10th May 2017 The timeline of Adi Sankaracharya

CONTEXT

Adi Sankara commands a towering presence in the pantheon of divine and corporeal philosophers who have graced the ancient land
of India. In his short lifespan of 32 years, the precociously gifted and zealously motivated teacher (Acharya) developed his unique
philosophy (Darshana) of Advaita Vedanta,1 [#fn1] penned edifying commentaries2 [#fn2] on the three crown-jewels of Vedic
philosophy (the Upanishads, the Vedanta Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita – collectively called the Prasthana-traya), composed
numerous original works of literature,3 [#fn3] traversed the length and breadth of India challenging and defeating scholars subscribing
to competing Darshanas (thereby establishing Advaita Vedanta as the pre-eminent philosophy of India) and instituted schools of
learning to propagate Advaita Vedanta across the country. The crux of Adi Sankaracharya’s Advaita Vedanta can be succinctly
summarized in his own words below:

श्लोकाघेर्न प्रवक्ष्यािम यदुक्तं ग्रन्थकोिटिभः।

ब्रह्म सत्यं जगिन्मथ्या जीवो ब्रह्मैव नापरः।
I expound in half a verse, what has been spoken of in a million texts: Brahman is the true reality and the world is a misunderstanding
of this truth; the Jiva (soul) is no different from Brahman.

While Adi Sankaracharya’s life and exploits (Sankara-Vijayas) have been chronicled by his disciples and adherents, the timeframe in
which the Jagat-guru (teacher of the world) lived is still a conundrum. Modern historians state that Adi Sankaracharya was born in
788 CE in Kaladi (Kerala) and passed away in 820 CE in Kedarnath (Uttarakhand), while Indian tradition – derived from the
Sankara-Vijayas below – reckons a far more ancient chronology:
The Sankara-Vijaya of Sri Chitsukhacharya (one of the direct disciples and co-students of Adi Sankaracharya), known under the
name of Brihat Sankara-Vijaya
The Sankara-Vijaya of Anandagiri (the well-known commentator of the Bhashyas and Vartikas of Adi Sankaracharya and
Suresvara), known under the name of Prachina Sankara-Vijaya
The Sankara-Vijaya of VidyaSankara or Sankarananda (the author of Atma Purana and of the Dipikas on the Upanishads,
Bhagavadgita and Brahmasutras), known under the name of Vyasachaliya
The Sankara-Vijaya of Govindanatha (one of the Pandits of Kerala), known under the name of Acharya-Charita or Keraliya Sankara-
Vijaya
The Sankara-Vijaya of Chudamani Dikshita (the author of many Sanskrit poems and dramas), known under the name of
Sankarabhyudaya
The Sankara-Vijaya of Ananta-anandagiri known under the name of Guru Vijaya or Acharya-Vijaya
The Sankara-Vijaya of Vallisahayakavi (one of the adherents of the Sringeri Matha), known under the name of Acharya Digvijaya
The Sankara-Vijaya of Sadananda (also an adherent of the Sringeri Matha), known under the name of Sankara Digvijaya Sara
The Sankara-Vijaya of Chidvilasa (also an adherent of the Sringeri Matha), known under the name of Sankara Vijaya Vilasa
The Sankara-Vijaya of Madhava Vidyaranya (also an adherent of the Sringeri Matha), known under the name of Samkshepa Sankara
Vijaya

This article presents the traditional and modern chronologies for Adi Sankaracharya and encourages readers to develop their own
conclusions as to when the Jagat-guru graced us with his presence.

THE MILIEU OF ADI SANKARACHARYA BASED ON INDIAN TRADITION

The Sankara-Vijayas listed above inform us that Adi Sankaracharya lived in a time when Buddhism, Jainism and six competing
Darshanas of Vedic philosophy (see below) were vying for supremacy in India.
The Nyaya Darshana of Gautama
The Vaiseshika Darshana of Kanada
The Sankhya Darshana of Kapila
The Yoga Darshana of Patanjali
The Mimamsa Darshana of Jaimini, and
The Vedanta Darshana of Badarayana

Adi Sankaracharya’s chronology can be pieced together from the information that has been preserved on the latter three philosophers
(and their adherents). In his magnum opus (Mahabhashya) on Panini’s Ashtadhyayi, Patanjali implies the fall of the Maurya dynasty
to the Sunga dynasty4 [#fn4] and apparently provides an eye-witness account of Pushyamitra Sunga’s horse-sacrifice,5 [#fn5] which
places Patanjali sometime after Pushyamitra’s coronation in 1400 BCE. Patanjali’s Mahabhashya was apparently known to the
Kashmiri king Abhimanyu4 [#fn4] (who reigned prior to 1182 BCE6 [#fn6] ), which is consistent with Patanjali’s above timeline.
Badarayana and Jaimini both quote Patanjali and each other,5 [#fn5] making them contemporaries and subsequent to Patanjali.

