BAKING SCIENCE - PRINCIPLES OF BREAD PRODUCTION

PART TWO- (A) --principles of bread production including the latest developments in
Dough Processing Procedures and Dough Processing Equipment.

Introduction:
Bread production operations must be carefully planned, for once ingredient mixing
has begun; the process cannot be interrupted without serious damage to the baked
product. Dough formulas and dough schedules are determined in advance and
followed as closely as possible. In preparation of the production schedule, the
previous day's schedule is used as a guide. Formulas must be constructed so that
only enough dough is mixed to fill the oven to capacity. There are seven major steps
involved in the production of bread using the conventional method of bread
production. The continuous mixing method will be discussed briefly.

PREPARATION OF INGREDIENTS:

STEP 1. The first step in preparation for mixing is assembling and weighing the
ingredients. Some ingredients require special preparation. The yeast, whether
compressed or dry must be be suspended in water in according to manufacturer's
instructions.

NOTE: NEVER SUSPEND DRY YEAST IN COLD WATER. If you do, reducing
agents contained in the yeast will be released into the dough which will weaken the
gluten. Some, but not all bakers put Compressed Yeast directly into the dough
without suspending it in water, especially when using some of the new types of
yeast.

The temperature of the water is important in controlling dough temperature. If

mechanical refrigeration equipment is not available to chill the ingredient water, ice
may be required. Most bakeries are equipped with mixing machines that circulate
chilled water or refrigerants through coils between the walls of the mixing bowl. In
that case ice would not be required. However, if ice is required, the procedure for
determining how much ice to use will be demonstrated following the demonstration
on how to determine the required water temperature to get the dough out of the
mixer at the proper temperature. Following are the procedures used to determine the
required water temperature:

To control the dough temperature during mixing, the following factors must be
known and applied:
A. Desired dough temperature at completion of mixing.
B. In this example, desired dough temperature is 80 degrees F.
C. Available water temperature.
D. Pounds of water in the formula.
E. Number of BTU's of heat that one pound of ice removes from its surrounding
area when it melts from a solid to a liquid ( 144 BTU's )
F. Temperature of mixing room.
G. Temperature of flour.
H. FRICTION FACTOR. This is the amount of heat that is created during the
mixing process. At the end of this lesson, the procedure for computing the
Friction Factor of a mixing machine will be demonstrated.
Assuming the following conditions exist, calculate the required water temperature,
pounds of ice to use when required, and pounds of water to be subtracted from the
formula, depending upon how many pounds of ice will be required.
A. Mixing room temperature= 85 degrees F.
B. Flour temperature= 82 degrees F.
C. Friction Factor= 30 degrees F. for this example.

Temperature of available water= 70 degrees F.

PROCEED AS FOLLOWS:
A. Add 85 plus 82 plus 30 which equals 197.
B. Multiply desired dough temperature which is 80 times 3 = 240.
C. Subtract 197 from 240 which equals 43 degrees which is the temperature that
the water needs to be for the dough to come out of the mixer at 80 degrees F.

To determine how much ice is required when the water is warmer than the
required 43 degrees F. proceed as follows:
A. Subtract 43 degrees (desired water temperature) from 70 degrees
(temperature of water available). The answer is 27 degrees — the number of
BTU's of heat that must be removed from each pound of water in the formula.
NOTE: One pound of ice will remove 144 BTU"s of heat from one pound of
water.
B. Multiply 27 degrees times 379.7 (the total number of pounds of water in the
formula). The answer is 10,251.9 (the total number of BTU's to remove from
the water).
C. Divide 10,251.9, the total number of BTU's to remove by 144, the number of
BTU's that one pound of ice removes. The answer is 71.2 pounds of ice to
use.
D. Subtract 71.2 pounds of ice from the number of pounds of water called for in
the formula. Therefore, 308.5 pounds of water plus 71.2 pounds of ice equals
379.7 pounds of liquid called for in the formula.
E. Therefore, in this situation, the dough will come out of the mixer at 80 degrees

NOTE: The factor varies with different mixing machines, and mixing times. The faster
the mixing machine operates, and the longer the mixing times the greater the friction
factor will be. Therefore, the friction factor will need to be determined when a
different machine or different mixing time is used.

To determine the friction factor for a particular machine and mixing time, a test
dough must be run. Assuming the following conditions exists, proceed as
follows:
A. Room temperature is 85 degrees F.
B. Flour temperature is 82 degrees F.
C. Temperature of water used was 43 degrees F.
D. The total of the 3 factors above is 210. Note: In this example, the bakery is
equipped with a water chilling machine, so no ice will be required.
 We will assume that the dough came out of the machine at 80 degrees F.
Proceed as follows:
E. Subtract 210 from 240. The answer is 30 which is the friction factor that must
be used when this particular machine and particular mixing time is used.

