MUSCULAR SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCULAR

SYSTEM:
1. MOVEMENT OF THE BODY – contraction
of skeletal muscle is responsible for the
overall movements of the body
2. MAINTENANCE OF POSTURE – skeletal
muscle constantly maintains tone
3. RESPIRATION – thoracic muscles are
responsible
4. PRODUCTION OF BODY HEAT – muscle
contraction’s by-product is heat
5. COMMUNICATION – skeletal muscles are
involved in all aspects of communication
6. CONSTRICTION OF ORGANS AND
VESSELS – helps in some physiologic
processes in the body
7. CONTRACTION OF THE HEART – causes
the heart to beat

CHARACTERISTICS OF SKELETAL
MUSCLE:
o Skeletal muscle constitutes approximately
40% of body weight
o Skeletal muscles are so named because most
of it are attached to the skeletal muscle
system
o Four major functional characteristics:
1. Contractility – ability to shorten with force
2. Excitability – capacity to respond to a
stimulus
3. Extensibility – means stretchability
4. Elasticity – ability to recoil to their original
resting length after they have been
stretched

MUSCLE CONTRACTION:
 o Muscle twitch is the contraction of a o Generally, ATP is derived from 4 processes
muscle fiber in response to a stimulus in skeletal muscle:
o 3 phases: 1. Aerobic production of ATP during most
1. Lag or latent phase – time between the exercise and normal conditions
application of a stimulus and the 2. Anaerobic production of ATP during
beginning of a contraction intensive short-term work
2. Contraction phase – time during which 3. Conversion of a molecule called creatine
the muscle contracts phosphate to ATP
3. Relaxation phase – time during which 4. Conversion of two ADP to one ATP and
the muscle relaxes one AMP (adenosine monophosphate)
o In summation, the force of contraction of during heavy exercise
individual muscle fibers is increased by o Aerobic respiration, which occurs mostly in
rapidly stimulating them. mitochondria, requires O@ and breaks down
o Tetanus is a sustained contraction that glucose to produce ATP, CO2, and H2O; can
occurs when the frequency of stimulation also process lipids or amino acids to make
is so rapid that no relaxation occurs ATP
o In recruitment, the number of muscle fibers o Anaerobic respiration, which does not require
contracting is increased by increasing the O2, breaks down glucose to produce ATP and
number of motor units stimulated, and the lactate
muscle contracts with more force o Slow-twitch fibers work aerobically, whereas
fast-twitch fibers are more suited for working
CHARACTERISTICS OF SKELETAL anaerobically
MUSCLE FIBER TYPES:
Fast-Twitch Fast- FATIGUE:
Slow-Twitch Oxidative Twitch o Is a temporary state of reduced work
(Type I) Glycolytic Glycolytic
capacity
(Type IIa) (Type IIb)
Fiber o Without fatigue, muscle fibers would be
Smallest Intermediate Largest
diameter worked to the point of structural damage to
Myoglobin them and their supporting tissues
High High Low
content o Mechanisms underlying muscular fatigue:
Mitochondria
Many Many Few 1. Acidosis and ATP depletion due to either
High an increased ATP consumption or a
High anaerobic Highest decreased ATP production
Metabolism anaerobic capacity; anaerobic 2. Oxidative stress, which is characterized by
capacity Intermediate capacity
anaerobic
the buidup of excess reactive oxygen
species
Fatigue
High Intermediate Low 3. Local inflammatory reactions
resistance
o Under conditions of extreme muscular
Myosin head fatigue, muscle may become incapable of
Slow Fast Fast
activity
Glycogen
contracting or relaxing, this condition is
Low High High called physiological contracture – occurs
concentration
Endurance Rapid, when there is too little ATP to bind to the
Maintenance
activities in intense myosin myofilaments
of posture;
Functions endurance- movement
endurance o The most common type of fatigue,
trained of short
activities psychological fatigue, involves the CNS
muscles duration
rather than the muscle themselves.
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR MUSCLE
TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION:
CONTRACTION:
o Muscle contractions are classified as either
o Muscle fibers are very energy-demanding
isometric or isotonic
cells whether at rest or during any form of
o Isometric contractions , the length of the
exercise
muscle does not change, but the amount of
o This energy comes from either aerobic (with
tension increases during the contraction
O2) or anaerobic (without O2) ATP
process – responsible for the constant length
 of the body’s postural muscles (muscles of
the back)
o Isotonic contractions, the amount of tension
produced by the muscle is constant during
contraction, but the length of muscles
decreases (movement of the arms or fingers
o Most muscle contractions are a combination
of isometric and isotonic contractions
o Concentric contractions are isotonic
contractions in which muscle tension
increases as the muscle shortens
o Eccentric contractions are isotonic
contractions in which tension is maintained
in a muscle, but the opposing resistance
causes the muscle lengthens.
MUSCLE TONE:
o Is the constant tension produced by body
muscles over long periods of time
o Responsible for keeping the back and legs
straight, the head in an upright position, and
the abdomen from bulging
o Depends on a small percentage of all the
motor units in a muscle being stimulated at
any point in time
o The 2 points of attachment of each muscle
are its:
1. origin (head; most stationary)
2. insertion (attached to bone; undergoes the
greatest movement)
o Belly is the part of the muscle between the
origin and the insertion
o Note: some muscles have multiple origins
(e.g. biceps brachii (2), triceps brachii (3) )
o Muscles are typically grouped so that the
action of one muscle or group of muscles is
opposed by that of another muscle or group
of muscles (e.g. biceps brachii flexes the
elbow, triceps brachii extends the elbow)
o An agonist is a muscle that accomplishes a
certain movement
o The antagonist is a muscle acting in
opposition to an agonist
o Muscles also tend to function in groups to
accomplish specific movements

