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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

Chapter Two
Information Technology in Construction

2.1 Introduction

Innovation is one of the essential attributes that drives competitiveness in the

construction industry. Many research studies have been made on innovation in the
construction industry. Construction innovations could be grouped into:
(Peansupap, 2004)

1. Materials, equipment and methods:

- Construction materials and equipment: tower crane, concrete pump, robotics,

high strength concrete, fibre reinforced plastic, etc.
- Construction methods: prefabrication, top-down construction, etc.

2. Management:

- Construction management techniques: bar chart, Critical Path Method (CPM),

Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), line of balance, alliance,
project partnering; Build, Operate, Transfer (BOT), etc. Most of these types of
innovation have been borrowed from operations research theory and practice such
as PERT, CPM, Total Quality Management (TQM) etc.

3. Information Technology (IT):

- Computer applications and electronic equipment: computer, notebook, tablet PC,

palm, barcode, construction simulation, estimating software, project planning and
control applications, etc.
- Network and communication technologies: Local Area Network (LAN), Wide
Area Network (WAN), Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), Internet, Intranet,
VRML, wireless, groupware, etc.

Each innovation category has a different influence on the construction

industry. First, adoption of construction materials, equipment and methods aims to
improve productivity at the operational level. Second, adoption of management

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

techniques mainly focuses on construction process control. Third, IT adoption is

targeted at improving construction management processes. The main function of IT
is to improve the management and processing of information during the
construction process. The volume of information flows during a construction
project is enormous (speeding up information processing should help reduce time
and cost, and improve work quality) (Peansupap, 2004). With IT rapidly growing,
researchers in construction engineering keep working hard on innovating computer
applications to enhance work efficiency (Lin, 2007).

2.2 Definition of Information Technology

Information Technology (IT), as defined by the Information Technology

Association of America (ITAA), is "the study, design, development,
implementation, support or management of computer-based information systems,
particularly software applications and computer hardware." In short, IT deals with
the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert, store, protect,
process, transmit and retrieve information, securely. In this definition, the term
“information” can usually be replaced by “data” without loss of meaning (ITAA,
2010).

(Bjork, 1999) has another definition: “the use of electronic machines and
programs for the processing, storage, transfer and presentation of information.”
This is easy definition and adopted by researchers in IT in construction.

2.3 Application of IT in Construction

IT comprises many techniques, which have considerable potential for

improving the management of information within the construction industry. The
vast topic of IT includes the computing and ever-popular Internet, which are fields
that are continually growing independently, but proportionately with each other.
The ever-growing attention given to information resources suggests that better
management of these resources become critical to project success (Dikbas et al,
1999).

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

The use of IT in construction industry is growing rapidly. However,

construction industry seems to make slow progress towards effective IT
implementation for its unique features which distinguish it from other industries;
namely one-off projects, industry fragmentation, low level of technology
awareness and training, required up-front investment, on-going maintenance costs
and resistance to change (Betts, 1999) as mentioned by (FENG, 2006). IT can be of
great assistance in all aspects of project planning, organizing, operation, and
control. However, the application of IT in construction industry is not effective as
in other industries (FENG, 2006).

The main uses of IT in construction are (Dikbas et al, 1999) (Sun et al, 2000)
(Peansupap, 2004) (Matheu, 2005) (FENG, 2006) (ITAA, 2010):

2.3.1 Computing (Software and Hardware)

There are different types of tool software used in construction management.

Different types of tools software can perform different tasks (FENG, 2006). It will
discuss in more details in (section 2.4).

2.3.2 Communication Technology

Communications technology is today an important part of IT. Many of the

functions of communication devices are in fact increasingly integrated. With the
latest generation of laptop computers it is already possible to send and receive
emails. Recently, mobile phones which incorporate small microcomputers have
started to appear on the market (Bjork, 1999). Internet based communication is the
area that grows fastest. The ability to exchange data and information between all
those involved in a building project depends on the communication networks.
When the flow of information improves, teamwork and coordination may be
enhanced (FENG, 2006).

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

2.4 Software Applications in Construction

Information technologies or software applications are available to support most
aspects of a construction project. They have been designed largely as solutions to
specific problems (Matheu, 2005). List of construction IT applications complied by
the Construction Industry Computing Association (CICA) in the UK, Most of them
are usually aimed at automating various design or construction tasks with no
integration between them. “Island of Automation” is often used to describe the
situation (Sun and Aouad, 1999). These applications can be grouped into the
following categories (Sun and Aouad, 1999) (Matheu, 2005) (Hore, 2006): (This is
not meant to be an exhaustive list, but only a general grouping of the construction
related IT applications).

1. General purpose applications for business and information management, i.e.,

word-processing, e-mail, databases, etc.

