Umts Post Launch

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Document Number: P/TR/005/O056/v1
This manual prepared by: AIRCOM International

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UMTS Post-launch Optimisation and

Network Evolution
O056
Contents
1 Introduction 7
1.1 Course Overview 7
2 Factors Limiting Capacity 11

2.1 Cell Throughput 11
2.1.1 Influence of Loading factor 12
2.1.2 Influence of External Interference 13
2.1.3 Influence of Eb/No value 16
2.1.4 The influence of orthogonality 19
2.2 Hard Blocking 24
2.3 Methods of increasing capacity of a cell 25
2.4 Network Throughput 26
2.5 Prioritising Actions 27
3 Reducing Mutual Interference 29

3.1 Introduction 29
3.2 Pilot Pollution 30
3.2.1 The High Site 30
3.2.2 Considerations when Down-Tilting 32
3.3 The Optimum Value of Down-tilt 35
4 Optimising Network Parameters 37

4.1 Introduction 37
4.2 RNC Parameters 38
4.2.1 BLER target 38
4.2.2 Time to trigger 41
4.2.3 Cell reselection times 42
4.2.4 Reselection hysterisis 43
4.2.5 RACH power offset 44
4.3 Cell Parameters 45
4.3.1 Pilot power 45
4.3.2 DL power per bearer 46
4.3.3 Soft Hand Over Margin 48
4.3.4 Exercise 1 51
4.3.5 Exercise 2 52
4.3.6 Further Issues regarding soft hand over. 58
4.3.7 Noise Rise (UL Loading Factor) Limit 60
5 Providing Additional Hard Capacity 61

5.1 Introduction 61
5.2 Channel Elements 61
5.3 Fixed network capacity 63
5.4 High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) 66
UMTS Post-Launch Optimisation and Network Evolution 3

AIRCOM International Ltd 2003
6 In-building Solutions 69
6.1 Introduction 69
6.2 The interference loop 70
6.3 The Dead-zone effect 72
6.4 Hand over from indoor to outdoor 74
6.4.1 Engineering the border region 74
6.5 Implementing the in-building cell 76
6.5.1 Choice of Node B 77
6.5.2 Distribution methods 80
6.5.3 Radiating cables 81
6.5.4 Field measurements to verify the implementation 83
7 Using Micro-cells to Service Hot Spots 87

7.1 Introduction 87
7.2 Micro-cell and In-building cells compared 88
7.3 The Theory behind the Micro-cell 89
7.3.1 Pilot Power Settings 91
7.3.2 Engineering the Micro-cell 92
7.3.3 What can go wrong? 94
7.3.4 Detecting Problem Areas. 95
7.4 Hotspots straddling macro cell boundaries 96
7.5 Propagation modelling for micro cells 97
7.6 Multiple micro cells 107
7.7 Limiting factors 107
8 The Effect of Further Site Sectorisation 109

8.1 The sectored antenna 109
8.2 Increasing the level of sectorisation 110
8.3 Using simulations to assess the effectiveness 112
8.3.1 Vital statistics: 112
8.3.2 Estimates of capacity 112
8.4 Neighbour Planning 117
9 Using Additional Carriers – Hierarchical Cell Structures 119

9.1 Spectrum Allocation 119
9.2 Deploying extra carriers in the macro cell layer 120
9.2.1 A test case 120
9.3 Fixed network provisioning. 122
9.4 Carrier loading strategy. 123
9.5 Hierarchical cell structures. 124
9.5.1 Capacity of micro-cells using separate carriers 126
9.5.2 Pilot and common channel powers in micro-cells 127
9.5.3 Link budgets for micro-cells 128
9.5.4 Multi-layer strategies for dense urban environments 129
9.5.5 Hand over between carriers 131
10 Implementing Diversity Systems 133

10.1 Introduction 133
10.2 Definition of Fading 134
10.3 Receive Diversity 134
10.4 Transmit Diversity 137

10.5 Multi-User Detection MUD 143
10.6 Predicting the Effect of Different Coverage and Capacity
Enhancement Devices 146
10.7 Multiple-beam antennas 152
10.7.1 Beam forming principles 153
10.7.2 Implementation in a UMTS network 157
10.7.3 Improvement from use of multiple-beam antennas. 157
10.8 Smart (beam-forming) antennas 159
11 Integrating Extra Sites into the Macro-Cell Layer 161

11.1 Introduction 161
11.2 Planning the new site 162
11.3 Action after activation of the new site 163
11.3.1 Making further drive-tests 163
11.3.2 Assessing network capacity 164
11.3.3 Interpreting measurements made under unknown loading
conditions. 174

1 Introduction
1.1 Course Overview

The objective of this two-day course is to provide delegates with
knowledge of methods, procedures and techniques that will enable them
to optimise the performance of an existing UMTS 3g network. This
optimisation can take the form of:
• Increasing the network capacity
• Increasing the provision of high-resource services
• Improve the quality of service offered to users
The starting point of the course is the expectation that a UMTS network
has been planned, built and “optimised” to a state where it could be
launched. Coverage can be described as “OK” (but perhaps coverage for
higher services may be “patchy”). Further, for launch, network coverage
was prioritised over capacity and therefore the capacity of the network
will not be optimised.
We can examine methods that will improve both capacity and coverage
and look at implementing them in an optimum way. These methods will
start from a “zero resource” (simply using the existing equipment to
better effect) point. Optimisation will then involve
• Re-configuring the antenna system
• Adjusting cell and network parameters
Next, an investigation into ways of utilising extra resources to further
enhance the network capacity and quality is carried out. These resources
will include:
• Provision of micro/pico-cells

• Further sectorisation
• Additional carriers
• Diversity and Multi-user Detection
• Additional macro-cell sites.
Introductory Session
Aims of Course
• Assuming the network has been

launched and:
• Coverage is “OK”.
• Higher services coverage is “patchy”.
• Coverage prioritised over capacity
• Aim is that, at the end of the course you will be
able to:
• Increase Network Capacity
• Increase Coverage for high resource services
• Improve quality of service offered to users.
Introductory Session
Aims of Course
• This will include:

• “zero resource” methods
• re-configuring antenna system
• adjusting cell and network parameters
• Adding to the network infrastructure
• provision of micro/pico-cells
• further sectorisation
• use of extra carriers
• diversity and multi-user detection
• addition of sites in the macro-cell layer

2 Factors Limiting Capacity
2.1 Cell Throughput

If we consider the factors influencing the capacity of a cell, we find that
this is affected by:
• The noise bandwidth (that we cannot change)
• The loading factor (that we can set within constraints)
• The external interference (that we strive to minimise)
• The Eb/No required on the service (that affects BLER and relies on
functionality such as power control operating well).
• The orthogonality on the downlink (that may be possible to influence)

Capacity Limiting Factors
Factors Limiting Capacity

• Cell Throughput is given by the simplified expressions for pole
capacity in kbps multiplied by the loading factor η
3840
×η •Uplink
Eb
N0
(1 + i )
3840
×η •Downlink
Eb
N0
(1 − α + i )
• Crucial parameters are Eb/No, inter-cell interference i, α

orthogonality and η loading factor (which is affected by the
Noise Rise limit).
2.1.1 Influence of Loading factor

On the downlink, the downlink power limits the loading factor. In most
situations, it will be possible to drive the downlink to a loading level of
about 85%. On the uplink it is limited in the form of a noise rise limit. As
the noise rise curve becomes steeper as the loading factor gets larger,
there are concerns regarding the stability of the network if the loading
level is allowed to become high. There is a general feeling that the noise
rise should be limited to about 4 dB (corresponding to a loading factor of
60%). However, where the site density is very high so that path loss is not
a limiting factor, the noise rise limit could be raised.

Factors Limiting Capacity: NR limit
• NR limit on uplink is directly linked to loading factor:
− NR
NR = −10 log(1 − η ); η = 1 − 10 10
• NR limit appears in link budget and hence affects coverage prediction.
• If a network is planned so that continuous coverage would be provided

with all cells simultaneously at NR limit, then probability suggests that
coverage is over-dimensioned.
• Coverage could be planned for a NR value 1 to 2 dB below the limit –

but this is often used as a “comfort factor” margin.
• Failures will then be split between Eb/No and NR.
Factors Limiting Capacity: NR limit

• However, if NR is allowed to reach very high values (e.g.> 7 dB)
there is concern that the network could become unstable.
• Initially, it is expected that NR will be limited to a maximum of, say, 6
dB until confidence in this approach is gained.
Noise Rise vs. Throughput
20.00 Steep slope -

unstable
15.00
Shallow slope -
Noise Rise
stable
10.00 Series1
5.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Throughput (x100kbps)
2.1.2 Influence of External Interference

External interference levels are probably the most tempting target.
Reduce interference and you increase capacity. However, if your main
weapon (as it probably is) in reducing interference is to down tilt the

antenna, you can make hand over regions so small that hand over failures
result. This effect will be more noticeable if the UE is travelling at
considerable speed. The optimum level is a compromise. Note that, on
the uplink, there is one value for i for the whole cell whereas, on the
downlink, each UE experiences a different value of i.
Factors Limiting Capacity: FRE
• Frequency re-use efficiency is the name given to the

proportion of received power that comes from a cell’s own
users rather than from all users including other cells.
intra cell 1 1
FRE = = =
intra cell + inter cell 1+
inter cell 1+ i
intra cell
1
i= −1
FRE
• Frequency re-use efficiency is a useful term as it varies

between zero and 1 as i drops from infinity to zero.
• The ideal situation is where the receiving antenna can only

“see” its own users but not those of other cells. i.e. FRE = 1
• The power from neighbouring mobiles close to the cell border

cause the biggest problems.
High power mobiles close to

Cell border cause FRE reduction

• A large cell serving a low subscriber density surrounded by

several smaller cells serving high subscriber densities will
experience a low value of FRE.
A Large cell will experience low FRE

Because it is surrounded by
many users of other cells
• Hotspots near the cell border will cause more problems that
evenly distributed neighbouring cells
Hot spots near cell border cause

FRE reduction
• A quantitative analysis is not always possible. A simulator
is extremely valuable in helping to develop a feel for the
seriousness of potential problems.

• Increasing FRE: the main weapon is to down-tilt

antennas.
• Overlap of coverage cannot be too small otherwise hand
over will fail. However, large overlaps will lead to low
FRE.
• This is most effective when there is a large angle
between the line from the antenna to the cell edge and
the horizontal.
• In the case of large cells, planning to avoid hotspots near
the cell border will reduce the incidence of low FRE.
2.1.3 Influence of Eb/No value

The Eb/No value indicates the air interface resource required by a bearer.
The higher the value of Eb/No, the lower the capacity. Eb/No is directly
linked to the BLER and so there will be a recommended value for a
particular service. However, it relies upon the fast power control loop
operating well. This is compromised if the mobile is moving at speed
through a multi-path environment and the target Eb/No can rise by as
much as 5 dB in such cases. This is something to look out for when drive
testing. The major benefit from employing diversity techniques is the
resulting reduction in the required Eb/No over the air interface. Multi-
user detection (MUD) has a similar effect on the downlink. Optimising of
network parameters, such as pilot power and soft hand over margin, can
result in a lowering of required power levels overall.

Factors Limiting Capacity: Eb/N0

• High capacity levels depend on low levels of Eb/No being
used. ( Note BER must be acceptable ).
• Achieving this relies on accurate, fast power control to
compensate for fast fading.
• Fast fading occurs as a mobile moves through an
interference pattern.
• Interference patterns develop due to reflections.
• Repetition distance depends on angle between incident
and reflected waves.
λ
× cos(θ ) θ
2
 E1 + E 2 
20 log 
 E1 − E 2 
E1
λ E2
× cos(θ )
2
• This is difficult to estimate, for a 6 dB

reflection loss the notch depth will be  1 + 10 − dBdiff / 20 
approximately 10 dB. Notchdb = 20 × log 
− dBdiff / 20 
 1 − 10 
• Fast power control is intended to
compensate for the fastest fading incidents
at the steepest slope.

• In situations where the reflected wave is strong, the slope of

the standing wave pattern can be in excess of 100 dB/m.
• UMTS allows for a power up command to be given at a rate

of 1500 Hz. Thus 1.5 dB/ms is the maximum rate that can
normally be accommodated.
• Speeds of greater than 15 m/s (54 km/h) can cause

problems.

• If the mobile cannot respond to power control commands,
the UE will notice a variation in the received signal.
• This will lead to BER variations that will cause the network
to require a higher target Eb/No (a “fast fading margin” or
“power control margin” will be required).
• The effect can be to increase the target Eb/No from a

normal value of perhaps 4 dB to 10 dB or more for fast
moving mobiles.
• This will reduce the capacity of a cell from typically 32

simultaneous connections to only 8 – a dramatic reduction.
• Lesson: the multipath environment and user mobility can

affect the target Eb/No and hence cell capacity.

• Reducing the required Eb/No:

• Diversity systems provide an Eb/No improvement.
• That means that the Eb/No over the air interface
can be reduced and hence the air interface
capacity increases.
• Multi-user detection (MUD) reduces the effect of
mutual interference between users on the uplink.
• This reduces the required transmit power per user
and hence reduces the noise rise caused by a
given number of users.
• As a result the pole capacity increases.
2.1.4 The influence of orthogonality

Orthogonality allows the effect of own-cell interference to be reduced by
the signal processing in the receiver. Typically, this sort of interference is
reduced by about 4 dB. The effect on cell capacity depends on the value
of this orthogonality factor and the relative contribution of out of cell
interference to the total level. Most importantly, there is no guidance on
positioning cells to maximise the benefit from orthogonality and, even if
there was, relocation of cells (which means re-doing the network plan) is
not at the top of our list.

Factors Limiting Capacity: Orthogonality
• Dramatic effect on downlink capacity.
3840
Pole Capacity =
Eb
N0
(1 − α + i )
• Example: Eb/No = 4 dB, i = 0.6, 12200bps
Orthogonality 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Pole Capacity 963 1100 1280 1534 1914 2548
Pole Capacity
(kbps)
2000
1000
Orthogonality
0 0.5 1


• The Loading factor deliverable on the downlink depends upon
the link loss, maximum transmit power and noise performance
of the mobile.
• Example: Tx Power 43 dBm; Noise Floor of Mobile -100 dBm.
{ }
Mobile Rx Power = 10 log 10(43− LL ) 10 + 10 −100 / 10 dBm
10(43− LL −orth ) 10 + 10−100 / 10 
NR = 10 log
10 −100 / 10
{
 = 10 log 10
(143− LL −orth ) 10
+1}
 
1
η = 1 − (143− LL −orth ) 10
10 +1
orth = −10 log(1 − α )
• Deliverable loading factor can be expected to exceed 75%.

• Pole capacity is crucial.
• Question:
• Suppose a group of users of a 64kbps service in an isolated
cell experiencing a link loss of 138.4 dB are demanding a total
data throughput of 1.024 Mbps at an Eb/No of 4 dB.
• What is the downlink loading factor at this throughput if the

orthogonality is i) 0.4 and ii) 0.8?
• Further, what is the traffic channel power demanded and what

is the maximum throughput possible at that path loss if the
maximum traffic channel power is 42.7 dBm?
• Assume a noise level at the mobile of -102 dBm before noise
rise.


• Answer:
• At an orthogonality of 0.4, the pole capacity is 2548 kbps.
• 1024 kbps represents a loading factor of 39%.
• Hence the Noise Rise would be approximately 2.23 dB.
• The effective received traffic power would be -103.7 dBm
• Actual received traffic power is 2.2 dB higher (-101.5 dBm)

indicating a transmit power of 36.89 dBm (link loss 138.4 dB).
• 42.7 dBm would be able to deliver almost 72% loading factor

and hence the throughput possible should be approximately
1832 kbps.

• Answer (continued):
• At an orthogonality of 0.8, the pole capacity is 7644 kbps.
• 1024 kbps represents a loading factor of 13%.
• Hence the Noise Rise would be approximately 0.6 dB.
• The effective received traffic power would be -110.1 dBm
• Actual received traffic power is 7.0 dB higher (-103.1 dBm)

indicating a transmit power of 35.3 dBm (link loss 138.4 dB).
• 42.7 dBm would be able to deliver almost 46% loading factor

and hence the throughput possible should be approximately
3519 kbps.

• Orthogonality degradation is caused by a multipath radio

propagation environment.
• Typically, it is of the order of 0.6 in an urban environment, higher

in rural environments.
• In an isolated cell, an indication of the orthogonality can be

obtained by measuring the pilot SIR when the transmit powers of
all channels are known.
• At low values of path loss, all interference power will be due to

interference from other channels.
• What can be done to improve orthogonality?
• Currently, very little.
• No guidance regarding placing of sites to

maximise orthogonality known about.
• In future there may well be but:- the only outcome

would be the recommendation to move cells (not a
welcome recommendation as it means start
planning the network from the beginning).

2.2 Hard Blocking
UMTS optimisation engineers often concentrate on the air interface or
“soft” capacity of a network. However, there is always a need to ensure
that there is sufficient “hard” capacity in the form of channel elements
and fixed transmission network capacity. It is pointless increasing the
capacity of the air interface to above the “hard” capacity of the network.
It is tempting to launch a network with a low level of hard capacity. In
such cases, increasing the hard capacity of the network should be the first
thing to be considered as subscriber demand grows.
Factors Limiting Capacity: Hard Blocking

• So far we have
discussed air
E1 links?
interface capacity or
“soft” capacity.
• We could suffer also

from “hard” blocking
due to hardware and
fixed network
constraints. Channel elements?

Factors Limiting Capacity: Hard Blocking

• There is no value in
increasing the “soft”
E1 links?
capacity of the air
interface above the
network’s “hard”
capacity.
• Often the network will

be launched with a low
level of “hard”
Channel elements?
capacity.
2.3 Methods of increasing capacity of a cell

These can be divided into two categories
1. “zero resource”:
• Adjusting the network configuration in order to minimise mutual
interference
• Adjusting network and cell parameters in order to optimise
performance
2. “new resource”:
• Install additional channel elements and/or increase the capacity of
the fixed transmission network.
• Implement diversity and multi-user detection as required.

Methods of Increasing Cell Capacity
• “Zero” resource:
• Adjusting configuration to reduce mutual interference
• Adjusting network and cell parameters in order to optimise

performance.
• New resource requirements:

• Adding channel elements
• Increasing capacity of fixed network
• Implement diversity and/or multi-user detection.
2.4 Network Throughput

The above equations and discussions are focused on the throughput per
cell. Network capacity can be approximated as the sum of the capacities
of the individual cells. It is therefore tempting to simply add cells as
required in order to increase capacity. But, not only is this a very
expensive option, it generally leads to a reduction in the capacities of the
individual cells. Therefore the return on investment can diminish. This is
largely because the mutual interference between cells tends to increase as
cell density increases. Nevertheless, increasing the number of cells in the
network has to be considered as the demand for capacity grows.
However, it is important that the increase is managed in an efficient
manner, implementing the solutions with maximum effect and lowest
cost first.

Network Capacity
• Capacity calculations have been “per cell”.
• Network is of many cells.
• Can we just multiply the capacity per cell by the
number of cells?
• Do we just add more cells to increase network
capacity?
• Very expensive option
• Diminishing returns set in: higher site density results in
increasing interference.
• Procedure needs to be structured for maximum
benefit.
2.5 Prioritising Actions

A possible order of events is:
1. Address hard capacity issues
2. Use pico cells to provide in-building solutions
3. Deploy micro cells to service hot spots
4. Further sectorise (e.g. 6 cells per site) the macro cell layer
5. Provision extra carriers to selected sites (in UMTS a sector with 2
carriers is, logically, 2 cells).
6. Deploy extra sites into the macro cell layer.
Further, attention must be given to where cell activities fit in with the
above list. For example, what priority will implementing diversity and
MUD be given?

