Pergarnon Atmospheric Enuironment Vol. 30, No. 3, pp.

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IJRBAN DESIGN MORPHOLOGY AND THERMAL

PERFORMANCE

GIDEON S. GOLANY
Distinguished Professor of Urban Design, The Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania U.S.A.

(First received 20 November 1992 and in final form 4 June 1995)

Abstract~Cllimate specialists provide us today with much data on urban climatology; but it is urban design
professionals who need to apply and translate this data into a design tool. This paper summarizes an urban
design view of the relationship between urban design morphology and the thermal performance of the city.
Its message is that each climatic region necessitates a distinct urban form and configuration which can
contribute to make a city or neighborhood cooler or warmer, as is needed. It is the urban designer’s
responsibilj ty to provide these forms based on the study of the character of the local climate.

Key word index: Physical configuration, site selection criteria, land-use.

INTRODUCTION One basic lesson drawn by indigenous society in the

Indigenous design evolved through accumulated tra-
dition of observation and practice of the immediate
environs with the intention to draw the lessons and
apply them in human-made creation of the environ-
ment. This “design without designer method” was
traditionally and fanatically passed from one genera-
tion to another, versus our contemporary design style
produced on the drafting table with little or no obser-
vation of the diversified natural forces acting in the
field. Indeed, the iscale of our contemporary human-
made environment is larger than that of the indige-
nous past, yet our methods of collecting data on our
natural environment have become more sophisticated
and have lead to a deeper comprehension of our
surroundings. The environment of indigenous people
was the source of their subsistence and survival, a rule
which is still applicable in our time. It was the regions
with stressful climate (hot-dry, hot-humid, cold-dry,
cold-humid) which provided the historical lessons.
Climate specialists provide us today with much data
on urban climatol!ogy; it is the urban design profes-
sionals who need to apply and translate this data into
design tools. Although the urban design profession
has been evolving around theories of other disciplines
as well, it was the architectural professionals of single
building design who have been considering the cli-
matic environment essential to their design. The out-
door urban space :is left without any design attention.
Moreover, we design our cities in southwestern
United States (typically hot-dry climate) the same as
we design their configurations and forms in the north-
eastern United States or Canada (typically cold-
humid climate).
past was an understanding of the correlation between
the physical configuration morphology and the climatic
condition of the settlement. In simple terms, the disper-
sed urban form provides a given thermal performance
different from that of the compact urban form. Thus, the
form can, to some extent, modify the micro-climate of
the site and offer an improvement of the ambient tem-
perature and therefore increase human comfort. We
have ignored this lesson for a variety of reasons, includ-
ing economic or political ones, without taking into
account the impact of climatically deficient design on the
health of the inhabitants and the social price to be
paid. The purpose of this discussion is to outline the
complexity of the problems posed by climatic condi-
tions, and the solutions modern urban designers are
expected to consider in solving these problems.
It is the responsibility of the urban designer to
consult urban climatologists and related specialists,
drawing on their expertise to acquire a thorough
understanding of the local climate and its nature.
Thus, he will be better able to figure out ways and
means to design an effective urban morphology that
will modify this climate, providing a cooler or warmer
temperature in the city or area, as needed. These
climate design considerations apply to the streets,
active or passive open spaces, and all other outdoor
spaces of the city. It is therefore necessary that the
urban designer borrow knowledge or theories from
disciplines such as urban climatology, botany, environ-
mental geography or even subjects such as dust be-
havior patterns, and bring them into the urban design
in order to enhance urban comfort.
Certainly, there has been considerable literature
published on the subject of climate and single building
456 G. S. GOLANY
indoor architecture, but, to the best of our knowledge,
there is very little, if any, literature about urban design
scale (neighborhood and city) as it relates to climatic
considerations. This deficiency is becoming more and
more apparent to urban designers, environmentalists,
and health specialists who are increasingly integrating
climatic constraint considerations into the urban
design process.
CLIMATE TYPES
From the point of view of urban design morpho-