Implementation of IT in the office work mainly involves the automation of

routine tasks, including, exchange building document in digital form. Office
application is the most prevalent use of IT, that is, computers for word
processing for office and contract administration. The application of office
automation may improve internal management efficiency (FENG, 2006).

2. Computer Aided Design (section 2.4.1)

3. Building Engineering Applications

For energy analysis, HVAC design, structural analysis, lighting simulation,

etc. The benefit of these applications is that they allow designers to evaluate
alternative design solutions in order to reach optimum design (Matheu, 2005).

4. Cost Estimating (section 2.4.2)

5. Planning, scheduling and site management (section 2.4.3);
6. Facilities Management (FM)
It is based on the operation, maintenance, and impact of the building
operations on the life cycle costs (Matheu, 2005) (Hore, 2006).

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

From the first software applications, many different tools were developed. They
use their own data formats, which are not compatible with each other. As a result,
data can not be electronically exchanged between them. In recent years, there is an
increasing awareness of the need for integrated construction processes and many
research projects are investigating related issues (Matheu, 2005), integration will
be discussed in more details in chapter three.

2.4.1 Computer Aided Design (CAD)

Before the 1980s, most drawings were created using paper. In 1982,
Autodesk introduced AutoCAD software, bringing CAD to the PC and changing
the design world forever.

Its use however has been limited to drafting for so many years that it is
sometimes referred to as “Computer-Aided Drafting” (Elzarka and Dorsey, 1999).
In the CAD software category Autodesk AutoCAD has the largest share of the
CAD market. Other popular CAD software includes Bently Microstation,
Graphisoft ArchiCAD (Hungary), etc.

The development of IT and its application in construction industry have brought

about some changes to the industry. Such as, the application of CAD grants a CAD
drawing with two meanings (Wang, 2001):

1. To engineers, it consists of a series of graphic symbols representing a

building;
2. To computer, it is a process-able data file which contains data related to the
building, and this makes it possible to interpret the CAD drawing and to
extract from it the data needed for construction management.

Furthermore, visualization and animation systems, like 3D studio, can

produce photo-realistic, static, and moving images, so that the clients can view the
final appearance of the building at the design stage. The emerging Virtual Reality
(VR) technology allows the user to interact with the design model and experience
the building in simulated reality situations (Mathu, 2005) (Hore, 2006).

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

2.4.1.1 CAD Modeling

1- Geometric Modeling (Vector)
1-a Wireframe modeling

Wire frame modeling have no surfaces associated them; just lines and arcs
which represent edges or limits of the object. This form of modeling is a nice
transition from the 2D drawing mode into an introduction of 3D visualization.
Wireframe models unfortunately do not allow additional information, such as area
or volume, and not allow the user to see the object as in real life (Cory and Bozell,
2001).

1-b Surface modeling

The surface model is the next area which has wireframe aspects, but with a
coat or skin over the frame. Surface modeling use the wireframe geometry and
complex algebraic equations to define an area between lines or edges of the model
which then produces a surface covering the object (Cory and Bozell, 2001).

1-c Solid modeling

The last type is the solid model. The space that forms the object is enclosed by
surfaces, which forms a closed volume. Users usually find solid modeling easiest
to use and understand (Cory and Bozell, 2001), Figure (2-1) shows the geometric
modeling.

a b c d
a) 2D Wireframe b) 3D Wireframe c) 3D Surface Modeling d) 3D Solid modeling
Figure (2-1) Geometric Modeling (Researcher)

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

2- Object-based Model (OO CAD)

Object-based CAD was introduced in the early 1990s (Autodesk, 2002).

Example of the Object-based CAD is AutoCAD Architecture (formerly
Architectural Desktop or ADT).

AutoCAD Architecture has been engineered so that, in the design stage,

intelligent architectural objects, such as walls, doors, and windows can be created
and added to a drawing in a 3D modeling environment. These objects are
intelligent because they know their form, fit, and function and their relationships
with other drawing objects. For example, when a door is removed from a wall, the
wall automatically cleans-up (Elzarka and Dorsey, 1999).

Noted here, in the US, the acronym AEC (architecture-engineering-

construction) denotes the three main disciplines involved in the shaping of our
built environment. “Architecture” and “Engineering” are considered primarily
design-related disciplines, while “Construction” is associated with the physical
process of making the product or planning its production (Turk, 2000).
Accordingly the term “Architecture” in AutoCAD Architecture or “Archi” in
ArchiCAD refer to column, beam, window and door, not MEP; and there are
special software for architectural engineering such as TurboFLOORPLAN Home,
Landscape Pro, Sweet Home 3D and Home Plan Pro; 3D MAX (general).

