Menchie Jogno-Revarez January 25, 2020

Report in Management Techniques and Processes and Formal Aspects

of Administration

What is Management?
One way of looking at management is through people who compose the
organization. In this manner, it may be considered as the people responsible for
the actions in the organization. Management is the planning, deciding, or
exercising of control and supervision on some functions of the organization.
According to Miranda, author of the book Principles of Management, it is the
function of executive leadership that is directing the business toward the
attainment of company objectives.

LEADERSHIP AND HUMAN MOTIVATION

Leadership is subject that has aroused the interest of scholars and laymen as
well. Ralph M. Stogdill, in his researches on leadership theories, points out that
there can be as many definitions as there are people wanting to define the
concept.
1. LEADERSHIP can be regarded as an influence process, since a leader may be
called upon to live a life demonstrating fullness of what he believes in, thus
making him a good example for followers.
2. LEADERSHIP occurs when one person influence another and convinces him
to do a thing to achieve something. Influence may range from persuasion to the
use of coercion to get things done. The ability to structure social interaction
systems and accomplished what is proposed to be achieved by one seeking
leadership responsibilities.
3. LEADER is expected to perform certain composite activities like motivating,
assisting them in identifying their goals, setting the principles for managing and
supervising them, and developing their awareness of the consequences of
behavior.
LEADERSHIP, in the ideal sense, should be voluntarily and freely accepted in
recognition of one’s moral right to lead, complemented by his knowledge and
capability to direct and guide others.
 Theories are commonly categorized by which aspect is believed to define the
leader the most. The most widespread six leadership theories are the following:
1. Great Man Theory - is a 19th century idea according to which history can be
largely explained by the impact of great man, or heroes, highly influential and
unique individuals who, due to their natural attributes such as superior intellect,
heroic courage, or divine inspiration, have a decisive historical effect.
2. Trait Theory - is an early assumption that leaders are born and due to this
belief, those that possess the correct qualities and traits are better suited to
leadership. This theory often identifies behavioral characteristics that are
common in leaders.
3. Behavioral Theory - is a big leap from trait theory, it assumes that leadership
capability can be learned, rather than being inherent, It is based on principle that
behaviors can be conditioned in a manner that one can have a specific response
to specific stimuli.
4. Contingency Theory - it states that a leader's effectiveness is contingent
upon with how his or her leadership style matches to the situation. That is, the
leader must find out what kind of leadership style and situation he or she thrives
in.
5. Transactional Theory - depends on self-motivated people who work well in a
structured, directed environment. A leader is someone who values order and
structure.
6. Transformational Theory - it seeks to motivate and inspire workers, choosing
to influence rather than direct others.

In Fiedler's Contingency Theory there are three situational determinants of

power and influences of leaders:
1. Leader - subordinates situation. When a leader i desired, respected and
trusted and is able to elicit loyalty and commitment from subordinates, that
leader is invested with influence and power.
2. The structuring of tasks. When assignments are well-structured and spelled
out clearly, the leader becomes more influential to his subordinates than when
tasks to be performed are slightly stated and poorly structured.
3. The last is the power position. This refers to the ability of the leader to make
subordinates comply with and accept directions and orders. When a leader can
fire and discipline subordinates, we say he has power and influences over them
arising from position he holds.

Leadership Behavior is affected by three factors:

1. Value orientation of the leader
2. Value orientation of the subordinates
3. Situational factors
Qualifying Leaders:
1. Possession of Ascriptive qualities
2. Popular choice
3. Appointment
4. Force

DECISION-MAKING AND POLICY ANALYSIS

Decision-making is deciding what should be done and how it should be done
brings problems to leaders. According to Robert Tannenbaum, decision-making
involves conscious choice of one behavioral alternative from number of
behavioral alternatives. It is concerned with policy issues: to decide an issue
involves subjective judgment and individual preference.
Two personalities are involved in decision-making in an organization: the
private personality of an individual decision-maker and the personality of the
organization of which he is a member or an officer. Deciding for an organization
cannot be a personal responsibility until officially assigned. Personal decisions
cannot be delegated. Whoever exercises the authority to decide, articulates his
privates personality in the decision alternative he has chosen. Yet the decision
therefore results in authoritative communication to different persons at different
levels of the organizational hierarchy or outside of the organization itself
depending upon who are intended to be affected by it, positively or negatively
The type of decision and the condition for decision-making change from time
to time. There are occasions when a decision has to be done by high level
executive: in like manner, there are those which are done at the non-executive
level. Generally, top executive make decisions relating to ends and objectives.
Planning as Decision-Making: Planning refers to be construction of program,
formula or alternative model to be used as basis for a course of action or decision.
Its essence is forecasting, whether short term or long term. A plan is a tentative
schedule with target dates of completion, which when implemented, lessens
doubt and uncertainty.
A plan should consider clientele needs and demands as well as observed
priorities.
Planning by the government generally includes the following:
1. Identification of people's desires and needs.
2. Determination of national development thrusts.
3. Programming and program implementation.
4. Program review and evaluation.

