4). Measuremenl5 of pressure and velocily
the symmetrical area-foil. in this case, there In the wnke can give the loss 0 energy due (0 the prc:-ence of the body and the drag

is .1 pronounce Istur ane hich results can be ca lculated . Alternatively. the drag can be measured as an actual fo rce by means
- 111 greater oca de cellon a ow. 0 in- of n bahll1ce from the wind (unneltest.
troduce suc h a high dellectlon over lhe gas
stream . the ae ro-foil must exert a force on
LIFT AND DRAG COEFFICIENTS
it, and hen ce an equal and opposite force of
reaction is exerted by the gns on the aero- Lift coefficient is a meas ure of the ability of il given section to support a weight when
foil. The components of the resultant force Figure 2.2 Flow pClff/'m around a nOIl- caused to move through a Ouid. <15 in the case of aeroplane wing. or. alternatively. In
arc disl:ussed in the following section. symmetrical (Jem-foil trnnsfcr energy to a fiuid. as in a pump or compressor. or to transfcr energy to a rotor
when a nuid is caused to now over it. as in turbines. It is defined as
L
DRAG AND LIFT C L = --:-,...::=-.,- (2.1 I
(O.5plV~AI
TIle res ultant force normal to the aero·foil consists o f two components. namely lin
and drag. The forces of lift and drag on a blade section nre shown in Fig. 2.3 Drag coefficient is a measure of the loss of energy associated wi th the uscfullask (If
with lift nonnal to the direction of the ap- produc ing li ft. It is defined as
proach veloc ity and the drag parallel to

~7 7
D
it. The lift is due to an unbalanced force Co = (O.5plV,;AI
, (2.2J
(pressure di s tribulion) over me aero-foil
surface and is denoted as L. The drag de-
uno ted as D. i!'i due 10 the shearing stress D~r ~ " where lYm is the mean relative velocity. ;\ is the area of the body .md the fac.:lm
of 0.5 i!'i in serted for convenience as O.5p \V~ is defined as dY'lOmic pfuJttre. Some
at the surfnce and the consequent bound-
ary layer. TIIC drag force is made up of a
friction drag. duc to the pure skin friction
e'l
..;. Drug
/l,el ~
care is nceded in the evaluation of area associated with a given value of C/). por
bodies of revolution which arc symme trica l ,Ibout an il;(is and parallclto the now. A is
taken ilS the projected area normal to the direction of the now (e.g. spheres. cylinders.
effects, and a pressure drag. due to an un- ('I Ibl
balonced pressure distribution around the elc .), For olher bodies (e.g. blades, aeroplane wings. etc .) which arc nonnally dlher
blade . Figure 2.3 The forces of lift (lIId drag on unsymmetrical or not aligned parallel to the now. or both, the area is evaluated in
TIle boundary layeris usually laminar for aJ Compressor blade bJ TIlrbine bladl! terms specifically defined as required. It may be noted tlla! CD as given in equation
a short distance downstream oflhe lending edge. then it becomes turbulent. The drag (2.2) is the ralio of the aClUal dr~g force 10 the force which would be exertc.:d if the
due to a laminor boundary is less than it turbulent layer. TIlUS for low pure friction reprCSCnlJlive area of the body were acted upon by the dynamic pressure.
drag. it is imporlant to maintain alaminar boundary layer over as much of the surface It is ilpparent that the maximum energy tran sfer implies (he Ia.rgcst possible fluid
itS possible.
deflection or lift codficicnl. while maximum efficiency requires the lowcst poss ihlt::
loss of pressure or drag coefficienl. TIle condition s for il blade scction should allcmpt
If the pressure gradicnt is !'icvere, lhal is if the rate of change of aero-foil profile is too
10 approac h those for laminar flow over a flat plate. as this gives the lowcst possible
rapid. then the fluid in the boundary layer is brou hI to rest and leaves the surface in
confu sed eddies. n is phenomenon is called eparollo ~ak-alV'd", or('flo~v re\'er.ra~ drag coefficienl. But it is difficult to ach ie ve this in prac tice . because
Fig. 2.4 and manifests lise In sev- (I) blades must have the curvatufC to ch an ge the di rect ion of the fluid . introducinll
eral olhcr ways as well as in the sim- Boundary a pressure gradient and a tendency for flow separation,
ple case of diffusion in a straight layer Wake (2) hlndes mu st have a finite thickness from considerations of strcngth •.<lOd
duct. Flow separalion due to ad- (3~ the fluid has a high turbulen ce level.
-->
verse pressure gradient decreases the
lift "nd increases the drag. In prac- The best co nditions arc
tice. the ndverse pressure gradient a) th e~ ul ve a shape such that Ihe
ncar the tail causes a thick bound- I
Figure 2.4 Separation alld Wake b) for the flow ta.bc..abolo!C-!· re-rr.::';;;':~;:J:!::::':;::'::';;';;:';;;;;;;;':;':;;:;;::~'40l1!1
ary layer and possibly separation,
 36 ;... TlilUiO M .-\CIIINl:.S

1.25. Th~ initial S \:lIC of air nowing through a compressor is p\ :; 1.02 bar, T1 ::;:
300 K. The c.x it pressure is "2.5 bar ilnd Ihe compressor crticiency is 75%. Deter-
mine the infinill.!simal efficiency o f the compressor. Comment on the deviation
in the efficiency. [Ans: 78%]
1.26. The ove rall pressure ratio across 0 three stage gas turbine is 11 and its efficiency
2
is 88% . If th e pressure raLio of each slage is the same and the inlet temperature
is 1500 K delcrminc (a) pre ssure ratio of ench singe, (b) polytropic efficiency
and (c) stage erficiency.
BLADE THEORY
IAns: (a) 2.22 (b) 83 .7% and (e) 85.2%J
1.27. Fortm index of expansio n ofll = 1.3 and CIl/C u= 1.4,cnlculate the polytropic
effi c iency. IMV,OcI.'97]
IAns.80.77 %J
1.2M. Air ente rs a compressor at {1 stalic condition of 150 kPa and 15°C ilnd a ve locity The energy transfer in lurbomachines is effected by changing the anguli.lr momentum
of 50 m/s. At theexitlhc static conditions arc 0.3 MPa and 100°C and u velocity of the fluid . T he cha nge in angular momentum is cause!d by the dynamic acti on of
of 100 m/s. E\'a luate (a) isen tropi c and nctual changes in e nth alpy and (b) total one! or more rotaling blade rows . llle dynamic actio n of Ihe rutating blade rows, sets
efficien cy. IN/V, Oct. '96] up forcl.!s between the blade row and the fluid, while Iht! components of these forces
[A ns. (a) 63.39 kJlkg and 85.43 kJlkg (b) 75.29 %1 in the di reclion of blade moti on g ive rise \0 the energy transfer be tween the blades
1.29. In a cen trifugal compressor the air is compressed \0 double the pressure. The nnd fluid . The th eory of compressor and turbine blades is discussed in this chapler.
inlet tempera ture is 27 °C and th e final temperature is J 07°C. Calc ulate the
cfliciency of the compressor ami the power required 10 drive il if 30 kg/min of AERO-FOIL SECTION
air is compressed. IMU, Apr. '98]
An aero- foi l may be defined as u streamli ned form, hou nded principillly by two
[Ans. (a) 82 . 13% and (b) 40.2 kW)
fl;.IIIened curves whose length and widlh are very large. relative to its · thickness.
1.30. A cent rifuga l compressor takes in air at 101 kPa and 25 °C Bnd compresses it
Acro-foi l is classified as symmetrical aero-foil and non -symmet rical aero-foil.
through a pressure ratio of 3.5 : I. llH! index of compression" = I .65 because
of frictional healing. The mass flow rate of ai r handled by the compressor is 29
Symmetrical Aero-foil
kg/so Find (a) overall efficie ncy of compressor and (b) power supplied by the
motor with mechanical efficiency of 95% The acro-foil· whose axis of symmetry is parallel 10 the direction of undisturbed veloc-
IAns. (a) 67.4% and (b) 5809.2 kW) ity of approach is called symmerrical aero-foil. The fl ow pattern aro und a symmetrical
1.31 . Hot air enters a 3 slage turbine with tala I head properties of750 kPa and 900 e
0
aero-foil placcd)n a Slream of gos is show n in Fig. 2.1. The now divides around lhe
at the rale of 25 kg/so The final exit pressure is 105 kPa . The pressure at exil aero- foil al Ihe leading edge and then rejoins at the trailing edge. Though Ihere is
of I and II stages are 500 kPa nnd 250 kPa respective ly. TIle individual singe some local disturbance. th ere is no permanent denection of the main stream. The
efficiencies for Ihe 3 s tages are each 75 % . Find (a) reheal faclor (b) overall forces excrled in this case arc only due to friction and the local disturbance .
efficien cy and (c) power developed .
IAns. (a) 1.05 (b) 78.75 % and (c) 9980 kWI

Figure 2. J Flow pauern around a symmrtricul uao-Joil

Non-symmetrical Aero-foil
If the nero-foil axis is inclined at an angle 'i', calh:d as Ihe ongle of attack, 10 the

- direction of the undisturbed approaching flow, then it is called;>.!; lIo/l-symmetrical

34 i> T URBO MACIIINES

I . ~. Define thl.! fnllnw ing i!fficicncil!.S o f pCl\vcr genl.!r..IIm g tu rbo mOlchincs.