3- Parametric Modeling

The next generation of software technology for the AEC industry is based
upon databases and intelligent geometry, commonly referred to as “Parametric”.
The basis behind a parametric modeler is the use the entire structure as a 3D
database to build digital information (Cory and Bozell 2001).

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

The majority of these types of modelers are specifically designed for the
engineering industry (Bozell, 1999) as mentioned by (Cory and Bozell 2001).
While these programs are very productive in the engineering industry, they are not
at all suited to the migration to the AEC industry (Risch, 1998) as mentioned by
(Cory and Bozell, 2001). Because of this, a few companies have developed
parametric software specifically to fit the needs of the AEC industry (Cory and
Bozell 2001); one of the popular AEC parametric packages is Autodesk Revit.

2.4.1.2 CAD (Layer) Standards

Careful considerations should be taken whenever structuring the CAD model

in layers (Roberts, 1998) as mentioned by (Dawood et al, 2002). This is a central
CAD principle that associates the ability to manipulate the model elements.
Moreover, such a principle allows various project members to communicate and
exchange CAD files in a more compatible way. Therefore, representation of
drawing management through structuring the information in layers in accordance
with the CAD layer standards was established (Dawood et al, 2002). A consistent
CAD drafting standard benefits not only automated measurement but also a
number of applications. It would also aid the development of international multi-
media CAD conferencing, artificial intelligence design and drafting and integrated
architectural /engineering /construction designs and built systems (Tse and Wong,
2004). The IAI appreciates that certain types of IT, including CAD measurements ,
have not been widely implemented in the construction industry. The main reason is
“due to the lack of existing standards for allowing software tools to share
information” (IAI, 1997) as mentioned by (Tse and Wong, 2004).

1- ISO 13567

The name of the layer is divided into ten fields, each with a fixed number of
alphanumeric characters. The first three fields are mandatory, and the remaining
fields are optional, Figure (2-2) (Tse and Wong, 2004).

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

Figure (2-2) ISO 13567 (Tse and Wong, 2004)

Among various fields in ISO 13567, the mandatory “Element” field plays a
significant role for automated measurement. The six-faceted syntax is long enough
to break down building services elements in adequate detail (Tse and Wong, 2004).

2- BS 1192

Coding convention includes a mandatory field and an optional field as

depicted in Figure (2-3). The mandatory field is given in an order of alphabetic
and/or alphanumeric attributes as explained in the BS 1192. The optional field is
given in the recommended character codes (Dawood et al, 2002).

Figure (2–3) BS1192 (Dawood et al, 2002)

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

In some countries national standards or industry-wide conventions exist for

layering conventions. These are increasingly being accepted by AEC/FM
organizations in those countries (AEC3, 1999):

 American Institute of Architects (AIA) Cad Layer Guidelines has a great

usage in the USA.
 the IT user group layer convention for the building industry in Denmark,
 VDI 3805 part 1 (a layer guide for HVAC design) in Germany.
 National layer guides are in Japan and Singapore.

2.4.2 Estimating Software

The computation of construction quantities is one of those tasks which can be

dealt with computer technologies. Generally, computing by hands or by evaluation
computer software are two major methods for quantity calculation. There are few
disadvantages with performing these two methods (Lin, 2007):

1. Time consuming.
2. Accumulative errors and typos produced from manually computing.
3. Leaving some area out of consideration.
4. Personnel’s lack of graphic working experience to perform the calculation
jobs.
5. Original system limitations, such as format of input data, etc.

The accuracy of construction quantity is one of the most important factors for
controlling building cost in construction industry (Lin, 2007).

2.4.2.1 Commercial Estimating Software

Software can help to measure, count, compute and tabulate quantities,

lengths, areas, volumes, etc., of objects found in plans and specifications.
Furthermore, most cost estimating programs can be integrated with databases of
costs for labour, materials and equipment. The advantage is that cost data do not
need to be re-entered, thus improving the celerity in estimating and avoiding

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

errors. Computer based estimation of costs archives and retrieves large volumes of
resource, cost and productivity information, makes fast and accurate calculations
and presents results in an organized, neat and consistent manner (Mathew, 2005).
These systems (such as Precision estimating from Timberline, now known Sage
Timberline Office) offer several advantages in all the estimating phases (Elzarka
and Dorsey, 1999), as follow:

1. Takeoff (Digitizer)

The fundamental core of estimating is the takeoff process. Without the

information obtained from a takeoff, an estimate can not be performed. While the
level of detail varies, the need to know the information obtained in the takeoff
process is still vital (Miller, 2001). In the takeoff phase, computer based systems
have dramatically changed the available tools from pencils and papers to
interactive digitizers (Elzarka and Dorsey, 1999).