In his book ‘The Age of Sankara,’ T.S. Narayana Sastry says7 [#fn7] that Suka Yogindra revised and enlarged Badarayana’s Vedanta
Sutras while Upavarsha (literally younger Varsha) wrote commentaries (Vrittis) on Badarayana’s Vedanta Sutras as well as on
Jaimini’s Mimamsa Sutras. Suka Yogindra’s disciple was Gaudapada (who – as per an incredible legend – was also Patanjali’s
disciple), whose disciple Govindacharya fathered four sons – Vikramaditya of Ujjayini, the grammarian Bhartrihari, Bhatti and
Vararuchi. Adi Sankaracharya was this Govindacharya’s disciple.

Kumarila Bhatta was an adherent of Jaimini’s Mimamsa Darshana and the mentor of Mandana Mishra (who later became Adi
Sankaracharya’s disciple under the name Suresvara). T.S. Narayana Sastry says that8 [#fn8] Kumarila’s early life as given in
Chitsukhacharya’s Brihat Sankara Vijaya is more or less corroborated by all the Sankara Vijayas and by scattered passages from
Kumarila's own works. According to the Sankara Vijayas, Kumarila learnt the secrets of his opponents’ religion and philosophy in
disguise and underwent self-immolation as penance for his betrayal (guru-droha). Adi Sankaracharya is supposed to have witnessed
Kumarila’s self-immolation at Prayaga (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Sculpture commemorating Adi Sankaracharya’s meeting with Kumarila Bhatta at Prayaga (Allahabad)

T.S. Narayana Sastry says that8 [#fn8] the description of Kumarila’s early life in Buddhist sources is vague and these sources do not
mention the name of the teacher under whom Kumarila learnt the secrets of his opponents’ religion and philosophy. However,
Chitsukhacharya’s Brihat Sankaracharya Vijaya distinctly says that Kumarila’s opponent was Mahavira and his followers were called
the Jainas, and that he directed his energies against the Jainas alone who under their founder Mahavira Vardhamana had begun to
undermine Vedic Brahmanism in his day.

We have corroborating evidence for the identity of Kumarila’s opponents from the Jina Vijaya – one of the oldest works on the life of
Jina (Mahavira) by an orthodox Jain poet. The Jina Vijaya distinctly mentions9 [#fn9] Kumarila Bhatta and King Sudhanvan as
contemporaries of his hero Mahavira (and considers Kumarila Bhatta, King Sudhanvan and Adi Sankaracharya as Mahavira’s
opponents).

We can use this information to construct the following timeline (see Figure 2):
 Figure 2: Timeline of Adi Sankaracharya’s mentors and peers

Lastly, Hindu tradition provides the following information regarding Adi Sankaracharya’s lifetime:
The Brihat Sankara Vijaya of Sri Chitsukhacharya states that Adi Sankaracharya, having adorned the Earth for a period of 32 years
attained the state of eternal happiness in Yudhishthira Saka 2663.10 [#fn10]
The Prachina Sankara Vijaya of Anandagiri states that Adi Sankaracharya cast off his mortal body in the year 2625 of the Kali
Yuga.11 [#fn11]
The Punyaslokamanjari of Sri Sadasivendra Sarasvati states that Adi Sankaracharya passed away at the age of 32 on the 11th day
(ekadasi) of the bright half (Sukla Paksha) of the month of Vaisakha of the year Raktakshi in 2625 of the Kaliyuga.12 [#fn12]
The Sankara Vijaya Kavya of Vyasachaliya states that ‘on one occasion, on an Ekadasi day which was specially dear to the Supreme
Narayana, the giver of final beatitude, in the bright half of the month of Vaisakha of the year Raktakshi in 2625 of Kaliyuga, the
great Guru (Adi Sankaracharya) suddenly longed to cast off his mortal body.13 [#fn13]
The Sankara Vijaya Kavya of Vyasachaliya states ‘In the auspicious year Nandana corresponding to 2593 of the Kaliyuga, while the
Sun was on his northern course (Uttarayana), on Sukla Paksha Panchami of the month of Vaisakha (Mesha) on Sunday in
combination with Punarvasu, the nakshatra presided over by Aditi, and in an auspicious Yoga, and in an auspicious Lagna (Karkata)
with auspicious Grahas and aspected by benefics, when Sun, Mars and Saturn were in their exaltation and Jupiter in Keudra, the
chaste lady (Aryamba), wife of Sivaguru, without any pain of labour, gave birth to a son (Adi Sankaracharya).14 [#fn14]
The Sankara Digvijaya of Madhava-Vidyaranya states that as per the records of Sringeri Math, Adi Sankaracharya was born in the
14th year of the reign of Vikramaditya.15 [#fn15]
The Nepali chronology of Suryavanshi (solar descent) kings states that the first king of this dynasty came to the throne in year 1389
of the Kaliyuga while the 23rd king is said to have been coronated 2700 years after the Kaliyuga. The 27th king is said to have come
to the throne in Harsha Samvat 119. Adi Sankaracharya is said to have visited Nepal during the reign of Vrishadeva Varma, the 18th
king.16 [#fn16]
The Jina Vijaya states that:10 [#fn10]
Kumarila Bhatta was born in the year 2077 of the Yudhisthira Saka and fell from his Jain teacher’s grace in the year 2109.
Sankaracharya’s death occurred in year 2157 in the Yudhisthira Saka.
When 15 years had elapsed from his birth, Adi Sankaracharya met Bhattacharya for the first and last time.