Tak ing log on either side.
(a) Tota l-to -TOIal Efficic ncy
0.4 ) tbl To tal -to-S lillic Efficiency
ij I'
( TA In (1/2) In 0.865
1.9. Draw th e h-s diagram with static ilnd stag nation slate s for the compressIOn and
:. rip 73.23% expansion processes for a gas.
1. 10. What is prehe::J.l factor in a multistage compressor? Pruve Ihat prch eat fa ctor IS
Then
less than unity.
1)3('·1.'1''''·') 1. 11 . Prove tllatthe cnmpressnr stage efficie ncy i~ greilterthan Ihe co mpressor overall
1- ( -2 efficiency.
'IT = 1. 12. What is reheat ractor in a multistage turbine'! Prove th aI R.F is greatcr than
1- (DJ(1;l) unity.
1. 13. Prove thaI the turbine overall dfic iency is greater than the turbine stage effi-
= 78.76% cie ncy.
1.14. De fine polytropic crficiency of n compressor.
(b) Power developed 1.15 . Derive the polytropic compressio n effi cie ncy through an infinitesimal compres-
sion stage .
IV = 1. 16. Definc polytropic cxpl.lnsion efTic iency.
1.17. Derive the polytropic expan sion efficiency through un infinite simal turblll!.:
= stage.
1. 1H. Derive the reheat fiJt: tor in term s of thl! stage and ovcrall pressure ratios.
1. 19. Air nows through a blower wherein its total pressure is increased hy 15 elll ur
whcre
liqu id water. TIle inl et tOlnl pressure and the temperature o rlile air an: 1.05 har
I and J5 e C respect ively. TIle IOtal·to-total d ficicn cy is 70'70. Evaluatc (a) the c)( it
8
25 x 1.005 x 873 [I - m
07Jf~;"']
total pressurc. (b) the exi l isentropic total temperature. and (c) the: isentro) it.:
and actual clwngcs in tota l en th alpy. IMU-Apri/ '961
IAns. (al 1.065 bar. (b) 2R9.2 K. and (e) 1.206 kJlk g. 1.723 kJlkg l
1.20. A com prcssor has a lo tal-to-total cfTi cie ncy of 80% and an ovcralltotal pressure
7738 kW rLlli o of 5: I . CaJc: ulate tb c small s tage emciency of ::Ie co mprcsso r.
IAns. 83.9%J
(c) Reheat factor
1. 2 1. Ai r fl ows through an air turbine where its stagnatio n pressure is decreased in
ijT = 0.7876 the ratio 5: I. T he tolal · lO-tolnl effic ie ncy is 0.8 and the air now rate is 5 kg/s.
R.F
ij, 0.75 If the total power output is 405 kW. Find (a) thc inlct to tal temperature, (b) tlte
1.05 actual exi t totnl temperature. (c) the netu .. 1 exit staliC tcmper.1Iure if th e exi t
now veloc ity is 100 m/s. and (a) the tota!·to·static cfficil.!ncy of the turbinc .
EXERCISES IAns. (a) 273 K. (b) 192.4 K. (e) 187.4 K. and (d) 767< 1
1.22. A lu rbi ne hus a small stagc efficiency of 84% a n~ an ovc rallto ta! pressure r"till
1. 1. Define Turbo mnch inc. o f 4.5: I. Cilkulall.! the tCltai-to ·{Olal efficil.! ncy o f the turhine .
1.2. How are devit:cs pumping gases classified? I An.... 86.74% )
I .J.What are sh ro uded nn d unshrouded IUrbo machines? 1.23. A gas turbine is required to dcvelop 7360 kW wi th an air now rale uf 50 kg/s.
1.4. Class ify turbo machines on the basi s of work transfer. Ir the turl:l inc inlet temperature and press ure arc I OOO"C and 8 bar respectively.
1.5_ Define the types of turbo machines based o n fluid movement th rough the ma - Calculate the exi t temperaturc and pressure ir the isentropic dfi cie ncy o r the
chine. turbino is 90 %. IAns. (a) 1127 K. ilnd (h) 5 harl
1.6. Derivc the general Eulcr's c)(prcssion for a turbo mac hine. 1.24. A low pressure air compressor increases the air pressure by Ison mm W.G .
1.7. Define the followin g efficiencies of power absorbing tu rbo machi nes. If the initial and finiil comJ ilions or nir arc PI :: J .02 bar. TI = JOO K and
(a) Total -to-Tolal Efficiency Tl = 3 15 K. determine and compare the compressor and the infinitesimal stage
(b) Static-to-StD.tic Efficiency cmeioneics. [Ans: (,,) 78% and (il) 78.8 " I
 32 :;:. TUROO M AC' HINES
8 ASJCCONCEI'TSOI: TuKBOM.-.CiIiNES '" 33

Solution (d) The rotal-ro-sraric efficiency

P, _
-
P,
-= :'1 '11/ = 0.8 til = 5 kg/s II' = 500 kW
TOI - To:!
=
Ta l - T2J
(a) Inlet total temperature c~
T02J' - -
-
2C p
TU!r 0.63 1701 = 0.63 1 x 337
2 12.65 K
T<lk ing C I • of <lir as 1.005 kl/kgK.
lOO:!
212.65 - 2 x 1105
IV 500 x IOJ
TOI - TO] 20768 K
mC p 5 x 1005
99.5
99.5 K
337 - 207.68
fJ,-S 76.94%
111C turbine tOlal-w-total efficiency is
Example 1.14 In II thr~e s tage IUrbi ne thc prl!ssure rntio of e<lch stage is 2 and
TOI - To:! the stage efficiency is 75%. Calculate the overall efficicncy and the power developed
TUI - Ttl:!, if ai r initially at a lempc.!rature of 600°C nows thro ugh it at the rate of 25 kg/so Find
TOI (PU:!) 7! rcheal faelor. [MU, OCI. '96 & Apr. '971
POI

U) '!:j TO! = 0.63 1Tol

Solution
N = 3 P, / P, =2 q, = 0.75 T, = 600 + 273 = 873 K m = 25 kg /'
TOI - TO] (a) Overall efficiency
:. TOI - T02,
q"
99.5
TO! - 0.631 TOI = 0.8
TOI 337 K

(b) The actual exit total temperature

'11' is dctcnnined using 'Is expressio n.
TOI - To:! = 99.5
.'. T02 = TOI - 99.5
337 - 99.5 1-
.(i'})"'(';')
-
P,
Tm = 237.5 K q, =
(c) The actual exit static temperature
1-(i'}J~
P,
1- (!)"P H)
=
c~

cr
0.75
To"l- - -
• 2C"
"
1- -
100' 2
237.5 - 2 x 1005 G)"'(1cl)
232.5 K = 0.865
 30 }.> TURBO M .... CHIN ES n AS I(' CONCf:1'TSOFTuRlJoM .... CHINES "" 31

Solution Example 1.12 Air nows through a blower where in its tala I pressure is increased
p, by 20 cm W.G . The inlet tolal pressure and tala I temperature of air are 1.04 har
N = 4 m = 45kg/s --==1.2
P,
~, = 0.65 and I SoC respec ti \'ely. The total-I o-Iotal efficincy is 72% . Evaluale (a) the exit inial
(a) Overall pressure ratio prcs!'ure and IOlallemperalure (b) iscntropic and actual changes in lotal enthalpy.