The quantities are taken off by tracing over the elements on the printouts via the
programmed digitizers (or sometime called On-Screen Takeoff software (Alder,
2006)). The computer will then make a calculation, e.g. the length of a pipe from
its start point to its end point, and store the quantity. In other words, digitizers
replace the scale rulers and computers perform the calculations. But the digitized
software’s also have certain drawbacks (Tse and Wong, 2004):

a. First, they duplicate the effort of inputting the design information into the
CAD system during the processes of design and measurement.
b. Second, because both CAD and paper drawings for measurement, (e.g.
plans, elevations and sections,) are physically 2D (as are the points digitized
into the system). Thus, quantity surveyors are still required to interpret the
third dimension manually, and then input it into the system during the
digitizing process.

The multiple effect is that the digitizing process is often criticized as taking
even longer than the traditional manual approach (Tse and Wong, 2004).

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

A simple digitizer was included in the presented system in this research. Also
there are hardware devices (Alder, 2006) (Lin, 2007), Figure (2-4)

Figure (2–4) Digitizer (hardware) (Lin, 2007)

2. Pricing

In the pricing phase, where prices are assigned to the items selected during
takeoff, computer based system have had a major impact. The database of these
systems contains most of the pertinent information necessary to prepare an
estimate such as unit price and production rate. Such information needs to be
entered only once into the database, where it is stored for future use (Elzarka and
Dorsey, 1999).

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

3. Summarization and Reporting

Estimating software have also simplified the summarization and reporting

phase. The computer can take the numbers contained in the estimate and rearrange
them in any number of combinations to get a variety of reports or summaries
(Elzarka and Dorsey, 1999).

2.4.2.2 Spreadsheets

Large construction companies use estimating software that cost thousands or

even tens of thousands of dollars to purchase (more money than most small-to-
medium size builders can afford). However, there are inexpensive ways to do
computer estimating. One way is to use computerized spreadsheets that have the
power of programs costing thousands of dollars; Figure (2-5). The benefits of
having computer spreadsheets are (Christofferson, 1999) (Christofferson, 2008):

1. Inexpensive
2. Easy to use
3. Can be customized to your style of doing business
4. Very powerful.

Spreadsheets can be as simple or as complex as needed. They can take the

drudgery out of doing estimates and will make estimating and other office tasks
more efficient. Although many builders use basic formulas, most do not make use
of the spreadsheet tools that provide the real power in creating spreadsheet
estimates (Christofferson, 1999) (Christofferson, 2008).

Spreadsheets have assisted the estimator in calculating the quantities (by using
MS Excel functions; i.e. not extract) for items in the takeoff and then extending the
pricing for the items faster than what an estimator could do manually (Miller,
2001). By using a spreadsheet, the amount of time required to generate an estimate
could be reduced by approximately one-third when compared to manual methods
(Christofferson, 2000) as mentioned by (Miller, 2001).

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

Setting up a computer spreadsheet is much the same as doing an estimate by

hand. It takes a little longer to set up the first time, but once it is created, all of the
estimates afterwards can be done in a fraction of the time. Once estimating
spreadsheet is set up, there is only need to enter quantities (Christofferson, 2008).

Figure (2-5) Typical Take-off Item (Researcher)

(Christofferson, 1999) (Christofferson, 2008) provides some helpful

methods that can turn basic spreadsheets into powerful tools to accomplish
estimates quickly and accurately. But main limitation, the estimating effort is
centered on taking off quantities, while this research will tried avoiding this
limitation.

2.4.2.3 Spreadsheets vs. Commercial Estimating Software

In 1994, the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) completed

survey the “Builder Computer Study”. A result of computer usage is shown; of
note is the high usage among builders of word processing 78 and spreadsheet
software 63 (It has been shown that many builders have a spreadsheet on their
computer already). Only 39 percent of the builders used estimating software during
1994 (Christofferson, 1999).

A follow-up survey was made in 1997 (Christofferson, 1999) (Al-Hadythy,

2006). According to this study, Figure (2-6), the use of spreadsheets increased by 9
(72-63) percent and ranked as the second (after word processor) most used
software by builders. Although the use of estimating software by builders
increased, its use remained relatively low at 46 (39 to 46) percent.

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

Figure (2-6) NAHB Builders Survey of Computer Usage 1997 (Christofferson,

1999) (Al-Hadythy, 2006)

In 2002 a study (Information Technology Survey for the Construction

Industry) in USA by CFMA shows that Microsoft Excel was the most popular
estimating software even in the largest-companies group with a 33 percent. Others
use specialized estimating software 26 percent use Precision Collection of
Timberline. Up to 5 percent of estimating software were the result of companies’
own development “Developed in house”, Table (2-1).