logy and for the sake of our discussion, we can classify
climate by six major types. Each of these climates is
a distinct one, has its own basic profile, different in its
climatic pattern, and requires special urban design
solutions (Table 1, Columns 1 and 2). Yet, there can be
design solutions suitable to more than one type of
climate, in spite of their distinct differences, such as
the cold-dry and hot-dry climates. We prefer to call
these two-climate types stressful climates.
Each of the six climate types introduces a distinct
thermal performance pattern, diurnally and sea-
sonally. Also, each urban site has its own natural and
human-made character, which in turn influences the
climate. Any design response would need a basic un-
derstanding of these patterns and characters.
DESIGN RESPONSE
There is no universal urban design solution and
each case is to be examined individually. We will deal
with the basic principles which can guide the urban
designer with climatic considerations in mind. Study
and consideration of climatic character of an area and
an introduction of proper design should be in two
major levels, one on the city site selection and the
other on the urban configuration.
Urban site selection
Urban or neighborhood site selection is crucial
throughout the process of urban design in any given
climatic region. It has an impact on overall city ther-
mal performance, its economy, the health comfort,
and energy consumption of its residents, and com-
munity stability. Once the site is selected and de-
veloped, it will be an irreversible action.
An optimal site is almost unachievable. Although
an interdisciplinary team with a sophisticated, ra-
tional, quantitative, and comprehensive method is
expected to lead throughout the site selection process,
the result might well be a trade-off and a compromise
among all the considered criteria for the site selection
(Golany, 1975-1977).
Here are some basic rules and guidelines related
to site thermal performance (See Table 1, Columns
3 and 4):
0 Altitude: for every 100 m increase in elevation
there will be a 1°C decrease in temperature and visa
versa. Thus, higher elevations are certainly preferable
for city sites, especially for a hot-humid and hot-dry
climate region.
0 Wind temperature: ventilation is essential for
a hot-humid climate city. Also, although ventilation is
not desired in a hot-dry climate as it is in a hot/humid
one, we can state that, generally, winds coming from
a body of water, such as a lake or sea, or winds at the
higher elevations, are cooler than those in the neigh-
boring lowland.
??Evaporative cooling: locations adjacent to a body
of water can decrease temperatures significantly if the
residential site is positioned properly to receive the
prevailing wind.
?? Urban ventilation: in a hot-humid climate, air
movement and urban ventilation become essential
elements for reducing temperatures within the urban
environment. It is important that the hot-humid city
receive much flow of air on its site.
??Slope: location above the valley level diminishes
the health risk associated with inversion and provides
air circulation. The lowland of a valley is conducive to
inversion and to low air ventilation. These factors,
when combined with air pollution produced by cars
and industries, constitute a serious threat to the health
of the lowland inhabitants.
??Seashore breeze: when ventilation is essential
(such as in hot-humid climates), location along the
seashore is desirable, provided that the streets are
designed to receive much ventilation during the sum-
mer. This rule is applicable in both hot-humid and in
hot-dry climates.
??Flood: in hot-humid, hot-dry, and cold-humid
climates the risk of flood is a real threat when the
location is in the lowland or the valley. In the case of
a hot-dry climate, the rain is torrential and of short
duration, causing serious flash flooding.
??Energy consumption: houses located at the lower
parts of the valley will consume more energy for
heating in the winter, toward the late part of the night,
and for cooling in summer than those houses located
at higher elevations in the same area.
??Orientation: decisions on the city’s residential ori-
entation have an impact on human health, on the
degree of comfort, and on energy consumption. The
degree of exposure to solar radiation is important in
establishing the various land uses in a settlement and
in the details of the house design. The slopes facing
south receive more intensive radiation than those
facing east or west. The slopes facing north enjoy
more shading, and while they have enough light, they
do not have enough sunshine. However, a decision on
orientation should be a synthesis of the reciprocal
relations among solar radiation, ventilation and heat
exchange, view and landscape, and relative humidity
as related to the proximity of a body of water.
??Land and soil: finally, land form and soil condi-
tion for urban site selection are also important
 Table 1. Main climatic regions, their profile, major problems, basic urban design responses and urban form