SKELETAL MUSCLE ANATOMY

GENERAL PRINCIPLES:
o Tendons connect each muscle head to the
bone
o Aponeuroses are broad, sheet-like tendons
o Retinaculum is a band of connective tissue
that holds down the tendons at each wrist and
ankle
o Muscle contraction causes most body
movements
o Note: some muscles are not attached to bone
at both ends (e.g. some facial muscles attach
to the skin) o
o Many muscles are members of more than one
group, depending on the type of movement
being produced (e.g. deltoid + biceps brachii
+ pectoralis major = shoulder flexion)
o Synergists are members of a group of muscles
working together to produce a movement
o Prime mover is the one muscle among a group
of synergists that plays a major role in
accomplishing a desired movement (e.g.
brachialis is the primer mover in elbow
flexion)
o Fixators are muscles that hold one bone in
place relative to the body while a usually
more distal is moved (e.g. muscles of the
scapula)

NOMENCLATURE:
o Most muscles have descriptive names
o Muscles are usually named according to
their:
1. Location – pectoralis (chest)
2. Origin & insertion – brachioradialis (spans
from the arm to the radius)
3. Number of origins – biceps (bi = 2, ceps =
head)
4. Function – flexor digitorum (flexes the
digits)
5. Size – vastus (large)
6. Shape – deltoid, triangular
7. Fasciculi orientation – rectus, straight
MUSCLES OF THE HEAD AND NECK:
o Include those involved in forming facial
expressions, chewing, moving the tongue,
swallowing, producing sounds, moving the
eyes, and moving the head and neck
FACIAL EXPRESSION:
o Occipitofrontalis raises the eyebrows
(occipital and frontal portions are connected
by the epicranial aponeuroses
o Orbicularis oculi encircle the eyes, tightly
close the eyelids, and cause “crow’s feet”
wrinkles in the skin at the lateral corners of
the eyes
o Orbicularis oris (encircles the mouth) and the
buccinator are sometimes called the kissing
muscles (pucker the mouth)
o Buccinator flattens the cheeks as in whistling
or blowing a trumpet and is sometimes called
the trumpeter’s muscle
o Smiling is accomplished primarily by the
zygomaticus muscles
o Sneering is accomplished by the levator labii
superioris
o Frowning and pouting are largely performed
by the depressor anguli oris
MASTICATION (CHEWING):
o The 4 pairs of muscles for chewing are some
of the strongest muscles in the body:
temporalis, masseter, pterygoids (2)
TONGUE AND SWALLOWING MUSCLES:
o Tongue is very important in mastication and
speech
o Moves food around in the mouth and (with
the buccinators muscle) holds the food in
place while the teeth grind the food 
pushes food up to the palate and back toward
the pharynx to initiate swallowing
o Intrinsic muscles of the tongue, located
entirely within the tongue and changes its
shape
o Extrinsic muscles, located outside of the
tongue but are attached to and move the
tongue
o Swallowing involves a number of structures:
hyoid muscles, soft palate, pharynx (throat),
and larynx (voicebox)
o Hyoid muscles are divided into a suprahyoid
group and infrahyoid group
o Muscles of the soft palate close the posterior
opening to the nasal cavity during
swallowing, preventing food and liquid from
entering the nasal cavity
o Pharyngeal elevators elevate the pharynx
o Pharyngeal constrictors constrict the pharynx
o Pharyngeal muscles also open the auditory
tube, which connects the middle ear to the
pharynx
NECK MUSCLES:
o The deep neck muscles include neck flexors,
located along the anterior surfaces of the
vertebral bodies, and neck extensors, located
posteriorly
o Rotation and lateral flexion of the head are
accomplished by lateral and posterior neck
muscles
o Sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscle, prime
mover of the lateral muscle group, is easily
seen on the anterior and lateral sides of the
neck
- Contraction of one SCM = rotates the head
- Contraction of two SCM = flexes the neck
or extends the head
o Torticollis (wry neck), results from injury to
one of the SCM muscles
THORACIC MUSCLES:
o Involved entirely in the process of breathing
o External intercostals elevate the ribs during
inspiration
o Internal intercostals contract during forced
expiration, depressing the ribs
o Major movement produced in the thorax
during quiet breathing is accomplished by
the dome-shaped diaphragm