Network Capacity
• Possible procedure
• Address hard capacity issues.
• Use pico-cells to provide an “in-building solution”
• Deploy micro-cells to service hot spots
• Further sectorise (e.g. six cells per sector)
• Provision extra carriers on some sites (a sector
with 2 carriers is, logically, 2 cells in UMTS).
• Deploy extra sites in the macro-cell layer.
• Note: Priority of deployment of diversity/MUD

is a topic of discussion.

3 Reducing Mutual
Interference
3.1 Introduction
Whilst coverage may be described as very good, it is very probable that
the network capacity will be well below its limit. It is useful to undertake
a “thought experiment” whereby you imagine a very high user demand is
present throughout your network. You can then attempt to devise ways
of maximising the number of subscribers who receive a service. Of
course, a Monte Carlo simulator on a planning tool will assist in this. But,
generally, the lower the mutual interference, the higher the network
capacity. However, an overlap region is necessary for successful hand
over to occur and it is natural to be somewhat cautious regarding this,
initially. Nevertheless, occurrences of many pilots at a high level (pilot
pollution) must be addressed.

Reducing Mutual Interference
“Reducing Mutual Inteference”

• The lower the interference the higher the capacity.
• Because of the single frequency used in a UMTS layer, there is
an “Interference feedback loop”.
• This means that interference, rather than just adding to the
background noise level, consumes a proportion of the network
resource (power on the DL, noise rise on the UL).
3.2 Pilot Pollution

Even though interference may not be high enough to produce a noticeable
effect on the service at network launch, the coverage area should be
investigated in order to identify areas of interference that indicate that
capacity will be limited in the near future as demand grows. Taking
action will cure the problem before it affects customer service. Drive test
data can be analysed to check for the presence of many pilots. It must be
remembered that, in some areas, three pilots of near-equal level will
inevitably occur. More than three is in principle avoidable. It is sensible
to start with areas where the highest number of pilots is noted. These
areas should be examined and compared with the planning tool
prediction. From this it should be possible to reveal which pilots are
“wanted” in that area and which are “unwanted”. The task is then to
reduce the level of the unwanted pilots so that they pose a lower
interference threat. Identifying unwanted pilots is the easy part.
Deciding what to do about them is a harder matter. A few examples are
given.
3.2.1 The High Site

The classic text book example of a high site, where one site is much higher
than all the surrounding sites, is not very common. However, terrain
features do lead to a similar effect. Consider the situation illustrated in

profile here. The distant site produces significant interference in the
service region indicated.
“High Sites”
• Often, what is apparently sensible planning can lead to the
emergence of high sites.
• In the situation shown a distant site posed an interference threat
in the area of interest.
Interfering
Cell Intended
serving cell
Area of interest
“High Sites”
• The first action to be taken would be to increase the down tilt of
the interfering cell.
• Care must be taken to ensure that it still provides coverage
where it is intended.
Interfering
Cell Intended
serving cell
Area of interest
Coverage
Area

“High Sites”
• Other possible solutions include reducing the cell power of the
interfering cell.
• This should be done with great care as it will affect the downlink
coverage and capacity in its wanted coverage area.
Interfering
Cell Intended
serving cell
Area of interest
Coverage
Area
3.2.2 Considerations when Down-Tilting

When down-tilting it is important to realise the effect on the radiation
pattern. Antennas will generally have a fixed electrical down tilt and
flexibility is in the form of mechanical down tilt. It should be
remembered that the effect of mechanical down tilt reduces as you move
in azimuth away from the principal direction. Indeed, at 90°, mechanical
down tilting has no effect at all. As the reduction in radiation strength is
surprisingly small at 90° (perhaps 12 dB), the situation can arise where, at
distance, there is a stronger signal away from the principal direction than
there is in the principal direction. This effectively places a limit on the
effectiveness of mechanical down tilt in reducing interference. Electrical
down tilt is, however, effective at reducing the radiation in all directions.
A typical solution to attempt would be to employ an antenna with a fixed
electrical down tilt of perhaps 6° to which can be added a few degrees of
mechanical down tilt. Care must be taken to ensure that the cell’s wanted
signal is maintained at sufficient levels over its required coverage area
and that there is sufficient overlap to allow hand over to occur as
necessary.

Examples of Antenna Tilt

0 0
-5 -5
No Tilt -10 Mechanical -10

-15 -15
-20 Downtilt -20
-25 -25
-30 -30
-35 -35
0 Electrical Downtilt + 0
Electrical -5 -5
-10 Mechanical Uptilt -10
Downtilt -15 -15

-20
-20
-25 -25
-30 -30
-35 -35
Limitations on Downtilt
• If the antennas are

mounted centrally on a
roof,
• The amount of down-tilt
achievable can be limited
Block Image by the site geometry
Plan

Rooftop Main Lobe Clearance

• Main lobe is typically required to clear the roof
• Parapets around roof edge should be considered
• Spurious reflections off roof may occur if this is not
achieved
θ = tan-1((h-p)/d)
h = antenna
height above roof
p = parapet height (m)
(m)
d = distance from roof edge (m)
θmin = 1/2 * θ−3dB_vertical + θsafety_margin +θelectrical_tilt + θmechanical_tilt
Rooftop Plinth Mounting

• Poles mounted on plinths/pads on
edge of roof
• Azimuth Restrictions
• Three different ranges:
•Within range as for wall
mounting of little concern
•Until azimuth parallel to wall
‘probably’ retain same mounting
Block Image •Should azimuth face ‘into’
structure would want to change
mounting location
• Height Flexibility
• None with current mounting
• Reduction in height would require
wall mounting
• Downtilt Flexibility
• No real limit except design
Plan guidelines
• Mounting bracket limitations

Rooftop Plinth Mounting
• Height and position of adjacent buildings will also affect the downtilt
possible
• A general rule: The principal direction of an antenna should
experience clearance of 5 metres for a distance of 100 metres from the
cell antenna.
3.3 The Optimum Value of Down-tilt

Interference can be said to be the limiting factor in a UMTS network and,
yet, it is what makes UMTS “work”: the only way to get zero interference
is to have zero activity. The main victim of having an over-zealous
approach to reducing interference will be the operation of hand over. The
UE must be able to receive at least two good cells for the duration of the
hand over procedure. Drive tests must be carried out to ensure the
successful operation of hand over in areas where the interference levels
have been reduced by down tilting antennas.
The optimum value will depend on likely UE speed. The amount of
overlap required by a UE moving at 10 kph will be much less than for a
UE at 100 kph. The UE must be in the soft hand over region for sufficient
time to allow a hand over to take place. This time can be considered to be
up to a few seconds. Thus, a 10-metre region may be sufficient for a slow-
moving UE whereas a region of 100 metres would be required by a fast-
moving UE.

The Optimum Value of Down Tilt

• Although a lot of interference will reduce network capacity, too
little overlap can lead to hand over failures.
Too much interference:

network capacity
reduced.
Too little overlap:

hand over failures.
The Optimum Value of Down Tilt

• Likely speed of UE will be significant.
• If 3 seconds is seen as a typical hand over time:
• UE moving at 10 kph will move approximately 10 metres
• UE moving at 120 kph will move approximately 120 metres.
• SHO region must be sufficiently large.
Too much
interference:
network
capacity
reduced.
Too little
overlap: hand
over failures.

4 Optimising Network
Parameters
4.1 Introduction
There are thousands of parameters that can be set, either at RNC, Node B
or cell level. Some of these parameters have a more noticeable, immediate
effect on the performance of the network than others. The equipment
manufacturer will recommend certain default values for initial settings.
But, it must be borne in mind that the technology is very new and the
recommended values are not necessarily the optimum values. Naturally,
the initial focus is on those parameters that have an immediate effect on
cell performance. These will now be considered.

Network Parameters
Optimising Network Parameters

• Parameters that can be changed:
• RNC - “global”
• Node B
• Cell
• There are thousands of parameters that each
influence network functions.
• We will look at some that are among the most
significant.
4.2 RNC Parameters

Certain parameters are “global” in nature, rather than being specific to a
certain Node B, or cell. Some of these have a very significant effect on
network performance. Some of these are discussed below.
4.2.1 BLER target

The network will strive to ensure that signal to noise ratios delivered are
sufficient to ensure that the BLER is low enough to satisfy the service
users. This value forms part of the outer power control loop in which the
target Eb/No value is adjusted in order to meet the BLER target. Again,
the value of this parameter is a compromise: a very high level of BLER
will result in dissatisfied service users; a very low level of BLER will
require a very high target Eb/No to be imposed on the bearer with the
resulting reduction in capacity. Optimisation can be thought of as
maximising the number of service users who assess that service as being
of “toll quality”; that is, they are willing to pay for the service. Figures for
circuit-switched traffic typically vary between 0.1% and 1%. BLER targets
for packet switched traffic can be much higher as it is possible to allow re-
transmissions of packets. The network will be operating with greatest
efficiency if the energy used in successfully transmitting a frame of data is
E N
kept to a minimum. An expression that indicates this is b 0 where
1 − FER
Eb N 0 is a ratio and FER is the frame error rate. 1 – FER can be thought
of as the “frame success rate”. If this value is a minimum then the value

of Eb per successful frame is also a minimum. Experiments can be made
by adjusting Eb/No and monitoring the FER. The value at which the
expression becomes a minimum depends on the propagation conditions
but is, typically, at an FER of between 20% and 30%. This indicates that
packet traffic can be sent most efficiently if there is a considerable re-
transmission overhead but a low signal to noise ratio. It should be noted
that the above expression does not impose a penalty for the effect of
delay.
Network Parameters
BLER Target
• Setting a low value of BLER (e.g. 0.3%) will produce
a high quality digital communication channel
• But: this will in turn require a high Eb/No so each
channel will use a lot of network resource.
• Optimising a network is supporting as many satisfied
customers as possible; this means providing a
service that is “just good enough”.
• Increasing the BLER target (to, say, 1%) will
increase capacity.
• Assessment on impact is often subjective.

Network Parameters
BLER Target - Packet Services

• Values of 0.3% and 1% are typical for Circuit
Switched (CS) services (e.g. voice, VT).
• For packet switched (PS) services, delays and re-
transmissions can be tolerated.
• BLER can be much higher. Eb
• Crucial parameter: N0
1 − FER
• This indicates the energy required to successfully
transfer a frame of data.
• Network is “optimised” if this is a minimum.
Network Parameters

Eb
N0
1 − FER
Radio Chan 1
Radio Chan 2
20% 30%
FER
• Value of FER for minimum depends on radio channel.

• Typically 20% -> 30%.

Network Parameters
• For packet services, it appears that low Eb/No, high FER

is the most efficient situation.
• Re-transmission strategy/protocol required.
• Method does not impose a penalty for delay: assumes
that information is perfectly “delay tolerant”.
4.2.2 Time to trigger

In order to avoid an excessive amount of network management activity,
the network does not react instantaneously to measurements indicating
that event thresholds have been crossed. There is a built in “time to
trigger” (TTT) that is a delay time to ensure that anomalous readings do
not cause unwanted updating of the active set, for example. Again, the
time is a compromise: too short and the network will experience very
frequent attempts to enter or leave soft hand over; too long and soft hand
over may be delayed by long enough to cause interference problems. One
significant question related to this is: “How far will the UE move during
the triggering time?”...If the UE moves a long way into another cell’s
coverage area before that cell becomes a member of the active set, then
interference will result. Soft hand over exists to allow the new cell to
control the UE power levels. Typical values of TTT are from 100 ms to
1000 ms.

Network Parameters
Time to Trigger (TTT)
• Network functions (such as active set updates) are

triggered by “events”.
• For example: Event 1C:- “A non-active Primary CPICH
becomes better than an active Primary CPICH”.
• This event would normally trigger an active set update.
• However, it is important incorporate a TTT before the
update is executed.
Network Parameters
Time to Trigger (TTT)

•If TTT is too •If TTT is too
small, too many long, non-active
hand over cell will cause,
RSCP requests will be and suffer from,
made (HO is a interference.
“risky time”)
Non-active pilot
Active pilot
time
• Typical TTTs: 100 ms to 1000 ms
4.2.3 Cell reselection times

When in idle mode, the mobile keeps track of its “best server”. Once it
has detected that a new cell is a better server than its existing cell, a re-
selection procedure will be instigated. There is, however, a reselection
delay before this happens. This delay is typically a few seconds. If it is

too small, there will be frequent reselections. If it is too long, the UE may
be in an inappropriate location when it makes a call attempt. This will
lead to higher than necessary interference.
Network Parameters
Cell Re-selection Delay
• Similar to TTT, but refers to idle mode operation.

• Only one cell is “camped on” at a time.
• If delay is too short, frequent re-selections will occur.
• If delay is too long, UE will attempt to make a connection
on a link with high path loss. This will result in interference.
• Usually longer than TTT - typically two or three seconds.
4.2.4 Reselection hysterisis

In order to avoid a “ping pong” effect in idle mode, a hysterisis margin is
used to force the UE to tend of stay with its serving cell. This is similar to
the approach used in GSM networks. The value of the margin is typically
a few dB. If it is too small, there will be an excessive amount of
reselection attempts; if it is too large, there is a danger that the UE will
find itself in a poor quality radio channel when it attempts to
make/receive a call.

Network Parameters
Cell Re-selection Hysterisis
• Desirable to have cell camping onto “best server” but:

• need to avoid “ping pong” effect.
• Hysterisis is inserted to make UE tend to “hang on” to
selected cell (similar concept to that employed in GSM).
• Effect of getting it wrong:
• too small:- “ping pong” re-selections
• too large:- UE can be in poor radio environment when it attempts a
call.
4.2.5 RACH power offset

When establishing a call the UE sends a RACH request on the uplink
(UL). The power level of the RACH request is determined by assessing
the power of the pilot RSCP on the downlink (DL). It is possible to set a
parameter that modifies the UL transmit power. Again an optimum
value needs to be found. If the RACH power is too high, the uplink traffic
channels will suffer from interference and capacity will be reduced; if the
power is too low then call set up may fail. The offset is typically from
zero to –5 dB.

Network Parameters
RACH Power Offset

•UE measures CPICH RSCP
•Estimates path loss
•RACH power level

determined using
estimate of path loss
• Call set up is a vulnerable time.

• Fast power control not established.
• UE “guesses” appropriate power level for initial RACH
• Too low - not heard by cell, set up takes a long time or fails
• Too high - UL interference results
• RACH power offset adjusts initial guess.
4.3 Cell Parameters

Certain parameters need to be optimised for the particular cell and its
environment. Some will depend on quite straightforward issues, such as
the feeder loss. The optimum value of other parameters will depend on
less definable inputs such as average UE speed. Some examples are
given.
4.3.1 Pilot power

The pilot power is set at the “rack” output. However, if masthead
amplifiers (MHAs) are used, then soft hand over gain is maximised if the
pilot strength at the masthead is equal. Therefore, it is common in such
circumstances to, initially, adjust output powers so as to make them equal
at the masthead. Later in the optimisation process, it is common to allow
different cells to accept different levels of loading. Tailoring of the pilot
powers is necessary to ensure that this is effected without problem.

Network Parameters
Cell Pilot Power
• Pilot power dictates:

• cell coverage
• soft hand over regions
• UL soft hand over gain is maximised if UL path loss is
equal.
• If MHAs are employed, pilot power should be equal at the
mast head, not at PA output.
4.3.2 DL power per bearer

As well as allocating a maximum total power to traffic channels, it is
possible to specify a limit to the power that can be allocated to any one
bearer. The most appropriate value of this parameter is dependent on cell
activity. If the cell is very quiet then a large allocation will reduce the
probability of the downlink failing. As the cell is quiet, capacity issues
will not arise. If, however, there is a lot of demand for services, lowering
the maximum allocation will ensure that those with the lower demand
(i.e. UEs in areas of low interference) will get priority. This will lead to a
maximisation of throughput, and hence revenue. It is possible to specify
a different maximum level for active bearers compared with the level for
call set up.

Network Parameters
Maximum DL Power per Bearer
• DL users share the power available to traffic channels

(typically 16 Watts or 42 dBm).
• Allowing one user to use all this power would mean the cell
is blocked to other users; a limit is imposed.
Network Parameters
• If demand is low, it is best to have a high limit so that

coverage is maximised.

Network Parameters
• If demand is high, a lower limit will maximise throughput

(and hence revenue) at the expense of coverage in areas
of high path loss or interference.
4.3.3 Soft Hand Over Margin
4.3.3.1 Macro-diversity & Maximal Combining Gain

Soft Hand over is a necessity in any single-frequency cellular network. In
a multi-frequency technology, such as GSM, the possibility exists to
ensure that the “new” connection has a significantly lower path loss than
the “old” connection before hand over takes place. In a single frequency
network, the resulting interference on the “new” cell would drastically
reduce the capacity of the network. Soft hand over entails the mobile
simultaneously connecting with more than one cell. Although the most
significant purpose of introducing Soft Hand over was to reduce uplink
interference, there are other beneficial effects. Firstly, when more than
one path is provided for the radio link, a diversity gain is obtained. There
is a low probability of both channels suffering a bad fade simultaneously.
Thus there is a reduced need for a margin to accommodate such fades. In
this way, the target Eb/N0 value can be reduced when in soft hand over.
This is true of both the uplink and the downlink.
In addition to the diversity (or “macro-diversity”) gain afforded, the
receiver in the mobile (and the receiver at a Node B that is used when two
cells from the same Node B are in soft, or rather “softer” hand over)
processes the multiple received signal to produce and output that is of
higher quality than any individual signal. The result on the uplink is that
the transmit power of the mobile can be substantially reduced when in

soft hand over – having beneficial effects for coverage and interference.
On the downlink, providing additional hand over channels places a
power burden on the cell. This is partially (but usually not fully) offset by
reduction in the target Eb/N0 value. The general conclusion is the Soft
Hand over assists the uplink but places an additional burden on the
downlink. The amount of use made of soft hand over affects the relative
capacities of the two directions.
Soft Handover
Soft Handover
• As well as providing vital power control functionality, Soft Handover

improves the quality of the channel by means of two methods.
• Macro-diversity Gain
• Maximal Combining Gain
Soft Handover
Macro-Diversity Gain
• If the mobile communicates with

more than one cell, protection
against failure is provided as this
failure would have to occur on all 25
links to cause a call to drop.
20
15
• As the better quality link can be 10
selected, there is less variation in 5
overall channel quality.
0
-5
• This leads to a reduction in Power Mobile Tx Pwr Average Non-fading

Rise – the increase in average
transmit power that occurs as a
mobile responds to power control
commands. Power Rise

Soft Handover
Macro-Diversity Gain
• The reduction in Power Rise

helps to increase uplink 25
capacity as the average Tx 20
power is reduced. 15
10
-5
Mobile Tx Pwr Average Non-fading
Reduced Power Rise following Macro Diversity Gain
Soft Handover
Soft Handover – Combining the Signals

• On the Uplink there are two possible methods of combining the two
(or more) signals.
• When the two cells are on separate sites (conventional “soft”

handover), the RNC simply selects the better of the two signals.
• When the two cells are on the same site (“softer” handover),
maximal combining of the two signals can be implemented.
• Maximal combining leads to an output that is of better quality ( less

noisy ) than either of the individual signals.
• Maximal combining is implemented in the mobile to combine the

downlink signals.
• Macro-diversity gain and Maximal combining gain combine to

produce Soft Handover Gain.