We can use the information above to arrive at Adi Sankaracharya’s traditional timeline:
Adi Sankaracharya passed away in Yudhishthira Saka 2663 or Kaliyuga 2625. With the traditional date of 3102 BCE as the onset of
the Kaliyuga, the year of Adi Sankaracharya’s death works out to 477 BCE. This means Yudhishthira Saka started in 477+2663 =
3140 BCE.
We know that the Mahabharata war took place 36 years before Lord Krishna's death in 3102 BCE. So the war would have taken
place in 3102+36 = 3138 BCE. Yudhisthira was crowned king after the war so it is not unreasonable to expect that the Yudhisthira
Saka is reckoned to the round date of 3140 BCE.
With a lifespan of 32 years, Adi Sankaracharya’s birth year should be 477+32 = 509 BCE, which works out to 3102-509 = 2593
Kali Yuga.
The scribe Al-Beruni (who accompanied Mahmud Ghaznavi during his invasions of India) mentions the Sri Harsha Vikramaditya era
to have begun in 457 BCE,17 [#fn17] which gives us the following timeline for the Nepal royal dynasty:
1st king (1389 Kaliyuga = 1713 BCE) → 23rd king (2700 Kaliyuga = 402 BCE) → 27th king (119 Harsha = 338 BCE)
Using the above timeline, Vrishadeva Varma, the 18th king of the dynasty would be placed ~ 500 BCE. This supports our
chronology for Adi Sankaracharya (509 – 477 BCE).
With Sri Harsha Vikramaditya dying in 457 BCE, Sankaracharya (509 to 477 BCE) and he must have been contemporaries,
justifying the Sankara Digvijaya's comment that Adi Sankaracharya was born during the reign of Vikramaditya (and the legend that
Adi Sankaracharya was contemporaneous with Vikramaditya and Bhartrihari).
The Vetala Panchavimshati – the story of the legendary king Vikramaditya of Ujjayini and his dialogues with a Vetala (spirit) –
states:18 [#fn18] Philosophy, says Sankaracharya, is either the gift of nature or the reward of study. The text, whose central character
is based on either Sri Harsha Vikramaditya of Ujjayini (of the 457 BCE era) or an unknown Vikramaditya of the Vikram Samvat of
57 BCE, should not be aware of any Sankaracharyas if Adi Sankaracharya was born in 788 CE.
In his book ‘The Age of Sankara,’ T.S. Narayana Sastry says19 [#fn19] that Jains and Buddhists uniformly place their Yudhisthira
Saka 468 years after the commencement of the Kali Yuga. So the Jina Vijaya's date of Adi Sankaracharya's death in 2157 Yudhisthira
Saka works out to 477 BCE (= 2157+468 = 2625 Kaliyuga), which matches the traditional date from Hindu sources.
We can calculate Kumarila Bhatta’s birth to have occurred in 557 BCE (= 3102 – (2077+468)) and the meeting of Adi
Sankaracharya and Kumarila Bhatta to have occurred in 509-15 = 494 BCE, giving a lifespan of 63 years to Kumarila Bhatta (557 –
494 BCE).
Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of the Jains, is said to have attained Nirvana 470 years before the Vikrama era of 57 BCE.20 [#fn20]
Since Mahavira is believed to have died at the age of 72, his lifespan works out to 599 – 527 BCE. This, as expected from the Jina
Vijaya, makes Mahavira a contemporary of Kumarila Bhatta.

ADI SANKARACHARYA’S DATE ACCORDING TO MODERN HISTORIANS

The argument for placing Adi Sankaracharya in the 8th century CE is as follows:21 [#fn21]
Dharmakirti and his predecessor Jina22 [#fn22] were philosophers of a school of logic. Hiuen Tsiang (also called Xuanzang, who was
in India from 629 to 645 CE) included Jina but not Dharmakirti in his enumeration of famous philosophers. If Dharmakirti had been
known in Hiuen Tsiang’s time, then he would probably have mentioned Dharmakirti. I-Tsing (also called Yijing, who sailed to India
from the port of Sribhoja (now Palembang) between 673 and 692 CE) mentions Jina as well as Dharmakirti in his list of Buddhist
philosophers. Dharmakirti thus achieved recognition after Hiuen Tsiang (i.e., after 645 CE). Adi Sankaracharya, on the other hand,
quotes from the Pramanaviniscaya of Dharmakirti,23 [#fn23] making Sankaracharya posterior to Dharmakirti. This places
Sankaracharya in the 8th century CE.

In other words, Dharmakirti’s (and hence Adi Sankaracharya’s) date is based on the following assumptions:
Hiuen Tsiang mentions all philosophers before his time in his travelogue
The absence of Dharmakirti from Hiuen Tsiang’s record coupled with the mention of Dharmakirti in I-Tsing’s record proves that
Dharmakirti lived (or gained fame) after Hiuen Tsiang.