Main Basic Major Basic Prefered

climates, Profiles problems urban design urban form
example (Issues) response
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Hot-humid Hot diurnally and Excessive heat Ventilation: open ends and dispersed form Dispersed form with
(equatorial zone) seasonally with minor High humidity Widely open streets to support wind movement open ends to support
temperature range Extensive shadow ventilation
Heavy rain Dispersion of high rise buildings to support ventilation
More comfort at high Combined variation of building heights
elevation Wide, yet shadowed open spaces
Shadowing, planned tree zones
Cold-humid, Snowy Low temperature Heating (passive and active): Mixed of open and c
temperature (northern Windy, blizzad Winter and summer Mixture of open and enclosure forms controlled enclosure 3
U.S.A. and southern conditions high precipitation Protected edges at winter windward side (with structures or trees) forms g
Canada Very cold nights Windy Uniformed building heights
Medium dispersed open space ;
Circumfernetial and intersecting tree strips B

Hot-dry (middle east Intense solar radiation Excessive dryness Compact forms Compact form
and north Africa) Large temperaure combined with high Shadowing
amplitude between day temperature Eevaporative cooling
day and night Dusty and stormy Protected urban edges from hot winds
Dusty storms Windward location near a body of water
Torrential rain Narrow winding neighborhood roads and alleys
Low cloudy days Mix of building height to shadow the city
Intense dehydration Small, dispersed, and protected public open spaces
High salinization Circumferential and intersecting tree zones
Evaporation exceeding Use of Geo-space city concept
precipitation
Cold-dry Stressful and Excessive low Compact and aggregate forms, clustered forms Compact and aggregates
. _ . . .
(inland plateau) uncomfortable temperature associated Protected urban edges form, clustered forms
Strong dry cold wind with dryness Narrow winding neighborhood roads and alleys
Stressful wind Uniformed city height
Small, dispersed, and protected public open spaces
Circumferential and intersecting tree zones
Use of Geo-space city concept
 Table 1. (Continued)

Main Basic Major Basic Prefered

climates, Profiles problems urban design urban form
example (Issues) response
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Seashore strips Windy and stormy High humidity In humid region: In dry region: In humid regions
(desert coasts) Breeze system Windy Moderately dispersed form Open toward the sea, compact and Moderately dispersed
High humidity Open urban edges protected toward the inland form
Erosive Wide streets perpendicular to the High rise buildings mixed with low In dry region: P
shore to receive the breeze height Compact and In
Dispersed high rise buidings to receive Small protected dispersed public open protective toward the
ventilation spaces inland 8
Variety of building heights Shadowing planned tree zones F
Wide public open space J
Shadowing planned tree zones