Soft Handover
Soft Handover – Maximal Combining
• Consider the case where two signals arrive at the inputs to a

combiner. One is “good” (e.g. Eb/No = 8 dB) and the other is “poor”
(Eb/No 1 dB).
•Eb/No 8
dB
•??
•Eb/No 1
dB
• It is possible to combine the signals such that the output has an

Eb/No greater than 8 dB. This requires correct (“maximal”) weighting
of the two signals.
Soft Handover
Soft Handover – Maximal Combining

• The Eb/No at the output when the inputs are maximally
combined is given by the simple formula.
 Eb  E  E 
  =  b  +  b 
 N 0  out  N 0 1  N 0  2
• It must be noted that Eb/No is quoted as a ratio (not in dB).

• 8 dB corresponds to 6.3 as a ratio.
• 1 dB is a ratio of 1.26.
• These sum to 7.56 which is 8.8 dB.
4.3.4 Exercise 1
What Eb/No improvement is offered when two signals of equal quality
are combined ?
Answer :-

4.3.5 Exercise 2
What is the Eb/No at the output of a combiner if the input is composed of
two signals one with an Eb/No of 6 dB and the other with and Eb/No of -
2 dB?
Answer:
Soft Handover
Maximal Combining - questions
Question 1:
• What Eb/No improvement is offered when two signals of
equal quality are combined?

Soft Handover
Maximal Combining - solution
Answer 1:
• As the Eb/No of the two inputs are equal, the Eb/No at the
output will be “double” that at the input.
• This is an improvement of 3 dB
Question 2:
• What is the Eb/No at the output of a combiner if the input
is composed of two signals: one with Eb/No of 6 dB and
the other with an Eb/No of -2 dB.
Soft Handover
Maximal Combining - solution
Answer 2:
• 6 dB is a ratio of 3.98. -2 dB is a ratio of 0.63.
• These sum to 4.61.
• This is equal to an Eb/No of 6.64 dB
Optimising Soft Hand Over Parameters

Soft Handover
Optimising Soft Handover Parameters
• The parameter of most significance is the Soft Handover

“Add” and “Remove” Windows.
• They influence the number of terminals in soft handover.
• Generally, the larger the window is made, the lower the

loading on the uplink and the higher the loading on the
downlink.
• The path loss at the cell edge will influence the optimum
value of the SHO window.
• The lower the path loss the larger the value can be (as the
downlink will probably have plenty of spare power available).
Soft Handover

4 dB
window
2 dB
window
• The amount of improvement on the uplink and loading on the

downlink depends on the amount of soft handover gain
achieved.

Soft Handover

4 dB
window
2 dB
window
• Suppose each terminal shown above represents a 64 kbps

4 dB Eb/No connection.
Soft Handover
Estimating FRE
4 dB
• Suppose the terminals are arranged in groups of window
4 with the path loss to the two Node Bs changing
in 1 dB increments.
• The red terminals will each cause an interference

level 1 dB less than the wanted signals:
equivalent to the load of 3 terminals.
• The orange terminals will each cause an

interference level 3 dB less than the wanted 2 dB
signals: equivalent to 2 terminals. window
• ( 1dB less to their Node B, and 2 dB less to ours )
• Total interference load: 5 equivalent terminals.
FRE = 62.5% (5/8)

Soft Handover
Estimating FRE and Loading

4 dB
window
• Eb/No is 4 dB
• Pole Capacity = 995 kbps
• Loading = 54% (NR=3.4 dB)
2 dB
window
Soft Handover
Estimating The Effect of SHO

• Assumptions: 4 dB
• Window set to 4 dB. window
• SHO allows the UL Tx power to reduce by 1.5 dB

(Effectively making the Eb/No 2.5 dB).
• SHO allows the target Eb/No on the DL to be reduced.
This is assumed to be 2 dB (maximal combining on
downlink).
• BUT downlinks must service twice the number of
terminals (a 3 dB extra burden).
2 dB
window
• Summarising the effect: UL loading factor will reduce

from 54% to 38%. NR will reduce from 3.4 dB to 2.1
dB. Downlink Tx Power will increase by approximately
1 dB.

Soft Handover
Estimating The Effect of SHO

• If the window is set to 2 dB.
4 dB
• The DL will only have to suffer an increase of 50% in window
the number of terminals (to 12) and 8 of these will
benefit from SHO gain. Overall increase in burden
estimated to be 0.5 dB.
• UL split between users with a target Eb/No of 2.5 dB
and those with 4 dB. Combined loading estimated to
be 27% + 19% = 46%
• Summarising the effect: UL NR will reduce from 2 dB

window
3.4 dB to 2.7 dB.
• Downlink Tx Power will increase by 0.5 dB.
Soft Handover
Estimating The Effect of SHO: Conclusion
• Setting the window to the optimum size can 4 dB

window
balance the uplink and downlink in a network.
• Note that example here is with symmetrical

loading. Excessive SHO reduces the ability for
the DL to serve asymmetric users.
• Note also that SHO requires additional 2 dB

hardware in the Node B to provide the window
necessary bearers.

4.3.6 Further Issues regarding soft hand over.
Although soft hand over produces a macro-diversity and a processing
gain, in order to be successful the receiver must synchronise using the
incoming pilot signal. If a UE is to benefit , all active set pilots must be
detectable. Detectable is usually taken to mean an Ec/Io better than -15
dB. If we put ourselves in the position of a UE that is attempting to
synchronise with a cell that is just strong enough to be in the active set,
the results are interesting. Suppose that the primary server pilot is
detected with an Ec/Io of -12 dB at the cell edge. Clearly a large soft hand
over window will be of little use. This would lead to attempts to admit
cells with such a weak pilot that no use could be made of the signals.
Unless there are exceptional circumstances, soft hand over
windows/margins should be no larger than 6 dB.
Soft Handover
SHO: further issues

4 dB
window
2 dB
window
• Even at the edge of the SHO region. All cell pilots must be of a
“useful” strength (typically, >-15 dB)
• Large SHO windows not effective as weaker pilot is not detectable.
• In exceptional circumstances, larger SHO windows may be
effective.

Soft Handover
SHO: further issues – pilot power
Maximum UL
SHO gain
where UL path
loss is equal
• We have seen that SHO provides diversity and combining gain,

particularly on the uplink. This gain helps with uplink coverage.
• The maximum benefit is obtained if the two signals are at near-
equal strength. Thus the hand over region should be where the
uplink path loss is the same to cells in the active set.
Soft Handover
SHO: further issues – pilot power
Maximum UL
SHO gain
where UL path
loss is equal
Pilot power controls

location of SHO
region
• Hand over region is controlled by pilot power.

• If pilot powers are not equal, soft hand over region will not be
where maximum gain is provided.

Soft Handover
SHO: further issues – pilot power: MHAs
Maximum UL
SHO gain
where UL path
loss is equal
Pilot power controls

location of SHO
region
• If MHAs are deployed the UL “ends at the mast head”.

• Pilot power should be equal at the mast head.
• If no MHAs, pilot power should be equal at TRx output (rack
output).
4.3.7 Noise Rise (UL Loading Factor) Limit

On the downlink, the downlink power limits the loading factor. In most
situations, it will be possible to drive the downlink to a loading level of
about 85%. On the uplink it is limited in the form of a noise rise limit. As
the noise rise curve becomes steeper as the loading factor gets larger,
there are concerns regarding the stability of the network if the loading
level is allowed to become high. There is a general feeling that the noise
rise should be limited to about 4 dB (corresponding to a loading factor of
60%). However, where the site density is very high so that path loss is not
a limiting factor, the noise rise limit could be raised.

5 Providing Additional Hard
Capacity
5.1 Introduction
Because the air interface of a UMTS network is, perhaps, the most
challenging area to optimise, the need to ensure that there is adequate
“hard” capacity to support the “soft” capacity of the air interface is
sometimes overlooked. However, the way in which bearer form require
channel elements and the loading cell users put onto the fixed network
must be considered. Further, the modulation scheme used in W-CDMA
imposes a hard limit on the maximum throughput. New schemes are
being put forward that will increase possible throughputs.
5.2 Channel Elements

Every radio bearer requires an associated bit of hardware within the
Node B. This hardware is referred to as a channel element (CE). The
different types of radio bearer serviced by the Node B will require a
different level of resource. Typically, the requirement could be:
Voice: 1 channel element per connection
64 kbps data: 3 channel elements per connection
The allocation of CEs is to a Node B. This allocation would be shared
between cells and between carriers (if more than one carrier is deployed).
Further, it should be noted that some of the capacity will be required to
service soft hand over connections (but not softer hand over).

Hard Capacity
“Hard” Capacity
• Because the air interface in UMTS networks is new, most

attention is paid to maximising the interference-limited
capacity of the air interface itself (the “soft” capacity).
• However, there must be sufficient capacity in the hardware
of the fixed network to support the demand generated by
the cells.
• This includes considering:
• Channel Elements at the Node B
• Capacity of the interfaces
• Capacity of the RNCs
Hard Capacity
“Hard” Capacity - Channel Elements
• Each bearer requires

hardware in the form of
channel elements (Ces) in
the Node B. The number of
CEs required depends on
the data rate, for example:
• Voice: 1 CE
• 64 kbps: 3 CEs
• 128 kbps: 5 CEs
• 384 kbps: 8 CEs

Hard Capacity
“Hard” Capacity - Channel Elements
• Allocation is shared across

cells and carriers.
• Provision must be made to
accommodate soft hand
over.
• Softer hand over imposes
no additional burden.
5.3 Fixed network capacity

It is crucial that there is sufficient capacity in the fixed network to service
the data flow. This data flow consists of control and signalling channels
as well as user data. In particular the following questions should be
asked:
• Is there sufficient capacity between the Node Bs and the RNC (the Iub
capacity)?
• Is there sufficient capacity within the RNC itself?
• Does the interface between the RNC and the MSC/SGSN (Iu) have
sufficient capacity?
• Is there sufficient capacity on the RNC-RNC (Iur) links?
• Does the core network have sufficient capacity?
The capacity on the interfaces is measured in terms of “E1 links”
(approximately 2 Mbps). The fact that a Node B will generate more traffic
than a GSM site means that more fixed network capacity will be required.
In GSM networks, a single E1 link was sufficient to serve the traffic from
15 TRXs. A site having more than 15 TRXs is very rare. In UMTS
networks, a single E1 link will not be sufficient to service the traffic from a
Node B. In areas where the demand is low, it may be possible to get away
with a single E1 link but it must be borne in mind that hard blocking,
rather than air-interface “soft” blocking will be the limiting factor. The
fact that the highest data rate, packet switched, services will be available

in the downlink only means that it may well be necessary to have a
greater provision through the fixed network in the downlink. This breaks
with the tradition of having the same capacity in both directions.
The Iu interface between the RNC and the MSC or SGSN will have to
carry all the traffic from users of its Node Bs (with the exception of that
traffic that is for a user on the same RNC). Its required capacity will
depend on the number of Node Bs that it serves.
The Iur interface allows RNCs to communicate with each other. This is
done, for example, when a UE is in soft hand over between cells that are
controlled by different RNCs. The “drift RNC” passes data through to the
“serving RNC” to allow decisions to be made regarding active set
membership and also to allow macro-diversity gains to be realised.
Provision of such a link is vital but the capacity requirements are not
expected to be large.
Hard Capacity
“Hard” Capacity - Fixed Network
• Interfaces must be
sufficiently provisioned.
• To Node Bs •Iur to other RNCs
• To the MSC/SGSN
• To other RNCs
•Iub to Node B RNC •Iu to MSC/SGSN

Hard Capacity
• The Iub interface

• The “E1” link is standard (2
Mbit/s). •Iur to other RNCs
• This may cause hard

blocking as a Node B air
interface (3 cells) can
support a total greater than
2 Mbit/s. •Iub to Node B RNC •Iu to MSC/SGSN
Hard Capacity
• The Iur interface

• Provides a link to other
RNCs where a UE is in soft •Iur to other RNCs
hand over with a cell in a
different RNC area.
• Low capacity.

Hard Capacity
• The Iu interface
• Handles almost all user
data from all Node Bs. •Iur to other RNCs
• High capacity
requirements.
5.4 High Speed Downlink Packet Access

(HSDPA)
GSM networks did not use spectrum in an efficient manner because the
throughput was confined to a rigid structure based on timeslots and raw
bit rates. No matter how good the radio channel, the throughput was
limited to a raw rate of 270 kbps. The introduction of EDGE allowed this
theoretical rate to be trebled if the radio environment could support it (i.e.
C/I was high – there was sufficient “soft” capacity) by utilising an 8PSK
modulation scheme.
The flexible way in which UMTS cells allow users to share air interface
capacity makes it more efficient. However, there is still the limitation
imposed by the chip rate of 3840 kcps and the QPSK modulation scheme.
Suppose a cell has one 384 kbps bearer provisioned on the downlink.
This bearer will have a maximum power allocated to it that will allow
service only if the radio environment is of sufficient quality. But, even if
the radio environment is of superb quality, it will not be possible to
increase the throughput. However if HSDPA 16QAM is implemented, it
will be possible, in areas where the radio environment is very good, to
download at 768 kbps. This will increase the overall network capacity by
enabling a faster download in areas of high quality radio environment.

Hard Capacity
“Hard” Capacity - HSDPA
• Ultimate constraint is
the 3840 kcps chip
rate.
• QPSK allows 2 bits per
symbol. QPSK
• High Speed Downlink
Packet Access
(HSDPA) uses 16 QAM
which allows 4 bits per
symbol.
• Hard limit is doubled.
16 QAM
Hard Capacity
“Hard” Capacity - HSDPA
• HSDPA is not a
“magic” solution.
• Interference limitations
still exist.
• HSDPA only possible
in areas of low
interference.
HSDPA
• Aggregate network Possible
capacity should be
increased.
No
HSDPA

6 In-building Solutions
6.1 Introduction
The deployment of node Bs with cell antenna located inside buildings will
probably be implemented at the initial launch stage. Although these help
to ensure that the coverage within these buildings is acceptable, the main
reason for implementing such in-building cells is to provide extra
network capacity when it is predicted that the macro-cell layer will not be
able to serve the offered traffic. As an example, consider an office
building of 20 storeys with 200 people on each floor, a total of 4000
people. A particular operator may have 800 subscribers within such a
building. If the average traffic offered by a subscriber is 25 mE of voice,
that represents an average loading of 20 E. When video telephony (VT)
and data traffic are considered, it is clear that the offered traffic justifies at
least one cell in its own right. As a single macro-cell’s coverage area may
contain several such office buildings, it is clear that the capacity of the
macro-cell layer will be insufficient to accommodate the offered traffic in
such areas.
Deploying such indoor cells using the same frequency as the macro-cell
layer will improve the spectrum efficiency of the network and also make
network operations (in particular, hand over) much more
straightforward. The indoor cells must be implemented so as to provide
coverage within the building whilst minimising interference between the
indoor cell and the macro-cell.

In-building solutions
In-
In-building Solutions
• Cells with indoor antennas can help

with coverage problems.
• Most importantly, they add to the
network capacity and serve an
indoor “hotspot”.
• Eg; 20 floor, 200 people per floor
(4000 people): 800 subscribers, 20
Erlangs offered.
• If this is VT, this would be typical for
a sectored Node B. A macro-cell
may contain several such buildings.
• In-building solutions can alleviate
macro-cell capacity problems.
Frequency allocation
• Advantageous if same
frequency as macro-cell layer
can be used.
• Spectral efficiency maximised
• Hand over between indoor and
outdoor environment simplified.
• Mutual interference must be
minimised whilst engineering
soft hand over region.
6.2 The interference loop

Mutual interference reduces capacity in a network due to the fact that a
form of feedback loop is established. If a particular cell suffers external
interference, it will send a “power up” message to its UEs. This will cause
uplink interference to increase at the neighbouring cells that, in turn, send

“power up” messages to their UEs and thus the process continues. The
result is that each cell suffers extra noise rise through interference, thus
limiting capacity.
The fact that some of the cells are indoors and the macro cell is out of
doors, there is a level of isolation afforded that helps to break the
feedback loop. Within a cell layer, the “problem areas” are those at the
cell border where the path loss to two or more cells is nearly equal. It is in
these areas where the UEs suffer from downlink interference and also
generate uplink interference, thus reducing frequency re-use efficiency.
The physical barrier presented by the outside walls of the building in
question allows this region to become negligibly small. For example,
from just inside the building, the path loss to the indoor cell can be 10 dB
lower than to the macro-cell. Just outside the building, the reverse can be
true. Thus mutual interference is low and frequency re-use efficiency
high. Effectively, it is a similar situation to that where no users are
located at the border region between cells.
“Reducing Mutual Inteference”

Inteference”
• The lower the interference the higher the capacity.
• Because of the single frequency used in a UMTS layer, there is
an “Interference feedback loop”.
• This means that interference, rather than just adding to the
background noise level, consumes a proportion of the network
resource (power on the DL, noise rise on the UL).

Reducing Mutual Inteference

• The walls of the building will help
provide isolation between the
indoor and outdoor cells, thus
improving capacity.
• “Problem areas” are those where
the path loss to both cells is
similar.
• Presence of walls makes it
possible to make this region
negligibly small.
• Similar, in principle, to a macro-cell
structure with gaps in coverage –
low interference (but HO failures –
but people don’t walk through
walls).
6.3 The Dead-zone effect

Interference will occur between operators, particularly where the carriers
are adjacent to each other. An in-building solution provides very low
path losses to the serving cell. This means that there is the potential for
very high interference values. Consider a user who is a subscriber to an
operator that does not have a pico cell inside a particular building. The
pilot from the macro cell that serves the UE may be as low as -105 dBm.
Protection for adjacent carrier interference by approximately 33 dB can be
assumed. If a total interfering level of -57 dBm was received at the
adjacent carrier, that would be reduced by the isolation filters to -90 dBm
giving an Ec/Io of -15 dB: the lowest level useable. Any larger
interference levels than -57 dBm would prevent the UE from
synchronising to its serving pilot. If the transmitting power of the pico
cell was 33 dBm with a 7 dBi antenna gain, a path loss of anything less
than 97 dB would cause problems. Areas where the path loss is less than
97 dB are expected to occur readily within pico cell coverage areas. Two
possible solutions to this problem may be considered:
• All operators provide a pico cell solution within the building in
question (this would lead to all operators having identical
strategies for in-building deployment).
• Operators agree to share pico cell capacity and allow each others’
users to hand over to the pico cell.

The Dead Zone Effect

• Adjacent carrier interference may
be particularly noticeable within
pico cell environments.
Pico cell
interference: -57 dBm
• 33 dB is typical of the isolation •Macro cell pilot:

between adjacent carriers. -105 dBm
• Case shown illustrates the limiting
case where Ec/Io = -15 dB.
• Max EIRP from pico cell is typically
40 dBm (33 dBm Tx Power; 7 dBi
antenna).
• Problem cases will occur.
The Dead Zone Effect: solutions?

• Unlikely to provide a solution by
engineering the radio environment:
low path loss to best server is
generally a “good thing”
Pico cell
interference: -57 dBm
•Macro cell pilot:

-105 dBm
• Possibilities
• All affected operators deploy a pico
cell within a particular building.
• Operators allow hand over to pico
cell carriers from affected cells.