=
= ( ;;
2. 1
r = (12)'
Solution
"'Po
70,
= 0 .2 m W.G .
= 273 + 18 = 291 K
Po, = 1.04 bar
'Iu = 0.72

(b) Overall efficiency (a) Exit total pressure and temperature

(
P2)N(' ~ " "'Po = IO J x 9.81 x 0.2 = 1962 N/m'
- -I
~,. = P, --'-''-'-':.....,~~-
P, "'Po + P, = 0.01962+ 1.04
P2)N( if. ) 1.0596 bar
( -P, -I

'1/1 is obtained from the following equation:

(i,( -, '1tr =

P2) ;~J - \'-l - 1] 29 1

1.0596)
( -P, -, To! - TOI
-
[ ( 1.04
0.' 0.72
(1.2)'" - I
0.65 :::;: 293.16K
0.'
(1.2) ;;;;= - I
0.
(1.2) ;;;;= 1.0823 (b) Isentropic and actual changes in total enthalpy
Taking log on both sides, we get "'''0 C,,("'Tol = Cp(T02 - Tod
~p 0.6589 1.005(293. 16 - 291)
( 1.2)'( Vi I _ I "'' 0 2. 171 kJ/kg
:. '1c = 4.11,4
( 1.2) IIlIllr.TJ - I and isenlropic change in lolaI cnthalpy is
ry, = 62.28%
6110.1 (6/rO) X 'III
(c) Power required
2. 171 x 0.72
IV mCp(TN+ ' - T,l
,-, "'''0.. 1.563 kJ / kg

TN +I = T, (PN+')
- - '"
P,
Example 1.13 Air flows through nn air turbine where its stagnati on pressure is
293(2.1 l =""'"
0.'
decreased in the ralio 5: I. The lotal-to-tolal efficiency is 0.8 and the air How rate is
404 K 5 kg/so Ir the total power output is 500 kW, find (a) inlet total temperature (h) the
W = 45 x 1.005(404 - 293) actual exit tala I temperature (e) the actual exi t SL1lic temperature if the flow velocily
IV 5019.98 kW is 100 mls and (d) lhe (alal-'a-Slalic efficiency a fthe device. (MSU, Nov. '96(
 2R ;;- T UIHlO MACIIINES BASICCONCEPTSOFTURuoMhCllINI:.s , 29

TI - TN + 1 = r}r(TJ - TN+!.r) (bj For the second stage

= I'
'hI (I -T.V--..,, )
I',
TJ T2 - U~ T)sroge
1281.67 - 218.33

= "rT, ( 1- (~)
PN+ I
'.')
--;-

Pressure ratio
= 1063.34 K

= (A>1i)
(T'73 ) ,,';.11 = (1281.67)
0.88 x 1500(1-
",UIl1
= 654 .68 K
1063.34
(A T)"p" r,,1f = 655 K
= 2.183
7N + 1 = 1500 - (,55 = H45 K

~p = --In -T,/(P,)
r - In - - Stage efficiency
r - I TtH I
( In (1500/845)
PN + I
I)~
=
0.4
~)
In(ll) 1- (2.183
'h.I =
'Ip = 0.837
1- (2.:83) 11
(aj For the first stage '1s.2 = 85.2%
(AT)uperull (cj For the third stage
655 3 T4 = T3 - (AT)s/ugl!
""3 = 218.33 = 1063.34 - 218.33
T, -2 18.33= 1500 -2 18.33 = 845K
1281.67 K
Pressure ratio.
Pressure ratio

= (i)"",·11 =
, .
('~;34)-
~ - I ~
P,
p, =
~) ~ptr-iJ
( r, = (~) /rJ'i'n"S"
1281.67 = 2.61
pi
= 1.93
P, Slage' efficiency
Slag\: effic iency ...".....,

1- ( - I )--.:<
qel r -I) 2.61
I-(~:) , l]s.J =
1- ( - I )1:l
'l.r.1 = , , 2.61
1- (~:r- Th.3 = 85.51%

1-
(I- ) ""Ys'''' Example. 1.11 Each stage of a 4 stage air compressor delivering 45 kg of air per
1.93 second operates at a pressure ratio of 1.2, with a stage efficiency of 65%. Calculate
=
1- (-1.93I )11 overall efficiency and pressure rJ.Lio. Calculate powerrcquircd to drive the compressor
if air temperature at inlel is 20°C.
/1.1. 1 = 84.95% [MU, April '96 & Oct. '97]

--
 .....,
BASIC CONCEPTS OF TURBO MACHINES . . '27
26 ,.. TURBO MACHINES

Solution Actual exit temperature is determined from the overall compressor efficiency t!X·

pression.

(: r e
2.2 'IT = 0.88

=
0.798 x 1500 = 1197.45 K
1
2)
T, = 1500 K

1cJ = 0.798
q,.
TN + ls - T,
TN+I - TI
560.56 - 308
---0--:'---
0.8
+ 30S
T, - T2 1500- T, 7"" +1 623.7 K
= T, - T" = -;-;15:;;0-;;'0':::-=-:1-;-19~7:"'.4~5
I sex) - T, O.SS( 1500 - 1197.45) and

7~ 1233.76 K P,v+1 =8.16 x PI =8.16bar

r ) In (T,/T,) (b) Polytropic efficiency

= ( r-I In(P,/P,)

(
~) In(PN + IIPtJ
=
~)
( 0.4
In( 15001 1233.76) '1/i r In(TN+I ITtJ
In(2.2)
0.4) _ 1_n.:...(8_.1_6.:...)_
q" 86.7 % ( 1.4 In(623.7/308)
Note that the P?lytropic efficiency is less than the turbine efficiency This is on = 85'"
account of rehealJng. .

Example
TI n 1 .9 An air . compressor has eight
. stages of equal pressure ratio I 3 (c) Stage efficiency
le • o~v rate through th.e. compressor and ils overall efficiency arc 45 kg/s ilnd 80'o/~ ,- ,
respccuvcly. If the conditIOns of air at entry arc I bar and 35°C d .
'1 I f '
(a) sa e 0 mr al compressor exit,
(b) polytropic efficiency. and
' etermlne

'1.~ =
(:;)' -I

1'-1
(c) efficiency of r.!rlch stage.
(~~)~-
IM KU - NOI' '98/
Solution
p, (1.3)'11 _ I
P; = I.3 m = 45kg/s 'Ie = 0.8 < I~

PI = I bar TI = 273 + 35 = 308 K (1.3) "'"" - I

'I> = 84.43%
(a) State of air at compressor exit
Overall pressure ratio. Since the pressure ratio in each swge is the same, the stage efficiencies arc also the
same.
P2 ) ' _ R
( PI - ( 1.3) = 8. 16
Example 1.10 The overall pn!ssure ratio through a three stage gas turbine is
P +,)';'
N " 11 .0 and dficiency is 88 %. TIle temperature at inlet is 1500 K. Ir the temperature ri.r.c
( ---p;- =(8.16)" in .each stagt: is the sa me. determine ror cach stnge (a) pressure ratio alld (b) stage
1.82 efficiency
Ideal exit temperature
Solution
= 1.82 x TI = 1.82 x 308 P ,vt l T, = 150n K
= 11r = 0.88
= 560.56 K P, II
 :!-I :.> TURBO MACHIN r:S B ASICCONCEPTSOF TURHO MACItINES 0{ 2S

Example 1.6 A low pressu re air compressor develops a ressure of 1400 mm Alternative method:
~f (he initial and final slale s of air arc PI = 1.0 1 bar, TI = . , 2 = _0 K.
detcfn ine comprlo! ssor LInd th e infinitesimal slage t!fficiencies. [MKU -April' 99 ]
<=.I
(, . 14734) 11 _I
Solutio · ( ::) , -I 1.01
rye = =
t'
, I D.'
t:.P 1400mm W.G. (,.14734) rr.;; _ I
( -P, -I
1.0lbar, TI = 30SK, T, = )20K PI 1.01
= IAxIOl ,9.B I 13734 Pa
0. 13734 bar
ry" = 75.67%

Example 1.7 A high pressure compressor changl!S the slate. of a~r from
PI = 1.01 bar, T\ ;::: 305 K to P2 = 3 bar. The compressor efficiency IS 75% .
P, = PI + t:.P = 1.01 +0.13734 = 1.14734 bur Determine the infinitesimal efficiency of the compressor.
From isentropic rel at ion
Solution
P, = 1.0 I bur TI = 305 K P, = 3 bur
T"
TI
= (::f JI . ~
?,/ PI 3/1.01 = 2.97 bar
(1.147 34) [J
= 1.01 T" = TI (;:) ';oJ = 305(2.97) 'K
= 1.037
= 416.27 K
T" = 1.037 , TI = 1.037 , 305
T" - TI
= 316.2BSK
T2 - T,
416.27 - 305
(a) Compr essor efficiency = 0.75
T1s - T] 3 16.2B - 305 = 14B.36
Tl - TI 320 - 305
= 75.23% T, 14B.36 + 305 = 4S3.36K
(b) Infinitesimal stage efficiency (' - I) In(?,/ PJl
ryp = r In(T,/TJl
r- I
r
In (P,/ PJl
III (T,/TJl =
(OA) 111(3/1.01)
T:4 111(453.36/ 305)
!..c'....:...!.) In(1.1 4734/ 1.01)
( 1.4 In( 320/30S) = 78.5%

0.7S8B
N~tc thatlhe infinitesimal stage efficiency is greater than the compressor r.:fficit::ncy.
75.88 % This difference is due to preheating.