Mountain slopes Windy and increasing Windy Semicompact form: mix of compact and dispersed Semi-compact form:
(lower middle and air circulation Horizontal stress and alleys to enhance the view mixed of compact and
high slopes) Higher relative humidity Low height buildings clustered
than the lowland Small dispersed public open spaces
Provide healthy and Non obstructive protected tree zones
moderate climate Use of Geo-psace city concept
Enhance attractive view
 Urban design morphology
subjects for consideration. Commonly known land-
forms resulting from climatic conditions, such as
those in the hot-dry climate area-Piedmont, playa,
alluvia1 fan, flood plain, coastal plain, mesa, and the
eolian-should have an influence on the welfare of the
urban settlement. Each of these types has its own
character. The playa, for example, must be avoided for
site selection, because the combined dryness with
the dust deflation introduces intolerable salty wind
irritating the eye. In selecting the site, the urban de-
sign interdisciplinary team should consider soil stabil-
ity under weather changes, aerodynamics of wind
movement, landslide, runoff, erosion or deflation, and
the soil composition. Also to be examined is the avail-
ability of satisfactory land for future expansion.
Urban forms
Urban design is lboth the art of details as well as the
art of the holistic overall harmonious form. Viewing
the city with the optimal thermal performance in
mind is the design of the part as an integral of the
whole. From the thermal performance point of view,
our study of the historical experience led us to four
distinct urban forms which can be suitable for differ-
ent climates (Table 1, Column 5): compact, dispersed,
and clustered forms.
Compact form. ELycompact city, we refer to a city
that is concentrated and firmly unified with a consoli-
dation of land uses in a close and tight physical
relationship with each other and the structures within
themselves. Such a compact city certainly still retains
the standard conventional density of number of per-
sons per house size unit. The residential units in par-
ticular are arranged in a smaller space than that of
a standard contemporary city with an equivalent
population size.
Historically, most stressful climate cities, especially
those in hot-dry zones have evolved as compact settle-
ments in practical response to the environmental
stress. Indeed, the concept of a compact city was
discussed throughout this century by many planners,
architects and socia.1scientists, e.g., Ebenezer Howard,
Frank Lloyd Wright, Le Corbusier, and Soleri. Com-
pactness, however, does not necessarily need to be
associated with high population density.
One of the significant lessons to be drawn from the
historical indigenous settlements is the introduction
of the compact city form. In addition to its common
historical universal justification as saving adjacent
land suitable for agriculture and defense, compact
city morphology responded positively to stressful
climates. The history of human settlements in the
Mediterranean, the Middle East, and central Asia
has accumulated layers of experience throughout
more than five thousand years of compact city
evolution.
Based on the study of the historical practice we can
summarize the advantages of the compact city as
follows: respond to and ease the problems posed by
stressful climate; consume less energy for cooling and
459
heating; reduce cost of operation of all infrastructure
networks; save time and energy of commuting; and
last but not least have minimal impact on the delicate-
ly sensitive environment. In short, the compact city
form responds favorably in its thermal performance
to regions of stressful climate, such as cold-dry and
hot-dry.
Dispersedform. The dispersed urban form has been
commonly and increasingly used all over the United
States and recently in many other developed countries
in Europe and Asia. It is featured by low population
density per urban units, low rise individual housing
detached units, provision of generous space within
the urban land, and the absence of a sharp de-
marcation line between the built-up area at the city
periphery and the open space beyond the urban area.
The dispersed pattern widely distributes all the
utilities, roads and infrastructures, and consumes
more financial resources for the design, the construc-
tion, and the operation of the city than the other two
forms.
Clusteredform. The clustered urban form is an agg-
regate of land-use or housing in relatively small urban
units integrated within very close proximity of each
other. This form potentially responds favorably to
stressful conditions of cold-dry or hot-dry climates.
Clustered urban forms can be fused easily with
a climatically controlled environment insulated from
the outside. They can also carry within them an integ-
rated land use or segregated land use.
CITY MORPHOLOGY AND THERMAL PERFORMANCE
The configuration of the city can ease wind velocity
and support the increase or decrease of temperature.
In addition to its velocity, air movement within the
city is a factor of the city morphology, its street design
and orientation, and its form. In the indigenous city,
the general skyline of the city is a straight horizontal
line. In a hot-dry climate, the roofs are flat with
similar heights of 2-3 floors, and together they more
or less form one large “platform” shape. This form
supports the strong wind movement over the city with
little or no obstacle. In a hot-humid climate, the
pitched roofs slow the wind to some extent (Fig. 1).
The modern city silhouette form is a conglomeration
of buildings with different heights which break the
flow of the strong wind and divert it, in some condi-
tions, toward the streets (Fig. 2).
The amount of solar radiation returning to the air
in the city is less than that occurring in the open space
outside the city, since some of it is absorbed by
the building walls. Also, vegetation within the city
absorbs much radiation directly and converts it
through the photosynthetic process to chemical en-
ergy. In a dry-climate city, solar radiation, absorbed
throughout the day by the buildings, is quickly dif-
fused back into the air during the evening. Due to the
lack of clouds and the low relative humidity, the
460 G. S. GOLANY

SNOWY & RAINY ’

HOT/HUMID (EQUATORIAL),

HEAVY RAIN

Fig. 1. Roofs of indigenous housing are uniform and their forms are designed to suit their climatic zone
condition.