TRUNK MUSCLES:
o Include those that move the vertebral
column, the thorax and abdominal wall, and
the pelvic floor

MUSCLES MOVING THE VERTEBRAL

COLUMN:
o Back muscles are very strong to maintain
erect posture
o Erector spinae group of muscles on each side
of the back are primarily responsible for
keeping the back straight and the body erect
o Deep back muscles, located between the
spinous and transverse processes of the
adjacent vertebrae, are responsible for
several movements of the vertebral column
ABDOMINAL WALL MUSCLES:
o Muscles of the anterior abdominal wall flex
and rotate the vertebral column, compress
the abdominal cavity, and hold in and protect
the abdominal organs
o Linea alba, a tendinous vertical indentation,
extending from the sternum through the
navel to the pubis; white connective tissue
rather than muscle
 o Rectus abdominis muscle, located laterally to
the linea alba
o Tendinous intersections cross the rectus
abdominis at 3 or more locations
o Lateral to the rectus abdominis are 3 layers
of muscles: (superficial to deep) (1) External
abdominal oblique, (2) Internal abdominal
oblique, and the (3) Transverse abdominis

PELVIC FLOOR AND PERINEAL

MUSCLES:
o Pelvis is a ring of bone with an inferior
opening that is close by a muscular floor
through which the anus and the openings of
the urinary tract and reproductive tract
penetrate
o Pelvic floor, also referred to as the pelvic
diaphragm – formed by the levator ani
muscle
o Perineum is the area inferior to the pelvic
floor – contains a number of muscles
associated with the male or female
reproductive structures
o Help regulate urination and defecation
UPPER LIMB MUSCLES:
o Include those that attach the limb and
pectoral girdle to the body and those in the
arm, forearm, and hand
SCAPULAR MOVEMENTS:
o Muscles that attach the scapula to the thorax
and move the scapula: (1) trapezius, (2)
rhomboids, (3) serratus anterior, and (4)
pectoralis
o Said muscles act as fixators – hold the
scapula firmly in position when the muscles
of the arm contract
 o Moves the scapula in different positions –
increasing the range of movement of the
upper limbs
ARM MOVEMENTS:
o Arm is attached to the thorax by the
pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi muscles
o The rotator cuff muscles attaches the
humerus to the scapula and forms a cuff of
cap over the proximal humerus – stabilize
the joint by holding the humeral head in the
glenoid cavity during arm movements
o Deltoid muscle attaches the humerus to the
scapula and clavicle – major abductor of the
upper limb
o Pectoralis major forms the upper chest, and
the deltoid forms the rounded mass of the
shoulder
o Deltoid is a common site for administering
injections
FOREARM MOVEMENTS:
o Arm can de divided into anterior and
posterior compartments
o Triceps brachii, the primary extensor of the
elbow, occupies the posterior compartment
o The anterior compartment is occupied by the
biceps brachii and brachialis, the primary
flexors of the elbow
o Brachioradialis, which is actually a posterior
forearm muscle, helps flex the elbow
SUPINATION AND PRONATION:
o Supination of the forearm, or turning the
flexed forearm so that the palm is up is
accomplished by the supinator and biceps
brachii
o Pronation, turning the forearm so that the
palm is down, is a function of two pronator
muscles
WRIST AND FINGER MOVEMENTS:
o 20 muscles of the forearm can also be
divided into anterior and posterior groups
o Anterior forearm muscles – responsible for
flexion of the wrist and fingers
o Posterior forearm muscles – cause extension
RETINACULUM:
o Strong band of fibrous connective tissue
o Covers the flexor and extensor tendons and
holds them in place around the wrist so that
they do not “bowstring” during muscle
contraction
 Flexor carpi muscles flex the wrist, and the
extensor carpi muscles extend the wrist
 Tendon of the flexor carpi radialis serves as a
landmark for locating the radial pulse
 Flexion of the fingers is the function of the
flexor digitorum
 Extension of the fingers is accomplished by the
extensor digitorum
 19 muscles, called intrinsic hand muscles, are
located within the hand
 Interossei muscles, located between the
metacarpal bones, are responsible for
abduction and adduction of the fingers
LOWER LIMB MUSCLES:
o Include those located in the hip, the thigh,
the leg, and the foot
THIGH MOVEMENTS:
o Several hip muscles originate on the coxal
bone and insert onto the femur
o Iliopsoas (anterior muscle), flexes the hip
o The posterior and lateral hip muscles consist
of the gluteal muscles and the tensor fasciae
latae (tenses a thick band of fascia on the