Since the pressure rise in the compre ssor is low, the two cfficicncie.~ arc close to Example 1.8 The pressure ratio across a gas turbine is 2.~ and. c~ficiency is 88%.
eac h ot her. The temperature of gas at inlet is 1500 K delcnnine polytropIc efhclcncy.
 ::!2 >- TURBO MACHINES BAS1CCONCEPTSOFTuRBOMACHINE.S ..:: 1;\
...,
The pressure ratio is Solution
N = 4 Pm/POI = 0.4
Pm =46 For the firsl two stages, rh = 0.86
POI
For the last two stages. '7.1 = 0.84
Example 1.4 A power generating turbo machine dcvelops 100 kW output when (Refer Reheat Factor Section.)
thc now through the device is 0.1 m3 /s of oil having a density of 800 kg/m J . The
total-to-total efficiency is 75 %. Evaluate (a) the change in tolal pressure of the oil,
1-
Po,)';' '"
and (blthc change in static pressure of the oil if the inlet and exit flow velocities arc I' ( -"
POI
=I-(OA)C'
~ and 10 mts respectively. 0.23
Solution Th!! actual work output rrom the first two slages is
W = 100 kW Q = 0. 1 m'ls p = BOO kg/m) ~H = 0.75
Mass now rate of oil m = pQ 1V1.2 = CPf.LTol [I + (I - f.L~,)) x~,
= BOO x 0.1 = BO kgls = C p TOl (0.23) [I + (I - (0.23 x 0 .B6) 1 x 0.86

TIle change in total enlhalpy 0.356 Cp TOl

-WI'" = lOO/BO The actual work output rrom the last two stagcs is
-1.25 kJ/kg
The iscntropic change in total enthalpy
T03 - the temperature arter the end or the first two stages is
6."0 -1.25
(6."0,) = '1,_, 0.75
-1.67kJ/kg To) TOI(I - f.L~.)' = TOI(I - (0.23)(0.B6))'
= 0.644 TOl
(a) The change in total pressure of the oil
800
lV,,, = Cp TOl (0.644)(0.23) [I + (I - (0.23)(0.84»J 0.B4
6. Po = p(6."o,) - x (-1.67) = 0.225Cp Tol
100
- 13.4 bar
Total actual work output rrom the turbine
(b) The change in static pressure
IV = IV1.2 + IV)., = 0.5BI CpTOI
(C' - C')
6.P = 6. Po-P ~OOOI
111t! total isentropic work due to a single stage compression is
BOO( 10' - 3')
-13.4 - --:::=-=:-'
2000 x 100 IV, CpTol [1-(1-Il)NJ
-13.4 - 0.364
= CpTOI [I - (I - 0.23)' J
= -13.Bbar
0.649 CI' TOl
The negative sign implies that the pressure decreases during un expansion process.
Overall turbine crficicncy
Example 1.5 In a four stage turbine hnndling air, the stagnation preSsure rntio
between the el(it and the inlet of ench Singe is 0.4. The stage efficiencies of the first
two stages are 86% each. while those or the last two stages are 84% each. Find the
IV,IW = 0.581/0.649
overall efficiency of the turbine. 89.5%
 BASICCONCEPTSOFTURBOMACI llNES 4. 21
20 ,. TURllO M ACHINES

Solution
Solution
Po, ; 7 bar 70, ; 1100 K = 1.5 bar
PO'! 6.110 "u:! - hOI = 6 kJ/kg
To,; 830 K C, ; 250m/s r; 1.3 To, 303 K Po,; I bar
(a) Tota l-to-Tota l efficiency
(a) Finding the type of turbo machine
TO! - T02 Since the change in enthalpy is positive (6 kJlkg) Ihis turbo machine would bl! a work
TOl - T02, absorbing machine.

Using isentropic re lation (b) Exit total temperature

For air as 11 perfect gas, ~ho = C I' ~ To ·
6.110
:. T02 - TOI ;
Cp
11110
; To, + C
p
6
; 303 + 1.005
Therefore, ; 308.97 K or 35 .97°C
1100-830 (c) To tal p ress ure ratio
= 1100 - 771.1
=0.B21
(i) Ir the fluid is air
= 82.1%
1102, - hOI Cp(T02, -Tod
;
tJ/-/
(b) Total-to-Static efficiency "02 - hOI Cp(To:! - Tal)

TJ,- .r ;
"01 - "02
hal - Ills
Tal - To:!
Tal - T2,r CI'TO,[(~r -I]
C; ;
Cp(TOl - Tod
T" ; T01 -
-, ---
2Cp
rR ii 8.314 I + ry,_,(llll0l]'I'-'
C" ; - - and R; - ; - - ; 0.2897kJ/kg - K = [ CpTol
r- I M 28.7
:. Cp
1.3 x 0.2897
; 1.255 kJ /kg - K 0.75X6]'" "
;
0.3 [I + 1.005 x 303
250'
T" ; 771.1- ; 1.053
2 x 1255
; 746.19K Oi) If lht! nuid is liquid water
1100 - 830 0 6
'h-J ;
1100 - 746.19; .73 11 Po ; pllllo,
; 76.3 %
where
11110, ; ry.-,(Illlo); 0.75 x 6
Example 1.3 Suppose a IUrbo machine is operated such that the change in total
enthalpy is 6 kl/kg or fluid when the inlet total temperature is 30 D e and the inlet total 4.5 kJ/kg
pressure is I bar. (a) What general type of turbo machine would this be? (b) What is 11 Po 4.5 x 1000
the exit tOlaltempcrature if the fluid is air? (c) What is the tolal pressure ratio across 45 bar
the machine ir [he adiahatic [olal·lo-lOlnl efficiency is 75% (i) if [he fluid is nir and
Po, 45 + I = 46 bar
(ii) if tile fluid is liquid wnler,
 18 ;;:. TUilBO MACI~INES BA SIC CONCEI'TSOF Tultoo MACI11 "' ES ... It}

The <lclUa l work output is For an isen tropic com pressio n,

IV = + To, + ... + TON+Jl

Cpry.,I' ITOI OO/::"Po = ~(/::"Po)
I
= Cp'hI'TOI [I + (I-I'q,) + (I -I'q,)' + .. . + ( I _I'~,)N-I] = 1000(10-1) x 10'
0.9 kJ / kg
The (enns within the brackets are of th e fonn 1 + r +,2 + ... + , 11 - 1; hich is a
geometric series with common rali o,. TIle solution is I - ,11 . By definition
1- r
In this case, , =
( I -ILTJJ)' Then, the equation reduces to 6.110.
6.110
= CpTOI [I - (I -llq,)N]
:. 6110
611o, 0.9
N ( 1.25) % ;: 0.75
TJJ L
/-)
lVJ/
= 1.2 kJ/kg
nlis is the work of compression.
The isentropic work output from a singJF e eltpansion from POI to PO(N+[ ) may
be obta iiiCdTrom eqn. (1.25) by setting ,= I. - - - (b) If the fluid is air as a perfect gas

IV, CpTOI [I - ( I _I' )N ]

/::,.110, = C /'CTOl, - Toil

CpTol [I - R';] ( 1.26) From isentropic relation

r-I
;;: Tot ( Po')-r-
Wh~:: PO!,o.I+ ,)i~p-resents the overall pressure ratio. Since TOl,
POI
1.4 - I
N
R.F L IV,,/W, = 283(10) 1.4
i=1

r L [ 546. 4 K

( R.F=
- - 1 - (I -I'q,) N].
CpTol

[I - ( I _li~,)N]
'h[ I-R~- I /']
)
CpTol

- <=.1 J
1 - Ro'
T herefore.
/::,.110,

=
1.005( 546.4 - 283)

264.70 kJ /kg

and
SOLVED PROBLEMS 6.11 0 ,
q"
Example 1.1 TIle inilial and finaltolal pressures o f a fluid afe I bar and 10 bar 264.70
=
respec ti ve ly. The initial total temperature is lODe. What is th e work of compression 0.75
for adiabatic steady now wi lh a total-to-total efficiency of75 % if (a) Lhe fl uid is liquid = 352.94 kJ / kg
water and (b) Ihe fluid is air as a perfect gas .
Hence, the adiabatic wo rk of com pression per kg of nuid is 352.94 kJ .
Solution
Example 1.2 Gases from a combustion chamber enter a gas turbine al a 10lill
POI = 1 bar POl = 10 bar TOI = 283 K. q" = 0.75 pressure of7 bar and a (olai temperature o f 11 00 K. 1l1C tOlal pressure and lotallCIll'
(a) If the fluid is liquid water perature at the turbine ex-it arc 1.5 bar and 830 K. Take r =: 1.3 and molecular weight
S ince the fluid is in compressible "0 = constant = ~,p
p
=: density of water.
of gases = 28.7. Evaluate total-to- total efficiency and Ihe total-Io-static efficiency if
lhe ex it ve locity is 250 mls. Assume adiabatic steady now. ,
 16 }> TURBO M ACHINES
BAslrCoNCEt'TSOf"TuItBOMAl"·IIINF.5 ..: 11