Mixing the Dough: All production procedures discussed in this part are
demonstrated in the part titled "BREAD BAKING DEMONSTRATIONS"

STEP 2. The purpose of mixing the dough is to distribute the yeast cells throughout
the dough, distribute food for the yeast, and to form and develop the gluten. Gluten is
formed when the two proteins of the flour, gliadin and glutenen come in contact with
water. The time required to develop the gluten depends on the strength of the flour,
and the speed of the machine. Generally speaking, the stronger the flour proteins the
longer it takes to develop the gluten and the faster the machine, the shorter the
mixing time. An experienced baker can easily determine when the gluten has been
fully developed by taking a small piece of dough out of the mixer and stretching the
dough between the fingers.

NOTE: THIS IS DEMONSTRATED IN PART TWELVE TITLED "BREAD BAKING

DEMONSTRATIONS". A properly developed dough will not be sticky and the dough
will stretch paper thin. It becomes almost transparent to where you can almost see
through it.

MIXING METHODS
STEP 2a. In small and medium size bakeries, the two methods used to mix dough’s
are the Straight Dough Method and the Sponge and Dough Method. Most of the
large commercial wholesale bakeries use the Continuous Mixing Method which will
be discussed in a later paragraph.

STEP 2b. STRAIGHT DOUGH METHOD. In the straight dough method of mixing all
dough ingredients are mixed at one time, and prepared for a single fermentation
process. Generally, the fermentation time for the straight dough will vary from 2-1/2
hours to 3 hours. These dough’s are also punched after about 80 percent of the
fermentation time has elapsed and given an additional 20 percent fermentation
before make-up. This is covered in more detail in a later paragraph. Dough produced
by this method results in breads with coarse grain and texture and the crumb is not
as soft as that produced by other methods. The baked loaf will not have as much
volume as one made with the Sponge and Dough Method. The Straight Dough
Method is demonstrated in PART TWELVE titled "BREAD BAKING
DEMONSTRATIONS".

STEP 2c. SPONGE AND DOUGH METHOD. In the Sponge and Dough Method,
there are two mixing periods and two fermentation periods. Part of the formula
ingredients are mixed and allowed to ferment for 4 to 6 hours. How to determine the
length of the fermentation of sponges is covered in a later paragraph. This is called
the sponge. After the fermentation process is completed, the second part is called
the Dough. Basically, the fermented sponge is thrown back into the mixer and the
ingredients for the second part are added. The fermented sponge and all the second
ingredients are mixed together to form the dough. After the gluten has been fully
developed, the dough is dumped into a stainless steel dough trough and given a
second fermentation time. As compared to the sponge, the fermentation time of the
dough is very short (15 to 20 minutes).

Dough Transfer Systems - There are many methods used to transfer dough from
one point to another. Briefly they are:
1. Cutting the dough in large pieces by hand and transferring it from the dough
trough to the mixing machine or to the divider.
2. By locating the mixer on the second floor, the dough is dumped from the
dough trough through a hole in the floor into the divider hopper.
3. Dough Trough Hoists have been designed to lift dough troughs filled with
fermented sponges to be returned to the mixer to be mixed into dough. They
are also designed to lift remixed doughs to be dumped into the divider hopper.
4. Other methods available are, Conveyor Transfer Systems, Dough Pumps, and
Rotary Dough Feeders or Chunkers. Some dough’s such as Frozen Dough,
Bread Dough and Stiff Dough are not suitable to be transferred by the Dough
Pump. One reason why it is not suitable for some types of dough is because it
creates heat during the transfer process.

CONTINUOUS MIXING METHOD

The Continuous Mixing Method is very popular among large commercial bakeries.
The bread produced by this method has very fine tight grain similar to the grain of
cake. The Continuous Bread Making System uses the following basic elements:
A liquid ferment, brew or liquid sponge is prepared and allowed to ferment in
stainless steel tanks under controlled temperature conditions for several hours. The
fermented mixtures are cooled by the use of refrigerated coils between the walls of
the tanks until ready to be used. This process eliminates setting individual sponges
and dough’s, and the need for dough troughs and large fermentation rooms — a
method of bringing together continuously all the ingredients in the right proportion for
the dough. After going through the developer, what happens next varies with different
bakeries. Some bakeries run the dough through conventional make-up equipment,
rather than extruding the dough directly into the pan as was done a few years ago,
because it is claimed that a better quality loaf results.

