Machine

A machine (or mechanical device) is a

mechanical structure that uses power to
apply forces and control movement to
perform an intended action. Machines can
be driven by animals and people, by
natural forces such as wind and water, and
by chemical, thermal, or electrical power,
and include a system of mechanisms that
shape the actuator input to achieve a
specific application of output forces and
movement. They can also include
computers and sensors that monitor
performance and plan movement, often
called mechanical systems.

Renaissance natural philosophers

identified six simple machines which were
the elementary devices that put a load into
motion, and calculated the ratio of output
force to input force, known today as
mechanical advantage.[1]

Modern machines are complex systems

that consist of structural elements,
mechanisms and control components and
include interfaces for convenient use.
Examples include a wide range of vehicles,
such as automobiles, boats and airplanes,
appliances in the home and office,
including computers, building air handling
and water handling systems, as well as
farm machinery, machine tools and
factory automation systems and robots.

James Albert Bonsack's cigarette rolling machine,

invented in 1880 and patented in 1881
Etymology
The English word machine comes through
Middle French from Latin machina,[2]
which in turn derives from the Greek (Doric
μαχανά makhana, Ionic μηχανή mekhane
"contrivance, machine, engine",[3] a
derivation from μῆχος mekhos "means,
expedient, remedy"[4]).[5] The word
mechanical (Greek: μηχανικός) comes
from the same Greek roots. A wider
meaning of "fabric, structure" is found in
classical Latin, but not in Greek usage.
This meaning is found in late medieval
French, and is adopted from the French
into English in the mid-16th century.

In the 17th century, the word could also

mean a scheme or plot, a meaning now
expressed by the derived machination. The
modern meaning develops out of
specialized application of the term to
stage engines used in theater and to
military siege engines, both in the late 16th
and early 17th centuries. The OED traces
the formal, modern meaning to John
Harris' Lexicon Technicum (1704), which
has:
 Machine, or Engine, in Mechanicks, is
whatsoever hath Force sufficient either
to raise or stop the Motion of a Body...
Simple Machines are commonly
reckoned to be Six in Number, viz. the
Ballance, Leaver, Pulley, Wheel, Wedge,
and Screw... Compound Machines, or
Engines, are innumerable.

The word engine used as a

(near-)synonym both by Harris and in later
language derives ultimately (via Old
French) from Latin ingenium "ingenuity, an
invention".

History
Flint hand axe found in Winchester

The hand axe, made by chipping flint to

form a wedge, in the hands of a human
transforms force and movement of the
tool into a transverse splitting forces and
movement of the workpiece.

The idea of a simple machine originated

with the Greek philosopher Archimedes
around the 3rd century BC, who studied
the Archimedean simple machines: lever,
pulley, and screw.[6][7] Archimedes
discovered the principle of mechanical
advantage in the lever.[8] Later Greek
philosophers defined the classic five
simple machines (excluding the inclined
plane) and were able to roughly calculate
their mechanical advantage.[1] Heron of
Alexandria (ca. 10–75 AD) in his work
Mechanics lists five mechanisms that can
"set a load in motion"; lever, windlass,
pulley, wedge, and screw,[7] and describes
their fabrication and uses.[9] However, the
Greeks' understanding was limited to
statics (the balance of forces) and did not
include dynamics (the tradeoff between
force and distance) or the concept of
work.

During the Renaissance the dynamics of

the Mechanical Powers, as the simple
machines were called, began to be studied
from the standpoint of how much useful
work they could perform, leading
eventually to the new concept of
mechanical work. In 1586 Flemish
engineer Simon Stevin derived the
mechanical advantage of the inclined
plane, and it was included with the other
simple machines. The complete dynamic
theory of simple machines was worked
out by Italian scientist Galileo Galilei in
1600 in Le Meccaniche ("On
Mechanics").[10][11] He was the first to
understand that simple machines do not
create energy, they merely transform it.[10]

The classic rules of sliding friction in

machines were discovered by Leonardo da
Vinci (1452–1519), but remained
unpublished in his notebooks. They were
rediscovered by Guillaume Amontons
(1699) and were further developed by
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1785).[12]

James Watt patented his parallel motion

linkage in 1782, which made the double
acting steam engine practical.[13] The
Boulton and Watt steam engine and later
designs powered steam locomotives,
steam ships, and factories.