6.4 Hand over from indoor to outdoor
The sudden difference in path loss between cells, although useful in
increasing frequency re-use efficiency, can cause problems with hand
over. It is important that there is a “soft hand over” region within which
a UE will have a connection to two or more cells. This is the “border
region”. If a UE suddenly receives a lot of power from a cell that is not
part of the active set, a call can drop. The UE needs to be able to monitor
this neighbour and execute the hand over. If the power from the
neighbour increases too rapidly, there could be insufficient time to do
this. Thus, the situation where the border region coincides with the
outside building wall is probably going to result in problems with hand
over. The indoor cell must be engineered so that the border region obeys
two conditions:
• It must be of sufficient size to allow soft hand over to take place
• The subscriber density within this border region should be low
Hand Over
• A hand over region needs to be
provided.
• Sudden changes in signal level
from a cell can lead to calls being
dropped.
• Required hand over region is near
the door.
• Hand over region:
• Large enough to allow hand over.
• Should be where subscriber
density is low, as hand over region
is area where mutual interference
is highest.
• Preventing sudden changes in
signal strength at the HO region
requires appropriate siting of pico- Required hand
cell and macro-cell antennas. over region
6.4.1 Engineering the border region

Taking the above two constraints into consideration it is best if the border
region is designed to be just outside the building. This entails designing
the indoor antenna arrangement so as to make the contour of equal path
loss (to macro-cell and in-building cell) enclose the building. In this way,
all the users within the building will connect to the in-building cell only.
Further, at all points within the building, the path loss to the in-building
cell will be many dB (typically 15 dB) lower than the path loss to the

macro-cell. This will ensure that the users within the building will neither
suffer from, nor contribute to, interference with the macro-cell. In the first
instance, it is more straightforward if the configuration of the in-building
cell (pilot power, maximum total power etc.) is the same as that of the
macro-cell. However, it is acknowledged that there are cost and
convenience advantages to be obtained if the in building cell is of a lower
power rating than the macro-cell.
The result of reducing the in-building cell power by, say, 6 dB is to
displace the hand over region from the region of equal path loss. At the
equal pilot strength region, the path loss to the macro-cell will be greater
than that to the in-building cell. Just outside the soft hand over region, in
the area served by the macro-cell, the path loss to the in-building cell
could be lower than to the macro-cell. Thus the in-building cell will suffer
from high levels of uplink interference because the UE power is
controlled by the macro-cell. The seriousness of this problem will depend
on the user density within the affected areas. A less serious problem
resulting from the use of different pilot powers is that the gain from soft
hand over on the uplink will be less than if the hand over region was
located where the path losses were equal.
Hand Over
• Contour of equal pilot strength
(between macro-cells and pico-cell)
should be engineered to be just
outside, rather than just inside the
building.
• This is because subscriber density is
likely to be much higher inside the
building.
• This needs to be checked by
measurements.
• This will lead to the path loss to the
pico-cell, for subscribers within the
building, being much less than that to
the macro-cell.
• This is a good thing as it means the
pico-cell will have a negligible impact Contour of equal
on macro-cell capacity. pilot strength.

Pico-
Pico-cell Parameters
• Planning and engineering is simplified
by using the same major parameters
(maximum power, pilot power, noise
rise limit) are used for the macro-cell.
• However, cost savings are to be made
if the maximum power is reduced. The
pilot power would then have to be
reduced.
• This will shift the hand over region
away from the area of maximum HO
gain.
• Disaster scenario is if the UE hands
over to the macro cell while in the
building.
• Path loss to macro-cell could be higher
than to pico-cell and hence UE Tx UE could be forced onto
power will increase. This has severe macro-cell. UE power
implications for the pico-cell capacity would increase and pico-
cell would suffer.
Pico-
Pico-cell Parameters
• The problem of the pico-cell suffering
from uplink interference does not
disappear if the hand over region is
designed to be outside the building.
• It is the subscriber density at the hand
over region that is important.
• Pico-cell capacity can be improved by
increasing its noise rise limit. This
could be considered a sensible step in
conjunction with a reduction in pilot
power.
Hand over region in area

of low subscriber density
6.5 Implementing the in-building cell

The successful implementation of an “in-building solution” is an area of
expertise in its own right. The best approach will depend upon the
particular characteristics of the building. The number and nature of the

internal walls and floors is a major factor. The different methods
commonly deployed are summarised and compared below.
Implementing the in-

in-building solution
• Design and implementation of in-
building solutions is an area of
expertise in its own right.
• The following provides an outline of the
decisions and choices regarding the
design of the pico-cell.
• A high level overview of the relative
advantages of the different options is
provided.
6.5.1 Choice of Node B

The major competing options here are:
• A central Node B
• Multiple compact node Bs
• Utilisation of repeaters

The Choices – The Node B
• Single Node B • Multiple Compact • Repeater to

Node Bs external Node B
6.5.1.1 Central Node B

In this case, a similar Node-B to those used for outdoor sites supplies the
UMTS signal to the whole building. There are the following advantages
and disadvantages of this solution.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Allows easy capacity expansion (new Being a centralised system, this
racks can be added to the existing solution can be affected by faults
cabinet)
No need to have extra training for the Space is required to locate the base
technical personnel. station
6.5.1.2 Multiple compact indoor Node Bs

This solution consists in installing a certain number of compact indoor
Node-B’s in the area to be covered.
Being a distributed system, this Capacity expansion can be
solution is robust to faults. problematic due to the installation of
extra base stations.
Space is not a critic requirement due Extra training needs to be done for
to the small dimensions of these the technical personnel.
indoor Node-B’s.
Better Coverage can be provided.

6.5.1.3 Repeaters
Repeaters are very useful for enhancing coverage where no extra capacity
is required. They can be used to extend coverage from either an outdoor
cell site or to distribute coverage from an indoor Node-B’s throughout the
all area of interest. Repeaters are two port devices for direct connection to
the base station and to an antenna or a leaky cable. They can be connected
to the base station by means of a radio link (usually a Yagi directed at the
base station) or a cable in case a radio link cannot be established. Further,
it is possible to establish a fibre optic connection from the base station to
the repeater site and send the RF signal over optical fibre.
• Easy capacity expansion (just

add more cards).
• Staff familiar with equipment,
as Node B can be the same as
for the macro-cell.
• Centralised system could be

prone to faults.
• Single Node B • Node B could be physically
large to accommodate.

• More robust to faults as it is

distributed.
• Can lead to superior coverage.
• Smaller physical size.
• Capacity expansion can be

harder.
• Multiple Compact
Node Bs • Staff may need extra training
on new type of Node B.
• Cheap – but no solution to

network capacity problems.
• Repeater to
external Node B
6.5.2 Distribution methods

Even if multiple Node Bs are used to provide the indoor solution, each
node B will usually be required to serve several floors. Only rarely will a
single, centralised antenna be capable of providing coverage for an entire
Node B area. Usually, some kind of distributed system needs to be

implemented. There are a variety of solutions put forward by different
vendors.
6.5.2.1 A distributed antenna system

This is a system comprising two or more antennas together with
associated power dividers and cabling. Each antenna would be
responsible for providing coverage in a particular zone.
Allow use of low radiated power. High total system losses in larger
buildings.
Allow a flexible network design – Complex cable installations
different antenna models can be
installed in different building areas.
Well suited for several building Visual impact
structures
6.5.2.2 Distributed active antenna systems

Distributed active antenna systems represent an alternative to systems
using passive antennas. The antennas will contain their own power
amplifiers. Different solutions of this type distribute the signal from the
central source by means of either optical fibre or CAT-5 cable. The
radiated power is usually low (e.g. 100 mW), thus limiting the range.
However, as the antenna amplifies the signal itself, internal cable losses
are not a significant factor.
Very easy installation for the optical Low radiated power.
fibre/CAT5 cable.
Reduced EMC problems. Reduced reliability and need of
specialised personnel for equipment
installation and maintenance.
Less attenuation losses than coaxial Power supply may be required at
cables. each active antenna site.
6.5.3 Radiating cables

An alternative signal-distribution method is represented by radiating
cables or “Leaky Feeders”. The radiating cable is acting as continuous
longitudinal antenna distributing the signal along its path. This solution is
particularly suitable for long structures such as tunnels. The need for
precision installation and the cost makes them less suitable for office-type
buildings.

Well suited for longitudinal structures. Not well suited for general shape
structures (squared or circular).
Uniform signal distribution along its Not cost effective in every situation.
path.
Low visual impact (can be hidden Precision installation required.
behind a suspended ceiling).
The Choices – Antenna Systems
• Distributed Passive • Distributed Active • Radiating Cable

Antennas Antenna System
• Closeness of antenna to UE
allows low radiated power.
• Most suitable antenna can be
chosen for each location
allowing good control of
radiation.
• Cables can be lossy and

expensive.
• Distributed Passive
Antennas • Installation of heavy cable can
be difficult.

• Low grade CAT 5 cable can be

used instead of feeder making
installation easier.
• Lower feeder losses
• Restricted to low transmit

power.
• Power supply required at each
• Distributed Active antenna location.
Antenna System
• Easiest to model/predict link

loss.
• Produces even coverage.
• Can be hidden from view.
• Often the most expensive

solution.
• Not suited for all shapes
• Radiating Cable
(better for longitudinal shapes).
• Precision installation required
to maximise benefits.
6.5.4 Field measurements to verify the implementation

The requirement of the indoor cell is to provide coverage and capacity
inside the building whilst minimising the impact on the macro-cell.
Further, hand over between the indoor and outdoor environments should
be possible.

The load on the macro-cell layer air interface will be minimal if the path
loss to the indoor cell is at least 10 dB less than the path loss to the macro-
cell at points of interest. The “points of interest” are the areas within the
building where the user density is high – this may be the entire building
space. This can be ascertained by measuring and comparing the pilot
strengths of the macro-cell and indoor cell at these points. If the pilot
powers are the same (a useful starting point), then the pilot strength of the
indoor cell should be at least 10 dB above that of the macro cell pilots.
Successful hand over depends on the existence of a soft hand over region
existing between the coverage areas. This region must be large enough so
as to ensure that the signal strength changes are not too rapid for the hand
over to be executed. These regions must be established particularly at the
entrances to the building. Fortunately, users are not expected to be
travelling at great speed in these areas and a region of 10 metres width
should be sufficient. This can be either just inside or just outside the
building, or both. If antenna adjustment is necessary to engineer the soft
hand over region, it is usually easier to adjust the in-building
configuration so that its signal leaks slightly out of the entrance. It must
be remembered however, that too much leakage will lead to mutual
interference between the indoor and outdoor cells.
Field Measurements to Check on Implementation
• Scanner measurements can be used to assess:

• Coverage
• Hand over region
• Isolation from macro-cell. Ideally the macro-cell and the
pico-cell should not interfere with each other.

• Coverage
• Pico-cell pilot should be better than approximately -100
dBm at all locations (note that there is no need for an
“in-building allowance” such as for outdoor drive test
measurements).
• Hand Over
• Hand over region is near the building entrance.
• UEs not expected to be moving at high speed.
• 10 m soft hand over region should suffice.
• This can be just inside or just outside the building (or
both).
• Easier to adjust in-building antennas rather than macro-
cell antennas.
• Too much leakage outside of the building will result in
interference.
• Isolation from macro-cell

• Loss to pico-cell should be 10 dB less than that to
macro-cell at all “significant locations” within the
building.
• This can be checked by comparing pilot strengths:
remembering to consider any difference in pilot transmit
power and cell configurations (MHA on macro-cell
would need to be considered).

7 Using Micro-cells to
Service Hot Spots
7.1 Introduction
The Macro-cell layer is designed to provide continuous coverage to a
specified level (such as VT indoor). The initial result will be a UMTS
carrier layer that will service a particular traffic density. Providing an
indoor solution as described in the previous section can accommodate
extra traffic from office environments. Simulations suggest that, if 20 dB
of penetration loss must be accommodated, a cell range of 500 metres
would be typical. This would result in a site density of approximately 2
sites per square kilometre and offered traffic of approximately 22 Erlangs
per site would be accommodated. If outdoor environments covered by a
particular cell generate a high level of offered traffic, that traffic will
experience high levels of blocking. A micro-cell may be an attractive
solution in such a case. In this instance, the possibility of deploying a
micro-cell re-using the carrier that is used by the macro-cell layer is
investigated.

Micro-cell Planning
Micro-
Micro-cell planning
• Typical range for macro-cell for VT is 500 metres in dense urban
environment.
• Site Density for coverage approximately 2 sites/km2.
• Capacity then approximately 22 Erlangs of VT per site (44 Erlangs per
km2).
• An area of, say, 100 by 150 metres would be expected to generate only
one Erlang of traffic.
• If an area of this size, or smaller, generates 15 Erlangs of traffic, a micro-
cell can help to accommodate this offered traffic.
Macro cell layer

providing
continuous
Micro cells
coverage
serving hot
spots.
Micro-cell Planning
Micro-
Micro-cell planning: carrier re-
re-use
• If the macro cell carrier can be re-used:
• Spectral efficiency is improved.
• Hand over between micro and macro cells is easier.
Macro cell layer

providing
continuous
Micro cells
coverage
serving hot
spots.
7.2 Micro-cell and In-building cells compared

In-building solutions using the same carrier as the macro-cell have been
shown to be a viable method of serving areas of high subscriber density.
A significant feature is allowing straightforward integration into the
network is the isolation between the inside and outside of the building
that is provided by the walls of the building itself. This isolation results
in low levels of mutual interference and, hence, higher levels of frequency
re-use efficiency and cell capacity. When a micro-cell is deployed in an
outdoor environment, such as a pedestrian shopping area, no such
natural isolation exists. The risk of high levels of mutual interference,
leading to reduced capacity, is therefore significant.
Micro-cell Planning
Micro-
Micro-cell planning: mutual interference
• In the case of in-building solutions, the building walls formed a
barrier against interference.
• This made re-use of the macro cell carrier more straightforward.
• Outdoor micro cells have no such barrier.

• Potential for more serious interference issues, reducing
capacity gains
In-building
solution: walls
form barrier
against Micro cells – no
interference. barrier against
interference..
7.3 The Theory behind the Micro-cell

Consider a macro-cell that serves an area of perhaps 200000 m2. If video
telephony is seen as the benchmark service, such a cell could support up
to approximately 12 simultaneous connections. Suppose that a hotspot
exists that covers about 15000 m2. If this area had a normal traffic
loading, the area of the hotspot would be expected to contain only 1 active
user. The situation where this area needs to support many active users is
envisaged. A hotspot should be deployed such that the effect of these
many users, as far as the macro-cell is concerned, is equivalent to one user
of the macro-cell. Effectively, this means that the total power of the many
users must equal that of the one macro-cell user. If the micro-cell is to
support 12 users, then the power of each of these 12 users must be, on
average, 11 dB less than the power required for the macro-cell. This can

be taken to mean that the path loss to the micro-cell must be 11 dB less
than the path loss to the macro-cell.
Micro-cell Planning
Micro-
Micro-cell planning: theory
• Suppose an area within a macro cell could accommodate only 1
Erlang of offered traffic if the macro cell capacity was divided
equally on an area basis.
• Now consider the situation if this area was expected to generate 12
Erlangs of offered traffic.
Area generates
12 times the
“expected”
traffic.
Micro-cell Planning
Micro-
• If carrier frequency is to be shared and no extra loading to be
placed on macro cell:
• Each UE should operate at 1/12th of the power that it would if it
connected to the macro cell.
• Path loss to micro cell should be 11 dB less than that to macro cell.
Area generates
12 times the
“expected”
traffic.

Micro-cell Planning
Micro-
• This can be arranged with pilot power settings but there are
problems:
• If pilot powers are left equal, then border region will be where path loss
is equal between micro cell and macro cell UL interference on macro
cell results.
• If micro cell pilot is 11 dB less than that for macro cell, UEs just outside
the micro cell border will cause a lot of UL interference on the micro
cell.
Micro cell pilot reduced by

11 dB. Micro cell affected
Pilot powers equal:
by UEs just outside border.
macro-cell affected
by UEs on border.
7.3.1 Pilot Power Settings

This sounds perfectly achievable but there is a complication that becomes
apparent when the cell-selection procedure is considered. If pilot powers
of the micro-cell and macro-cell are made equal then, at the border, the
path loss to the macro-cell and the micro-cell would be equal and the UE
would transmit with the same power no matter which cell is selected. In
this situation the only benefit would be the macro-diversity gain from soft
hand over. An option would be to reduce the pilot power of the micro-
cell so that users would only connect to the micro-cell if the UE transmit
power was going to be significantly lower than if a connection was made
to the macro-cell. This, however, leaves the possibility that a UE
connected to the macro-cell would interfere significantly with the micro-
cell thus reducing its capacity.

Micro-cell Planning
Micro-
• This can be arranged with pilot power settings but there are
problems:
• If pilot powers are left equal, then border region will be where path loss
is equal between micro cell and macro cell UL interference on macro
cell results.
• If micro cell pilot is 11 dB less than that for macro cell, UEs just outside
the micro cell border will cause a lot of UL interference on the micro
cell.
Micro cell pilot reduced by

11 dB. Micro cell affected
Pilot powers equal:
by UEs just outside border.
macro-cell affected
by UEs on border.
7.3.2 Engineering the Micro-cell

The problems described above become significant only if there are a
significant number of users in the transition regions. Engineering of the
micro-cell can avoid this situation occurring. In order to effectively
deploy a micro-cell at the same frequency as the macro-cell layer, the
following guidelines should prove to be useful.
• The capture area of the micro-cell should extend beyond the
hotspot. In that way, the number of users in the border/transition
region should be small.
• The radiation pattern, height and tilt of the micro-cell antenna
should be such that the path loss to the micro-cell rapidly increases
with distance once the UE leaves the hotspot area. This makes the
border/transition region physically small which again reduces the
probability of users occurring within the region of high mutual
interference.
If the above recommendations are adhered to, then the noise rise limit
and pilot power of the micro-cell could, in the first instance, be set to the
same as the macro-cell. In this way, the micro-cell could be hoped to
provide another ten VT connections whilst producing a negligible effect
on the macro-cell.

Micro-cell Planning
Engineering the Micro cell

• The success of any strategy depends on the user behaviour.
• Areas of high mutual interference are only problematic if there
are lots of users.
• Need to engineer the micro cell accordingly
• Micro cell dominance area should exceed the hotspot area.
Area of dominance of
micro cell should
exceed the hotspot
area.
Micro-cell Planning
Engineering the Micro cell

• Radiation pattern of micro cell antenna should ensure that
path loss rapidly increases once outside the dominance area.
• Initial setting of pilot power and NR limit can be the same as

for macro cell. Ideally, should be possible to reduce DL power
to 37 dBm (pilot power would then have to be reduced
proportionately).

Micro-cell Planning
Engineering the Micro cell: field

measurements
• If the pilot powers are equal, the border area is at locations of
equal path loss.
• Pilot strength of micro cell should be 10 dB greater than that
from macro cell at all areas of high subscriber density.
• If transmit pilot power of micro cell is 6 dB less than macro cell,
then micro cell pilot can be just 4 dB greater.
• When micro cell pilot is reduced, problem comes from potential
uplink interference from macro cell UEs just outside the border.
• Should be possible to raise the NR limit to help with this. (E.g.
macro cell NR limit: 4 dB; micro cell NR limit: 8 dB).
7.3.3 What can go wrong?

The biggest problem is mutual interference. The macro cell base station
will still “see” the UEs served by the micro cell. It is vital that they
transmit at a lower power than the UEs served by the macro cell,
otherwise they would produce a high level of uplink interference on the
uplink. Thus the nature of the hot spot should be that the users would
experience a much lower path loss to the micro cell than to the macro cell.
This is to protect the macro cell from uplink interference. It is tempting to
attempt to achieve this by scaling the pilot power (making the pilot power
of the micro cell lower than the macro cell). However, this could produce
the situation where a UE served by the macro cell caused a lot of uplink
interference on the micro cell due to the fact that the path loss to the micro
cell was much lower. There is inevitably going to be an area (just as there
is in the macro cell layer) where UEs are subjected to a lot of downlink
interference and generate a lot of uplink interference: the border area. In
planning a micro cell, user behaviour must be considered. The border
area should not contain a high density of users.