temperature drops significantly. A densely built-up

area will release this temperature more slowly.
Due to the heat absorbed throughout the day, the
cooling process within the city center is slower than at
its peripheral part. City configuration, street patterns,
and structure of the houses influence the velocity of
wind penetration within the city. Yet, the city center is
supplying an increase of temperature throughout
most of the day by the intensity of its human activities
and car traffic. Air movement or air turbulence also
may be caused by heated air rising in the city center
and drawing cooler air from the periphery to replace
it through straight and open streets (Fig. 3). Stormy
air can be very effective when streets are designed
perpendicular to the shoreline of a sea. Narrow and
winding streets would slow down the evaporation
process within their environs and have higher relative
humidity than the wider streets of the same city.
Fig. 2. In a modern city, single high rise buildings divert the
wind in different directions which may result in the ventila- The ditkentiation of physical forms within the city,
tion of a nearby street. orientations, heights, compositions, conglomerates of
 Urban design morphology
Fig. 3. Rising heated air at the city center would draw air from the city’s periphery to replace it.
its buildings, buildings’ density, proximity to the city
center or its periphery, and most importantly the
intensity of human activities, create pockets of urban
micro-climates within the city. Consequently, each
part of the city differs in its thermal performance from
its other parts.
Some of the basic rules to be noted concerning
urban thermal performance:
Urban thermal d@rentiation: Every city creates its
own micro-climate., which differs from that of the
outer open space of its macro-region. Aside from the
city micro-thermal performance, the central business
district of the city is warmer than its surroundings due
to the intensity of its activities and the proximity of its
buildings. It is commonly observed that snow fallen in
the city center melts much faster than that fallen in the
peripheral zone. Thus, in addition to the well-known
air heat islands canopy above the city center and its
industrial park, there are also micro-heat island(s)
within the city physical space. In contrast, the peri-
pheral parts of the city would have a lower temper-
ature than that of the city center.
Peripheral street orientation: At the peripheral parts
of the city streets aligned with the prevailing wind
orientation are subject to wind penetration deep with-
in the city (Fig. 4A). In a cold-dry climate, the periph-
ery wind penetration of low temperature will make
the city cooler, causing the peripheral housing zone to
spend more energy for heating. In a hot-dry climate,
the city periphery will receive hot and dusty wind at
daytime and colder wind towards the latter part of the
night. Houses located in such areas will spend more
461
energy for heating or for cooling than those located at
the city center. In a hot-humid climate, such wind will
certainly be welcomed, since it will be cooling the city.
Land-use pattern
Much of our previous discussion has indirectly
touched upon the subject of land use in some detail. In
addition to the suggested compact city form and hier-
archical traffic movement for stressful climates, there
are some other basic principles to be followed related
to the land-use design. Both concepts of integrated
and segregated land use are to be adopted alternately.
Basic Principles: The following are some basic guide-
lines on land-use patterns:
?? Relation to windward: allocate residential land-
use so that smog, dust pollution and noise are not
carried into the city by prevailing winds from major
regional and local land uses and roads.
?? Urban open space: in regions where air turbu-
lence is frequent, it is necessary to avoid designing
large public open spaces in order to minimize dusty
air turbulence. However, all open spaces should be
paved or planted.
?? Segregated land use: in the six identified climate
types, segregated land use is to be implemented for
industry, transportation, storage, and all other land
uses which produce any health hazard or negatively
affect the climate.
?? Integrated land use: for the stressful climate city,
an integrated land use is advised for residential,
commercial and shopping (retail), offices, educational
462 G. S. GOLANY

Ah-

A. STREET GRID SYSTEM SUPPoRTS AIR

PENE’I’RATION DEEP INTO THE CITY

B. BLOCKEDSTREETS.sLow AIR

PENETRATION

Fig. 4. Street design and orientation influence the degree of wind penetration into the city especially at its
peripheral zone, or at the shore line zone.