The Industrial Revolution was a period

from 1750 to 1850 where changes in
agriculture, manufacturing, mining,
transportation, and technology had a
profound effect on the social, economic
and cultural conditions of the times. It
began in the United Kingdom, then
subsequently spread throughout Western
Europe, North America, Japan, and
eventually the rest of the world.
Starting in the later part of the 18th
century, there began a transition in parts of
Great Britain's previously manual labour
and draft-animal-based economy towards
machine-based manufacturing. It started
with the mechanisation of the textile
industries, the development of iron-making
techniques and the increased use of
refined coal.[14]

Simple machines
Table of simple mechanisms, from Chambers'
Cyclopædia, 1728.[15] Simple machines provide a
"vocabulary" for understanding more complex
machines.

The idea that a machine can be

decomposed into simple movable
elements led Archimedes to define the
lever, pulley and screw as simple
machines. By the time of the Renaissance
this list increased to include the wheel and
axle, wedge and inclined plane. The
modern approach to characterizing
machines focusses on the components
that allow movement, known as joints.

Wedge (hand axe): Perhaps the first

example of a device designed to manage
power is the hand axe, also called biface
and Olorgesailie. A hand axe is made by
chipping stone, generally flint, to form a
bifacial edge, or wedge. A wedge is a
simple machine that transforms lateral
force and movement of the tool into a
transverse splitting force and movement
of the workpiece. The available power is
limited by the effort of the person using
the tool, but because power is the product
of force and movement, the wedge
amplifies the force by reducing the
movement. This amplification, or
mechanical advantage is the ratio of the
input speed to output speed. For a wedge
this is given by 1/tanα, where α is the tip
angle. The faces of a wedge are modeled
as straight lines to form a sliding or
prismatic joint.

Lever: The lever is another important and

simple device for managing power. This is
a body that pivots on a fulcrum. Because
the velocity of a point farther from the
pivot is greater than the velocity of a point
near the pivot, forces applied far from the
pivot are amplified near the pivot by the
associated decrease in speed. If a is the
distance from the pivot to the point where
the input force is applied and b is the
distance to the point where the output
force is applied, then a/b is the
mechanical advantage of the lever. The
fulcrum of a lever is modeled as a hinged
or revolute joint.

Wheel: The wheel is clearly an important

early machine, such as the chariot. A
wheel uses the law of the lever to reduce
the force needed to overcome friction
when pulling a load. To see this notice that
the friction associated with pulling a load
on the ground is approximately the same
as the friction in a simple bearing that
supports the load on the axle of a wheel.
However, the wheel forms a lever that
magnifies the pulling force so that it
overcomes the frictional resistance in the
bearing.

Illustration of a four-bar linkage from The Kinematics

of Machinery 1876
of Machinery, 1876

The classification of simple machines to

provide a strategy for the design of new
machines was developed by Franz
Reuleaux, who collected and studied over
800 elementary machines.[16] He
recognized that the classical simple
machines can be separated into the lever,
pulley and wheel and axle that are formed
by a body rotating about a hinge, and the
inclined plane, wedge and screw that are
similarly a block sliding on a flat
surface.[17]
Simple machines are elementary
examples of kinematic chains or linkages
that are used to model mechanical
systems ranging from the steam engine to
robot manipulators. The bearings that
form the fulcrum of a lever and that allow
the wheel and axle and pulleys to rotate
are examples of a kinematic pair called a
hinged joint. Similarly, the flat surface of
an inclined plane and wedge are examples
of the kinematic pair called a sliding joint.
The screw is usually identified as its own
kinematic pair called a helical joint.