FERMENTATION EXPLAINED
STEP 3. Fermentation starts immediately after the yeast is put into the mixture.
However, the fermentation period is considered to begin when the sponge or dough
is dumped out of the mixer into the dough trough and rolled into the fermentation
room which is maintained at a temperature of 80 degrees F. and 75 percent relative
humidity. The chemical changes that occur, continue until the yeast is killed by the
heat of the oven. This is when the internal temperature reaches about 140 degrees
F. The fermentation period is considered to end when the dough goes to the divider
to be divided into individual loaf pieces (loaves).

STEP 3a. Leavening the dough is one of the essential things that take place during
fermentation. Carbon dioxide gas is produced and held by the gluten network. This
causes the whole dough mass to expand which helps to condition the gluten as was
mentioned previously.

STEP 3b. Alcoholic fermentation is the most desirable type of fermentation. To insure
that this type of fermentation predominates, the dough should come out of the mixer
between 78 degrees F. and 82 degrees F. and kept in an 80 degree F. fermentation
room with 75 percent relative humidity. NOTE: The instrument used to determine
percent relative humidity is called a Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer and a Relative
Humidity Table can be found in PART 1A-TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY.

Due to chemical changes that take place during fermentation, the sponge or dough
will increase to about 85 degrees F. and 90 degrees F. which is still in the range of
alcoholic fermentation. In the alcoholic range, a small amount of acetic acid and
lactic is produced which is beneficial. However, at higher temperatures a lot more of
these acids are produced along with butyric acid which is very undesirable. This
results in a poor quality product that will have a strong undesirable taste and flavor.
The crust will have a pale straw color and the loaf will have poor symmetry of form
and a very open grain. The crumb will have a yellowish color rather than a bright
white color.

STEP 3c. Fermentation of Straight Dough’s. Because fermentation time before the
punch varies, dough’s must be tested at different intervals. The time to punch is
determined by inserting the hand as far as the wrist gently into the dough and
observing the dough closely when the hand is withdrawn. When the proper
fermentation time has been reached, the dough will neither collapse nor spring back,
but will sink slightly around the depression. NOTE: This is demonstrated in PART
TWELVE titled "BREAD BAKING DEMONSTRATIONS".

STEP 3d. Punching the dough. When the proper time for punching has arrived, use
both hands and punch down through the center from one end of the dough trough to
the other. Then with both hands, grasp one side of the dough and pull on top. Repeat
the operation, folding the opposite side of the dough. Punching equalizes the
temperature of the dough; the gluten has been relaxed after its constant tension
during the period of expansion. This helps to strengthen and further develop the
gluten. This is also demonstrated in PART TWELVE titled "Bread Baking
Demonstrations.

STEP 3e. Fermentation time after the punch. Time after punch can be determined
accurately by using fermentation ratios. For example, if dough ferments for 2 hours
before the punch and a generally used 80/20 fermentation ratio is used, the time
after the punch can be determined by dividing 120 minutes by 80 percent, (120/80)
equals 150 minutes which represents 100 percent of the time. Subtract 120 minutes
which equals 80 percent of the time from150 minutes which represents 100 percent
of the fermentation time (150-120=30 minutes (fermentation time remaining after the
punch).

STEP 3f. Fermentation of the sponge. Fermentation time for sponges vary from 4 to
6 hours depending upon the strength of the proteins of the flour, temperature of the
sponge, and the amount of yeast used. Basically the same procedure is used to
determine fermentation time of the sponge as for straight dough’s, with the exception
that the sponge is not punched, but observation is made to determine when the
sponge begins to recede slightly. This is normally known as the breaking point of the
sponge. Another method used by some bakers is to observe when the sponge
becomes wavy on top. When this occurs, this represents 80 percent of the total
fermentation time. The remaining 20 percent fermentation time is calculated the
same way as was used to determine time after the punch for straight dough’s.

Makeup consists of Dividing, Rounding, Intermediate Proofing, Moulding and

Panning.
NOTE: Major improvements have been made in recent years on Make-Up
Equipment due to the development of Dough Conditioners, Oxidation Agents and
Enzymes. The baker is able to produce more extensible dough’s by fully developing
them in the mixer. Dough Dividers have been developed which “punishes” the dough
a great deal less than those used in the past. Also, a Belt Rounder is capable of
rounding and sealing the dough without the use of dusting flour. The most significant
new development is in Intermediate Proofing — where the proofing time has been
reduced to three minutes or less due to development of new ingredients and
Extrusion Dividers. The information below explains Make-Up Procedures used prior
to the new development and which are still being used by many bakeries.