Micro-cell Planning
Possible Problems
• If there are lots of users in the border area, this will cause
interference problems.
• If the micro-cell pilot power is reduced it may suffer from
interference as the UEs connected to the macro-cell will be
transmitting with relatively high power.
Users in the border

area will cause and
experience
interference
problems.
7.3.4 Detecting Problem Areas.

If the pilot strength of the macro cell and micro cell are kept equal, the
border area is the area where the path losses are equal. The high
subscriber density should be restricted to areas where the pilot strength
from the micro cell is 10 dB or more greater than the pilot from the macro
cell. This can be checked by making field measurements with a scanner.

Micro-cell Planning
Using Scanner Measurements

• With pilot powers of the micro-cell and macro-cell set to equal
levels, the strength of the micro-cell pilot should be at least 10
dB greater than the macro-cell pilot throughout the area of
high expected user density (the “hotspot”).
Area of expected
high user density.
Micro-cell Planning
Engineering the Micro cell: field measurements

• If the pilot powers are equal, the border area is at locations of
equal path loss.
• Pilot strength of micro cell should be 10 dB greater than that
from macro cell at all areas of high subscriber density.
• If transmit pilot power of micro cell is 6 dB less than macro cell,
then micro cell pilot can be just 4 dB greater.
• When micro cell pilot is reduced, problem comes from potential
uplink interference from macro cell UEs just outside the border.
• Should be possible to raise the NR limit to help with this. (E.g.
macro cell NR limit: 4 dB; micro cell NR limit: 8 dB).
7.4 Hotspots straddling macro cell boundaries

So far we have considered the case where the hotspot lies totally within
an area served by a single macro cell. This is not necessarily the case. It
may be common for a hotspot to lie on the border area. In fact, hotspots
in such locations are likely to cause greater problems with regard to
macro cell layer capacity as the border areas are those where mutual

interference is highest. A micro cell can provide a great benefit in such
circumstances. The principle of engineering the micro cell is the same as
in the case where the hotspot lies within a macro cell coverage area.
Namely, the area of high user density should experience a much lower
path loss to the micro cell than to the macro cell.
Micro-cell Planning
Hotspots straddling cell boundaries

• A hotspot straddling a cell boundary will benefit greatly from a
micro cell as it is in an area that will cause significant
interference.
• Similar engineering considerations apply: the micro-cell
coverage area should exceed the area of high subscriber
density.
7.5 Propagation modelling for micro cells

The initial planning of a UMTS network is often conducted with map data
with a resolution of perhaps 50 metres. This is not a fine enough
resolution to simulate the effect of a micro cell. Map data at a fine
resolution should be used together with an appropriate propagation
model. Models used for macro cell planning rely on empirical models
that do not consider building reflections explicitly. Building reflections,
penetration and diffraction form the dominant propagation mechanisms
in micro cells. Accordingly, a “ray tracing” model that considers these
mechanisms should be used.

Micro-cell Planning
Prediction Results
• Using Okumura-Hata, you will get predictions that are largely based on the
distance from the Cell.
• This has a certain validity when the antenna is above the building but
not when it is down below building height.
Micro-cell Planning
Prediction Results
• When diffraction and scatter are the main mechanisms, the field strength will
change in a much less straightforward manner.
Low signal strength at

some locations close
to BTS.
“Canyon Effect”

Micro-cell Planning
Adaptations to Macro-cell Model

• Most significant differences between Micro-cell and
Macro-cell predictions:
• Canyon Effect: Low reduction in field strength with
increasing distance (“exponent” approximately 2.0).
• Modelled by: adjusting appropriate parameters to
give low exponent.
• Coverage holes close to BTS.
• Modelled by: more sophisticated macro-cell models.
Micro-cell Planning
Enhancement to Macro-Cell Models

• Clutter Offset in dB
• Height and Separation: Used for Diffraction
calculations (time consuming).
Separation
• Through loss in dB/km: Maximum distance

specified. Loss is weighted from zero to 1 over this
distance. Faster than diffraction calculations.
Through-loss
distance

Micro-cell Planning
“Canyon Effect”
Micro-cell Planning

• Plausible results (statistically quite good regarding
s.d. of error) can be obtained by enhancing a macro-
cell model. However:
• “Always struggling”: model has to be carefully
adapted for each situation. Parameter tuning
becomes something of a “fiddle factor”. Would
“tuned model” be appropriate for general use?
• No “set up and go” capability.
• Greater accuracy is obtainable from deterministic
models.

Micro-cell Planning
3G Network configurations
Macro-cell:
antenna well above rooftops
Micro-cell:
antenna below rooftops
Mini-cell:
antenna on small
building
rooftops
(below higher buildings)
Micro-cell Planning
Radio configurations: Mini

• Intermediate configurations:
• The emitting antenna is located on a roof top but not higher than the
surrounding roof level
• The emitting antenna is against a building façade but not lower than the
surrounding roof level
• Mini-cellular configuration
• The radio energy is partly propagated above
obstacles and partly along the streets
• Choice must be the Volcano Mini model
So, 3D channel modelling is required

Micro-cell Planning
Operational cases
Multi-band GSM Macro-Micro Cell CDMA network coverage (USA)
Mini-cell model for 3G Accurate coverage in rural hilly area
Micro-cell Planning
Propagation Models
Statistical models Deterministic models
Cost-Hata
Volcano-Deygout
Semi-statistical models
Diffraction corrections
Cost-Hata with
Volcano-RTD
Pure deterministic
models

Micro-cell Planning
Which topographic database?

• The right database for the right environment: trade-off calculation time vs.
accuracy
• Database quality: adapted to telecom problems
• Importance of the clutter description
20 m
• The good choices:
• Deterministic vs. statistical 1m
• High vs. low resolution databases
Environment Rural Suburban Urban
Required layers 2/3 rasters 3 rasters / 3 rasters (2 – 5 m) +

(10 – 50 m) vectors 1 vector layer
(5 – 10 m) Or 3D vectors
Micro-cell Planning
Deygout model
Terrain profile
D A(v)
h
E P
-6dB
d1 d2
v=h 2 d1 d 2
λ d1 + d 2
0 v
if v > -0.7 (cas NLOS)

A ( v ) ≈ − 6 . 9 + 20 log ( u + 1 − u )
u= v −1

Micro-cell Planning
Ray-tracing
Ray contributions constructed for an emitting

site located against a building wall
Micro-cell Planning
A deterministic propagation tool:

ex. Volcano RTD Model
Horizontal plane
Ray Tracing
Only Deygout R
Only RT/UTD
Volcano
+
E

Micro-cell Planning
Calibration / measurements
• Not mandatory but recommended

• Environment not entirely described by DTM (stores, balconies)
• Automatic calibration Measures
• Simple and quick calibration

• «Free Space» Correction
• Weighting
• Full calibration
• Non linear parameters (building heights)
Standard deviation= 5 to 8 dB (distance) Log
Micro-cell Planning
Macro-cellular coverage
Higher terrain
Street
Hill
COST – Hata Simulation (tuned) Volcano Simulation

• Shadowing prediction
• Up to long distance realistic prediction
Losses (dB)

Micro-cell Planning
Micro-cellular coverage
Statistic simulation (Harley model) Volcano Simulation

• Shadowing and wave-guiding effects
• Up to long distance realistic prediction
Received
power (dBm)
Micro-cell Planning
New important features

Multifloor coverage for mini-cellular site
Coverage Map at 1.5m

Micro-cell Planning
An important parameter
Downlink orthogonality factor
How is this DOF has been taken into account so far?
Globally, Per Area, Per Clutter
A new solution: by Volcano deterministic simulations
Outdoor only Outdoor and indoor
7.6 Multiple micro cells

It is possible that a hotspot is physically too large to be served by a single
micro cell without border problems arising. In such cases, a small cluster
of micro cells can be established. Throughout the hotspot served by this
cluster, the path loss to the micro cell should be much lower than to the
macro cell. Again, this means that the hotspot should be geographically
distant from the macro cell. It is not possible to establish an additional
continuous cell layer, consisting of micro cells, that shares the frequency
of the macro cell layer. A micro cell layer requires the use of a second
carrier frequency.
7.7 Limiting factors

Deploying micro-cells that use the same frequency as the macro-cell layer
is clearly a powerful solution to capacity problems. It is not, however,
without adverse consequences. If we consider a problem that has
resulted in multiple micro cells being deployed, it must be remembered
that the reason for deployment was the high subscriber density in that
area. Nearby macro-cells will inevitably suffer from greater uplink
interference produced by these users, thus reducing the capacity of these
cells. This can be limited by optimal engineering of the micro-cells but
there is a limit. Much greater isolation between macro-cells and micro-
cells is achieved if they are allocated separate frequencies. This is
discussed later in the section on hierarchical cell structures.

8 The Effect of Further Site
Sectorisation
8.1 The sectored antenna

Omni-directional sites are now almost unheard of in an urban
environment. The fact that sectored sites will service a greater subscriber
density is well established. The standard level of sectorisation is three
sectors per site. Antennas have been developed with this level of
sectorisation in mind. Although each sector will have to control an angle
of 120°, the arrangement of sites means that the required range reduces as
you move away from the principal direction. This leads to antennas with
85 degrees or, more recently, 65 degrees beamwidth being adopted. It is
found that the 65-degree beamwidth antenna is more effective at limiting
mutual interference.

Further Sectorisation
Further Sectorisation of Sites
• Three-sectored sites
have evolved to be the
norm in urban and
suburban areas.
• Each antenna controls a
120º sector.
• Antenna beamwidth a
compromise between
coverage and
interference.
• 65º is the most common.
• 18 dBi is typical gain.
8.2 Increasing the level of sectorisation

Adding further sectors to a site could allow a greater user density to be
served. However, any increase can be limited by mutual interference.
Generally, the greater the cell density, the higher the interference levels.
Remembering that throughput = 3840η , the value of i is

Eb N 0 (1 + i )
significant.
A specific antenna, with a 35° beamwidth, has been developed for sites
that are configured with six sectors, at 60° intervals.

• Six-sectored sites could, in

theory, double the capacity.
3840
Capacity = η
Eb
N0
(1 + i )
• If mutual interference
increases, capacity may not
increase as expected.
• But, if antennas are higher
gain, η can increase.
• Antenna beamwidth is
highly significant in arriving
at the optimum between
coverage and interference.
• 35º is seen as the most
appropriate.
• 21 dBi is typical gain.
• Monte Carlo simulations
can quantify the likely
improvement.

8.3 Using simulations to assess the effectiveness
Six-sector sites are almost certainly going to be an upgrade in UMTS
networks. As a test of their effectiveness, the same area is assessed for
capacity before and after the upgrade.
8.3.1 Vital statistics:

Parameter 3 sector site 6 sector site
Antenna Beamwidth 65 degrees 35 degrees
Antenna Gain 18.3 dBi 21.0 dBi
NR limit 4 dB 6 dB
Benchmark Service 64 kbit/s VT 64 kbit/s VT
Target Eb/No 3 dB 3 dB
Sites were placed such that the maximum coverage range was 500 metres.
This was sufficient to provide continuous indoor coverage with a building
penetration loss of 20 dB. An area of 5 km by 3 km was covered using 33
sites.
8.3.2 Estimates of capacity

The pole capacity of a cell with no interference with an Eb/No of 3 dB is
approximately 1920 kbit/s. In the three-sector case, the noise rise limit of
4 dB, represents a 60% loading factor: 1152 kbit/s. This represents
approximately 18 simultaneous connections that will serve 11.5 Erlangs of
offered traffic. An out of cell interference ratio of 0.6 will reduce this to
7.2 Erlangs per cell. The 5 by 3 km area was spread with 720 Erlangs of
offered traffic and a simulation was conducted with the UEs being placed
indoors. As expected, satisfactory results were obtained. The network
was seen to be operating near its limits, however. The offered traffic was
then doubled to 1440 Erlangs. The result was that the network reached
saturation at a level of approximately 950 terminals being served (66%
success rate) before blocking occurred. In this situation the major cause of
blocking was downlink capacity (the required Eb/No on the downlink is
expected to be approximately 7 dB) but there were a significant number of
failures on the uplink with the noise rise limit being hit frequently. At
this stage, the effect of further sectorisation was simulated. Adding new
cells with new power amplifiers (so each site had six cells of similar
configuration to the original three cells) resulted in the 1440 Erlangs of

traffic being well served. An average blocking ratio of 3% and a success
rate of 94% of all attempts (note that a failure due to the path loss being
too high does not constitute blocking) were reported with the failures
split between the uplink and downlink.
In order for a comparison to be made with equal power provided to each
site, the simulation was re-run with the power for each of the six-sector
cells being halved. This revealed a slight degradation so that 90.8% of all
attempts were successful. It was noticed that the majority of failures were
due to the limit of power per connection on the downlink being reached.
This was set at 10% of maximum total power. Increasing this limit to 16%
of total power resulted in an improvement to the success rate to 92.2%.
This meant that the six-sector area was serving an average of 1330
terminals compared with 950 in the three-sector situation. This is an
increase of 40% but with a much higher grade of service offered to the
customer (approximately 10% blocking compared with over 80%
blocking).
If the offered traffic in the six-sectored area was increased again to cause
saturation of the network, the six-sector area then served an average of
1830 terminals, an increase of more than 90% on the three-sector situation.
As an indication of the levels of mutual interference, the frequency re-use
efficiency (the percentage of UE power received by a cell that comes from
users of that cell) was approximately 63% for both the 3-sector and the 6-
sector networks.
Thus it can be concluded that further sectorisation of sites represents a
powerful method of increasing the capacity of a network.
Further Sectorisation of Sites - Comparison
• An area of 15 km2 was

planned to give 64 kbit/s VT
service indoor.
• 33 sites, 99 cells with a
range of 500 metres were
needed.
• Target Eb/No taken to be 3
dB on UL
• NR limit set to 4 dB (60%
loading).


• Capacity estimation:
(3840 × 0.6 ) = 1150 kbps
10 0.3
• This would accommodate

18 simultaneous
connections.
• Erlang B table (2%
blocking) suggests this
should serve 11.5 Erlangs.
• Interference ratio of 0.6 will
reduce this to 7.2 Erlangs
per cell.

• 99 cell network should
support 720 Erlangs.
• Simulation confirms this:
• 96% call attempt success.
• Failures distributed between
UL and DL (both capacity and
path loss failures noted).


• Next; the offered traffic was
doubled to 1440 Erlangs.
• Network is now saturated.
• 65% call attempt success
(950 connections on average).
• 85% blocking.
• DL is particularly
overloaded (note: higher
Eb/No required on
downlink).

• Each site then had a further
three sectors added.
• 35 degree antennas
deployed throughout.
• Noise Rise limit increased
to 6 dB.
• Result:
• 94% call attempt success.
• 3% blocking.


• Next: an “equal power”
comparison.
• DL power halved to each
cell.
• Result:
• 90.8% call attempt success
(c.f. 94%).
• Failures tend to be on DL due
to bearer power limit being
reached.

• Next: adjust bearer power
limit.
• Power per connection
increased from 10% of
maximum power to 16% of
maximum power.
• Result:
• 92.2% call attempt success.
• Failures evenly distributed.
• Average connections
served: 1320 (c.f. 950 with
3-sectored sites).


• Finally: double offered traffic
to saturate network.
• 1830 terminals served on
average.
• 90% more than for 3-
sectored network.
• Conclusion is that further
sectorisation of sites is a
potentially powerful method
of increasing network
capacity.
8.4 Neighbour Planning

Additional sectorisation can cause further problems with neighbour
planning. The list of neighbours will necessarily become longer
considering the following:
• All co-sited cells should be declared as neighbours.
• There are more cells within a given distance.
However, the fact that the energy radiated from a cell is confined to a
narrow beam means that the area over which a cell causes interference
will be less. The overall effect of this is that the neighbour list will
probably become longer in the 6-sector case than it was for the 3-sector
situation but not unbearably so. If a neighbour list of 12 neighbours were
seen as typical for a 3-sector area then perhaps 16 neighbours would be
typical for the 6-sector area.

Further Sectorisation of Sites - Neighbours

• Keeping the neighbour
(Ncell) list short is seen as
good practice.
• Each cell will have more
neighbours if further
sectorisation is employed.
• Co-sited cells should be made
neighbours.
• There will be more cells within
a given range.
• However, energy from each
cell is confined to a narrow
beam and will effect a
smaller area.
Further Sectorisation of Sites - Neighbours

• Result is that the Ncell list
will have to be longer if
further sectorisation is
employed, but not
unbearable so.
• If Ncell list is typically 12 for
an area where 3-sector cells
are used, a list of 16
neighbours should be
sufficient where 6-sector
cells are the norm.

9 Using Additional Carriers –
Hierarchical Cell Structures
9.1 Spectrum Allocation

Operators are not allocated a single carrier. Rather, a block of two or
three adjacent carriers is normally allocated. This allows for a flexible
approach to be taken to providing additional network capacity.
Essentially, this is equivalent to two or more networks operating in
parallel. Two issues require addressing:
• Hand over between the two carriers is a “hard” hand over. Hard hand
overs involve the UE entering compressed mode and putting an extra
burden on the network.
• There will be interference between the adjacent carriers. In most cases,
this is not expected to cause significant problems for a particular
network (where rival networks operate at adjacent frequencies,
problems can exist. The section on Indoor Solutions goes into detail
on this issue).

Multi-carrier deployment
Using Additional Carriers

• Issues to consider:
• Hard hand over between carriers: compressed
mode operation.
• Adjacent carrier interference to be considered.
9.2 Deploying extra carriers in the macro cell

layer
It is possible to increase the capacity of the macro-cell layer by deploying
an additional carrier. This is particularly attractive if an operator has 3
carriers as it leaves the third carrier for use with micro-cells and pico-cells.
9.2.1 A test case

In order to evaluate the likely improvement, the standard 15 km2 area
with 33 sites was considered (as in the case where further sectorisation
was evaluated – see previous section). A single carrier, 3-sectored
network can support 720 Erlangs of VT. The offered traffic was doubled
to 1440 Erlangs and an extra carrier was deployed. The simulation
assumed that the two frequencies shared an antenna and that the power
was shared between the two frequencies. Nevertheless, it was found that
the capacity of the network was very nearly doubled as a result of the
deployment of an extra carrier. Further, interference between the carriers
did not have a noticeable effect on the predicted performance.
To evaluate the capability of a macro-cell layer to accommodate very high

traffic densities, the exercise was repeated with each site divided into six,
dual-frequency, sectors. Thus, each Node B contained 12 UMTS cells.
This was found to support a further doubling of traffic to 2700 Erlangs, a
density of almost 200 Erlangs of video telephony per km2. This is an

estimate for a site density of 2.1 sites per km2 (thus each site supports
almost 100 Erlangs of video telephony traffic). If this is to be increased
further, extra diversity could be used. As the simulations suggest that the
network is reasonably balanced (failures were evenly distributed between
UL and DL) any enhancement would have to be implemented on the
uplink and the downlink. Thus, perhaps, four-component diversity could
be implemented on the uplink (instead of the standard, single cross-polar
diversity deployed as standard) together with space diversity on the
downlink. The downlink would be the limiting factor in determining the
likely capacity increase that would result. Estimates vary regarding the
likely increase, with 30% being a typical figure.
Higher subscriber densities could be accommodated by increasing the site
density. Not only is this an expensive option, it is difficult to implement
retrospectively. The original plan was to provide indoor coverage at the
cell edge. This determined the site density of the macro-cell layer.
Comparison using the simulator

• Initial situation:
• Single carrier
• 33 sites (99 cells) in 15 km2
• 720 Erlangs of VT carried
• 2 carrier situation:
• Two carriers deployed per cell
• Power split between two carriers
• Capacity increased to 1350 Erlangs of VT

Comparison using the simulator

• 2 carrier, 6 sector situation:
• Capacity further increased to 2700 Erlangs VT
• Density almost 200 Erlangs/km2 with a site density of 2.1
sites/km2
• Failures distributed evenly between uplink and
downlink.
• Any further increase (through diversity etc.) would have
to be applied to both uplink and downlink. Downlink
diversity improvement expected to be approximately
30% (this would form the limiting factor).
9.3 Fixed network provisioning.