This realization shows that it is the joints,

or the connections that provide movement,
that are the primary elements of a
machine. Starting with four types of joints,
the rotary joint, sliding joint, cam joint and
gear joint, and related connections such as
cables and belts, it is possible to
understand a machine as an assembly of
solid parts that connect these joints called
a mechanism .[18]

Two levers, or cranks, are combined into a

planar four-bar linkage by attaching a link
that connects the output of one crank to
the input of another. Additional links can
be attached to form a six-bar linkage or in
series to form a robot.[18]
Mechanical systems

The Boulton & Watt Steam Engine, 1784

A mechanical system manages power to

accomplish a task that involves forces and
movement. Modern machines are systems
consisting of (i) a power source and
actuators that generate forces and
movement, (ii) a system of mechanisms
that shape the actuator input to achieve a
specific application of output forces and
movement, (iii) a controller with sensors
that compare the output to a performance
goal and then directs the actuator input,
and (iv) an interface to an operator
consisting of levers, switches, and
displays.

This can be seen in Watt's steam engine

(see the illustration) in which the power is
provided by steam expanding to drive the
piston. The walking beam, coupler and
crank transform the linear movement of
the piston into rotation of the output
pulley. Finally, the pulley rotation drives the
flyball governor which controls the valve
for the steam input to the piston cylinder.

The adjective "mechanical" refers to skill in

the practical application of an art or
science, as well as relating to or caused by
movement, physical forces, properties or
agents such as is dealt with by
mechanics.[19] Similarly Merriam-Webster
Dictionary[20] defines "mechanical" as
relating to machinery or tools.

Power flow through a machine provides a

way to understand the performance of
devices ranging from levers and gear
trains to automobiles and robotic systems.
The German mechanician Franz
Reuleaux[21] wrote, "a machine is a
combination of resistant bodies so
arranged that by their means the
mechanical forces of nature can be
compelled to do work accompanied by
certain determinate motion." Notice that
forces and motion combine to define
power.

More recently, Uicker et al.[18] stated that a

machine is "a device for applying power or
changing its direction." McCarthy and
Soh[22] describe a machine as a system
that "generally consists of a power source
and a mechanism for the controlled use of
this power."

Power sources

Diesel engine, friction clutch and gear transmission

of an automobile.
Early Ganz Electric Generator in Zwevegem, West
Flanders, Belgium

Human and animal effort were the original

power sources for early machines.

Waterwheel: Waterwheels appeared

around the world around 300 BC to use
flowing water to generate rotary motion,
which was applied to milling grain, and
powering lumber, machining and textile
operations. Modern water turbines use
water flowing through a dam to drive an
electric generator.

Windmill: Early windmills captured wind

power to generate rotary motion for milling
operations. Modern wind turbines also
drives a generator. This electricity in turn is
used to drive motors forming the
actuators of mechanical systems.

Engine: The word engine derives from

"ingenuity" and originally referred to
contrivances that may or may not be
physical devices. See Merriam-Webster's
definition of engine . A steam engine uses
heat to boil water contained in a pressure
vessel; the expanding steam drives a
piston or a turbine. This principle can be
seen in the aeolipile of Hero of Alexandria.
This is called an external combustion
engine.
An automobile engine is called an internal
combustion engine because it burns fuel
(an exothermic chemical reaction) inside a
cylinder and uses the expanding gases to
drive a piston. A jet engine uses a turbine
to compress air which is burned with fuel
so that it expands through a nozzle to
provide thrust to an aircraft, and so is also
an "internal combustion engine." [23]

Power plant: The heat from coal and

natural gas combustion in a boiler
generates steam that drives a steam
turbine to rotate an electric generator. A
nuclear power plant uses heat from a
nuclear reactor to generate steam and
electric power. This power is distributed
through a network of transmission lines
for industrial and individual use.

Motors: Electric motors use either AC or

DC electric current to generate rotational
movement. Electric servomotors are the
actuators for mechanical systems ranging
from robotic systems to modern aircraft.

Fluid Power: Hydraulic and pneumatic

systems use electrically driven pumps to
drive water or air respectively into
cylinders to power linear movement.