For u turbine with N-slages, we have

The reheat ractor for the expansion of a perfect gas in an N-slagc: turbine. assuming
N thut the stage efficienc ies '1.r and the pressure ratios Po, / Poi-t-I' where; = 1.2. · ··. n
L
1:::: 1
11'" fo r all Ihe stages arc equal, is expressed in terms of stage pressure ratio as follows .
- -- > ( 1.16) For the first slagc,
Ws
N
The ratio of L WSI 10 Wr is called the reheat faclOr (R.F).
i_I so that

( 1.22)
L IV"
F ; :: 1
( 1.17) Let
. = -I-V- >

The milgnitude . of e cat filclor in mulLista e tll' -

. ~ ( 1.03 or 1.04. ----
1ft le stage efficiencies were the same, the totaillctual work outpu;'-rom ffie various Then
individ ual stages would be

( 1.18) and

The actual work output lhat would be obtained from a single stage expansion is
or
- =--
TOI - T02 1JJTolll

( 1.19)

,-
( 1.23)
wbere '11 is the overall turbine efficiency. Combining equations (1.18) and (1.19), we
get For th c..sccond stnge
N

'It
L
i=1
IV" r
T02 - TO), = T021 - (POJ/ Pm) ""]
r

( 1.20)
but
From eqn . (1.16), we find that PO] PQ2
-=-
P02 POI
'11> '/.1
TIlcrcforc
That is. the QvcraJlturbine e fficiency '11 is greater than ule turbine siage efficiencies
lis .
Combining eqns. (I.I?) and (1 .20), we have the following relation .
and
c(Rz;::;J (1.21)
T02 - T03 = '1.r T021l
Consider again /. Fig.( 1.7) for a first stage cxp.lIlsion. It is seen thai the final stale -02
may be obtained after lin ideal expansion from 01 - 02s followed by a 'reheating' of or
the fluid from state 02.r to 02 at constant pressure (TCh. > T02,) (1.24 )
Hence.lhe fluid at 02 has a grcateravailahi lity than the fluid at 02.r(hol > 1102,) . An
cxpnnsion from state 02 to a lower pressure must necessarily resuh in a larger output For the Nth stage
IIHIO that obtainable from stale 02.r. 111is effect thai makes RF> I is called the reheat
t:JJect .

....
 BASIC"CONC£I'TSOFTURDoMACHINES 4: 15
14 » TUIlDQ MACHINES

to a rinal state'· 02 which has higher entropy than th at or state Ob. The corresponding
4. Finite Stage Efficiency exit conditions ror the second stage are 03s and 03 respectively. . .
The stage efficiency, considering static vuJue of temperature and pressure (Fig . 1.6.), The isentropic work done by the two stage turbine is the sum oflhe stage IsentrOpI C
is defined as worb .
h Pm
01

\
\ Pm
The ,stage efficiency Clln now be expressed in terms of polytropic efficiency
,
\ 0'
02, \
"- \ POJ

and "03
OJ,
03 ss

Therefore.

1- c:) "';-"
q, = --'-'--'-''-,-..,.-
Figure 1.7

,
Rtlltar tffecr in a muirisragt rurbint:

l-(~f I: W" = Hlsi + W.I! (1.14)

; :=1
:;:: (hOI - holt) + (1102 - hOJs)

The same equation can be used to determine the overall efficiency of a multistage Consider now a turbine in which the fluid expands rrom POI to PO) in one smgc.
turbine. ex.cept that the stage pressure ratio is replaced by the overall pressure ratio. TI,e iscnLropic work is
The overall efficiency, for n N·stage turbine with a constant stage pressure ratio, can
~e expressed as . (1.15)

PN+I = (P2)N
P, P, In both the cases, the actual work done is

W = hOI - 110J

The constant pressure line diverges in the II - s diagram as the entropy increases.
'1, = Therefore, the isentropic enlha.lpy drop across a stage incrca.c;cs for a. constant stag·
nation pressure drop fi Po across each stage. Consequently, [he s~m o~ the stage
isentropic enthalpy drops is greater than the isentropic enthalpy drop to a stog ie stage
expansion. TIlal is

REHEAT FACTOR IN TURBINES

Consider a turbine with two stages where the nuid (perfect gas) expands from POI
or
to POJ as shown on the II - s diagram. Fig. 1.7. Slate-OJ is the initial condition
01 the enlly of the first stage and 02s is the condition that would be reached at the
first stage exit if the expansion process had been isentropic, The actual expansion leads
 BASICCONCEPTS OfTURDOMACllINES "" 13
I ~ ;... T URDO MACHINES

dT T
2. Total-to.statlc Efficiency But dTs := - and co nstan t;: (~)
1'/ 1' P r
II is an efficiency in which til e ideal work is based on stagnation property at inlet and
lhen
static property at outlet.

dT r-I dP (1.11 )
T=1I p ' -
r
- P
3. Polytropic Efficiency Integratin g between lht: limits of the overall expansion between PI and f2
A turbine stage can be cons idered as made up of aTL infinite nu mber of s mnJI or infin ites- In(i,) ; q" r~ I ln (;;)
imal stages. Then (0 accoun t for expn nsiu rl in an ' infinitesimal turbine
Rearrangi ng.
P,
(P,)"'(~)
h
T2 ; (I. 12)
Tt Pt
\
\ p
Assuming the irreversible adiabatic expansion (1-2) as equivalent (0 a poJyLTopic
P-dP process with index n, the temperature and pressure are related by
If!'S \
(1. 13)
"' \
P,
2
Equating eqns. (1.12) nnd (1.13) ,

Fjgur~ 1.6 E:rpllllsiun process in infin itesimal and fillite fur-bint sfflg~s
Comparing the powers,

(r-I) _~
siage . it small singe o r infinites imal stage or po lytropi c e ffi ciency is defined . Consider
a small stage (Fig. 1.6) between press ures P and P -dp. The effici ency of th is turbi ne qp -r- - n
stage is d efin ed as
or
(I. 9) r n-i
qp = (r - I) . -n-

For 'In isentropi c process Alternati vely. the index of ex pans}on in the actual process is expressed as
T r
- ) ~ Con"ant
- (.-, (1.10) 11 = -....,----",---
r - (r - 1)qp
P '
. . 'de£ ilh
Differentiatin g eq n. ( J. I 0). we get When 1'/ p = I . 11 == r. The actual ex pansion of process curve (1- 2) comel W
th e isentropic expansion line (I - 2s).
dT, ~ Const ant [p-<t/d. _(r_~_I) ] dp
 10 )0 TuRBO MACHINES

where 'Ie is the overall compressor efficiency and Ws is the isentropic work.
BASlcCoNCErrSOFTuRBoMACHINES

Consider again Fig. (1.4) for a first stage compression, state 02 may be obtained
after nn ideal compression from 01 to 02s followed by "prcheatin" of the fluid from
« 11

--
W.r = "°3 11 - 1t0l state 021 to 02 al constant pressure (To; > To2.s).
TIle actual work input is the same for both si ngle stage and multistage compression Thi s inh erent thermodynamic elTect that reduces the efficiency ofa multistage com-
processes. pressor is caJled the preheat effect.

IV = "OJ - hOI
EFFICI ENCIES OF TURB INES
Then from equ's 1.7 and J .7a,
The enthalpy-entropy diagram for now both reversible and irreversib le th rough
N
a turbine is shown in Fig. 1.5 . TIle static condition of the fluid at inlet is
'Is
L
1=1
IV" dcwnnincd ~y stale I. with s tate 01. as the corresponding stagnation state.
- = -- - ( I.H) The final slatic properties arc dctcnnincd by the s tate 2, with 02. as the
'Ie Ws
Since the constant pressure lines diverge in the direction of increasing entropy on h-s
diagram, lhe isentropic enthalpy risc across each stage increases even [or a conslnnl '0'
stagnation pressure rise 6. Po across each stage. TIlen, the sum of the stage isentropic 01
enthalpy rises is greatcr than the isentropic enthalpy rise in asing le siage compression.
For a two slage compressor "
(h02, - hOI) + (ho), - h02) > (h03" - hOI)
POl
i.c. E;=I Wfi > Ws
02
For N stages,
P,
N
LIV"
1=1
2
> I
IV, 2S

Equation (1.8) can be wrillen as

IV,
= =:-;;;--'--- = P.F ( 1.8")
Figure 1.5 Reversible and irreversible I!xpan.1ion proCt!ssn

That is, the ratio of Ws to
N
---==--=:...- -
2:[:1 Wrj
corresponding stagnation s tate . If the proccss were reversible, the final fl uid stat ic
L W Si is known as the Preheat factor (P.F) Slate would be 2f and the s tagnation state wou ld be 02s .