If each site can handle 100 Erlangs of VT, the peak loading would be
estimated at 114 connections. The aggregate user data rate would be 7.3
Mbit/s. With an overhead for signalling and control, this would increase
to approximately 9 Mbit/s. Provisioning of this through E1 links would
be a significant consideration.
This is four the case where each Node B controls 12 cells. The
requirement would be less if the “6-cell” or “3-cell” option was chosen.
Number of Erlangs Peak Aggregate Estimated

cells per site per site connections user bit rate requirement
per site per site
3 25 34 2176 kbit/s 2700 kbit/s
6 50 61 3904 kbit/s 4900 kbit/s
12 100 114 7296 kbit/s 9000 kbit/s

The basic “building block” of fixed network transmission is the “E1 link”
that carries 2048 kbit/s. It is tempting to provision a 3-cell site with a
single E1 link, at least initially. If this option is implemented, it is the
fixed network that is likely to become the first factor limiting network
capacity. Fixed network capacity must be addressed before the air
interface capacity is enhanced.
Fixed network implications

• Capacity of 100E per site would necessitate an
upgrade to the fixed network.
Number of Erlangs Peak Aggregate Estimated

cells per site per site connections user bit rate requirement
per site per site
3 25 34 2176 kbit/s 2700 kbit/s
6 50 61 3904 kbit/s 4900 kbit/s
12 100 114 7296 kbit/s 9000 kbit/s
9.4 Carrier loading strategy.

When multiple carriers are used on a network, it is possible to decide on a
priority of loading. When the two carriers operate in parallel, as in the
case above where the extra carrier is used to add further capacity to the
macro cell layer, it is best to load them equally. If one carrier is more
heavily loaded than the other, the Ec/No on that carrier will be worse
than it is on the lightly-used carrier. This will lead to hard hand over
attempts being made between the two carriers. Avoiding these is a good
thing. Additionally, the power levels required would be higher on the
carrier that had higher levels of activity. Generally, keeping power levels
to a minimum is seen as good practice in a UMTS network because, for
example, it leads to the maximum coverage for higher data rate services.
Carrier loading strategies will be re-visited later in this section following
consideration of hierarchical cell structures.

Carrier-loading Strategy
• If two carriers are applied to the macro-cell
layer, it is beneficial to load them equally.
• If one carrier is more heavily loaded, Ec/Io will be
worse leading to hard hand over occurring.
• Required bearer powers will be higher in more
heavily loaded carrier – minimising power is a
generally desirable aim.
9.5 Hierarchical cell structures.

When offered traffic grows beyond approximately 100 Erlangs per km2, it
is usually concentrated at “hotspots” rather than evenly distributed across
the coverage area. One obvious case is where offices generate a lot of
traffic. Indoor solutions usually alleviate any problem associated with
this. Other areas that generate very high subscriber densities include
pedestrianised shopping areas and open-air sports venues, such as
racetracks.
The isolation provided by the walls of the building itself makes it possible
to implement an indoor solution using the same frequency as the macro-
cell layer. With an outdoor micro-cell, there is not so much isolation.
This will limit the effectiveness of a micro-cell solution, as shown in
section 7. If a separate carrier is used for the micro-cell, this will provide
isolation (in the frequency domain, rather than physical isolation). That,
in turn, should lead to greater throughput being possible.


• The subscriber density that can be
accommodated by a macro-cell layer will have a
limit (100 Erlangs/km2).
• Higher densities is usually due to “hotspots” that
can be treated separately:
• Office buildings: in-building solution required
• Football stadiums, railway stations etc.: micro-cell
can be deployed.

• The effectiveness with
which a micro-cell can
be deployed sharing the
same frequency and the •Possible to serve
macro-cell layer hotspot with micro-cell
depends upon the ability that re-uses macro-cell
frequency
to isolate the micro-cell
from the macro-cell.
• This is easier if the
micro-cell is at a •Difficult to serve
considerable distance hotspot with micro-cell
from the macro-cell. that re-uses macro-cell
frequency
• The use of a separate
carrier for the micro-cell
must be considered.

• The deployment of micro-cell can be extended to provide a second layer.

• A separate carrier is essential.
• Capacity of micro-cell layer can be double that of the macro-cell layer.
9.5.1 Capacity of micro-cells using separate carriers

The major factor that limits the capacity of any UMTS cell is intra-
frequency interference. This is particularly the case in the downlink
direction as it counteracts the beneficial effects of orthogonality. If micro-
cells are deployed to service hotspots, and are allocated a separate carrier
frequency, it is possible to effectively isolate them from such interference.
Further, if any multipath is over a short extra path distance then the
orthogonality of a micro-cell should be much better than that of macro-
cells. Values of orthogonality around 0.9 are expected to be typical for a
micro-cell whereas 0.6 is typical for a macro-cell. This makes the air
interface capacity several megabits a second in the downlink direction.

Capacity of micro-cells
• Micro-cells can enjoy lower inter-cell interference
(relying on macro-cell layer to provide continuous
coverage where necessary).
• Micro-cells at below building height will be more isolated from
each other.
• Micro-cells enjoy higher levels of orthogonality.
• Orthogonality is reduced by multipath with path length difference
of more than approximately 50 metres.
• Both these factors increase capacity (particularly in the
downlink direction).
3840
Throughput = η
Eb
N0
(1 − α + i )
9.5.2 Pilot and common channel powers in micro-cells

Pilot and common channel default settings are decided upon as
appropriate when cells are experiencing significant levels of external
interference, such as in a macro-cell layer. When the levels of interference
are lower, the powers allocated to pilot and common channels can be
reduced. This in turn can further increase the downlink capacity.

Common and Pilot Powers in Micro-cells

• Pilot powers of approximately 10% of maximum power
ensure that the pilot can be used for synchronisation in
places of maximum interference considering
interference levels and orthogonality factors present in a
macro-cell layer.
• If levels of interference are lower and orthogonality is
higher, the pilot and common channel powers can be
reduced, perhaps to 5% of maximum power.
9.5.3 Link budgets for micro-cells

Orthogonality is improved in micro-cell environments. This is because
the path length differences are usually very small. However, the result of
reflections with small path length differences is to increase the probability
of flat fading. In certain circumstances this will lead to such rapid
changes in field strength that user mobility will lead to higher target
Eb/No values. Increases in target Eb/No of perhaps 2 dB can be
expected but this will be environmentally- and mobility-dependent.

Link budget for micro-cells

• Due to high levels of multi-path with small path length
differences, there will be considerable flat fading.
• A flat fading margin may be required.
• 2 dB is suggested as an appropriate value.
• This will be environmentally and mobility dependent.
9.5.4 Multi-layer strategies for dense urban environments

The initial roll-out of a macro-cell layer will be dominated by coverage
concerns. In order to provide VT coverage indoors, this will lead to a site
density of approximately two sites per square kilometre. Although some
buildings will be serviced by indoor pico-cells, it is expected that this site
density will not provide sufficient capacity for dense urban areas. A
general procedure to increase capacity would be:
• Deploy micro-cells using the same carrier as the macro-cell layer
where possible to accommodate hotspots.
• Implement inter-carrier hand over and move micro-cells to
separate carrier.
• Deploy further micro-cells until a micro-cell layer has been
established in the dense urban area.
• Identify micro-cells that could beneficially re-use the macro-cell
carrier.
The micro-cells that can re-use the macro-cell carrier beneficially are those
that enjoy geographic isolation from the macro-cell sites as was the case in
deploying micro-cells in a single carrier network. However, it is
important to note that the conceptually simple process of deploying a
micro-cell layer at a separate carrier frequency results in a great capacity
jump as the capacity of the micro-cell layer in both uplink and downlink
directions is significantly greater than that for the macro-cell layer.
Individual cells will have a greater capacity (due to higher loading factor
on the uplink and higher orthogonality and lower interference on the

downlink) and the cell density will be typically double that of the macro-
cell layer. Thus, implementing a separate micro-cell layer will lead to
increasing the capacity of the network by a factor of approximately 3.
Additional features such as the optimal re-use of the macro-cell carrier
frequency can lead to a further increase of perhaps 15%. It is important
that the macro-cell carrier is not simply re-used at all micro-cells. The
resulting mutual interference can lead to a reduction in network capacity
if it is not undertaken carefully.

• The subscriber density that can be
accommodated by a macro-cell layer will have a
limit (100 Erlangs/km2).
• Higher densities is usually due to “hotspots” that
can be treated separately:
• Office buildings: in-building solution required
• Football stadiums, railway stations etc.: micro-cell
can be deployed.

• Strategy
• Deploy micro-cells using the same carrier as the
macro-cell layer where possible to accommodate
hotspots.
• Implement inter-carrier hand over and move micro-
cells to separate carrier.
• Deploy further micro-cells until a micro-cell layer has
been established in the dense urban area.
• Identify micro-cells that could beneficially re-use the
macro-cell carrier.


• Micro-cells re-using the macro-cell frequency.
• Micro-cells that are suitably physically isolated from
the macro-cell layer can beneficially re-use the
macro-cell frequency.
• This should be done only if the micro-cell using its
own frequency becomes overloaded.
• Deploying an unnecessary extra frequency will
– Reduce power available to highly-used carrier
– Introduce extra downlink interference due to pilot and
common channels.
Capacity Increases
• Macro-cell layer: 100 Erlangs VT per km2 (single
carrier).
• Macro-cell layer plus continuous micro-cell layer
at separate frequency: 300 Erlangs VT per km2.
• Macro-cell layer, micro-cell layer at separate
frequency plus re-use of macro-cell frequency
at selected cells: 350 Erlangs VT per km2.
• In-building solutions will provide additional
capacity.
9.5.5 Hand over between carriers

The process of hand over between carriers is similar in principle to that of
hand over to GSM except that:
It is a “multi-service”; for example VT calls can hand over.

It is “two-way”; an active call can hand over in both directions.
The main indicator is pilot quality, with Ec/Io levels triggering, firstly,
compressed mode operation (Event 2d) and then (if the other carrier pilot
is of acceptable quality) hand over (Event 3a).
Inter-frequency hand over

• Hand over is “hard”.
• Based on Ec/Io comparison
• Event 2d: enter compressed mode.
• Event 3a: attempt hard hand over.
• Can be “two-way” on an active call.

10 Implementing Diversity
Systems
10.1 Introduction
Diversity is a well-established method of improving the quality of a
communication channel. It traditionally means employing more than one
receive antenna and then combining the signal (sometimes merely
selecting the one with the larger amplitude) so that the outcome is
superior to that which would be obtained without diversity. Combining
has usually taken place at RF. In UMTS networks receive diversity
actually employs multiple receivers allowing the signals to be combined
at base band. This gives an improvement in the value of Eb/N0 which, in
turn gives an improvement in both coverage and capacity.
Another innovative feature of UMTS networks is the ability to utilise

transmit diversity. This is not so effective as receive diversity but,
nevertheless, can provide Eb/N0 improvements of greater than 1 dB
(compared to 4 dB improvements possible for uplink diversity).
UMTS Advanced Cell Planning and Optimisation 133

10.2 Definition of Fading
Diversity
Fading
• Electromagnetic signals will interact, causing addition and
subtraction of their field strengths
• Fast fading signal strength changes are due to relative

motion and local scattering objects such as buildings,
foliage, etc. and change rapidly over short distances.
• Typically Multipath interference results from fast fading
• Fading of the signal follows a Rayleigh distribution
• Slow fading is the change in the local mean signal strength

as larger distances are covered.
• Fading of the signal is a log-normal distribution
• The resultant signal at the Node B and UE antenna will be

subject to rapid and deep fading
Diversity
Diversity
• Signals from multiple antennas (spatial diversity), can be used to
reduce the effects of fast fading and improve received signal
strength.
• Three common combining schemes used for Rayleigh fading

channels (Fast fading) are
• Selection diversity
• chooses the strongest signal power,
• Equal gain
• combines the co-phased signal voltages with equal weights,
• Maximal ratio combining
• weights the co-phased signal voltages relative to their signal to
noise ratio.
10.3 Receive Diversity

Diversity
Receive Diversity
• Basic idea is that, if two or more independent samples of a signal
are taken, these samples fade in an uncorrelated manner.
• Each path can then be thought of as separate and worked on in isolation
• Increases the signal to interference ratio, SIR

• Allows a system to reduce the target uplink Eb/No of a channel
• Saves UE & Node B Power
• Standard configuration for WCDMA may be two-branch Rx diversity

• Using a single cross polar antenna or two vertically polarised ones.
• Separation of the vertically polarised antenna is typically a few
wavelengths
c 3 ×108
c = f ×λ ⇒ λ = = = 15cm
f 2 ×109
separation ⇒ 30 to 40cm
Diversity
Uplink Receive Space Diversity

• Even if signal is highly correlated, coherent combination should yield
about 3 dB improvement.
• In practice a gain of 4 dB or more is expected from antennas
• Typical dimension 1.5m
Receive
antenna 2
Receive
antenna 1

Diversity
Uplink Receive Space Diversity
• This is not “conventional” space diversity.
• Each antenna is connected to a separate finger of the Rake

receiver.
• This is possible due to the synchronisation and channel estimation

derived from the Pilot bits on the DPCCH channel.
• Eb/No is improved, rather than simply an effective power gain.

10.4 Transmit Diversity
Diversity
Downlink Transmit Diversity

• UMTS explicitly allows the use of transmit diversity from the base station
• However it is not possible to simply transmit simultaneously from two close antennas as
this would cause an interference pattern
• Mobile terminals must have the capability of implementing downlink transmit diversity .
Transmit
antenna 2
Transmit
antenna 1
Diversity

• UMTS FDD mode does not allow for an accurate measure of the
downlink channel using uplink estimations
• The UE can measure the downlink channel and return estimates to

the Node B – closed loop
• The alternative is coding the downlink to allow for the UE to correlate

the two signals – open loop
• The P-CPICH is transmitted from each antenna differently
• Orthogonal signals
• Antenna 1 { 0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0, …… } normal operation
• Antenna 2 { 0,0,1,1,1,1,0,0,0,0,1,1,1,1,0,0,0,0,1,1,

Diversity

• The following methods are suggested in the UMTS
standards to avoid the problem of the interference
Transmit Diversity Description

Method
Open Loop TSTD Time Switched Transmit antenna
Diversity for SCH only
Open Loop STTD Space Time block coding Transmit
antenna Diversity
Closed Loop Mode 1 Different Orthogonal Pilots
CPICH + S-CPICH
Closed Loop Mode 2 Same Pilot
Diversity
Time Switched Transmit Diversity (TSTD) for SCH
• Even numbered slots transmitted on Antenna 1, odd

numbered slots on Antenna 2
Slot #0 Slot #1 Slot #2 Slot #14
P-SCH P-SCH P-SCH

Antenna 1
S-SCH S-SCH S-SCH
P-SCH
Antenna 2
S-SCH

Diversity
Space Time Transmit Diversity (STTD)
• STTD encoding is optional in UTRAN. STTD

support is mandatory at the UE
r(t) = r1 = S1 ⋅ h1 + S2 ⋅ h2 + n1
• Channel coding, rate matching and

interleaving is done as in the non-diversity r(t +T) = r2 = −S2* ⋅ h1 + S1* ⋅ h2 + n2
mode.
Sˆ1 = hˆ1* ⋅ r1 + hˆ2 ⋅ r2*

• STTD encoding is applied on blocks of 4
consecutive channel bits
Sˆ2 = hˆ2* ⋅ r1 − hˆ1 ⋅ r2*
• h is the impulse channel response of each

antenna
Diversity
Analysis of STTD
Antenna 1 b0 b1 b2 b3
Antenna 2 -b2 b3 b0 -b1
Combination b0-b2 b1+b3 b0+b2 b3-b1
Processing alternate bits will extract the data
• STTD encoding effectively spreads a data bit across more than one bit period.
• This leads to a general improvement in noise performance.
• Further, it allows a stronger signal from one antenna to dominate.

Diversity
Analysis of STTD
• The Space-time combining generates symbols that are proportional to the

sum of the powers from both antennas
Diversity
Closed Loop Mode

• Channel coding, interleaving and spreading are done as
in non-diversity mode
• The spread complex valued signal is fed to both TX

antenna branches, and weighted with antenna specific
weight factors w1 and w2.
• The weight factors are determined by the UE, and
signalled using the FBI field of uplink DPCCH
(Dedicated Physical Control Channel).
Pilot TFCI FBI TPC

DPCCH NFBI bits NTPC bits
Npilot bits NTFCI bits
Tslot = 2560 chips, 10 bits
Slot #0 Slot #1 Slot #i Slot #14
1 radio frame: Tf = 10 ms

Diversity
Closed Loop Mode

CPICH1 Ant1
w1
Tx
Spread/scramble
∑
DPCCH
DPCH Ant2
DPDCH
Tx
∑
w2 CPICH2
Rx
w1 w2
Weight Generation Rx
Determine FBI message

from Uplink DPCCH
Diversity
Closed Loop Mode

• Closed Loop mode 1
• The phase of one antenna is adjusted relative to the other
• Using 1 bit accuracy per slot
• Feedback rate is 1500 Hz
• Closed Loop mode 2

• Relative phase adjusted using 3 bit accuracy
• Amplitude adjusted using 1 bit
• Feedback rate is 1500 Hz

Diversity
Downlink Eb/No
Eb/No reduction
Diversity Modified Vehicular A ……………… Pedestrian A

Mode 3km/h……. …..50km/h …..120 km/h …… 3km/h
Open Loop 1.0 dB 0.5 dB 0.5 dB 3.0 dB
Closed Loop 1 1.5 dB 1.0 dB 0.0 dB 3.5 dB
Source Radio Network Planning and Optimisation for UMTS, Jaana Laiho et al
• Slower speeds and lower multipath interference produce the best results
Diversity
Transmit Diversity - Conclusions

• Depends on UE performance
• Estimate of channel impulse and SIR
• Main benefit is reduction in downlink Eb/No
• No advantage in problematic time and multipath environments

• 50km/h -- Eb/No only 0.5dB better in open-loop mode
• 120km/h -- Eb/No no real improvement
• Microcell’s will benefit from TxDiversity

• Beam forming problems associated with location

10.5 Multi-User Detection MUD
One major advantage that the downlink has in a UMTS network is the use
of orthogonal codes to reduce the interference effect of other traffic and
control channels. This relies on the fact that the downlink channels can be
easily synchronised as they originate from the same point. The same sort
of cancellation is not possible on the uplink as the transmission delay is
different for each user. MUD helps to provide some interference
cancellation by performing an inverse transform on the message
contained in interfering channels and then removing that from the input
of the wanted signal. It is a highly sophisticated method and its potential
is yet to be fully realised. However, a 1 dB improvement in uplink
performance can be recorded (which can lead to useful coverage and
capacity increases). Note that MUD is only effective at a serving cell, the
interference effect on neighbouring cells is not reduced.
Diversity
Multi-
Multi-User Detection
• Multi-User detection (MUD) is a method used to improve the
performance of the receiver by reducing the noise
contributions from other CDMA users.
• The concept is based on the fact that noise from CDMA users,
although usually approximated with AWGN characteristics,
inherently consists of coherent signals.
• MUD reception decodes a number of users simultaneously

and subtracts their noise contributions from the others
• Essentially this results in a more sensitive receiver