Mechanisms
The mechanism of a mechanical system is
assembled from components called
machine elements. These elements
provide structure for the system and
control its movement.

The structural components are, generally,

the frame members, bearings, splines,
springs, seals, fasteners and covers. The
shape, texture and color of covers provide
a styling and operational interface
between the mechanical system and its
users.

The assemblies that control movement are

also called "mechanisms."[21][24]
Mechanisms are generally classified as
gears and gear trains, which includes belt
drives and chain drives, cam and follower
mechanisms, and linkages, though there
are other special mechanisms such as
clamping linkages, indexing mechanisms,
escapements and friction devices such as
brakes and clutches.

The number of degrees of freedom of a

mechanism, or its mobility, depends on the
number of links and joints and the types of
joints used to construct the mechanism.
The general mobility of a mechanism is
the difference between the unconstrained
freedom of the links and the number of
constraints imposed by the joints. It is
described by the Chebychev-Grübler-
Kutzbach criterion.

Gears and gear trains

The Antikythera mechanism (main fragment)

The transmission of rotation between

contacting toothed wheels can be traced
back to the Antikythera mechanism of
Greece and the south-pointing chariot of
China. Illustrations by the renaissance
scientist Georgius Agricola show gear
trains with cylindrical teeth. The
implementation of the involute tooth
yielded a standard gear design that
provides a constant speed ratio. Some
important features of gears and gear
trains are:

The ratio of the pitch circles of mating

gears defines the speed ratio and the
mechanical advantage of the gear set.
A planetary gear train provides high gear
reduction in a compact package.
 It is possible to design gear teeth for
gears that are non-circular, yet still
transmit torque smoothly.
The speed ratios of chain and belt drives
are computed in the same way as gear
ratios. See bicycle gearing.

Cam and follower mechanisms

A cam and follower is formed by the direct

contact of two specially shaped links. The
driving link is called the cam (also see
cam shaft) and the link that is driven
through the direct contact of their
surfaces is called the follower. The shape
of the contacting surfaces of the cam and
follower determines the movement of the
mechanism.

Linkages

Schematic of the actuator and four-bar linkage that

position an aircraft landing gear.

A linkage is a collection of links connected

by joints. Generally, the links are the
structural elements and the joints allow
movement. Perhaps the single most useful
example is the planar four-bar linkage.
However, there are many more special
linkages:

Watt's linkage is a four-bar linkage that

generates an approximate straight line.
It was critical to the operation of his
design for the steam engine. This
linkage also appears in vehicle
suspensions to prevent side-to-side
movement of the body relative to the
wheels. Also see the article Parallel
motion.
The success of Watt's linkage lead to
the design of similar approximate
straight-line linkages, such as Hoeken's
linkage and Chebyshev's linkage.
The Peaucellier linkage generates a true
straight-line output from a rotary input.
The Sarrus linkage is a spatial linkage
that generates straight-line movement
from a rotary input. Select this link for
an animation of the Sarrus linkage
The Klann linkage and the Jansen
linkage are recent inventions that
provide interesting walking movements.
They are respectively a six-bar and an
eight-bar linkage.
Planar mechanism

A planar mechanism is a mechanical

system that is constrained so the
trajectories of points in all the bodies of
the system lie on planes parallel to a
ground plane. The rotational axes of
hinged joints that connect the bodies in
the system are perpendicular to this
ground plane.

Spherical mechanism

A spherical mechanism is a mechanical

system in which the bodies move in a way
that the trajectories of points in the
system lie on concentric spheres. The
rotational axes of hinged joints that
connect the bodies in the system pass
through the center of these circle.

Spatial mechanism

A spatial mechanism is a mechanical

system that has at least one body that
moves in a way that its point trajectories
are general space curves. The rotational
axes of hinged joints that connect the
bodies in the system form lines in space
that do not intersect and have distinct
common normals.
Flexure mechanisms

A flexure mechanism consists of a series

of rigid bodies connected by compliant
elements (also known as flexure joints)
that is designed to produce a
geometrically well-defined motion upon
application of a force.