STEP 4a. Dividing and scaling consists of cutting the dough (by hand or machinery)
into loaf size pieces and weighing the pieces to insure uniformity. Because of the
average loss of about 12 percent during make-up, proofing, baking and cooling, this
loss must be taken into account. To produce a loaf of bread weighing 1 pound (16
oz.) the dough piece must be scaled about 18 ounces.

STEP4a (1). Rounding is the process of rounding the scaled pieces of dough into a
round ball with smooth unbroken skin over its entire surface. The unbroken skin will
retain the gas generated within the dough piece during the intermediate proofing
period.

STEP4a (2). Intermediate proofing is the process of giving the rounded dough pieces
a short rest period (about 12 to 15 minutes) to recover from the effects of the dividing
and rounding machine. The rest period allows the dough to relax after undergoing a
great deal of punishment while being forced under a lot of pressure while being
extruded from the divider pockets. Without the rest period the dough would be tight
and rubbery and would not go through the moulder sheeting rollers without tearing.
The intermediate proofing machine has small pockets or baskets covered with
canvas traveling within an enclosed draft free area.

STEP 4a (3). MOULDING. Upon completion of the intermediate proofing period, the
dough pieces are molded into the shape desired. In the moulder the dough passes
through three distinct stages. Flattening is done in the head rollers of the moulder.
Second, the sheeting rollers sheet the dough into a flat piece of dough and the
curling rollers and thread rollers twirl each piece of sheeted dough and give it a
cylindrical shape. Next, the drum or pressure plate rolls and seals the loaf into its
final form. Conventional moulders curl the dough in the same direction that it was
sheeted. It is difficult to produce bread with a close uniform grain with this type of
moulder. For this reason some bakers twist two pieces of dough together or use
cross grain moulders. Cross grain moulders curl the dough in the opposite direction
from which it was sheeted. That is, the dough is caused to turn right or left after it
has been sheeted and is then curled. This is called cross grain moulding. Cross
grain moulding and twisting two pieces of dough together prior to putting them into
the baking pan both produces loaves with a close smooth grain and texture.
STEP 4a (4). Pan proofing is the process of rolling the panned and racked molded
dough pieces quickly into the dough proofing cabinet. The cabinet is well insulated
and maintains a temperature of 95 degrees F. to 98 degrees F., and a relative
humidity of 85 percent.

NOTE: In recent years, bakers have increased the temperature of proof boxes to110-
120 degrees F. with a relative humidity of 90 percent. Under these conditions the
loaves are allowed to proof for about 45 to 60 minutes. At the end of the proofing
period, they double in size.

STEP 5. Baking the Bread.

At the end of the pan proofing period, the loaves are loaded quickly, but carefully into
the oven for baking. In large commercial bakeries the panned loaves are carried
automatically on conveyor belts and loaded automatically into the oven. Oven
temperatures vary from about 425 degrees F. to 450 degrees F. During the first
minutes of the baking process the carbon dioxide gas within the dough expands.
This expansion causes a very rapid rise of the dough known as oven spring.
Fermentation is more vigorous and more rapid at this stage than at any previous
stage. When the inside temperature of the loaf reaches 140 degrees F. the yeast is
killed and fermentation ceases. Alcohol produced during fermentation evaporates in
the form of vapour. After the oven spring, the pliability of the dough gradually lessons
and the dough becomes set and slowly changes to bread. Some of the moisture
evaporates, the starch becomes gelatinized and more digestible gluten and other
proteins become coagulated.

After the loaf sets, the intense heat dries out the part exposed to the air and causes
a crust to form. The golden brown color of the crust is the result of chemical changes
in the starch, sugar and milk known as a browning reaction (Maillard reaction) also
known as caramelization.

Within the loaf, the crumb near the crust is subjected to a temperature as high as
300 degrees F. The temperature gradually decreases towards the center of the loaf
at which point it reaches about 212 degrees F. the same temperature at which water
boils at sea level. At this temperature the gluten becomes stiff enough to give the loaf
permanent form and retain its structure. When the baking process is complete, the
loaves are unloaded manually or automatically and either dumped on cooling racks
or travel on enclosed air conditioned conveyor belts to the cooling area. The loaves
are allowed to cool for about 1 hour at which point the internal temperature of the
loaf drops to about 100 degrees F. and is ready to be sliced and wrapped or bagged.

STEP 7. Slicing and packaging. Automatic slicing, wrapping or bagging machines

and tying machines, completes the seven major steps in bread production. The
bread is ready to be shipped to grocery stores and other food establishments to be
consumed by the public.