REBUTTAL OF DHARMAKIRTI’S PROPOSED TIMELINE

A perusal of Hiuen Tsiang’s travelogue shows that he is only concerned with philosophers who lived/ gained fame in countries that
Hiuen Tsiang visited personally. For example, Hiuen Tsiang mentions the following philosophers:24, [#fn24] 25 [#fn25]
Narayanadeva, Asanga, Vasubandhu, Dharmatrata, Manorhita and Parsva from Gandhara
Panini from Salatura
Nagarjuna from south India who visited Vaisali (Magadha)
Jina from the country of Andhra
Dharmapala from Kanchipuram
Gunamati (Kiu-na-mo-ti) from Southern India who defeated a heretic named Madhava “in the early time”
Gunamati and Sthiramati (Kien-hwui) – disciples of Vasubandhu – who stayed in Valabhi
Silabhadra who met Dharmapala (Hu-fa) from Nalanda and requested to become a disciple. Hiuen Tsiang provides an account of
Silabhadra (30 years old at the time) taking Dharmapala’s permission to defeat a heretic from South India in a philosophical debate.
Bhavaviveka from Dhanakantaka who was a contemporary of Dharmapala (Hu-fa) of Magadha
Dharmapala (Hu-fa), Chandrapala (Hu-yueh), Gunamati (Tih-hwui), Sthiramati (Kinhwui), Prabhamitra (Kwang-yeu), Jinamitra
(Shing-yeu), Jnanachandra (Chi-yueh), Sigrabuddha (?) (Ming-min) and Silabhadra (Kiai-hien) as teachers from Nalanda. Hiuen
Tsiang makes the following comment on these teachers: “Each of these composed some tens of treatises and commentaries which
were widely diffused, and which for their perspicuity are passed down to the present time.”

Hiuen Tsiang’s last statement may be construed to mean that all these teachers lived much before him. However, Hiuen Tsiang’s
teacher at Nalanda (an aged man more than 70 years old) was called by the Chinese name of Ching-fa-tsong, meaning treasure
(bhadra) of the good law (sila) – in other words, Silabhadra.26 [#fn26] It is generally accepted that this Silabhadra (Ching-fa-tsong)
was the same Silabhadra (i.e., Dharmapala’s student Kiai-hien) listed by Hiuen Tsiang in his enumeration of teachers at Nalanda.

I-Tsing mentions some Vedic philosophers as well as several of the above Buddhist philosophers in his introduction to his book on
India:27 [#fn27]

There is a commentary on the Vritti-sutra entitled Kurni, containing 24,000 slokas. It is a work of the learned Patanjali. This cites the
former Sutras (Panini), explaining the obscure points (lit. ‘piercing the skin') and analysing the principles contained in it.
Next, there is the Bhartrihari-Sastra. This is the commentary on the foregoing Kurni, and is the work of a great scholar Bhartrihari…
He was a contemporary of Dharmapala. It is forty years since his death [i.e, A.D. 651-652].
Next there is Pei-na (probably Sanskrit ‘Beda’). It contains 3,000 slokas, and its commentary portion is in 14,000 slokas. The sloka
portion was composed by Bhartrihari, while the commentary portion is attributed to Dharmapala, teacher of the Sastra.
In this manner, priests become famous throughout Jambudvipa (India), receive respect above gods and men, and serving under the
Buddha and promoting His doctrine, they lead all the people (to Nirvana). Of such persons in every generation only one or two
appear. Such were Nagarjuna, Deva, Asvaghosha of an early age; Vasubandhu, Asanga, Sangabhadra, Bhavaviveka in the middle
ages; and Jina, Dharmapala, Dharmakirti, Silabhadra, Simhachandra, Sthiramati, Gunamati, Prajnagupta (not ‘Matipala’),
Gunaprabha, Jinaprabha (or ‘Paramaprabha’) of late years.
Dharmakirti made a further improvement in Logic (Hetu) after Jina.

We can make the following deductions from Hiuen Tsiang’s and I-Tsing’s records:
Silabhadra was more than 70 years old when Hiuen Tsiang was in Nalanda in ~635 CE
Dharmapala (Silabhadra’s teacher at Nalanda) knew Silabhadra when Silabhadra was 30 years old, so Silabhadra must have been at
Nalanda from at least 595 CE.
Dharmapala was a contemporary of Bhartrihari, who died in 651-652 CE. Since Hiuen Tsiang does not mention Dharmapala at
Nalanda, we must assume that Dharmapala had died before 635 CE.
Dharmapala, Silabhadra, Bhartrihari and Hiuen Tsiang were contemporaries, but Hiuen Tsiang does not mention Bhartrihari in his
list of Buddhist philosophers.
Sthiramati and Gunamati were disciples of Vasubandhu, which justifies Hiuen Tsiang’s statement that Gunamati belonged to “an
early time.”
Dharmapala is the first and Silabhadra is the ninth philosopher in Hiuen Tsiang’s list, both of whom were Hiuen Tsiang’s
contemporaries. However, Gunamati and Sthiramati (the third and fourth philosophers in the list) were far removed from Hiuen
Tsiang’s time. This tells us that Hiuen Tsiang’s list is not in chronological order.
Dharmapala and Silabhadra are the second and fourth philosophers in I-Tsing’s list, but Sthiramati and Gunamati (of “an early
time”) are the sixth and seventh in I-Tsing’s list. This tells us that I-Tsing’s list of philosophers “of late years” is also not in
chronological order.
According to Hiuen Tsiang, Bhavaviveka and Dharmapala were contemporaries, but I-Tsing places Bhavaviveka in “the middle
ages” and Dharmapala in “late years.” This tells us that I-Tsing’s categorization of early, middle and late years is haphazard.
According to Hiuen Tsiang, Gunamati and Sthriramati were students of Vasubandhu. However, I-Tsing places Vasubandhu in “the
middle ages” while Gunamati and Sthiramati are placed in “late years.” So it is possible that Dharmakirti (in I-Tsing’s list of
philosophers of “late years”) belonged to “the middle ages” as well.