Machine elements
The elementary mechanical components
of a machine are termed machine
elements. These elements consist of three
basic types (i) structural components such
as frame members, bearings, axles,
splines, fasteners, seals, and lubricants, (ii)
mechanisms that control movement in
various ways such as gear trains, belt or
chain drives, linkages, cam and follower
systems, including brakes and clutches,
and (iii) control components such as
buttons, switches, indicators, sensors,
actuators and computer controllers.[25]
While generally not considered to be a
machine element, the shape, texture and
color of covers are an important part of a
machine that provide a styling and
operational interface between the
mechanical components of a machine and
its users.
Structural components

A number of machine elements provide

important structural functions such as the
frame, bearings, splines, spring and seals.

The recognition that the frame of a

mechanism is an important machine
element changed the name three-bar
linkage into four-bar linkage. Frames are
generally assembled from truss or beam
elements.
Bearings are components designed to
manage the interface between moving
elements and are the source of friction
in machines. In general, bearings are
designed for pure rotation or straight
line movement.
Splines and keys are two ways to
reliably mount an axle to a wheel, pulley
or gear so that torque can be transferred
through the connection.
Springs provides forces that can either
hold components of a machine in place
or acts as a suspension to support part
of a machine.
Seals are used between mating parts of
a machine to ensure fluids, such as
water, hot gases, or lubricant do not leak
between the mating surfaces.
 Fasteners such as screws, bolts, spring
clips, and rivets are critical to the
assembly of components of a machine.
Fasteners are generally considered to be
removable. In contrast, joining methods,
such as welding, soldering, crimping and
the application of adhesives, usually
require cutting the parts to disassemble
the components

Controllers
Controllers combine sensors, logic, and
actuators to maintain the performance of
components of a machine. Perhaps the
best known is the flyball governor for a
steam engine. Examples of these devices
range from a thermostat that as
temperature rises opens a valve to cooling
water to speed controllers such as the
cruise control system in an automobile.
The programmable logic controller
replaced relays and specialized control
mechanisms with a programmable
computer. Servomotors that accurately
position a shaft in response to an
electrical command are the actuators that
make robotic systems possible.

Computing machines
Arithmometre, designed by Charles Xavier Thomas, c.
1820, for the four rules of arithmetic, manufactured

1866-1870 AD. Exhibit in the Tekniska museet,

Stockholm, Sweden.

Charles Babbage designed machines to

tabulate logarithms and other functions in
1837. His Difference engine can be
considered an advanced mechanical
calculator and his Analytical Engine a
forerunner of the modern computer,
though none were built in Babbage's
lifetime.
The Arithmometer and the Comptometer
are mechanical computers that are
precursors to modern digital computers.
Models used to study modern computers
are termed State machine and Turing
machine.

Molecular machines

A ribosome is a biological machine that utilizes

protein dynamics
The biological molecule myosin reacts to
ATP and ADP to alternately engage with an
actin filament and change its shape in a
way that exerts a force, and then
disengage to reset its shape, or
conformation. This acts as the molecular
drive that causes muscle contraction.
Similarly the biological molecule kinesin
has two sections that alternately engage
and disengage with microtubules causing
the molecule to move along the
microtubule and transport vesicles within
the cell, and dynein, which moves cargo
inside cells towards the nucleus and
produces the axonemal beating of motile
cilia and flagella. "[I]n effect, the [motile
cilium] is a nanomachine composed of
perhaps over 600 proteins in molecular
complexes, many of which also function
independently as nanomachines...Flexible
linkers allow the mobile protein domains
connected by them to recruit their binding
partners and induce long-range allostery
via protein domain dynamics. "[26] Other
biological machines are responsible for
energy production, for example ATP
synthase which harnesses energy from
proton gradients across membranes to
drive a turbine-like motion used to
synthesise ATP, the energy currency of a
cell.[27] Still other machines are
responsible for gene expression, including
DNA polymerases for replicating DNA,
RNA polymerases for producing mRNA,
the spliceosome for removing introns, and
the ribosome for synthesising proteins.
These machines and their nanoscale
dynamics are far more complex than any
molecular machines that have yet been
artificially constructed.[28] These
molecules are increasingly considered to
be nanomachines.