"';""~
' ~~~ Process I - 2 is lhe actual expa nsion process and process 1 - 2.t' is the isentropl(;
or idcnl ex pa ns ion process. In turbin es, the efficiencies may be defined using either
IV,
( P.F. = N < I the static or the stagnation properties of the fluid or even a co mbination of both . The
LI=I IV" commonly used turbine efficiencies are

The preneat facto r is less than unity. Then, equation (1.8a) becomes 1. Total-to-Total Efficiency
'1e < I It is an efficiency based on stagnation properties at inlet and outle!.
~,

or

i.e., the overall compressor efficiency '1c is less than the compressor stage erficiencies hOI - "02
'7t - r =
hOI - hOb
'h ·
 8 ;... TURBO MACHINES BASIC CONCEPTS Of TURBO MACHINES ....: 9

4. Finite Stage Efficiency

A slagt! with a tinitlo! prl!ssure drop is a finite stage. Taking stalic v<llut!s oftL:mpl.!n.lIUrC PREHEAT FACTOR IN COMPRESSORS
anJ pressure (Fig. 1.2) and assuming perfect gas, stage efficiency is defined as
Consider a two stage compressor working between POI and PO] an shown in
Fig. 1.4 . Tn isentropic now, the outlet conditions of the gas for the first stage
'Is = and second stage arc at 02s and 03 s respectivdy, where as the actual oullct

The finite stage or sInge efficiency can be expressed in terms of the smLll1 stage or
polytropic efficiency
03 s S

i.Jnd

Therefore, 01

Figure 1.4 Preheal effecl in a nJullislage cOlllpr~ssor

conditions are at 02 and 03. Corresponding to first stage and second stage respectively.
For a multistage compressor with a constant stage pressure ratio, (he overall pressure The subscript's' refers to constant entropy and '0' refers to total conditions of the
ral io is given by fluid. If the stage efficiencies were the same, the total actual work input to the different
individual stages would be

where N is tbe number of stages and PN -H is the pressure al the end of the N,h stage.
,
Therefore, the overall efficiency is W = l/Tls I:Ws; ( 1.6)
;=1
,
where L Wsi is the isentropic work input to the two stage compressor and is the sum
'h i=1
P,)N(:.i;!) of the stage isentropic works. For n compressor with '/I' stages.
( -PI -I
1 N
The nveTliIl efficiency in lerms of overall prCSSUfl! ratio is w= -L:WSi ( 1.7)
TIs i=]

PN+I) ';' Consider now, a single stage compressor raising the fluid pressure from POI [0 PO].

( -PI- - I The actual work input [hal would be supplied is

rIc = , I
PN+I),," - I
( -- PI (1.78)

-
 -
B,.\SICCONCEI'TSOFTURBOMACHINES " 7
6 ;... TUReo M,.\CHINES

Differentiating equation (1.2) and substituting eq uation (1.1). we get

1. Total-to-Total Efficiency
II is an efficiency based on stagnation properties at cnuy and exit.
dT· 'I" = [, ~ 1 x P-(i)]d P x constant
Widtnl hOlJ - 1101
'1'-1 = - -- = Constant va lue is obtained from equation (1.2).
WnClunl 1102 - hOI
Therefore.
2. Static-to-Static Efficiency
( 1.3)
It is an efficiency based on stalic properties at entry and exit
Integrati ng hetween the limit s of {he full compression from PliO P"! we get

In (T,Tl) = -,-, -I. 1·In (Pl)

TJ" PI
3. Polytropic Efficiency
Rearranging.
A compressor slage can be viewed as made up of an infinite number of sma ll stages.
To accounl for a compression in an infinitesimal stage, polytropic efficiency is defined
for an elemental compression process, Consider a small compressor stage as shown ( 1.4)
in Fig. 1.3 between pressures P and P+dP.
The polytropic effic iency of a compressor stage is defined as If the Irreversible adIabatic compresslO proccs is-assumed 10 be equivalent 10
a ~roJ;ess wJt po Ylr0P'C Indcx, n, lhe following rclaliansh~p between

ryp = dT
dT,
(I.I )
--
tempera urc and pressure wilJCXist.

( 1.5)
h P,

Equating eqns (104) and (1.5).

!.=..I ~

(~:t = C;) .
P+dP

I
I P Comparing the power,

dT, I'" r-I

'7{1 . r
=
II-I
II
P,
or
r - 1 II
'1P = - , - . ;;-=I

s {TIlc poJyLTapic efficiency is also ca ed as small stage or infinitesimal stage effi-

ciency 1 ".
A I ital val ue of palYlro ic efficiency for a compressor i{O.8 and in the initial
Figur~ J.J COlllpr~ssion prouss in infinit~simal and finilt! compressor stages
design calculallon It is often nssumed lha '1 T]J were 'll IS the SInge e IClen!;),.

For an isentropic process, the relationsh ip between pressure and temperature is given AlternatIve y, po ytropic index of compressIOn 10 lhe actual process is
by

~ =CQnstant ( 1.2)
 BAsrCCONCEPTSOFTURlloMACHIN1.;5 ~ 5
4 ,. TUlWO MACHINES

Thus
Si nce
wr =U Tds = dh - udP

The second Tds equation is extensively used in the study of compressible 1I0w
where U is the impeller tangentiul velocity
machines. In terms of stagnation propenies
:. 1IV = m(U,Cx2 - VIC.,,) I Tds = dho - uodPo
This equation is known as the general form of Euler's equation. For un incompressible fluid unde!Soing an .isentropic process (Le. ds ::;: 0) as in
Euler's turhine equation is funs, the ideal change in stagnation enthalpy IS
Iw ::;: m(U,C.r l - U2C.r2) > 01 (I(t.hol, = "ot.Po = t.~I'I
Euler's pump equation is Since v'" = l/ po and Po = P
rl\~v-=--m~(U~,-C~x-'--~U~I~C~x~d->~Ol
EFFICIENCIES OF COMPRESSORS
4. The Second Law of Thermodynamics Fig.I .2 shows the reversible and irreversible adiablltie compression processes on the
The second law of thermodynamics leads to the definition of Entropy. and is defined e nthnlpy-enLr0py diagram. The initial condition of lhe Huid is represented by state-I .
as The stagnation poin~ corresponding to this stale is 01. The final condition of the Huid
is denoted by state-2 and the corresponding stagnation point is 02. If the process
1 8 Q",=TdS I were reversible, the final fluid static and stagnation conditions would be 2S and 025
respectively.
nlro chan is caused b ealtransfcr. ~~ and rrevcrsibl li~The en-
tropy change during a process IS pasl Ive or an Irreversible process or zero for a rc-
vl!rsible process. TIlUS, work producing devices such as turbines, deliver marc work,
and work cons uming devices such as pumps and compressors consume less work
when they operate reversibly.
The differential form of the conservation of energy equation for a closed stationary
sys,em (.1 fixed mass) can be expressed for a reversible process as

8Q,tlJ - 8W,tll = dU
BtH

6Q,t!u = TdS
OW'l'lI = PdV
Thus
TdS =dU + PdV
(or) on unil mass ba sis
Figure 1.2 Rel'ersible and irrel'l~rsible compression procesus
ITds = all + Pdu I Process 1-2 is the actual compression process and is accompanied by an increase
Th is e'lu.ation is known as lhe First Tds equation or Gibb's equation. The second in entropy. Process 1-2S is the ideal compression process. The efficiencies of com-
TrIoi' equation is ohtained by eliminating rill from the first Tds equation by using the pressors may be defined in terms of either stagnation or stalic properties of the fluid
definition of enthalpy (II = Jl + Pv) or even a combination of barh . The following afe Ihe commonly used compressor
efficiencies:
(lh =dll + Pdu+udP
.-
 2 }> TURBO MACHINF.5
BAS!CCONCEI'TSOFTURllOMACIUNES '" J
The turbo machines can also be classified by the energy transfer from or to thc or
rotuting blades, which arc fixed onlo a shaft. In Ihc work absorbing machines the
fluid pressure (or) head,., {in the case of hydraulic machines) (or) the enthalpy (for
compressible flow machines) increases from inlelto outlet. But in work delivering
IQ - W -111[6.11 + 6ke + 6peJ I
mnchinc.o; the fluid pressure or enthalpy, decreases from the inlet to the outlct.
TIle product change in head or enthalpy, nnd the mass now rale of the fluid through ~bis equation is known as steady flow energy equation(SFEE}. A turbo machine,
the machine, represents the energy absorbed by (or) extracted from the rolating blades. bClng o.pcrated essentially under the sam!.! conditions for long periods of time, can be
In turbo machines, the energy transfer is accomplished by changing the angula"r mo- convcnlcnlly analysed us a steady now device. This equation, when applied to a turho
mentum of the fluid and so the shapes of the blades and rotating members differ from machine, may be simplified pertaining to !.he type of turbo machine, bcc;mse many
one type to another. of the terms arc zero (or) get cancelled with others.
Turbo machines can also be c1assifed based on the direction of flow of fluid
across the rotating member. If the flow is axial, the machine is called an axial flow 3. The Newton's Second Law of Motion
machine. If the flow is only radial, it is known as radial flow or celltrifugal ma-
chille. If the flow is partly axial and partly radinl, the machine is known as mixedflow Accord~ng to this law, the sum of all the forces acting on a controlled volume in a
machine. particular direction is equal to the rate of change of momentum of the fluid across the
controlled volume in the same direction.