Nobody suggests that since Hiuen Tsiang does not name Patanjali, Deva, Ashvaghosha, Sanghabhadra, Bhartrihari, Simhachandra,
Prajnagupa, or Gunaprabha while I-Tsing does, we must conclude that all these philosophers must have lived between the times of
Hiuen Tsiang and I-Tsing. We can only say that Hiuen Tsiang chose to mention some philosophers (the criterion being that Hiuen
Tsiang visited the places of their birth) and chose not to mention others. We do not know where Dharmakirti was born so this may be
the reason why he is missing from Hiuen Tsiang’s list. Similar to Patanjali (whose place of birth is not known and who is also not
mentioned by Hiuen Tsiang) and Gunamati (mentioned by Hiuen Tsiang as belonging to an early age but mentioned by I-Tsing as a
recent philosopher), Dharmakirti may have lived centuries before Hiuen Tsiang.

A far more compelling argument against the traditional of 509 BCE for Sankaracharya is raised by I-Tsing:28 [#fn28]
Bhartrihari has skillfully discussed about the Hetu and Udaharana (the cause and example of logic). This scholar was very famous
throughout the five parts of India, and his excellences were known everywhere. He believed deeply in the Three Jewels (i.e.
Ratnatraya) and diligently meditated on the ‘twofold nothingness, (Sunya). Having desired to embrace the excellent Law he became a
homeless priest, but overcome by worldly desires he returned again to the laity. In the same manner he became seven times a priest,
and seven times returned to the laity. He was a contemporary of Dharmapala. It is forty years since his death [i.e, A.D. 651-652].

If Bhartrihari lived as late as 652 CE, then it is impossible for Sankaracharya (who was a contemporary of Bhartrihari and met
Bhartrihari in Badarika-ashrama) to have lived in 509 BCE. However, the conundrum is solved when we discover who I-Tsing’s
Patanjali and Bhartrihari are:29 [#fn29]

The Sutra is the foundation of all grammatical science. It contains 1,000 slokas and is the work of Panini, a very learned scholar of
old, who is said to have been inspired and assisted by Mahesvara-deva.
The Vritti-sutra (Kasikavritti) is a commentary on the foregoing Sutra (i.e. Panini’s Sutra). There were many commentaries composed
in former times, and this is the best of them. This VrItti-sutra is a work of the learned Jayaditya. He was a man of great ability; his
literary power was very striking. It is now nearly thirty years since his death [i.e, A.D. 661-662].
There is a commentary on the Vritti-sutra entitled Kurni, containing 24,000 slokas. It is a work of the learned Patanjali. This cites the
former Sutras (Panini), explaining the obscure points (lit. ‘piercing the skin') and analysing the principles contained in it.
Next, there is the Bhartrihari-Sastra. This is the commentary on the foregoing Kurni, and is the work of a great scholar Bhartrihari…
He was a contemporary of Dharmapala. It is forty years since his death [i.e, A.D. 651-652].

This description clarifies that I-Tsing is referring to two philosophers (Patanjali and Bhartihari) who are contemporary to himself but
are far removed from Panini’s time, who is explicitly referred to as a “scholar of old.” I-Tsing’s Patanjali wrote a commentary on
Jayaditya’s Vritti-Sutra and is different from the Patanjali of old who wrote his Mahabhashya on Panini’s Ashtadhyayi. Similarly, I-
Tsing’s Bhartrihari – a Buddhist and a contemporary of Dharmapala – wrote a commentary on the recent Patanjali’s Kurni and not on
the Patanjali of old’s Mahabhashya. The disparity in the description of the two Bhartriharis has been noticed by later authors as
well:30 [#fn30]

Since nothing is really known about Bhartrihari as a person and his dates, too, are uncertain, all one can do is repeat the old story
that identifies him with a court poet of the same name. The poet Bhartrihari says that there are two worlds worth a man’s devotion:
the youth of beautiful women and the ascetic’s forest retreat; between them, he cannot choose. I-Tsing knows of a Buddhist
grammarian who seven times took a monk’s vows and seven times returned to the laity. However, neither the poet nor the philosopher
Bhartihari was a Buddhist. Besides, I-Tsing reports that the grammarian died about 650 A.D. This is later than is plausible to situate
Bhartrihari the grammarian-philosopher, whose thought was known to the early-sixth-century Buddhist philosopher Dignaga.