Researchers have used DNA to construct

nano-dimensioned four-bar linkages.[29][30]

Impact
Mechanization and automation

A water-powered mine hoist used for raising ore. This

woodblock is from De re metallica by Georg Bauer
(Latinized name Georgius Agricola, ca. 1555), an
early mining textbook that contains numerous
drawings and descriptions of mining equipment.

Mechanization or mechanisation (BE) is

providing human operators with machinery
that assists them with the muscular
requirements of work or displaces
muscular work. In some fields,
mechanization includes the use of hand
tools. In modern usage, such as in
engineering or economics, mechanization
implies machinery more complex than
hand tools and would not include simple
devices such as an un-geared horse or
donkey mill. Devices that cause speed
changes or changes to or from
reciprocating to rotary motion, using
means such as gears, pulleys or sheaves
and belts, shafts, cams and cranks, usually
are considered machines. After
electrification, when most small machinery
was no longer hand powered,
mechanization was synonymous with
motorized machines.[31]

Automation is the use of control systems

and information technologies to reduce
the need for human work in the production
of goods and services. In the scope of
industrialization, automation is a step
beyond mechanization. Whereas
mechanization provides human operators
with machinery to assist them with the
muscular requirements of work,
automation greatly decreases the need for
human sensory and mental requirements
as well. Automation plays an increasingly
important role in the world economy and in
daily experience.

Automata

An automaton (plural: automata or

automatons) is a self-operating machine.
The word is sometimes used to describe a
robot, more specifically an autonomous
robot. A Toy Automaton was patented in
1863.[32]

Mechanics
Usher[33] reports that Hero of Alexandria's
treatise on Mechanics focussed on the
study of lifting heavy weights. Today
mechanics refers to the mathematical
analysis of the forces and movement of a
mechanical system, and consists of the
study of the kinematics and dynamics of
these systems.

Dynamics of machines

The dynamic analysis of machines begins

with a rigid-body model to determine
reactions at the bearings, at which point
the elasticity effects are included. The
rigid-body dynamics studies the
movement of systems of interconnected
bodies under the action of external forces.
The assumption that the bodies are rigid,
which means that they do not deform
under the action of applied forces,
simplifies the analysis by reducing the
parameters that describe the configuration
of the system to the translation and
rotation of reference frames attached to
each body.[34][35]

The dynamics of a rigid body system is

defined by its equations of motion, which
are derived using either Newtons laws of
motion or Lagrangian mechanics. The
solution of these equations of motion
defines how the configuration of the
system of rigid bodies changes as a
function of time. The formulation and
solution of rigid body dynamics is an
important tool in the computer simulation
of mechanical systems.

Kinematics of machines

The dynamic analysis of a machine

requires the determination of the
movement, or kinematics, of its
component parts, known as kinematic
analysis. The assumption that the system
is an assembly of rigid components allows
rotational and translational movement to
be modeled mathematically as Euclidean,
or rigid, transformations. This allows the
position, velocity and acceleration of all
points in a component to be determined
from these properties for a reference
point, and the angular position, angular
velocity and angular acceleration of the
component.

Machine design
Machine design refers to the procedures
and techniques used to address the three
phases of a machine's lifecycle:

1. invention, which involves the

identification of a need, development
of requirements, concept generation,
prototype development,
 manufacturing, and verification
testing;
2. performance engineering involves
enhancing manufacturing efficiency,
reducing service and maintenance
demands, adding features and
improving effectiveness, and
validation testing;
3. recycle is the decommissioning and
disposal phase and includes recovery
and reuse of materials and
components.