Table (2-1) Estimating software used by U.S. general contractors (CFMA, 2002)
Software (vendor) Used
Excel (Microsoft) 33%
Precision Collection (Timberline, now sage) 26%
ICE-2000 (MC2) 11%
Heavy Bid (HCSS) 6%
Other 19%
Developed in house 5%
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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

In Iraq a questionnaire by (Al-Hadythy, 2006) shown that Timberline not

available in the market and it is unknown to the estimators with 100 % percentage.

Usage of special purpose software for estimating was seen to be very limited
(Appa Rao and Narasaiah, 2004). Many estimators still insist on not to beat the
classic spreadsheet (primarily Excel) for flexibility, updating databases, report
creation and customizing estimates to meet individual client needs. On the other
hand, commercial packages serve a purpose, but people should realize that they
will have to spend three to six months with one to four people to customize the
data in these software packages (Farah, 2005). Commercial packages do not use
parallel databases, but they can do that with spreadsheets. (ENR, 2002) as
mentioned by (Farah, 2005).

However, the estimators concerns about software products are that they want
them to integrate with project management and scheduling. They also want the
ability to change the assumptions, such as work crew breakdowns and productivity
rates that govern calculations (Farah, 2005).

2.4.2.4 CAD Integration with Estimating

This automated model makes direct use of the original electronic CAD files
for measurement (Walker, 1996) as mentioned by (Tse and Wong, 2004). The
research and development (R&D) goal of integrating CAD with estimating is
progressing. However, the standards for the CAD integration are still being
developed by the International Alliance for Interoperability (IAI/IFC) and the
learning curve for both the designers and the constructors is still largely unknown
(Miller, 2001), integration\standards will be discussed in more details in chapter
three.
The benefits range from cost and time savings to improved flexibility in
calculating the cost impact of different what-if scenarios (alternatives) (Staub et al,
1998). In the Associate General Contractors (AGC) estimating text Construction
Estimating and Bidding, several concerns are mentioned concerning integrating
CAD with estimating (Miller, 2001) (Alder, 2006). These concerns are listed
below (Miller, 2001):

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

1. Who is responsible for quantification errors?

2. What software will be universal enough for use?
3. How does the architect and/or engineer preserve its copyright when it
distributes its total design in a form that can be easily modified and copied
by others?

Additionally, the AGC states that the technology may assist the estimator “but
will always have many limitations” (Swenson et al., 1999) as mentioned by
(Miller, 2001). The technology of CAD integration may in the future play a larger
role in the takeoff process (Miller, 2001).

Several studies have been conducted at Stanford University to demonstrate

the abilities of estimating using CAD. One study found that those who used CAD
software for estimating recorded an 80% reduction in required time to complete an
estimate with an accuracy margin of error of +/-3% (Schwegler et al, 2001) as
mentioned by (Alder, 2006).

2.4.2.5 BIM with Estimation

BIM will be discussed in more details in chapter four (section 4.6.1).

2.4.3 Planning and Scheduling Software

2.4.3.1 Commercial Planning Software

Construction works require careful planning and skilful management of

human and physical resources. Computer systems can assist managers to plan
ahead, evaluate different options and adopt and execute the most efficient
construction operation. The widespread uses of planning packages are Microsoft
Project and Primavera, to plan and schedule detailed construction activities
(Mathew, 2005); noted here Primavera was purchased by Oracle in 2008.

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

2.4.3.2 4D CAD (CAD Integration with Planning)

4D CAD was seen as a natural progression to 3D CAD models, as it adds a

further dimension, where time is 4th dimension. It provides the ability to represent
construction plans graphically, by adding the temporal dimension to 3D CAD
models, i.e. linking a 3D graphical model to a construction schedule, through a
third party application (4D CAD planning software) (Heesom and Mahdjoubi,
2004), as shown in Figure (2- 7).

Since the early 1990s, there has been a growing interest in four-dimensional
computer aided design (4D CAD) for construction project planning. With the
emergence of 4D CAD as a tool to assist the comprehension of construction project
plans, various software packages have been developed, however most of these
concentrate on the utilization of 4D CAD as a visualization tool, rather than
something that can be used for analytical purposes (Heesom and Mahdjoubi,
2004). Even when using 4D CAD systems, the planner still plays a crucial role, as
he manually relates building components to construction activities and visually
tests whether problems occur during the construction process. 4D CAD systems do
not bear any knowledge about the construction process itself (Vries and Harink,
2007).