CONCLUSION

While Adi Sankaracharya’s traditional timeframe of 509-477 BCE is supported by a multitude of sources:
The various Sankara Vijayas
The Jina Vijaya
The chronology of the Nepal royal dynasty
The timeline (Sri Harsha era) and legendary account (Vetala Panchavimshati) of Vikramaditya of Ujjayini
The chronology of Adi Sankaracharya’s peers (Bhartihari known to Dignaga in the early 6th century CE, Kumarila and Mahavira as
contemporaries in ~550 BCE, too early for Adi Sankaracharya to have been born in 788 CE),

Adi Sankaracharya’s modern timeframe of 788-820 CE is based on only two assumptions, both of which have been refuted in this
article:
The absence of Dharmakirti from Hiuen Tsiang’s travelogue does not mean that Dharmakirti lived after Hiuen Tsiang. Hiuen Tsiang
only mentioned philosophers who were from the countries he visited and did not mention philosophers who lived centuries before
him but whose countries he did not visit (e.g., Patanjali).
I-Tsing’s mention of Dharmakirti in his list of philosophers “of late years” does not mean that Dharmakirti lived closer to I-Tsing’s
timeframe. I-Tsing classification of “middle ages” and “late years” is haphazard (Bhavaviveka – Dharmapala’s contempary – is
placed in “middle ages” while Dharmapala is placed in “late ages”) and ancient philosophers (e.g., Gunamati and Sthiramati) are
placed in “late ages.”

So in summary, it is perfectly possible that Dharmakirti (placed by I-Tsing in “late ages”) lived centuries before Hiuen Tsiang and I-
Tsing so that Dharmakirti could be quoted by Adi Sankaracharya during his lifespan of 509-477 BCE.
POST-SCRIPT

Dharmakirti is also mentioned by the Tibetan historian Taranatha, who provides an independent timeline of Buddhist philosophers in
his “History of Buddhism in India” (written in 1608 CE). Taranatha’s timeline is summarized below although it is quite inconsistent
with Hindu traditions and the records of Hiuen Tsiang and I-Tsing:31 [#fn31]
Nagarjuna was a contemporary of king Udayana. The exploits of this king as related by Taranatha appear to mirror the exploits of
king Salivahana of Pratisthana. Taranatha also says that king Udayana’s priest (Vararuchi) introduced Kalidasa (then a woodcutter) to
king Bhimasukla’s court.
Asanga and his younger brother Vasubandhu lived when Mahasammata (the son of Turushka) was the king of Kashmir. Neither
Mahasammata nor Turushka appear in Kalhana’s Rajatarangini (the list of kings of Kashmir written in 1148 CE). Vasubandhu was a
contemporary of the Tibetan king Lha-tho-tho-ri-giian-btsan.
King Sriharsha ruled over western India during the latter half of Vasubandhu’s life. Sriharsha’s preceptor was Gunaprabha (a disciple
of Vasubandhu). Sriharsha’s reign coincided with Mahasammata’s reign as the king of Kashmir and the lifetimes of Sthiramati (a
disciple of Vasubandhu) and Dignaga.
King Sila (Sriharsha’s son) ascended the throne near the end of Gunaprabha’s life. Sila’s preceptor was Chandramani (a disciple of
Gunaprabha). Sila’s reign coincided with the first half of Dharmapala’s life. During Sila’s reign, Jayadeva and Chandrakirti
successively served as the heads of Nalanda.
Dharmapala was a contemporary of Gunaprabha’s disciple, Gunamati. This is inconsistent with Hiuen Tsiang’s information that
Gunamati was Vasubandhu’s disciple.
Dharmapala was a disciple of Dignaga and succeeded Chandrakirti as the head of Nalanda university. This makes Dharmapala one
generation removed from king Sriharsha and two generations removed from Vasubandhu, a chronological impossibility.
Jayadeva succeeded Dharmapala as the head of Nalanda. This is perhaps a different Jayadeva from the Jayadeva who served as the
head of Nalanda before Chandrakirti during king Sriharsha’s reign. According to Hiuen Tsiang and I-Tsing, Silabhadra should have
succeeded Dharmapala as the head of Nalanda.
Dharmakirti was Dharmapala’s disciple and a contemporary of Ishvarasena, a disciple of Dignaga.
Dharmakirti learnt philosophy from Kumara-lila (his uncle; not to be confused with Kumarila Bhatta) and later defeated him in a
debate. Dharmakirti also defeated Sankaracharya (a brother of Dattatreya; not to be confused with Adi Sankaracharya) in debate on
three separate occasions. The condition of the each debate was that the loser would give up his life. Sankaracharya apparently
drowned himself after his first defeat, was re-born, drowned himself again, was re-born again and presented himself for a third
debate in his third re-incarnation. Upon being defeated by Dharmakirti again, Sankaracharya (after two re-births) finally accepted
Buddhism.
Dharmakirti was a contemporary of the Tibetan king Sron-btsan-sgam-po.
Bhartihari was the king of the Malavas (i.e., Ujjayini) during Dharmakirti’s lifetime.