lateral side of the thigh called the iliotibial
tract)
o Gluteus maximus, extends the hip and
abducts and laterally rotates the thigh
o Gluteus medius, abducts and medially rotates
the thigh
o Gluteus maximus functions optimally to
extend the hip when the thigh is flexed at a
45-degree angle
o The gluteus medius is a common site for
injections in the buttocks because the sciatic
nerve lies deep to the gluteus maximus and
could be damaged during an injection
o In addition to the hip muscles, some of the
thigh muscles also attach to the coxal bone
and can move the thigh
o 3 groups of thigh muscles:
1. Anterior thigh muscles – flex the hip
2. Posterior thigh muscles – extend the hip
3. Medial thigh muscles – adduct the thigh
LEG MOVEMENTS:
o Anterior thigh muscles are the quadriceps
femoris and the sartorius
o Quadriceps femoris muscles are the primary
extensors of the knee and they have a
common insertion, the patellar tendon, on
and around the patella
1. Rectus femoris
2. Vastus lateralis – intermuscular injection
site
3. Vastus medialis
4. Vastus intermedius
o Patellar ligament is an extension of the
patellar tendon onto the tibial tuberosity
o Sartorius, the longest muscle in the body, is
called the “tailor’s muscle” because it flexes
the hip and knee and rotates the thigh
laterally
o Posterior thigh muscles are called hamstring
muscles, and are responsible for flexing the
knee
o A “pulled hamstring” results from tearing
one or more of these muscles or their tendons
o Medial thigh muscles, the adductor muscles,
are primarily involved, in adducting the thigh
ANKLE AND TOE MOVEMENTS:
o 13 muscles in the leg, with tendons
extending into the foot, can be divided into 3
groups: (1) anterior, (2) posterior, and (3)
lateral
o Anterior muscles – extensor muscles
involved in dorsiflexion of the foot and
extension of the toes
o The superficial muscles of the posterior
compartment of the leg, the gastrocnemius
and the soleus, form the bulge of the calf
(posterior leg) – they form the common
calcaneal (heel) tendon or Achilles tendon
o These muscles are flexors and involved in
plantar flexion of the foot
o Deep muscles of the posterior compartment
plantar flex and invert the foot and flex the
toes
o Lateral muscles of the leg, called the
fibularis muscles, are primarily everters of
the foot, but they also aid in plantar flexion
o The 20 muscles located within the foot,
called the intrinsic foot muscles, flex, extend,
abduct, and adduct the toes
DISEASE AND DISORDERS OF THE
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
CRAMPS:
o Painful, spastic contractions of a muscle
o Usually due to a build-up of lactic acid
FIBROMYALGIA:
o Non-life-threatening, chronic, widespread
pain in muscles with no known cure
o Also known as chronic muscle pain
syndrome
HYPERTROPHY:
o Enlargement of a muscle due to increased
number of myofibrils
o Occurs with increased muscle use
ATROPHY:
o Decrease in muscle size due to a decreased
number of myofilaments
o Occur due to disuse of a muscle, as in
paralysis
MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY:
o Group of genetic disorders in which all
types of muscle degenerate and atrophy
1. Duchenne muscular dystrophy
 Results from an abnormal gene on the X
chromosome and is therefore a sex-linked
(X-linked) condition
 Progressive muscular weakness and muscle
contractures
2. Myotonic muscular dystrophy
 Muscles are weak and fail to relax
following forceful contractions
 Affects the hands most severely; dominant
trait in 1/20,000 births
MYASTHENIA GRAVIS:
o Autoimmune disorder in which antibodies
are formed against acetylcholine receptors
o Muscle weakness and fatigue
TENDINITIS:
o Inflammation of a tendon or its attachment
point due to overuse of the muscle
EFFECTS OF AGING ON SKELETAL MUSCLE:
o Aging skeletal muscle undergoes several changes that
reduce muscle mass, increase the time a muscle takes to
contract in response to nervous stimuli, reduce stamina,
and increase recovery time
o Loss of muscle fibers begins as early as 25 years of age,
and by age 80 the muscle mass has been reduced by
approximately 50%
o Most of the loss of strength and speed is due to the loss
of muscle fibers particularly fast-twitch ones
o Neuromuscular junction surface area decreases  slow
neuronal action potential  slower muscle cell action
potential  fewer action potentials in muscle fibers
o Motor neurons decreases  remaining neurons innervate
more muscle fibers  decreased number of motor units
in the skeletal muscle  less precise muscle control
o Many of the age-related changes in skeletal muscle can
be slowed dramatically if people remain physically
active