OPTIONS AND CONSTRAINTS IN DECISION-MAKING

Effective policy is an outcome of strategic interactions more than individual
choices. While institutions influence policy and decision-making, these cannot
fully determine policy choices. As a matter of fact the institutions define a set of
constraints which limit feasible choices. Choice may be opted for political actors
using their norms and egoistic interests as criteria. Differences in situational
constraint explain differences in policy choices. Choice of goals by a political
scientist differs from that of an economist. The former may have a structuralist
interest and the latter may be client-oriented.
Institutions set rules which limit interaction of participants in the policy
process. Yet similar institutions work differently societies at different time. These
are situational variables which can go beyond the control of the decision-maker.
On the other hand, similar policy choices may be produced under dissimilar
institutional arrangement.
The Decision-Making Style
At the top executive level, decision-making goes beyond internal manners of
the organization. The decision-maker should understand that there are other
inputs to his role, like political leadership and necessary skills that can be
employed within the political system itself and the social system as a whole.
Philip Selznick suggests four things vital to decision-making. There is a need to
know (1) the institutional mission which refers to the setting goals, (2)
embodiment of purpose of the organization which relates to the capability to
build policy into the social structure of the organization, (3) defense of the
integrity of the institutions - it's values and identity included and, (4) ability to
resolve internal conflicts in the organizations.

FORMAL ASPECTS OF ADMINISTRATION

Management Process is working with the people. The people are organized in
formal groups to achieve desired goals necessary to maximize the utilization of
the available resources of the organizations. On the whole, it requires the
manager to be systematic in undertaking his managerial functions and exercising
his organizational authority. Hence, he should be primarily concerned with the
mgmt. process, represented by the symbol POSDCORB recommended by Luther
Gulick, an American Management consultant

MANAGEMENT PROCESS
1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Staffing
4. Directing
5. Controlling
Planning - it is the most basic of all management functions. It is the process of
combining all aspects of the organization. It is a mental process of determining
what is desirable and how it can be achieved.
There is no single blueprint or formula for planning that is applicable to all
organization.
According to Koontz and O'Donnell, there are Three Basic Stages of Planning.
1. Formulating Objectives- state precisely what results are to be accomplished by
some future date.
2. Taking action- follow pre-determined plan of actions to fulfill objectives.
3. Appraising results- measure the result achieved against original goals. Take
whatever corrective action is necessary.
 Planning is also subject to certain limitations. Prominent along this limitations
are the following:
1. Formulating accurate forecasting.
2. Effects on Human Psychology
3. Changes in the socio-political climate.
4. Availability of time.

ORGANIZING is a process by which the manager brings order out of chaos,

eliminates conflicts between people over work or responsibility and establishes
an environment of teamwork. It relates to various concepts of management such
as formal and informal organization, the span of management, departmentation,
line and staff authority relationships, and decentralization of authority. One of the
means of knowing the situation in an organization is to analyze it with the use of
the organizational chart.
Some of the mistakes in organizing could be as follows:
1. Failure to plan properly.
2. Failure to clarify relationships.
3. Failure to delegate authority.
4. Failure to balance delegation.
5. Confusion of lines authority and information.
6. Authority without responsibility.

7. Responsibility without authority.

8. Careless application of the staff device.
9. Misuse of functional authority.
10. Multiple subordinates.
11. Misuse of service departments.
12. Over- organization.

STAFFING it connotes provision of the different position of the organization

structure with competent and qualified personnel. It includes the inventory,
appraisal, selection, training and development of manpower so that they can
perform their tasks effectively.
 In an organization, the following types of staff services may be found:
1. Auxilliary services - provide aid and assistance in organization line operations.
2. Administrative services - provide aid and assistance in the management of
general operations.
3. Technical services - provide aid in specialized fields.

DIRECTING it involves guiding and motivating other people to work for a

common purpose. It is the interpersonal aspect of management by which people
are allowed to understand and contribute efficiently and effectively to the
attainment of the objectives of the organization. It consists of the processes and
techniques employed in the issuance of instructions and directives on how work
should be done.
CONTROLLING is the measurement of accomplishments against set of standard
and the corrective measures to be applied so that deviations from the standard
are minimized. It is a management action to adjust operations of the organization
to its predetermined standard. As a result, control may be instituted in setting
new goals, formulating new plans, changing the organizational structure,
improving staffing, and making major technique of directing.
There are two types of control:
1. Management control- is largely concerned with executing broad plans and
objectives, delienating functions and responsibilities, and the acquisition and
effecient use of resources to effectively accomplish the organization's goals.
2. Operational control-relies heavily on specific procedures, departmental
budgets, and production schedules
BUDGETARY SYSTEM, for the government, BUDGETING is a critical procedure
of allocating resources: revenues and borrowed funds. It's primarily objectives is
to attain socio-political and economic goals, maintain national security, provide
for the social and other government services, and pay for the country's debt.
For the organization it is an important instrument policy for planning,
controlling and evaluating the use of resources for maximum returns.
THE BUDGET CYLE
Four phases in Managing the National Budget:
>Budget Preparation
>Budget Legislation
>Budget Execution
>Budget Accountability
During the preparation phase, the Executive prepares the proposed National
Budget. This is followed by the Legislation phase where the Congress authorize
the General Appropriations Act. In the Execution phase, agencies utilize their
approved budgets and the executive monitor and evaluate the use of the budget.