The above account appears to be an unusable farrago of information on famous Buddhist philosophers:
Taranatha makes Sriharsha, Vasubandhu, Sthiramati and Dignaga contemporaries. This Sriharsha can be the Sri Harsha Vikramaditya
of the 457 BCE era (so that Vasubandhu and Sthiramati can belong to “an early age”), but then Dharmapala (who I-Tsing says died
~40 years before I-Tsing was in Nalanda) cannot follow Dignaga.
Taranatha’s next generation of kings and philosophers are Sila, Gunaprabha and Dharmapala. If this Sila is Hiuen Tsiang’s patron
Harshavarshana Siladitya (so that Dharmapala can be placed ~600 CE), then as per Hiuen Tsiang, the head of Nalanda should be
Silabhadra and not Gunaprabha. Also, we cannot have Dharmapala come so soon after Sthiramati who as per Hiuen Tsang belonged
to “an early age.”
Dharmakirti’s interactions with Kumara-lila and Sankaracharya cannot be confused with the exploits of Kumarila Bhatta and Adi
Sankaracharya, who as we have seen from the Sankara Vijayas and Jina Vijaya, lived very different lives.
The king Bhartihari cannot follow Dharmapala as Bhartihari’s work was known to Dignaga (Dharmapala’s predecessor)

In light of these inconsistencies, it is best to discard Taranatha’s testimony and stay with Hiuen Tsiang’s and I-Tsing’s narratives.