Diversity
Multi-
• Mid 1980s research showed that joint, optimal, maximum-likelihood decoding of
all users out performed matched filter alternatives.
• The problem was the exponential increase in processing as the number of

simultaneous users went up. ( Viterbi trellis techniques )
• Current research interests
• Suboptimal linear receivers
• Data-aided minimum mean squared (MMSE) linear receivers
• Blind ( nondata-aided ) MMSE receiver
• Non-linear multiuser detection
• Multistage interference cancellation, parallel and serial, PIC & SIC
Diversity
Multi-
• Viterbi decoding uses past symbol knowledge to weight present
and future choices
• Multiuser decoding has the added complexity of having present

‘other user’ interfering symbols
• Therefore some decision as to the interfering symbols must be

made
• Due to the complexity, multiuser detection is more likely to exist

in the Node B

Diversity
Multi-
• Multiuser detection reduces the need for tight power control
• Power control is still important to the performance of the MUD

system
• Best performance used with short spreading codes, repeating

every symbol. ( Downlink )
• Can be used with long spreading codes, pseudorandom

sequences which are much longer than the symbol duration.
(Uplink)
Diversity
Visualising the Processing Gain w/o MUD
W/Hz W/Hz W/Hz

Ec
Before After
Spreading Spreading With Noise Io
f f f
W/Hz Eb
W/Hz
After
Despreading Post
/Correlation Filtering
(No MUD) No
f
f
Signal dBW/Hz
Eb/No
Intra-cell Noise Eb
No
Inter-cell Noise f

Diversity
Visualising the Processing Gain with MUD

Post
W/Hz Filtering
W/Hz W/Hz
After Eb Eb
Despreading
/Correlation
No No
f f f
W/Hz W/Hz
Eb Eb
Signal No No
Other Users f f
Inter-cell Noise
Because of MUD the contribution of the other users to the
Noise is Reduced.
It is not completely eliminated because of the inaccuracies of

the Multiple access interference estimation.
10.6 Predicting the Effect of Different Coverage

and Capacity Enhancement Devices
It is clear that adding certain devices, such as mast head amplifiers or

diversity receivers will improve network performance. However, we
need to be able to quantify any likely improvement in order to undertake
a cost-benefit analysis. As a starting point we shall consider an isolated
cell that is serving voice users delivering a bit rate of 12200 bps at an
Eb/N0 of 4 dB on the uplink and the downlink. With an uplink Noise Rise
of 3 dB the cell can accommodate a link loss of 133 dB.
This information alone is sufficient to suggest that the pole capacity is

1530 kbps on the uplink and 3822 kbps on the downlink (assuming an
orthogonality value of 0.6). An uplink Noise Rise of 3 dB would suggest
that 63 voice users are seen as a full load for the cell. The loading factor
on the downlink would be estimated to be only 20% suggesting a Noise
Rise figure of 1 dB. If 36 dBm of common channel and pilot power is
transmitted, the effect at the mobile receiver would be that of a -94 dBm
interference power if the mobiles are at a path loss of 126 dB. If the noise
floor of the receiver is -101 dBm then the overall “noise plus interference”
level would be -93.2 dBm. If a Noise Rise of 1 dB must be produced, then
an effective traffic channel power of -99.2 dBm (actual receive power -95.2
dBm) must be received. This would necessitate a transmit power of 30.8

dBm if all users were at a path loss 7 dB less than the cell edge (which is
defined by a link loss of 133 dB).
Quick check downlink analysis. 30.8 dBm corresponds to 12.8 dBm per
user (if there are 63 users). Received power per user is -113.2 dBm.
Effective Noise Power is -92.2 dBm (given a NR of 1 dB). Thus wideband
SNR is -21.0 dB. Processing gain of 25 dB will restore the required Eb/N0
value of 4 dB.
Having carried out and understood the mechanism of this calculation it is

possible to predict the effect of capacity enhancement devices such as
uplink diversity. When considering whether or not to use such devices it
is important that their purpose is made clear. For example, is maximising
capacity or maximising coverage range our goal (or is it a combination of
the two aims)? Additionally, the affect on the downlink must be assessed.
Consider, as an example, the effect of implementing uplink diversity on

this cell. The effect is to reduce the target Eb/N0 value by 3 dB. If
maximising capacity (whilst keeping the coverage range fixed) is taken to
be our goal then it is possible to increase the NR limit by 3 dB to 6 dB and
then note that the pole capacity on the uplink has doubled to 3060 kbps.
The loading factor of 75% means that a throughput of 2290 kbps is
possible, equivalent to 188 voice users. This represents a dramatic
increase on the previous value of 62 users. However, there has been no
help offered on the downlink. The pole capacity in this direction remains
unchanged at 3822 kbps. Thus a loading factor of 60% will be imposed
causing a Noise Rise of 4 dB. The effective Traffic Channel Power
required to cause this Noise Rise will be -91.5 dBm, an actual received
power of -87.5 dBm. The total traffic channel transmit power would have
to be 38.5 dBm (15.8 dBm per user). This is a significant increase over the
previous value of 30.8 dBm. Notice that the amount of power required by
each user has increased significantly.
Alternatively, if may be that uplink diversity has been introduced with

the goal of increasing the range of the cell keeping its capacity constant. If
that is the case the new pole capacity of 3060 kbps can be used to calculate
a reduced loading factor of 25%, which represents a noise rise of 1.2 dB.
Thus the cell coverage range can be increased by 4.8 dB. Thus a typical
user can be thought of as having a path loss of 131.8 dB to the cell. The
result of this is that the interference effect of the pilot and common
channels is reduced. However, the fact that users are at a greater distance
means that the power requirements will be greater, although not 4 dB

greater. Calculations show that the Traffic Channel power requirement
will rise from the initial value of 30.8 dBm to 32.0 dBm.
It is possible to use similar techniques to predict the effect of using mast

head amplifiers and of implementing downlink diversity.
Diversity
Predicting the Effects

• It is important to be able to • Common Channel and Pilot
predict the coverage and Power taken to be 33 dBm
capacity effects of each (total 36 dBm).
introducing a feature such as
uplink diversity into a cell.
• As a starting point we will
consider an isolated cell that
is serving voice users
delivering a bitrate of 12200
bps in both directions at an
Eb/No of 4 dB.
• We shall assume that the
orthogonality factor is 0.6.
• Maximum link loss is taken to • Mobile noise floor is -101
be 133 dB with the “average dBm.
user” on the downlink having
a link loss of 126 dB.
Diversity
Downlink Calculations
• Noise Floor of Mobile is -101 dBm
• Common and Pilot Channels
received at a level of 36 – 126 = -90
dBm.
• Orthogonality reduces this by 4 dB Noise plus interference
(10log[1-0.6]=-4). Thus equivalent = -93.2 dBm
is -94 dBm.
• -94 dBm + (-101 dBm) = -93.2 dBm
• The pole capacity of the DL has

been calculated as 3822 kbps.
Throughput of 785 kbps would be a
loading factor of 20% and a NR of 1
dB.
• Traffic channel power has to
produce this Noise Rise.

Diversity
Downlink Calculations
• Noise plus interference plus traffic
channel power must be -92.2 dBm.
Required transmit
• Effective traffic channel power must traffic channel power =
be -92.2 dBm – (-93.2 dBm)=-99.1 30.9 dBm.
dBm.
Noise plus interference
• But traffic channel power will benefit plus traffic channel
from orthogonality. Actual received power = -92.2 dBm
traffic channel power must be -95.1
dBm.
• Transmitted traffic channel power
must total -95.1+126=30.9 dBm
• Confidence check: 63 users: 12.8
dBm per user: Rx power per user is
-113.2 dBm. Noise plus Actual received traffic
interference = -92.2 dBm. SNR = - channel power = -95.1
dBm
21 dB. Processing Gain = 25 dB.
Eb/No = 4 dB as required.
Diversity
Introducing UL Diversity
• Now we will introduce UL diversity
and prioritise capacity, keeping the Required TCH power =
38.5 dBm.
range the same.
• UL Eb/No improvement assumed to Capacity on UL is
trebled.
be 3 dB.
• Pole capacity on UL is now 3060
kbps; on DL it remains at 3822 kbps.
• NR limit can be increased on UL
from 3 dB to 6 dB. Throughput on
UL increased to 2290 kbps (188
voice users).
• Loading factor on DL is now 60%: a Actual received traffic
NR of 4 dB. channel power = -87.5
dBm
• Effective Traffic Channel power is
now required to be -89.2 dBm –
(-93.2 dBm)=-91.5 dBm. • Required Traffic Channel transmit
• Actual Traffic Channel Power power = 38.5 dBm (15.8 dBm per
Received = -87.5 dBm. user)

Diversity
• Now we will introduce UL diversity
and prioritise range increase,
keeping the capacity the same.
• UL Eb/No improvement assumed to UL path loss increased
by 4.8 dB.
be 3 dB.
• Pole capacity on UL is now 3060
kbps; on DL it remains at 3822 kbps.
• UL loading factor is now 25%
• NR limit can be reduced on UL from
3 dB to 1.2 dB.
• Path loss can be increased by 4.8
dB so typical user now has link loss
of 130.8 dB.
• DL interference from pilot and
common channel = -98.7 dBm
• Adding thermal noise gives -98.7
dBm + (-101 dBm) =-96.7 dBm
Diversity
• To give 1 dB NR on downlink, the
Effective TCH power must be -95.7 Required TCH power =
32.0 dBm.
dBm –(-96.7 dBm) = -102.7 dBm.
• Actual Received TCH power must be UL path loss increased
by 4.8 dB.
-98.7 dBm.
• Required Transmit TCH power must
be 32 dBm.
• Note: this has risen from 30.9 dBm.
The 1.1 dB rise in power is less than
the 4.8 dB rise in path loss due to
the fact that the majority of “noise
plus interference” at the mobile is Actual received traffic
pilot and common channel power channel power = -98.7
from the cell. dBm
• One conclusion is that it is the
loading that most influences
requirements on the downlink power
level.

Diversity
Introducing MHA
• Now we will now consider the effect
of introducing a MHA and prioritising
Required TCH power =
capacity, keeping the range the
32.6 dBm.
same.
• The Noise Performance improvement UL NR increased by 2
dB.
is assumed to be 2 dB.
• Pole capacity on UL remains
unchanged at 1530 kbps.
• NR limit can be increased on UL from
3 dB to 5 dB. Throughput on UL
increased to 1045 kbps (86 voice
users).
Capacity increased by
• Loading factor on DL is now 27%: a 37%
NR of 1.4 dB.
• Effective Traffic Channel power is
(-93.2 dBm)=-97.4 dBm. • Required Traffic Channel transmit
• Actual Traffic Channel Power power = 32.6 dBm (13.3 dBm per
Received = -93.4 dBm. user)
Diversity
Introducing MHA – prioritise coverage

• Now we will now consider the effect
of introducing a MHA and prioritising
Required TCH power =
coverage, keeping the capacity the
31.3 dBm.
same.
• The Noise Performance improvement Max PL increased by 2
dB
is assumed to be 2 dB.
• Pole capacity on UL remains
unchanged at 1530 kbps.
• NR limit is unchanged: maximum link
loss now increased by 2 dB to 135
dB.
• Loading factor on DL is unchanged.
Capacity stays the
• Effective Traffic Channel power is same
(-94.8 dBm)=-100.7 dBm.
• Actual Traffic Channel Power
Received = -96.7 dBm. • Required Traffic Channel transmit
power = 31.3 dBm (13.3 dBm per
user)

10.7 Multiple-beam antennas
The fact that the target Eb/No is likely to be higher on the downlink than
on the uplink (typical values: voice, 5 dB UL, 7 dB DL; 64 kbps cs data, 3
dB UL, 7 dB DL) together with the fact that most common enhancement
devices, such as MHAs and diversity (and soft hand over gain), benefit
the UL more than the DL suggests that the downlink will become the
limiting factor in a UMTS network, particularly as internet services are
likely to generate more offered traffic in the downlink direction than in
the uplink. A more sophisticated antenna that produces multiple beams
is seen as a powerful aid of the downlink.
Diversity
Multi-beam antennas
• The downlink direction is likely to

be the limiting factor in air-interface
capacity considerations.
• This is largely due to the higher
Eb/No requirement in this direction
owing to the lack of diversity
receiver at the UE.
• Voice: UL Eb/No 5 dB; DL 7 dB
• VT: UL Eb/No 3 dB; DL 7 dB
• Multi-beam antennas offer the
most powerful method of
increasing capacity in the downlink
direction.
• They are also beneficial in the
uplink direction.

Diversity
Multi-beam antennas
• A typical antenna for use in a 3-

sector site will have a beamwidth
of approximately 70 degrees.
• A multi-beam antenna will
typically have 4 beams with 20
degrees.
• In its simplest form it can be
thought of as consisting of four
separate antennas, each with a
narrow beam (this is unlikely to
be the actual configuration).
• The power for each user can be
directed to the best antenna.
10.7.1 Beam forming principles

Consider two antenna elements placed side by side and fed from a
common source. Suppose that the elements are fed in phase. The electric
field contributions from each element along a line perpendicular to a line
joining the antennas will add in phase to produce a maximum. However,
if we move away from the line the distance to one element is different
from the distance to the other and the electric fields will not add in phase.
At a point where this difference is half a wavelength (λ/2) the two
contributions will be in antiphase and will cancel each other, producing a
null.
λ
At the first null, d sin θ = . So, if d = 5λ , the first null occurs where sinθ
2
= 0.1, an angle of 5.7 degrees. Thus the beam width between the two nulls
on either side of the main lobe would be 11.4 ˚ .
Where the path length difference was λ the two signals would add in
phase again, producing a peak. There would be nulls at dsinθ = 0.5 λ, 1.5λ,
2.5λ etc. And peaks where dsinθ=λ, 2λ, 3λ etc..
If each antenna has a directional pattern itself, then the radiation pattern
of the antenna is modified by the “array factor”.
If instead of feeding the two elements in phase, a delay is placed in one of
the feeders, this has the effect of moving the main beam. The peak
direction will be where the delay in the feeder is compensated for by an
short distance from the antenna. For example, if the delay represents a

phase-shift of 90˚ , the peak will occur where the path length difference is
λ/4. By adjusting the phase difference it is possible to steer the beam.
Antenna arrays commonly consist of more than two elements. This will
lead to a narrower main beam for a given spacing. Further, the more
antennas, the higher the gain of the array. This leads to the possibility of
reducing the gain of the individual elements. This would usually be
achieved by increasing the vertical beam width, thus the antennas vertical
height could be substantially reduced (in the case of a 4 element array, it
could be reduced to a quarter of its height). One antenna array that
shows promise for use in UMTS cells is a four-element array (or four
separate four-element arrays). The typical arrangement is of an element
spacing of approximately 0.6λ. There would be four different phase
differences between successive elements: +135˚ , +45˚ ,-45˚ ,-135˚ .
These form the “Butler matrix” such that each of the beams is orthogonal
to the other three. That is, where one has a peak, the other three have a
null. This leads to minimising interference between the beams. This is
the “four fixed-beam” arrangement that is adopted in some UMTS
networks.
Diversity
Multi-beam antennas
• A typical antenna for use in a 3-

sector site will have a beamwidth
of approximately 70 degrees.
• A multi-beam antenna will
typically have 4 beams with 20
degrees.
• In its simplest form it can be
thought of as consisting of four
separate antennas, each with a
narrow beam (this is unlikely to
be the actual configuration).
• The power for each user can be
directed to the best antenna.

Diversity
Multi-beam antennas
• The multi-beam antenna will act

in a “smart” manner with the UE
controlling the power weighting
for its traffic channel.
• In order for the UE to identify the
appropriate weighting, a different
secondary scrambling code is
added to each beam. Pilot4
• The result is effectively a unique, Pilot3

optimised beam for each user.
Pilot2
• On the uplink, the Rake receiver
automatically adjusts the
Pilot1
weightings to their optimum
value.
Diversity
Beam-forming Principles
• In practice, we do not use four

separate 20 degree antennas
(they would be physically quite
large).
• Instead a single unit comprising a
four-element array of 70 degree
antennas is used.
• To understand beam-forming
?
principles, it is best to start with
two elements. d
• If the two elements shown are fed
in phase, there will be a null
wherever
λ 3λ 5λ 7λ
d sin θ = , , , ....
2 2 2 2

Diversity
• If instead of feeding the elements

in phase, we introduce a delay in
one of the feeders, the direction
of the main beam will not be
perpendicular to the line joining
the antennas.
• The beam can be steered by ?
adjusting the delay.
Diversity
• A four-element array will produce

a narrower main beam for a given
element spacing and also more
nulls. Four-element array
• A particular group of four element 0

arrays can form “orthogonal -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
Relative Gain (dB)
beams”. -10
• A set of orthogonal beams have
nulls where the others have -20
peaks.
• The set form a “Butler matrix”. -30
Angle (Degrees)
• Offsets in the feeders correspond
to phase shifts of ±45°and
±135°.

Diversity
The four-element array
• A multi-beam antenna
can be produced from Radiation Patterns for different phase
a single array with four shifts
different feed
arrangements. This is 0
-80 -60 -40 -20 -5 0 20 40 60 80
much more compact
Relative Gain (dB)

than having four -10
45
separate narrow-beam -15 -45
antennas. -20 -135
-25 135
-30
-35
Angle (degrees)
10.7.2 Implementation in a UMTS network

Its implementation is deceptively simple yet effective. On the uplink the
combination of the signal from each UE is achieved by a Rake receiver
with four fingers (eight if cross-polar diversity is used). In this way, the
optimum weighting is applied to each of the elements. The situation on
the downlink is not as straightforward as the diversity is at the
transmitting end. The UE has to identify the relative strength of the
signals from the individual elements. This is achieved by allocating a
different secondary scrambling code (each cell has 1 primary scrambling
codes and 15 secondary codes available) to each of the elements in order
that the UE can differentiate between them. This information is relayed
back to the cell on the uplink control channel and the cell can then adjust
the weightings of the transmit power so that the most power is delivered
to the element that provides the strongest signal.
10.7.3 Improvement from use of multiple-beam antennas.

The improvement in air-interface performance is environment-dependent
but it is the most significant method of improving down link performance.
As the down link is likely to become the major factor limiting network
capacity, it represents a very powerful solution. On the uplink, the gain
provided if cross polar diversity is included (requiring eight RAKE
fingers in the receiver) is typically 5 dB using a single 2-branch receiver
(single antenna with cross-polar diversity) as a reference. The downlink
gain is between 4 and 5 dB, depending on the characteristics of the
propagation path. When compared with the 1 to 1.5 dB gain achieved by
two-antenna downlink diversity, it is clear that beam-forming represents
a hugely significant capacity enhancement technique.
The typical horizontal spacing of 10 cm and the reduction in vertical
height possible without reducing coverage means that the four elements
can be housed in a single radome and form a physically compact module.
However, it must be remembered that the vertical beamwidth of the
shorter antenna will be greater than for an antenna of standard height.
Diversity
Estimates of Improvement
• A multi-beam antenna helps to isolate individual UEs from

interference from other users.
• This increases capacity.
• On the downlink an improvement of between 4 dB and 5 dB is
expected. This suggests an increase in the air-interface
capacity of between 160% and 220%.
• On the uplink an improvement of 5 dB compared with a cross-
polar diversity receiver can be expected, providing an increase
of 220% in the air-interface capacity.
• Multi-beam antennas provide by far the most effective method
of increasing the capacity of a cell, particularly in the downlink
direction.