BASIC LAWS AND GOVERNING EQUATIONS

The basic laws of thermodynamics and fluid mechanics are used in turbo machines.
The important laws and governing ~quations used in turbo machi.nes are as follows:

1. The Principle of Conservation of Mass

The conservation of mass is one of the most fundamental principles in nature. Mass, -'"''''*~fF
~ -- - >-- - - f
like energy is a conserved property, and it cannot be created or destroyed. The con-
servation of mass principle for a controlled volume undergoing a steady flow process.
requires that the ma.,c;s flow rate(m) across the controlled volume remains constant.
Mathematically,

Figure 1,1 MOllellunt ojfluid particle across Q controlled \'o/umt'!

where . subscripts I and 2 denote the inlet and outlet conditions respectively.
The conservation of mass equation is onen referred to as the continuity In turbo machines, thc impellers arc rotating and the power output IS
equntion in fluid _mechanics. In compressible flow machines, the mass flow rate expressed a~ the p.roduct of torque and angUlar velocity and so angular
(kg/s) is e,r;cIusively used while in hydraulic machines the volume flow rate (m] Is) momentum !S Iht! pnmc parameter. Consider a fluid particle moving across a con-
is preferred. . trolle~ vol.urne as shown in Fig 1.1. The Fluid particle travels from point A to point
B whde sImultaneously moving from a radius r! to radius r2. If C... I and C... 2 arc
2. The First Law of Thermodynamics components of abliolute velocities in the tangential direction, then the sum of alllhc
torques acting on the system is equal to the rate of change of angular momentum
The first law of thermodynamics which is also known as the conservation of energy Mathematically, .
principle s.lates that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only change
from one fonn to another. TIle conservation of energy equation for a general steady
now system can be expressed verbally ns
(HealtransferredJ - [Shaft work]:::; (Mass now rote) [(Change in enthalpy per unit
If the machine revolves with angular velocity w, then the power (W) is
mass) + (Change in kinetic energy per unit mass) + (Change in potential energy per
unit mass)]
 xvi , T UIWO MACIIINF..s.

Efficiency of Draft Tube

405
Cavitation in Turbines
405
Solved Problems 406
Short Questions 435
Exercises 436
10. Power Transmitting Turbo Machines 441
Inrroduction
BASIC CONCEPTS OF
441
11,e Hydraulic Coupling
Working Principle
441 TURBO MACHINES
442
Efficiency
442
Slip
443
Torque Converter
444
Characteristics of Fluid Coupling & Convener ~45
£\'ercises 4-1 7 DEFINITION
Appendix 449 'ur a machine is definc ClS cner y or imparts cne y. to a
References -160 ntinuou win stream of fluid b the d nam'c i one or more rotalin
blade rows. The prefix '(uebo'lis a latin word meaning' pin or '~hir ) implying Lhat
Index .f61
turbo machines rotate in some way.
Ir.lhe machine adds energy to the fluid. it is commonly called a pump. If it eXlracts
energy. Ihen it is called a turbine . A device which pumps Jiguids is simply called a
urn if it u s ases' then three different terms rna be used de odin u 0
the ressure . e chiev d. nearl .<1?:,.b!,f u e ris (e device is called a
(13£1., betwet;n.. . 7 and bsolu il is called a 1) owe and J' ve 3
bar absolute pressure it is called a '(Ompressor)
The difference between the turbo machine and the positive displncement machine is
that in the fonner, (he fluid is moving continuously across the machine unlike in the
latter. where the fluid enlers a.closed chamber, which is isolated from the inlet and
outlct sections of the mnchine for a very short period of time within which work is
done on or by Ihe fluid .

CLASSIFICATION OF TURBO MACHINES

P' mem er IS cnc as rou In sue a way t at I e

working fluid cpnnP! be djvened 10 flow around the edges of the impeller, it is caJ cd
a shrouded turbo machine. Examples of this are turbines, pumps, elc. If the fluid
flows around the edges of ihe impeller which is nOI shrouded, then it is called an
unshrouded turbo machine. Examples of this ar~r e:ro-generator and
( arrC:rart propej!elj) - -- -
Turbomachines may rail into anyone of the two classes depending on whether
work is done by the fluid on the rOlating member (examples: hydraulic turbine. gas
turbine. elc.) or work is done by the rolming member on the fluid (examples: pump.

- compressor. etc.).
xiv r TUllDo M..\CIIINE.'i

Main Parts of a Centrifugal POOlP . 315 Air Lift Pump 352

Impeller 353
Casing
315
326
•I Submersible Pump
Solved Problems 354
Suction Pipe and Delivery Pipe 327 SharI QllesTions 379
Work done and Velocity Triangles 327 Exercises 380
Head Developed 330 9. Hydraulic Turbines 3B3
. SIalic Head (H,) 330
Manometric Head (H ) 331 lntroduction 383
Pwnp Losses and Effici;ncies 331 . Classification ofHydrauJic Turbines 383
Impeller Power Loss (Disc Friclion Power Loss (P oJ) 331 According 10 Ihe Type of Energy al tile Inlel 383
Leakage Powcr Loss 331 According to the Direction of Flow through the Runner 383
Casing Power Loss 332 According 10 the Head al tile Inlet of Turbine 384
Mechanical Efficiency 332 According 10 the Specific Speed of tile Turbine 384
Manometric (or) Hydraulic Efficiency ,. 332 Pelton Wheel . 384
Overall Efficiency 333 Parts of the Pelton Turbine 384
Volumetric Efficiency 333 Velocity Triangles and Work Done for Pelton Wheel 385
Impeller Efficiency 333 Hydraulic Efficiency 387
MinimOOl Starting Speed 333 Pelton Wheel Losses and Efficiencies 387
Nel Positive Suction Head 334 Pipe. Line Transmission Efficienc), 387
Priming 335 Nozzle Efficiency 387
Performance Curves of Centrifugal Pumps 335 Nozzle Velocity Coefficient 388
Constant Efficiency or Muschel Curves 336 Number of Buckets 388
Mullistage Centrifugal Pumps 337 Overall Efficiency 388
Purnps Combined in Parallel 337 , Governing of Pelton Wheel Turbine 388
Pumps Combined in Series 339 Double Governing of Pelton Wheel 389
Pumps in Series 340 Characteristics of an Impulse Turbine 390
Pumps in Parallel 340 Radial Flow Reaction Turbine 391
. Axial Flow Pumps 341 Main Pans of a Radial Flow Reaction Turbine 391
Description 341 Velocity Triangles and Work done 392
Velocity Triangles 341 Net Head Across Reaction Turbine 393
The Work done on tile Fluid 342 Radial Flow Turbine Losses 394
The Energy Transfer (or) Head 343 Governing ofRcaction Turbines 395
Axial Pump Characteristics 343 Characteristic Curves for a Reaction Turbine 396
Cavitation 344 Axial Flow Reaction Turbine 397
Method of Pre venting Cavitation 346 Velocity Triangles and Work Done 399
Positive Displacement Pumps 346 Governing of Kaplan Turbine 400
Gear Pumps 347 Comparison of Hydraulic Turbine Efficiencies 401
Vane Pump 349 Selction of Hydraulic Turbines 401
Piston Pump 350 Draft Tube 402
Miscellaneous Types of Pumps 351 Types of Draft Tubes 403
Jel Pump 351 Draft Tube Theory 403
 CUNIl:NI)<o , xiii
xii , TUltBO MAC'lIlNES