See also
Automaton
Gear train
History of technology
Linkage (mechanical)
List of mechanical, electrical and
electronic equipment manufacturing
companies by revenue
Mechanism (engineering)
Mechanical advantage
Outline of automation
Outline of machines
Power (physics)
Simple machines
Technology
Virtual work
 Work (physics)

References
1. Usher, Abbott Payson (1988). A
History of Mechanical Inventions .
USA: Courier Dover Publications.
p. 98. ISBN 978-0-486-25593-4.
Archived from the original on 2016-
08-18.
2. The American Heritage Dictionary,
Second College Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Co., 1985.
3. "μηχανή" Archived 2011-06-29 at
the Wayback Machine, Henry George
Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English
Lexicon, on Perseus project
4. "μῆχος" Archived 2011-06-29 at the
Wayback Machine, Henry George
Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English
Lexicon, on Perseus project
5. Oxford Dictionaries, machine
6. Asimov, Isaac (1988), Understanding
Physics , New York, New York, USA:
Barnes & Noble, p. 88, ISBN 978-0-
88029-251-1, archived from the
original on 2016-08-18.
7. Chiu, Y. C. (2010), An introduction to
the History of Project Management ,
Delft: Eburon Academic Publishers,
p. 42, ISBN 978-90-5972-437-2,
archived from the original on 2016-
08-18
8. Ostdiek, Vern; Bord, Donald (2005).
Inquiry into Physics . Thompson
Brooks/Cole. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-534-
49168-0. Archived from the original
on 2013-05-28. Retrieved 2008-05-22.
9. Strizhak, Viktor; Igor Penkov; Toivo
Pappel (2004). "Evolution of design,
use, and strength calculations of
screw threads and threaded joints" .
HMM2004 International Symposium
on History of Machines and
Mechanisms. Kluwer Academic
publishers. p. 245. ISBN 1-4020-2203-
4. Archived from the original on
2013-06-07. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
10. Krebs, Robert E. (2004).
Groundbreaking Experiments,
Inventions, and Discoveries of the
Middle Ages . Greenwood Publishing
Group. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-313-
32433-8. Archived from the original
on 2013-05-28. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
11. Stephen, Donald; Lowell Cardwell
(2001). Wheels, clocks, and rockets: a
history of technology . USA: W. W.
Norton & Company. pp. 85–87.
ISBN 978-0-393-32175-3. Archived
from the original on 2016-08-18.
12. Armstrong-Hélouvry, Brian (1991).
Control of machines with friction .
USA: Springer. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-
7923-9133-3. Archived from the
original on 2016-08-18.
13. Pennock, G. R., James Watt (1736-
1819), Distinguished Figures in
Mechanism and Machine Science, ed.
M. Ceccarelli, Springer, 2007,
ISBN 978-1-4020-6365-7 (Print) 978-
1-4020-6366-4 (Online).
14. Beck B., Roger (1999). World History:
Patterns of Interaction. Evanston,
Illinois: McDougal Littell.
15. Chambers, Ephraim (1728), "Table of
Mechanicks", Cyclopaedia, A Useful
Dictionary of Arts and Sciences,
London, England, Volume 2, p. 528,
Plate 11.
16. Moon, F. C., The Reuleaux Collection
of Kinematic Mechanisms at Cornell
University, 1999 Archived 2015-05-
18 at the Wayback Machine
17. Hartenberg, R.S. & J. Denavit (1964)
Kinematic synthesis of linkages
Archived 2011-05-19 at the Wayback
Machine, New York: McGraw-Hill,
online link from Cornell University.
18. J. J. Uicker, G. R. Pennock, and J. E.
Shigley, 2003, Theory of Machines
and Mechanisms, Oxford University
Press, New York.
19. "mechanical" . Oxford English
Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University
Press. September 2005. (Subscription
or UK public library membership
required.)