Developing the 4D model involved categorizing the activities of the original

schedule, creating 3D CAD models from 2D drawings, and creating relationships
between the activities with the 3D CAD model components in a 4D-simulation
application. This process was quite labor-intensive (Koo and Fischer, 2000).
Through feasibility study of 4D CAD in commercial construction by (Koo and
Fischer, 2000), discovered limitations in the development and analysis stages of
the 4D model:

1. Viewing the 4D model alone made it difficult to comprehend the current

status of the project (i.e., which components were being installed, which
activities were being executed). As mentioned, the 4D model does not
convey all the information required to evaluate the schedule.

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

2. Users can infer the physical constraints in a 4D model (e.g., they can infer
why a column has been sequenced before a beam by viewing the spatial
implications in the 4D model). However, other activities are sequenced
because of nonphysical constraints. For example, activities may be
sequenced in a certain order because of resource availability or a specific
construction method. 4D models do not inform the viewer of such
constraints.

Figure (2-7) Overall System Architecture for 4D CAD Model Development (Koo
and Fischer, 2000)

3. The 4D model does not convey all the planning information represented in
the CPM schedule. The 4D model does not alert users to the availability of
float for the activities in the schedule.

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

4. The 4D model does not show activities that do not have corresponding
components (For example, there is no effective way of conveying the
activity inspection in the 4D model).

5. Current 4D models convey only one perspective of the project and can only
be viewed at a single level of detail. This makes it difficult for multiple
participants of a project to use the model for their purposes.

6. Current 4D tools do not support the rapid generation of alternative scenarios.

When users wish to make a change to the 3D CAD model or schedule, they
need to refer back to the schedule and the 3D CAD models in their separate
applications.

The most 4D software used is Plantspace Schedule Simulator developed by

Jacobus Technology (Staub et al, 1998) (Koo and Fischer, 2000) (Heesom and
Mahdjoubi, 2004).

(Vries and Harink, 2007) described a method for automated generation of the
construction planning from a solid model of the building in Architectural Desktop
(ADT) from Autodesk. However, Integration of CAD data with planning of
construction and automation of construction scheduling has not yet been achieved
in most cases (Arun and Appa Rao, 2005). If the construction schedule of a
building can be generated directly and automatically from its drawings provided at
design phase, it will benefit in at least two ways (Wang, 2001):

1. to predict the construction schedule at design phase, hence to facilitate the

optimize of the design;

2. to fully utilize the data existing in the drawings for managerial purposes in
construction phase, such as scheduling and estimating, so as to reduce the
tedious human manipulation of data and the potential source for numerous
errors.

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2.4.3.3 BIM with Planning

BIM will be discussed in more details in chapter four (section 4.6.2).

2.5 Limitations of Current Software

Software is a tool for user. It can not do everything, and unless user know
how to deal with the various issues in a project, all the tool (i.e. software) can do is
help document failures with great precision.

Software are applications by commercial vendors and their internal data

format are proprietary, which is why they can not communicate their rich building
information directly with each other unless they develop specific translators for
this purpose (CRC CI, 2004). A number (n) of types of software can solve A
number (n) of tasks respectively (i.e. one type of tool software can solve one
simple task). Also, it is essential to improve the capabilities of the existing
software (FENG, 2006).

An architect may use a CAD package to produce a set of drawings. A

quantity surveyor/estimator will then use these drawings to produce costing
information and BOQ. A construction planner/scheduler will also use the drawings
and BOQ to produce a set of construction schedule. Participants use their preferred
software package, maintaining their own subset of the project's information. This
approach, although well established, does have a number of disadvantages (Marir
et al, 1998):

1. The existence of “information lag” between participants

2. occurrence of errors when re-entering data
3. The difficulty in gathering an overall view of the project for management
purposes
4. The difficulty in integrating software packages due to the lack of a common
conceptual information model.

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2.5.1 Limitation of CAD

The main difficulties of integration are exacerbated by the fragmentation of

design information. The drawings are expected to provide the experts from
different areas of interest the information they require and serve as the main
medium for integration. Despite the fact that CAD systems are extremely powerful,
they are not being utilized thoroughly in the AEC industry. Specialists in the AEC
industry have used today's CAD systems as simply automated drafting tools,
thereby automating their own narrow areas of specialization. Each participant uses
unique drafting conventions and their own CAD systems. Information is scattered
about the project in an uncontrolled and uncoordinated way, on a variety of
information systems and media, so that the design can not be viewed as a complete
entity. Such obstacles to the free flow of information between parties to the
construction process lead to data re-entry and the consequent inaccuracies. These
are responsible for many of the quality problems and for adding to the costs of
construction projects (Marir et al, 1998).