1. It should be remembered that while Badarayana’s Vedanta Sutras formed the basis of Adi Sankaracharya’s philosophy, the Vedanta
Sutras only affirm the existence of the infinite, formless and trait (guna)-less Brahman – the consciousness that is the cause of creation.
The unity of the individual Jiva (soul) and Brahman was Adi Sankaracharya’s unique contribution to Vedic philosophy. In Adi
Sankaracharya’s Advaita philosophy, Brahman is not a destination to be achieved but is rather the essential reality of one’s own self that
is to be realized through the destruction of the ignorance (Avidya) that conceals it (from Shankara: A Hindu Revivalist or a Crypto-
Buddhist?, Kencho Tenzin, Thesis, Georgia State University, 2006)↩ [#ref1]
2. The renowned Shodasa-Bhasyas or sixteen Commentaries on the three Smriti-Prasthanas (Vishnu-Sahasranama, Sanatsujatiya and
Bhagavad-Gita), 11 Upanishads & the Mandukya-Karikas and the Vedanta Sutras of Badarayana↩ [#ref2]
3. Narmada-ashtaka, Pratas-Smarana, Sadhana-Patichaka, Yati-Panchaka, VakyaVritti, Viveka-Chudamani, Dasa- Sloki, Atmanatma-
Viveka, Maya-Vivara, Ekadasotta-rasata Vakya-Grantha, Bhaja Govindam, Panchikarana, Bala-Bodhini, Raja-Yoga-Bhashya, Shatpadi,
Hari-Stuti, Sata-sloki (Vedanta-Kesari), Svaatma-Nirupana, Paramartha- Sara Sangraha, Praudhanubhati Prakarana, Dhanyashtaka,
Dakshinamurti-Stotra, Siva-Padadi-Kesanta-Varnana Stotra, Siva-Kesadi-Padanta Varnana-Stotra, Soundarya Lahari, Atma-Bhujanga,
Svanubhava-Prakarana, Adhyatmavidya-Sannyasavidhi, Vedanta-Dindima, Mahavakya-Vivarana, Tatva-Bodha, Krishnashtaka, Matri-
Sruti, Prayagashtaka, Yamunashtaka, Madhavashtaka, Lakshmi-Nrisimha-Pancha-ratna, Vedasara-siva-Stotra, Tattvopadesa, Manisha
Panchakam↩ [#ref3]
4. "A Record of the Buddhist Religion as practiced in India and the Malay Archipelago (A.D. 671 – 695) by I-Tsing," translated by J.
Takakusu, pp. x (introduction by Max Muller), Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1896↩ [#ref4]
5. “The Age of Sankara,” T.S. Narayana Sastry, pp. 141, B.G. Paul & Co., Madras, 1916↩ [#ref5]
6. Puranic chronology of India, http://bharatbhumika.blogspot.com/search/label/Puranic_chronology, accessed on May 6, 2017↩
[#ref6]
7. “The Age of Sankara,” T.S. Narayana Sastry, pp. 47-61, B.G. Paul & Co., Madras, 1916↩ [#ref7]
8. “The Age of Sankara,” T.S. Narayana Sastry, pp. 148-149, B.G. Paul & Co., Madras, 1916↩ [#ref8]
9. “The Age of Sankara,” T.S. Narayana Sastry, pp. 150-152, B.G. Paul & Co., Madras, 1916↩ [#ref9]
10. “The Age of Sankara,” T.S. Narayana Sastry, pp. 224-227, B.G. Paul & Co., Madras, 1916↩ [#ref10]
11. “The Age of Sankara,” T.S. Narayana Sastry, pp. 227-228, B.G. Paul & Co., Madras, 1916↩ [#ref11]
12. “The Age of Sankara,” T.S. Narayana Sastry, pp. 223-224, B.G. Paul & Co., Madras, 1916↩ [#ref12]
13. “The Age of Sankara,” T.S. Narayana Sastry, pp. 228-233, B.G. Paul & Co., Madras, 1916↩ [#ref13]
14. “The Age of Sankara,” T.S. Narayana Sastry, pp. 246-249, B.G. Paul & Co., Madras, 1916↩ [#ref14]
15. "Sankara Digvijaya," Madhava-Vidyaranya, pp. xviii, Sri Ramakrishna Math, Madras, 2002↩ [#ref15]
16. “The Age of Sankara,” T.S. Narayana Sastry, pp. 28, B.G. Paul & Co., Madras, 1916↩ [#ref16]
17. “Alberuni’s India Vols. I and II,” Dr. E.C. Sachau, Chapter XLIX, pp. 6-7, Low Price Publications, Delhi, 1910↩ [#ref17]
18. "Vikram and the Vampire," Richard F. Burton, pp. 58, Longmans, Green & Co., London, 1870↩ [#ref18]
19. “The Age of Sankara,” T.S. Narayana Sastry, pp. 149, B.G. Paul & Co., Madras, 1916↩ [#ref19]
20. “The Age of Sankara,” T.S. Narayana Sastry, pp. 145, B.G. Paul & Co., Madras, 1916↩ [#ref20]
21. Notes to Dharmakirti, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dharmakiirti/notes.html, accessed on April 15, 2017↩ [#ref21]
22. "Jina" is currently identified with the Buddhist philosopher Dignaga although neither Hiuen Tsiang nor I-Tsing make this identification:
"In the works of the Chinese pilgrims, the name Dignaga is not mentioned at all. But there occurs the name Jina which I suppose is
identical with Dignaga. Dignaga in the Brahmanic works, especially in those of Udyotakara and Vacasprati Misra, is designated as a
Bhadanta (venerable monk). Similarly Jina in Chinese books, especially those of I-Tsing, is mentioned as one of the ten famous
Bhadantas." The Buddhist Version of the Nyaya Philosophy, Satis Chandra Vidyabhushana, pp. 10, Journal of the Buddhist Text &
Research Society, Part IV, Volume 7, 1905 ↩ [#ref22]
23. "A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy," Volume 2, Hajime Nakamura, pp. 76, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1983↩ [#ref23]
24. "Buddhist records of the Western World (translated from the Chinese of Hiuen Tsiang)," Vol. I, Samuel Beal, pp. 98, 114, Trubner &
Co., Ludgate Hill, London, 1884. It should be noted that Hiuen Tsiang provides the Chinese names of these philosophers, which have
been rendered into Sanskrit by English and Japanese translators: Na-lo-yen-tin (Narayanadeva), Wu-ch’o-p’u-sa (Asanga Bodhisattva),
Shi-shin-p’u-sa (Vasubandhu Bodhisattva), Fa-kiu (Dharmatrata), Ju-i (Manorhita), Hie-tsun (Arya Parsvika).↩ [#ref24]
25. "Buddhist records of the Western World (translated from the Chinese of Hiuen Tsiang)," Vol. II, Samuel Beal, pp. 97, 218, 229, 104-
105, 268, 110-111, 223, 171, Trubner & Co., Ludgate Hill, London, 1884↩ [#ref25]
26. "The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang by the Shaman Hwui Li," Samuel Beal, pp. 106, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., London, 1911↩
[#ref26]
27. "A Record of the Buddhist Religion as practiced in India and the Malay Archipelago (A.D. 671 – 695) by I-Tsing," translated by J.
Takakusu, pp. 178, 180, 181, 182, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1896↩ [#ref27]
28. "A Record of the Buddhist Religion as practiced in India and the Malay Archipelago (A.D. 671 – 695) by I-Tsing," translated by J.
Takakusu, pp. 179, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1896↩ [#ref28]
29. "A Record of the Buddhist Religion as practiced in India and the Malay Archipelago (A.D. 671 – 695) by I-Tsing," translated by J.
Takakusu, pp. 172, 175, 178, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1896↩ [#ref29]
30. "A Comparative History of World Philosophy: From the Upanishads to Kant," Ben-Ami Scharfstein, pp. 218, State University of New
York, Albany, 1998↩ [#ref30]
31. "Taranatha’s History of Buddhism in India," translated by Lama Chimpa and Alaka Chattopadhyaya, pp. 109, 111, 114, 149-150,
175-180, 196-197, 210-211, 213-214, 229, 231-232, 233-237, 249 Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Simla, 1970↩ [#ref31]

Posted 10th May 2017 by Arun

Labels: Adi_Sankara

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Swaminathan Saikumar May 11, 2017 at 10:26 AM

Excellent research, Arun. Wondering when Dharmakirti lived.
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Swaminathan Saikumar May 11, 2017 at 10:26 AM

Excellent research, Arun. Wondering when Dharmakirti lived.
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