20. Merriam-Webster Dictionary

Definition of mechanical Archived
2011-10-20 at the Wayback Machine
21. Reuleaux, F., 1876 The Kinematics of
Machinery Archived 2013-06-02 at
the Wayback Machine (trans. and
annotated by A. B. W. Kennedy),
reprinted by Dover, New York (1963)
22. J. M. McCarthy and G. S. Soh, 2010,
Geometric Design of Linkages,
Archived 2016-08-19 at the Wayback
Machine Springer, New York.
23. "Internal combustion engine",
Concise Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology, Third Edition, Sybil P.
Parker, ed. McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994, p.
998 .
24. J. J. Uicker, G. R. Pennock, and J. E.
Shigley, 2003, Theory of Machines
and Mechanisms, Oxford University
Press, New York.
25. Robert L. Norton, Machine Design,
(4th Edition), Prentice-Hall, 2010
26. Satir, Peter; Søren T. Christensen
(2008-03-26). "Structure and function
of mammalian cilia" . Histochemistry
and Cell Biology. 129 (6): 687–93.
doi:10.1007/s00418-008-0416-9 .
PMC 2386530 . PMID 18365235 .
1432-119X.
27. Kinbara, Kazushi; Aida, Takuzo (2005-
04-01). "Toward Intelligent Molecular
Machines: Directed Motions of
Biological and Artificial Molecules
and Assemblies". Chemical Reviews.
105 (4): 1377–1400.
doi:10.1021/cr030071r . ISSN 0009-
2665 . PMID 15826015 .
28. Bu Z, Callaway DJ (2011). Proteins
MOVE! Protein dynamics and long-
range allostery in cell signaling .
Advances in Protein Chemistry and
Structural Biology. 83. pp. 163–221.
doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-381262-
9.00005-7 . ISBN 9780123812629.
PMID 21570668 .
29. Marras, A., Zhou, L., Su, H., and
Castro, C.E. Programmable motion of
DNA origami mechanisms,
Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences, 2015
Archived 2017-08-04 at the Wayback
Machine
30. McCarthy, C, DNA Origami
Mechanisms and Machines |
Mechanical Design 101, 2014
Archived 2017-09-18 at the Wayback
Machine
31. Jerome (1934) gives the industry
classification of machine tools as
being "other than hand power".
Beginning with the 1900 U.S. census,
power use was part of the definition
of a factory, distinguishing it from a
workshop.
32. "U.S. Patent and Trademark Office,
Patent# 40891, Toy Automaton" .
Google Patents. Retrieved
2007-01-07.
33. A. P. Usher, 1929, A History of
Mechanical Inventions Archived
2013-06-02 at the Wayback Machine,
Harvard University Press (reprinted by
Dover Publications 1968).
34. B. Paul, Kinematics and Dynamics of
Planar Machinery, Prentice-Hall, NJ,
1979
35. L. W. Tsai, Robot Analysis: The
mechanics of serial and parallel
manipulators, John-Wiley, NY, 1999.

Further reading
Oberg, Erik; Franklin D. Jones; Holbrook
L. Horton; Henry H. Ryffel (2000).
Christopher J. McCauley; Riccardo
Heald; Muhammed Iqbal Hussain (eds.).
Machinery's Handbook (26th ed.). New
York: Industrial Press Inc. ISBN 978-0-
8311-2635-3.
Reuleaux, Franz (1876). The Kinematics
of Machinery. Trans. and annotated by
A. B. W. Kennedy. New York: reprinted by
Dover (1963).
Uicker, J. J.; G. R. Pennock; J. E. Shigley
(2003). Theory of Machines and
Mechanisms. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Oberg, Erik; Franklin D. Jones; Holbrook
L. Horton; Henry H. Ryffel (2000).
Christopher J. McCauley; Riccardo
 Heald; Muhammed Iqbal Hussain (eds.).
Machinery's Handbook (30th ed.). New
York: Industrial Press Inc.
ISBN 9780831130992.

External links
Reuleaux Collection of Mechanisms and
Machines at Cornell University

Wikimedia Commons has media

related to Machines.

Wikiquote has quotations related to:

Machine
Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Machine&oldid=900638039"

Last edited 19 days ago by an anony…

Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless

otherwise noted.