2.5.1.1 CAD and Estimation

Architect’s first responsibility is to meet the client’s expectations in design

quality as well as in budget. Widely used by architectural firms, CAD software like
AutoCAD does not support any cost data storage on their platform. In order to
generate the estimate, Architect/Engineer has to rely on other software. It could
vary from a MS Excel spreadsheet to Timberline (Farah, 2005). Users need to
calculate quantities by hands with their imagination due to the lack of data for
quantity calculation (Lin, 2007).

2.5.1.2 CAD and Planning

The CAD graphic documents often exclude information needed for effective
project planning. The information that is sufficient for project designs is often
insufficient to meet the requirements of project planning (Chen and Feng, 2008)

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

The major tasks of CAD are drawing and visualization (Lin, 2007).
However, these are not considered as weaknesses of AutoCAD as this software is
only a general drafting tool. Thus, it is up to the practitioners of each profession to
make the most of it (Eben Saleh, 1999).

Therefore, the researcher has made an effort to help the practitioners in the
construction management by developing the system that presented in this research
(InCADEP), which will help the practitioners in the estimating and planning.

2.5.2 Limitation of Estimating Software

Estimator should input once more components and sizes first; then, the
software may automatically calculate quantities and form the bill of quantities
(BOQ). Apparently, the software is not so capable of the automatic calculation
(extract). The main technical problem lies in quantity calculation software system
is how to identify drawings. In some developed countries, advanced applications
such as knowledge-based expert systems and simulation have been applied in
construction (FENG, 2006).

2.5.3 Limitation of Planning and Scheduling Software

Software for construction scheduling requires complete data to be input by

planner. However, due to the complexity of building projects and the limitation of
traditional software programming technique, these software are applicable only to
a prepared network model of a project. They are mainly used to carry out
computations on input data provided by construction planner. The input data
required normally comprise an activity list (activity definition) complete with their
estimated durations (can not tell how long a task will take) and logic dependencies
(i.e. all it can do is computations). Even if the design is CAD-based, the data
needed by any software for construction scheduling can not be extracted directly
by these software from the data existing already in the CAD drawings generated at
design phase while have to be re-input manually by the planner (Wang, 2001)
(Arun and Apaa Rao, 2005). This indeed has constrained the application of the

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

network planning technique and the construction scheduling software based on it

(Wang, 2001).

In fact, they are more of schedule report generators and calculators rather
than scheduling tools that aid and provide alternative solutions to
schedulers\planners and project managers. This statement is not intended to down
play the major improvements that computer automation have made in avoiding
mathematical errors found in hand calculation of activities: early start, early finish,
late start, late finish float and identifying the critical path (Mohamed and Celik,
2002).

The current situation, the data expressed in drawings can only be understood
and extracted by human. Namely, the data transfer from design phase to
construction phase is carried out manually by human and suffers from numerous
shortcomings (Arun and Apaa Rao, 2005) (Wang, 2001). On the other hand, the
building design and construction scheduling are very professional and different and
require engineers in respective discipline of different background and professional
knowledge (Wang, 2001).

A huge advantage of using planning software is that it will leave out

holidays, and compute the actual dates on which activities should start and finish.
Doing calendar computations manually is a difficult task.

In general, Figure (2-8) below gives an idea about the problems and
difficulties being faced by the construction industry in using software (Appa Rao
and Narasaiah, 2004), Tabel (2-2) show the AEC software that mentioned in this
research.

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

Figure (2-8) Problems/difficulties in usage of software (Appa Rao and

Narasaiah, 2004).

Finally, users find import and export (Data Exchange\Interoperability)

functionalities the most important missing features (25 answers). Intelligent
components and objects were important for (5 answers). The next important
function was estimating and quantity take-off features (4 answers). This function
seems to be even more important because several persons were missing “export”
features especially to estimating software (InPro, 2007), as shown in Figure (2-9).

Figure (2-9) Missing functionalities (InPro, 2007)

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

Tabel (2-2) AEC Software (Researcher)

Vendor Software Application Native Data Format

dwg
Autodesk AutoCAD CAD
(DraWinG)
Graphisoft ArchiCAD CAD pln
CAD rvt
Autodesk Revit
(Parametric) (ReViT)
dgn
Bentley MicroStation CAD
(DesiGN)
Estimating
Microsoft Excel xlcx , xlx
(Spreadsheet)
pee (PrEcision
Sage Timberline Estimating
Estimation)
Mpp (Microsotft
Microsoft Project Plannning
Project Plan)
Oracle Primavera Plannning

2.6 Construction Process

Construction process is a process during which construction products, such

as buildings, are built. Due to its complexity, it is broken into several sub-
processes, which recursively include other sub-processes. The two major types of
processes are the material processes and the information processes (Turk, 1997)
(Björk, 1999) as shown in Figure (2-10). In the early stages of the building life
cycle, such as requirements specification, inception, feasibility, design and
planning, most of the tasks focus in the processing the information, the result of
these tasks is information (Turk, 1997).