facilities, and public green open spaces. We believe
that climate stress imposes the necessity of integrated
rather than contemporary conventional land use. In-
tegration supports proximity, climatic comfort, and
social interaction; it saves land use and intensifies use
by all age groups. In addition, it reduces dependency
on motor vehicles and meets the norms of developing
societies.
?? Proximity of Zand use: in the hot-humid, cold-
humid and the two stressful climates of hot-dry
and cold-dry, the close proximity of daily urban
activities will maximize the density of landuse,
ease movement in shadowed and climatically pro-
tected spaces (such as patios and plazas), thus reduc-
ing the distances involved in infrastructure and energy
consumption.
0 Infrastructure: in stressful climate regions, it is
advisable to avoid designing land uses which may
encourage water accumulation or flooding. Thus,
open and subsurface drainage systems should be
 Urban design morphology
Fig. 5. Vegetation belt around the residential built-up area reduces dust, creates shadowed zone, provides
cooler air and minimizes reflected light.
designed for the maximum and not for the average
flow. In the hot-dcr region, for example, averages do
not exist and design should be prepared to deal with
extremes.
0 Social implicafion: in stressful climates, it is ne-
cessary to plan ample land usage for indoor social
activities, recreation, and entertainment to minimize
the feelings of isolation in the city and compensate for
the lack of conventional green countryside in the
immediate environs.
Residential design pattern
We have touched upon the impact of street orienta-
tion on the city periphery. Street orientation also
determines the amount of light shadowing, radiation,
air movement, intensity of city ventilation, and dura-
tion of relative humidity in the air. In climates where
wind direction and velocity change often through the
day, there will be a need for spatial streets and hous-
ing design adjustments. Also, in stressful climates
where relative humidity is low and cloud coverage
sparse, there is a great temperature differentiation
between day and night and a considerable variation
within each time period. Therefore, it is very difficult
to suggest a universal model of street and city config-
uration which can respond to all those changes in an
optimal way. Yet, we can accept the following general-
ized assumptions as guidelines for the design of urban
residential areas:
?? Street orientation: streets designed straight and
parallel to each other will support air movement into
and within the city. The wind blowing through the
unpaved sections of the city with no vegetation cover
causes dust turbulence and garbage accumulation at
the edges, in addition to bringing intense heat (in
hot-dry climate) or cold (in cold-dry climate). On the
other hand, streets perpendicular to each other can
ease storm sand, dusty winds, reduce wind velocity,
and bring cooler or warmer winds during the day and
at night. Straight blocked streets and alleys can reduce
wind movement to a great extent (Fig. 4B).
a Street width: narrow, winding or zig-zagging al-
leys are protective against cold or hot winds, receive
minimum sunshine, reduce the effect of stormy winds
and establish shadowed space throughout the day. In
a hot-dry climate, this pattern provides a cool and
comfortable micro-climate that would also stay rela-
tively warm during cold nights. In a hot-humid cli-
mate, wide streets help ventilate the city, but they will
need much shadowing since they will receive and
absorb large quantities of solar radiation and discour-
age pedestrian use. Radiation is increased with as-
phalt cover on the streets and reduced when stone
paving or cement is used.
?? Vegetation: trees at the center or sides of the
street absorb dust and pollution, may reduce noise in
the adjacent areas, minimize the effect of solar radi-
ation, reduce albedo, and establish shadowed areas
(Fig. 5). The type of vegetation and its density also
influence the city’s thermal performance, wind velo-
city, and its relative humidity. Consequently, vegeta-
tion increases the comfort of the residents as well as
the aesthetic appeal of the city.
?? Evapotranspiration: evapotranspiration increases
the relative humidity and consequently reduces air
temperature when the immediate environment is
warm and has low relative humidity. Also, shadowed
areas reduce radiation; vegetation absorbs radiation
and functions as a windbreak, thereby reducing trans-
portation of air pollution and the effects of dusty
winds. Finally, soil covered with shrubs reduces dust
particles floating in the air near the ground.
464 G. S. GOLANY
Large public open spaces
Open space within the city, active or passive, has
its own micro-climate and plays an important
role, especially in cold-humid and other stressful
climates. Large open space may generate heat (in
hot climate), inversion, and wind dynamics; an active
and planted space affects relative humidity by its
vegetation.
Stressful climate and public open space are related
issues. Our findings indicate that in a hot-dry climate,