Diversity
Physical Implementation
• The vertical separation of the antennas is 10 cm at frequencies

of 2 GHz.
• The four-element array should be contained in a unit
approximately 50 cm in width.
• The height of the unit will depend on requirements for the
vertical beamwidth.
• Note the UEs are required by the specifications to be capable
of implementing the techniques described.
• They monitor the different secondary scrambling codes and feed
back information on the “FBI” bits on the uplink control channel.
10.8 Smart (beam-forming) antennas

The antenna described in the previous section is of the “fixed-beam” type.
The fact that antenna weighting can be varied for each user does lead to
the beam effectively being steered for a user. However, the phase
relationship between the elements is fixed. It is possible to deploy
“smart” antennas that produce user-specific beams utilising variable
phase shifts between elements. This technology in not mature, however
and requires some non-standard functionality. Further, it provides little
improvement on the performance of the fixed-beam antenna. The
adoption of the fixed-beam approach is generally favoured.

11 Integrating Extra Sites
into the Macro-Cell Layer
11.1 Introduction
A requirement to improve coverage and/or capacity of the macro-cell
layer will inevitably arise at times. Sometimes the only viable solution is
to introduce an extra site into this layer. It may be at the edge of the
current coverage area or embedded within this area. Although the new
cell will be using the same frequency as the other cells within the macro
cell layer, care must be taken that its introduction does not disrupt the
network. This section explains some of the issues that must be
considered.

Additional Sites
Integrating New Sites
• The configuration not only of the new site but also all
other sites in the region must be considered.
• Quite possible that on “switch on” the new site
makes network performance worse than before.
• We must quickly go from a “non-optimised” to an
“optimised” situation.
• Careful use of a planning tool can lead to rapid
implementation of corrective action:
• Down-tilting antennas from old sites.
• Implementing new neighbour lists.
11.2 Planning the new site

Whether the new site is to be used to fill a coverage gap, extend the
coverage region or increase capacity, the general principles that must be
adopted are similar. At the moment of switch-on, the region around the
new site will move from an “optimised” situation to “non-optimised”.
Before the new site is made active, the following issues must be planned
carefully.
• The coverage area of the new site. The new site will provide
coverage but also introduce interference. This can be minimised by
appropriate site configuration, in particular ensuring the antenna
type and orientation are appropriate. Careful use of the planning
tool can achieve a near-optimum configuration as switch-on.
• The coverage areas of existing sites in the region. The previously-
existing sites will interfere with the new site. Careful use of the
planning tool will ensure that the down-tilts of antennas that will
inevitably be required can be planned in advance. The change to
the down-tilts must be implemented as soon as possible after the
new site becomes active.
• Changes to the neighbour list. After the planning tool has been
used to decide the configuration of the new site and those in its
vicinity, the neighbour list can be planned, again using the
planning tool. This will lead to the creation of neighbour lists to be
allocated to the cells in the new site as well as new neighbour lists
for the cells in the region. Again the changes to the neighbour list

should be implemented as soon as possible after the new site
becomes active.
It is important to realise that, until the region is optimised once more, it is
possible for the introduction of the new site to make the network
performance worse than before.
11.3 Action after activation of the new site
11.3.1 Making further drive-tests

Following activation of the new site, it is important that drive tests are
carried out to investigate the radio environment in the region of the new
site. The procedure adopted is similar to that for the pre-launch
optimisation phase of the network as a whole. Drive tests should allow
the optimisation engineer to:
• Confirm that coverage meet requirements
• Check that the interference levels are within acceptable limits
• Assess the capacity of a network.
Coverage and interference checks would be in accordance with “standard
procedures”. That is, incidents where too many pilots were recorded
would be dealt with by re-configuration as necessary.
Additional Sites
Drive Testing the Region
• Drive Tests can be used to:

• Assess coverage
• Assess interference
• Fine-tune the neighbour lists
• Estimate improvement in capacity
• This last point is vital: if we have not significantly
increased the capacity of the network then we have
wasted our money.

Additional Sites
Estimating Capacity Improvement
• Areas in the vicinity of the new site should show

improvements in Ec/Io and pilot strength
measurements.
• These can be used to estimate a capacity
improvement.
11.3.2 Assessing network capacity

The capacity assessment involves an interpretation of the pilot and Ec/Io
measurements made before and after the introduction of the new site.
The value of Ec/Io should show a definite improvement in the area close
to the new site. This can be interpreted as a capacity improvement.
For example, suppose that in a sample of locations the following Ec/Io
measurements were made before and after deployment of the new site.
Typical measurements made on a quiet network are shown below.
Location Ref Ec/Io previously Ec/Io new

A -9 dB -5 dB
B -8 dB -6 dB
C -7 dB -7 dB
D -5 dB -6 dB
Notice that the Ec/Io will not improve in all locations. The presence of
the new site will inevitably cause some interference within the coverage
area of adjacent cells. This means that the throughput possible from a cell
will actually drop at some areas. It is important that these areas are not
the areas where high subscriber densities are expected. In order to
perform a quantitative prediction on capacity, the pilot SIR needs to be

estimated at each location. This will typically be 1 – 4 dB better than the
value of Ec/Io. The SIR of a 2 watt bearer (assuming the pilot power is 2
watts) would be the same as that of the pilot. If the Eb/No of the service
is known, the bit rate possible for a 2 watt bearer can be calculated. It is
then a simple extension to determine the full cell capacity if of the cell if
all 16 watts available was used for traffic. The absolute values (2 watts
and 16 watts in this case) are not highly significant. It is the ratio of the
two powers (8:1 or 9 dB) that affects the capacity in an interference-
limited environment.
As an example, consider the Ec/Io in an unloaded cell in an area where
there is no significant out-of-cell interference. If the common channel
power is the same as the pilot power then:
Ec
= −3 dB
I0
Pilot SIR is calculated by separating the pilot power from the common
channel power and then considering the effect of orthogonality in
reducing the effective interference caused by common channels. If the
common channel power equals the pilot channel power then:
+ 3 − 10 log(1 − α ) dB, where α is the orthogonality factor.

E
Pilot SIR = c
I0
This is the situation where there is no interference. Values of Ec/Io worse
than -3 dB indicate that out-of-cell power is being received at that
location. The ratio, D, of out-of-cell power to in-cell power is given by
 − 3− Ec I 0 
 
D = 10  10  −1 .
Note that the constant (-3 in this case) in this
equation is related to the interference-free value of Ec/Io. It must be
remembered that this value is appropriate only if the network is
unloaded. The pilot SIR in an unloaded network (SIRzero) can then be
determined as
 1 
SIR zero = 10 log  dB. At full load, the value of cell power will be
 D +1−α 
approximately 7 dB (a factor of 5) above the unloaded level (36 dBm to 43
dBm) but the non-pilot power (which is what we are interested in) in the
own-cell increases by a factor of 9 (typically from 2 W to 18 W, which
equates to 9.5 dB). Thus the SIR at full load (SIRFL) can be determined
from
 1 
SIR FL = 10 log  dB.
 5 D + 9(1 − α ) 
This SIR is for a 2 watt pilot, a 2 watt traffic bearer would experience the
same SIR. The capacity for a 2 watt bearer would depend on the Eb/No.
The capacity is given by

3840
Capacity 2W = kbit/s
 E b N 0 − SIR FL 
 
10  10 
If the full power of 16 watts is allocated to traffic channels, eight times the
throughput would be possible.
30720
Capacity fullpower = kbit/s . Remember that the
 
10  10 
important parameter is the ratio of traffic channel power to pilot power.
A value of 8:1 is thought to be appropriate. In summary, the process
involved is
• Measure Ec/Io in an unloaded network
• Determine the ratio of out-of-cell power to in-cell power, D from
 − 3− Ec I 0 
 
D = 10  10  −1
• Estimate the pilot SIR that would be experienced if the downlink of

 1 
the network was fully loaded. SIRFL = 10 log  dB.
 5 D + 9(1 − α ) 
• Estimate the capacity of the downlink for a service based on the
30720
target Eb/No, Capacity fullpower = kbit/s .
 
10  10 
In this way the impact of changes to the network can be assessed on a

capacity basis.

Additional Sites
Estimating Capacity Improvement

Location Ec/Io previously Ec/Io new
Ref
A -9 dB -5 dB
B -8 dB -6 dB
C -7 dB -7 dB
D -5 dB -6 dB
• Not all areas will be improved.

• Ec/Io in adjacent cells can be made worse by
presence of new site. These areas should not be
“hotspots”.
Additional Sites
Using Ec/Io to Estimate Capacity
• In an unloaded network, if there is no interference:

• Ec/Io should equal approximately -3 dB.
• Assumptions are that thermal noise is not significant
and common channel power equals pilot power.

Additional Sites
• In this case:
+ 3 − 10 log(1 − α ) dB
E
Pilot SIR = c
I0
• This is the same SIR as a 2 W (33 dBm) traffic

channel.
Additional Sites
• If the network is fully loaded, Io will increase by 7

dB:
− 4 − 10 log(1 − α ) dB
E
Pilot SIR = c
I0

Additional Sites
• Throughput from 33 dBm bearer depends on Eb/No

target. For a 7 dB target :
 Ec − 4 −10 log(1−α )− 7 
 I0 
 
 10 
Through put = 3840 ×10   kbit/s
Additional Sites
• Throughput from 33 dBm bearer depends on Eb/No

target. For a 7 dB target :
 Ec − 4 −10 log(1−α )− 7 
 I0 
 
 10 
Through put = 3840 ×10   kbit/s

Additional Sites
Considering Interference
• If there is external interference, Ec/Io will drop.

• Out of cell power as a fraction of in-cell power:
 − 3− Ec I 0 
 
D = 10  10  −1
Additional Sites
 − 3− Ec I 0 
 
D = 10  10  −1
• Pilot SIR (at zero load) can then be estimated as:
 1 
SIRzero = 10 log  dB
 D +1−α 

Additional Sites
 1 
SIRzero = 10 log  dB
 D +1−α 
• Pilot SIR at full load can then be estimated as:
 1 
SIRFL = 10 log 
 5 D + 9(1 − α ) 
• Note: other cell power will increase by a factor of 5.

non-pilot power from own cell will increase by a factor of 9.
Additional Sites
• The capacity from a 2 watt bearer can then be
estimated as:
3840
Capacity 2W = kbit/s
 
10  10 
• The cell capacity if 16 watts was allocated to traffic

power can then be estimated as:
30720
Capacity fullpower = kbit/s
 
10  10 

Additional Sites
Summary of Capacity Prediction

•Measure Ec/Io in an unloaded network
•Determine the ratio of out-of-cell power to in-cell power, D from
 −3− Ec I 0 
 
D = 10  10  −1
•Estimate the pilot SIR that would be experienced if the
downlink of the network was fully loaded.
 1 
SIRFL = 10 log  dB
 5 D + 9(1 − α ) 
.
•Estimate the capacity of the downlink for a service based on the target Eb/No,
30720
Capacity fullpower = kbit/s
 
10 10 
11.3.2.1 Example
As an example, if Ec/Io was measured at -7 dB and orthogonality factor,
α, is assumed to be 0.6 and the Eb/No of the required service was
assumed to be 7 dB:.
D = 10 0.4 − 1 = 1.51
 1 
SIRFL = 10 log  = −10.5 dB
 5 × 1.51 + 9 × (1 − 0.6 ) 
30720
Capacity fullpower = = 546 kbit/s
 7 +10.5 
 
10  10 
The graph shows the predicted throughput at various locations for a
target Eb/No of 7 dB and assuming that all the cell power is devoted to
users at the location in question.

Throughput vs. unloaded Ec/Io
2000.00
Capacity (kbit/s)
1500.00
1000.00
500.00
0.00
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
Unloaded Ec/Io (dB)
Eb/No = 7 dB
11.3.2.2 Effect of network loading on cell capacity

It is important to remember that the network is assumed to be at full load.
If the interfering cells are transmitting at less than full power then a
higher capacity can be achieved. A more general equation for the loaded
 1 
SIR (instead of full load) is SIRLOADED = 10 log  where η is
 5ηD + 9(1 − α ) 
the fractional power loading of the interfering cells on the downlink. For
a value for η of 0.6, the throughput prediction in the above case would be
increased from 546 kbit/s to 753 kbit/s.
Additional Sites
Example of Capacity Prediction

As an example, if Ec/Io was measured at -7 dB and
orthogonality factor, α, is assumed to be 0.6 and the Eb/No of
the required service was assumed to be 7 dB:.
D = 10 0.4 − 1 = 1.51
 1 
SIR FL = 10 log  = −10.5 dB
 5 × 1.51 + 9 × (1 − 0.6 ) 
30720
Capacity fullpower = = 546 kbit/s
 7 +10.5 
 
10  10 

Additional Sites
Variation of Capacity with unloaded Ec/Io
The graph shows how the capacity at full load varies with the
unloaded Ec/Io values.
Throughput vs. unloaded Ec/Io

2000.00
Capacity (kbit/s)
1500.00
1000.00
500.00
0.00
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
Unloaded Ec/Io (dB)
Eb/No = 7 dB
Additional Sites
The Effect of Neighbour Cell Loading
If the neighbouring (interfering) cells are not fully loaded then

the interference will be less and the capacity will be higher.
 1 
SIRLOADED = 10 log 
 5ηD + 9(1 − α ) 
Where η is the fractional loading of the interfering cells.

If fractional loading is 0.6, the previous example would give a
predicted capacity of 753 kbit/s instead of 546 kbit/s.
11.3.3 Interpreting measurements made under unknown

loading conditions.
The starting point for the analysis described above is obtaining
measurements of Ec/Io on an unloaded network. If the network is loaded
to an unknown level, the values of Ec/Io recorded will not be of any use.
It is possible, by making certain assumptions, to use the pilot signals

measured as an indicator of the level of Ec/Io in an unloaded situation.
Suppose, for example, that the following pilots levels were measured at a
particular point:
Cell Pilot Strength
Cell 1 -80 dBm
Cell 2 -84 dBm
Cell 3 -86 dBm
Cell 4 -91 dBm
If the pilot powers are added together the sum is
( )
10 log 10 (− 80 / 10 ) + 10 (− 84 / 10 ) + 10 (− 86 / 10 ) + 10 (− 91 / 10 ) = −77.6 dBm . From
this level it can be deduced that, under conditions of zero traffic load, the
downlink power received would be approximately -74.6 dBm. Thus the
best server could be estimated to have an unloaded Ec/Io of -5.6 dB and
the capacity could be calculated in the manner described. The
assumptions in this analysis are:
• Thermal noise is negligible. The value of thermal noise depends
upon the UE and thus any assumption as to its level would be
inexact. However, a value of -100 dBm is seen as reasonable. This
can usually be deemed “negligible” if the network power is greater
than -90 dBm. Under conditions of heavy load, this network
power would be received if the link loss was less than
approximately 136 dB. The pilot strength would be -103 dB. This
pilot strength is seen as a sensible minimum for there to be any
meaningful coverage and therefore the assumption that thermal
noise is negligible is valid over the coverage area.
• Network downlink power is the only significant power. This
assumes that there are no other significant interference sources.
This should be the situation. Indeed, as the maximum variation of
Ec/Io should be 7 dB, the measured value of Ec/Io can be
compared with the estimate for an unloaded Ec/Io and, if the
difference is bigger than, say, 5 dB an investigation into the
conditions at the location under question can be conducted.

Additional Sites
Interpreting Measurements made under

unknown loading conditions
The analysis uses Ec/Io results for an unloaded network. This
can be deduced from pilot measurements when the level of
network loading is unknown.
Cell Pilot Strength

Cell 1 -80 dBm
Cell 2 -84 dBm
Cell 3 -86 dBm
Cell 4 -91 dBm
In the above situation, the unloaded total power will be 3 dB

higher than the pilot power from each cell.
( )
10 log 10(− 77 / 10 ) + 10(−81 / 10 ) + 10(−83 / 10 ) + 10(−88 / 10 ) = −74.6 dBm
Additional Sites

( )
10 log 10(− 77 / 10 ) + 10(−81 / 10 ) + 10(−83 / 10 ) + 10(−88 / 10 ) = −74.6 dBm
In this case the Ec/Io of the best pilot (pilot strength – 80 dBm)
would be predicted to be -5.6 dB.
Prediction of capacity would be undertaken as before.
The assumptions behind the deduction of unloaded Ec/Io must

be acknowledged.

Additional Sites

Assumptions:
Thermal noise is negligible.
Network power at least -90 dBm.
Generally an acceptable assumption. A pilot power
of -103 dBm would lead to a network power of about
-90 dBm if network was heavily loaded.
Only power is network power.

External interference can cause problems.
Ec/Io is measured on drive test. Events where the
measured Ec/Io is more than 5 dB greater than
predicted, unloaded Ec/Io should be investigated.


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 Copyright 2003 AIRCOM International Ltd

All rights reserved

Document Number: P/TR/005/O056/v1

This manual prepared by: AIRCOM International

Telephone: +44 (0) 1737 775700

UMTS Post-launch Optimisation and

2 Factors Limiting Capacity 11

3 Reducing Mutual Interference 29

4 Optimising Network Parameters 37

5 Providing Additional Hard Capacity 61

UMTS Post-Launch Optimisation and Network Evolution 3

7 Using Micro-cells to Service Hot Spots 87

8 The Effect of Further Site Sectorisation 109

9 Using Additional Carriers – Hierarchical Cell Structures 119

10 Implementing Diversity Systems 133

UMTS Post-Launch Optimisation and Network Evolution 4

11 Integrating Extra Sites into the Macro-Cell Layer 161

UMTS Post-Launch Optimisation and Network Evolution 5

1.1 Course Overview

UMTS Post-Launch Optimisation and Network Evolution 7

• Assuming the network has been

• This will include:

UMTS Post-Launch Optimisation and Network Evolution 8

2.1 Cell Throughput

UMTS Post-Launch Optimisation and Network Evolution 11

Factors Limiting Capacity

• Crucial parameters are Eb/No, inter-cell interference i, α

2.1.1 Influence of Loading factor

UMTS Post-Launch Optimisation and Network Evolution 12

Factors Limiting Capacity: NR limit

• NR limit on uplink is directly linked to loading factor:

• NR limit appears in link budget and hence affects coverage prediction.

• If a network is planned so that continuous coverage would be provided

• Coverage could be planned for a NR value 1 to 2 dB below the limit –

• Failures will then be split between Eb/No and NR.

Capacity Limiting Factors

Factors Limiting Capacity: NR limit

Noise Rise vs. Throughput

20.00 Steep slope -

2.1.2 Influence of External Interference

UMTS Post-Launch Optimisation and Network Evolution 13

Factors Limiting Capacity: FRE

• Frequency re-use efficiency is the name given to the

• Frequency re-use efficiency is a useful term as it varies

Capacity Limiting Factors

Factors Limiting Capacity: FRE

• The ideal situation is where the receiving antenna can only

• The power from neighbouring mobiles close to the cell border

High power mobiles close to

UMTS Post-Launch Optimisation and Network Evolution 14

Factors Limiting Capacity: FRE

• A large cell serving a low subscriber density surrounded by

A Large cell will experience low FRE

Capacity Limiting Factors

Factors Limiting Capacity: FRE

Hot spots near cell border cause

UMTS Post-Launch Optimisation and Network Evolution 15

Factors Limiting Capacity: FRE

• Increasing FRE: the main weapon is to down-tilt

2.1.3 Influence of Eb/No value

UMTS Post-Launch Optimisation and Network Evolution 16

Factors Limiting Capacity: Eb/N0

Capacity Limiting Factors