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

Figure (2-10) Construction Process (Björk, 1999)

2.6.1 Material processes

During materials production and the construction itself, however, the raw
materials and components are used to build civil engineering products. Material
processes are controlled by information processes (e.g. design information
specifies how much reinforcement should be placed into a concrete slab) (Turk,
1997) (Turk, 2000).

2.6.2 Information Processes

Information processes are those of which major input and output is

information. The main information processes are design and planning (Turk,
2000). This research deals with information processes.

The construction process is an information-intensive (Sun and Aouad, 1999).

In construction project planning, information processing is perhaps the most
challenging task faced by project teams. As a construction project increases in size
or complexity, the efficiency and accuracy of information processing between
different project participants have a tremendous impact on the successful
development and execution of a construction project plan (Chen and Feng, 2008).

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

In practice, the implementation of information processing by most project

teams is substantially manually. The project team needs to study the 2D design
drawings and contract documents, and investigate the site in order to further
develop plans on budget, schedule, and so on. Furthermore, these project plans are
generally created independently of one another. This respective approach becomes
a heavy burden to the project team due to the tremendous amount of information
that must be manually pieced together to integrate a comprehensive plan (Waly
and Thabt, 2002) as mentioned by (Chen and Feng, 2008). For example, it is still
very difficult to integrate information from budget and schedule plan. Thus, it is
hard to take account of both cost and schedule impact during the decision-making
process (Chen and Feng, 2008).

Along with current development of computer technology, various research

efforts attempt to develop innovative ways of processing project information.
Embarking on advancements in data standards, CAD systems and information
systems, many researchers have tried to streamline the information processing
tasks by modeling and standardizing the information required for design,
construction and operation of constructed facilities (Chen and Feng, 2008).

Processes are interrelated (the preceding process prepares the inputs of a

follow-up process), but smooth transition of outputs into inputs is not always the
case. Quite often the outputs need to be modified in order to be useful in the
follow-up process. Any information process can be observed from two
perspectives: as information creation and information use (e.g., information
process of design, architectural design process provides results which are used-by
the structural design process). Typically, the results of the information creation
process are not directly useful as input to the follow-up process (the processes are
not integrated). Therefore, the two need to be connected by a glue or integration
process, Figure (2-11). Therefore, the following distinction of the processes is
possible: (Turk, 1997) (Turk, 2000).

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Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

2.6.2.1 Base Processes

Base processes are the main value adding or core processes, for example
calculating stresses in beams. Looking from the perspective of the item processed,
the base processes are either information creation processes or information
utilisation processes (Turk, 1997) (Turk, 2000).

2.6.2.2 Glue (Integration) Processes

Glue processes make sure that the information flow from creation process to
utilisation process and that the utilisation process can use them. For example,
getting the architect's drawing of the building and converting it into a format that
can be used by the finite element analysis software. Because of their function, the
glue processes are also referred to as “integration processes”. They are sometimes
referred to as “non value adding” (Turk, 1997) (Turk, 2000).

An information process has the following features (Turk, 2000):

1. Input: Information entering the process.
2. Output: Information exiting the process.
3. Performer: Person or application performing the process.
4. Customer: Person or application who requested this process to run.
Performers and customers have roles.
5. Method: Processes are performed using methods, which require tools.
6. Time frame: Processes take time, are scheduled etc.
7. Has related processes (sub-processes, predecessors and follow-up
processes).

A key factor in the potential for business process change is that the number of
times that the same information has to be re-entered to the computer can be
reduced. Studies in the UK by Laing have identified that (for certain information,
this can occur 5 to 6 times during the project lifecycle). Clearly, each time that
information is entered (having been entered before for a different purpose) there is
a cost and time implication. If information could be “Key Once, Read many
times”, there is a clear business benefit (AEC3, 1999).
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 Chapter Two Information Technology in Construction

Computers use in construction to create new information, e.g. by CAD

software. The goal was to automate the base processes and reduce human
interventions. This was leading to the “islands of automation” and ultimately to
computer automated construction. The Computer Integrated Construction (CIC)
research has focused on the finding, moving and re-using the information. Right
now, humans are all too often the glue between the applications. Reducing human
intervention from controlling the glue processes leads to computer integrated
construction. Reducing human intervention in both base and glue processes leads
to computer automated construction, Figure (2-11) (Turk, 1997) (Turk, 2000).

Figure (2-11) Integrated and glued (not integrated) processes; integration and
automation is achieved by removing human control (Turk, 1997) (Turk, 2000)

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