7, Dimension a l and Model Analysis 287

Stator (Nozzle) and Rotar Losses 186
• Introduction 287
Total-to-TOlal Efticiency (~,,) 186 287
Fundamental Dimensions
Total-ta-Static Efticiency (~u) 186 Derived Dimensions 287
Blade Loading Coefficient 188 Advantages of Dimensional Analysis 288
Blade Types 189 Dimensional Homogeneity 289
Impulse Blading 190 Dimensional Analysis Method 290
Compounding (or) Staging 191 Buckingham PI Theorem 290
Two Stage Pressure Compounded Impulse Turbine 191 Method of Selecting Repealing Variables 291
Two Stage Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine 192 Model Analysis 291
Velocity Triangles of the Two Slage Impulse Turbine 194 Similirude 292
Diagram Efficiency of a Two Stage Curtis Turbine 195 Geometric Similarity 292
Reaction Blading 197 Kinematic Similarity 293
The Reaction Turbine 197 Dynamic Similarity 293
Velocity Triangle Diagram for Reac tion Turbine Stage 199 Classification of Hydraulic Models 294
Swge Efficiency ora Reaclion Turbine 200 Undistarted Models 294
Maximwn Stage Efficiency 201 Distorted Models 294
Reaction Ratio 202 Non-dimensional Nwnbers 295
Stagc Efficiency, Turbine Efficiency and Reheat Factor 205 Reynold's Nwnber (Re) 295
Free Vortex Design 207 Euler's Nwnber (Eu) 295
Constant Nozzle Angle Stage 207 Froude's Nwnber (F,) 295
Impulse Turbines Versus Reaction Turbines 207 Weber's Number (W,l 296
Internal Losses in Turbines 208 Mach's Number (M) 296
Governing of Turbines 210 Specific Speed 297
Solved Problems 211 Pump Specific Speed 297
Short Quest;ons 147 Expression for Pwnp Specific Speed 297
Exercises 2-19 Specific Speed of Turbine 298
Deri vation of the Turbine Specific Speed 299
6, Radial Flow Gas and Steam Turbines 255 Model Testing of Hydraulic Turbo Machines 301
Introduction 255 · Unit Quantities 303
Description 255 Unit Speed 303
Velocity Diagrams 256 Unit Discharge 304
The Thennodynamics of Flow 257 Unit Power 304
Stage Efficiencies 259 Use of Unit Quantities 305
Spouting Velocity ',60 Solved Problems 305
Degree of Reaction 261 Short Questions 321
An Ourward Flow Radial Turbine (LJungstrom Turbine) 263 £urcises 323
Velocity Triangles and Stage Work 264 325
8, Hydraulic P umps
Stage Work 264
Solved Problems 266 'J
Centrifugal Pwnps 325
Short Questions 282 Introduction 325
Exercises 183
 -,
x ,. TURDO MAClnNE."
Cmm::NT~ .... xi -
Cascaded Testing and Curves 46 Working Principle 126
Cascade Lift and Drag Coe!ficients , 49 • Velocity Triangles for an Axial Flow Compressor Stage 127
Cascade Lift and Drag Coefficients fo',
Turbine Blades 52 Energy Transfer or Stage Work 128
Losses in a Cascade 52 Mollier Chart 128
Solved Problems 53 Work Done Factor 130
Short Questions 61 Stage Loading (or) Pressure Coefficient 131
Exercises 62 Reaction Ratio 132
3. Centrifugal Compressors and Fans 63 Effect of Reaction Ratio on the Velocity Triangles 133
Static Pressure Rise 134
Introduction 63 Stage Efficiency 135
Components and Description 63 Pressure Coefficient 136
Velocity Diagrams for a Centrifugal Compressor 65 Compressor Stall and Surge 136
Slip Factor 66 Radial Equilibrium Method 137
Energy Transfer 69 Radial Equilibriwn TI1eory 138
Power Input Factor- 69 Types of Blades 139
Mollier Chart 70 Free Vortex Blade 139
Inlet Casing 70 Forced Vortex or Solid Rotation Blades 140
Impeller 71 Constant Reaction Blade 141
Stage Pressure Rise and Loading Coefficient 73 Multistage Compression 141
Pressure Coefficient 75 Comparison Between Centrifugal Compressor and
Diffuser 76 Axial Flow Compressor 143
Volute or Scroll Collector 77 Direction of Flow Across the Compressor 143
Vaneless Diffuser . 77 Pressure Rise per Stage 143
Vaned Diffuser 78 Isotropic Efficiency 143
Degree of Reaction 80 Range of Operation 143
EfTect of Impeller Blade Shape on Performance 81 Frontal Area 144
. Pre-whirl and Inlet Guide Vanes 84 Working Fluid 144
Inlet Velocity Limitations 85 Starting Torque 144
Mach Number in TIle Diffuser 88 Construction 144
Centrifugal Compressor Characteristic 88 Multistaging 144
Surging 89 Applications 144
Rotating Stall 89 Characteristic Curve 144
Choking 90 Solved Problems 145
Characteristic Curve 92 Shorf Questions 172
Solved Problems 93 Exercises 174
SharI Queslions Il7
Exercises Il9 5. Axial Flow Steam and Gas Turbines 181

4. Axial Flow Compressors and Fans 125 Introduction 181

Description 181
"
Introduction 125 Velocity Triangles for an Axial FlowTurbines 182
Advantages of Axial Flow Compressors 125 Siage Work and Diagram Efficiency 183
Description of an Axial Flow Compressor 125 h-s Diagram for and Axial Flow Turbine 184
"iii ,.. TUROO tvl Ac HINE."i

This book will be useful to tCtlchers and studen ts of Mechanical Enginel!r-

ing. candidates of AMTE. competiti ve examinations like UPSC, -TNPSC and
GATE and prac ticing engineers ..
• CONTENTS
I \\'elcomc comments and suggesti ons from readers.
The materi al in this book is based on the concepts already developed over
the years by various authors. which can be read ily gathered fTom the list of
references given at the end of the book. lowe my gratitude to all of them.
Pre/ace vii
J acknowledge with appreciation the encouragement and suggestions given
hy my colleagues as we ll as my students. 1. Basic Concepts ofThrbo Machines 1
I am grateful to my family members for their moral support and sustained Definition
encourage ment throughout the preparation of this book. Classification of Turbo Machines
Basic Laws and Governing Equations 2
I place on record my sincere gratitude to my co ll ege Chairman
The Principle of Conservation of Mass 2
Dr. Tm!. Radha Thiagarajan, th e Co rrespondent Thiru. Karumuthu T. Kannan
The First Law of Thermodynamics 2
and the Ptincipal Dr. Y. A bhaikumar for their support.
The Newton ' 5 Second Law of Motion 3
I sincere ly thank Mr. P.K. Madhava n, Vikas Publishing House Pl't Ltd, fo r The Second Law ofThermodynumics 4
publishing uli s book. [ am indebted to my studen ts Mr. H. Prnsa nna and Efficiencies of Compressors 5
Mr. A. Pradeep Chakkaravarthy for their help in proof reading. Total-to-Total Efficiency 6
Static-to-Static Efficiency 6
Polytropic Efuciency 6
A Valan Arasu Finite Stage Efficiency 8
Preheat Factor in Compressors 9
Efficiencies ofTurbines II
Tolal-to-Total Efficiency II
Total-to-Static Efficiency 12
Polytropic Efficiency 12
Finite Stage Efficiency 14
Reheat Factor in Turbines 14
Solved Problems 18
Exercises 34
2. Blade Theory 37
Aero-foil Section 37
Symmetrical Aero-foil 37
Non Symmetrical Aero-foil 37
Drag and Lift 38
Lift and Drag Coefficients 39
Energy Transfer in Tenns of Lift and Drag Coefficients 40
" Blade Terminology 42
Cascade Nomenclature 43
Turbine Cascade Nomenclature 45
 ,I.
PREFACE

The objective of this book is to cover comprehensively the basics of turbo

machines. Turbo machines has been an essential subject in the engineering
curriculum and is often perceived as a tough subject mainly due to the unavail-
ability of standard textbooks. I have made an attempt here to provide adequate
material for the study of both compressible and incompressible flow turbo
machines. The book adopts the 51 system of units throughout . It include s nu-
merous solved and unsolved problems in each chapter to assist students in
understanding the subject.
Chapter I introduces the basics of turbo machines. The Euler's equation
has been derived in this chapter. Chapter 2 deals with the geometries ofbladcs
and blnde rows of different types of turbo machines. The blowers and fans arc
low-pressure compressible flow machines and are principally the same as the
compressors. Therefore, these machines are combined with compressors.
Centrifugal compressors, blowers and fans are discussed in chaptcr J .
Axial flow compressors and fans are described in chapter 4. In the salllc
chapter. multi-stage compressors are also covered . I\:<ial flow gas and steam
turbines are combined and discussed in chapic:r 5. Problems in axial flow tur-
bines are solved by both analytical and graphical metllOds in tl,is chapter. Chapter
6 deals with inward and outward flow radial turbines. Velocity triangles and
enthalpy - entropy diagrams have been frequently used to explain the thermo-
dynamic aspects of these compressible flow machines.
Chapter 7 includes dimensional and model analysis of turbo machincs and
"
types of similarities. A brief discussion on non-dimensional numbers is prc-
sented here.
Centrifugal and axial flow pumps are discussed in detail in chapter 8, It also
includes the study of positive displacement pumps. Hydraulic turbines such as
Pelton, Francis and Kaplan turbines are discussed in chapter 9. Governing of
hydraulic turbines is also included here. Power transmiaing turbo machines
and their characteristics are discussed in detail in chapter 10.
The reference direction in velocity triangles for centrifugal machines is thc
tangential direction and that ofaxial machines is the axial direction. This is the
convention adopted here. Computer software has been developed for somc
selected problems in turbo machines and is given in the Appendix.
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 Turbo Machines

,I A Valan Arasu
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Thiugurajar Collcgt: of Engineering
Madurai

VIKAS PUBLISHING HOUSE PVT LTD