a large open space in the city has a negative impact
on city dwellers. In the daytime, generated heat
(especially if the space is covered with asphalt),
dust, and strong hot wind become intolerable.
At night when the temperature decreases significantly,
open spaces generate inversion. All in all, they
become the bad spots of the city. Similar yet not
identical development takes place in large open spaces
of the cold-dry climate city as well. In this case, the
spaces are subject to cold wind and blizzard condi-
tions and are intolerable for pedestrians on cold
nights.
Our advice is that the design pattern of the stressful
climate city should avoid large open spaces and in-
stead provide small dispersed open green spaces
throughout the city. Society gains from this pattern
because all social classes can benefit from the proxi-
mity of these open spaces. Furthermore, such spots
can become city land-marks for children and the
elderly, who consume short-distance landuse. In
a hot-humid climate city, large green open spaces are
desirable since they support ventilation and can
provide plenty of shadow.
Earth-sheltered habitat
Last, but not least, is the integration of earth-shel-
tered space in the stressful climate (cold-dry or hot-
dry) city. One of the major concerns of the climatically
stressful city is the degree of thermal performance on
the city scale and on the housing scale.
Earth-sheltered dwellings function on the principle
of the lengthy time lag between the outdoor and the
indoor temperatures. The massive earth cover
functions as insulator and temperature retainer.
Thus, summer air temperature will reach the space
of 10 m depth during the winter when it is most
wanted and vice versa. In short, below ground space
provides a cool temperature in the summer and
a warm one in the winter (Golany, 1979, 1980, 1982,
1983, 1988-1991).
CONCLUSION
If the soul of urban design is to provide a pleasing
and protective atmosphere for a city, then climatic
consideration becomes the central part of environ-
mental urban design. Taking climate into considera-
tion is not an issue of perception and comfort only.
Climate affects the health, the social life, and the
productivity of the inhabitants as well. However,
there are certain sources and issues which are of
concern.
In indigenous houses we used to resolve environ-
mental comfort needs by innovative passive methods.
More recently, we are using active means such as the
heating or cooling system, ventilation, evaporative
cooling, and solar heat storage. On the urban scale,
our natural passive methods and urban morphology
are almost the only urban design tactics still available
to us for improving the thermal performance condi-
tions of the city. The traditional historical experience
had certainly accumulated a wealth of knowledge
laboriously acquired through everyday life, since our
ancestors viewed the environment as a living labora-
tory under constant observation. This past experience
of our ancestors is worthy of our study and considera-
tion today. With the proper amendments we can draw
on past practice to suit our modern norms and stan-
dards.
The second source for our practice of urban design
morphology and thermal performance is by innova-
tion through extensive research and study in the
laboratory and in real urban cases. The development
of a new generation of urban designers and architects
with extensive knowledge of the correlation between
urban form morphology and climate performance is
an essential issue. In the last two decades, there has
been increasing and productive work by the many
design schools on this subject of energy saving
with active as well as passive means on the house
scale. Yet, little attention has been paid to
applying the climate consideration to the urban
scale, or to making it an important part of the
schools’ curriculum. It is this level to which we must
aspire.
The study of urban design morphology and climate
reveal that there is a correlation between these two
and that an innovative and serious study of both and
their reciprocal relations should lead to significant
improvement of the urban thermal performance. To
achieve this goal, the comprehensive study of the
climate elements such as behavior, wind, temperature,
and relative humidity is essential.
Finally, a word must be said about three of the
most sensitive of the six types of climate discussed in
this paper: the hot-dry, cold-dry, and hot-humid
types. These three climates are extreme and require
special attention. A large portion of the world’s
population inhabits ,the areas where these stressful
climates prevail. We can assume that future urban
population growth in these regions will put pressure
on their economies and cause their peoples to seek
the exploitation of new natural resources. In this
situation, intensive development of the mountain
slopes (the last of the six climatic regions) will
become inevitable, creating a new urban frontier and
new challenges for urban designers and climate
specialists.
 Urban design morphology
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