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I.C. ENGINE
CONTENTS
CHAPTER TOPIC PAGE No.

1.
OR
SI Engine and CI Engine 2

2. Otto Cycle and Diesel Cycle 6

3. Performance & Testing of I.C. Engine 11

4. Fuel Combustion 16

5. Carburetion 20
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6. Fuel Injection System 24

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 SI ENGINE / CI ENGINE 1

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The basic construction of a single cylinder spark-ignition Internal Combustion Engine is shown below.

1)

2)
The main components of Engine are : OR
Cylinder : The basic building block of Engine is cylinder. The cylinder is supported in cylinder block. Top end is covered
by cylinder head. The space enclosed between upper part of cylinder and top of piston during combustion process is called
combustion chamber.
Piston : Reciprocating element of engine which moves inside cylinder. The energy of expanding gases is transmitted by
piston.
3) Crank Shaft : Rotating member of engine. Crankshaft is supported in bearings attached to crank case.
Crank case is the main body of engine to which cylinder is attached.
4) Connecting rod : Connecting rod is member which connects piston to crankshaft. Connecting rod translates the
reciprocating motion of piston into rotational motion of crankshaft. It is connected with piston by piston pin (gudgeon pin)
and crank through crank pin.
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5) Camshaft : Camshaft is a shaft on which cam are mounted (or made) to actuate Intake and Exhaust valves.
Camshaft is driven by crankshaft through timing gears.
6) Intake valve / Exhaust valve : In the cylinder head are Inlet valves for taking charge in the cylinder and exhaust valves for
discharging the products of combustion.
Both the intake and exhaust valves are operated by valve mechanism. Lobed cams on camshaft actuate the push rod and
rocker arms for opening the valves.
LIST OF ENGINE PARTS / MATERIAL USED

Name of the Part Material Used Method of Manufacture

1. Cylinder Cast Iron, Alloy steel Casting
2. Cylinder head Cast Iron, Aluminium Alloy Casting, Forming
3. Piston Cast Iron, Aluminium Alloy Casting, Forging
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4. Gudgeon Pin Steel Forging

5. Piston ring Silicon Cast Iron Casting
6. Valves Alloy steel Forging
7. Connecting Rod Steel Forging
8. Crank shaft Alloy steel Forging
9. Crank case Cast iron, Steel, aluminium, alloy Casting
10. Cylinder liner Cast Iron, Alloy steel Casting
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 Terms used in IC Engine :
1) Cylinder Bore (D) : Nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder.
2) Piston Area (A) : The area of circle of diameter equal to cylinder bore.

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3) Stroke (L) : The distance through which working piston moves.
4) Dead Center : The extreme position of working piston.
(a) Bottom Dead Center (BDC) : Dead center when piston is nearest to crankshaft.
(b) Top Dead Center (TDC) : Dead center when piston is farthest from crankshaft.
5) Displacement Volume (or Swept Volume) : The nominal volume generated by working piston
Vs = A × L
6) Clearance Volume (VC) : The nominal volume of the space on the combustion side of the piston at top dead center.
7) Cylinder Volume : V = VS + VC

V
8) Compression Ratio : CR =
VC
I.C. Engine Classification :
Basic Engine Design : Reciprocating Engine / Rotary Engine
OR
Working Cycle : Otto cycle / Diesel cycle
Number of Strokes : Four stroke / Two stroke
Method of Ignition (For SI Engines) : Battery Ignition / Magneto Ignition.
Working of Four Stroke Engine (SI Engine)
Stroke Valve Position
Suction Stroke Suction valve open / Exhaust valve closed
Compression Stroke Both valves closed
Expansion Stroke Both valves closed
Exhaust Stroke Exhaust Valve open / suction valve closed
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 Four Stroke C.I. Engine : Four stroke C I Engine is similiar to four stroke S I Engine except that high compression ratio
is used in C I Engine. The compression ratio of S I Engine varies from 6 to 10 while for C I engine it is from 16 to 20.
In the C I Engine during suction stroke, air (instead of fuel air mixture) is inducted. Due to high compression ratio, the
temperature at the compression stroke is sufficiently high to self ignite the fuel which is injected into combustion chamber.

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OR
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SI ENGINEAND CI ENGINE

Criteria SI Engine CI Engine

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Basic Cycle Otto cycle Diesel cycle
(Constant volume heat addition) (Constant Pressure heat addition)
Fuel Gasoline Diesel
(Highly volatile, high self (Non-volatile, relatively low self
ignition temperature) ignition temperature)
Introduction of Fuel Gaseous mixture of Fuel is injected directly into
fuel and air combustion chamber
Carburettor is necessary to
provide the mixture
Ignition Requires ignition system with Self ignition occurs due to high
spark plug in combustion chamber temperature of air
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Compression ratio 6 to 10. Upper limit is fixed by 16 to 20. Upper limit is limited by
anticlock quality of fuel weight increase of the engine
Weight Lighter Heavier

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 Two Stroke Engine : In four stroke Engine, there is one power stroke for every two revolutions of crankshaft. There are
two non productive strokes of exhaust and suction.
In two stroke engine, the cycle is completed in one revolution of the crankshaft. Here, the filling process is accomplished by

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charge compressed in crank case.
The induction of the compressed charge moves out the product of combustion through Exhaust port.
Two strokes are sufficient to complete the cycle, one for compressing the fresh charge and another for expansion or Power
stroke.

OR
The air or charge is inducted into crankcase through spring loaded Inlet valve when pressure in crankcase is reduced due to
upward motion of piston during compression stroke.
During the expansion stroke, the charge in crank case is compressed. Near the end of expansion stroke, piston uncovers the
exhaust port, combustion products leave the cylinder. Further movement of piston uncovers the transfer parts, permitting
compressed charge in crankcase to enter the engine cylinder.
COMPARISON OF FOUR STROKEAND TWO STROKE ENGINE

Four Stroke Two Stroke

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Thermodynamic cycle is completed in Thermodynamic cycle is completed in two strokes / one

four strokes / two revolutions of crankshaft revolutions of crank shaft.
Turning moment is not so uniform, so heavier Turning moment is uniform, so lighter flywheel is used.
flywheel is needed.
One power stroke in two revolution – One power stroke in one revolution –
Less power for same size of engine less cooling Greater cooling and lubrication.
and lubrication. More power for same size of engine.
Volumetric efficiency is more Volumetric efficiency is less.
Thermal efficiency is higher Thermal efficiency is lower due to scavenging.
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OTTO CYCLE & DIESEL CYCLE 2

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Here, gas is working fluid. It does not undergo any phase change.
Air Standard Cycle : Strictly speaking, Internal Combustion Engine are non-cyclic heat engines. The working fluid, the fuel
air mixture undergoes permanent chemical change due to combustion and the products of combustion after doing work are
thrown out of the engine and fresh charge is taken. So the working fluid does not undergo a complete thermodynamic cycle.
To simplify the analysis of IC Engines, Air standard cycle are conceived. In air standard cycle, a certain mass of air operates
in complete thermodynamic cycle where heat is added and rejected with external heat reservoirs and all the processes in the
cycle are reversible. Air is assumed to behave as an ideal gas and its specific heat are assumed to be constant. These air
standard cycle are so conceived that they correspond to operations of Internal Combustion Engines.
Otto Cycle : The Otto cycle is the air standard cycle of Spark Ignition Engine (SI Engine / Petrol Engine) used in
Automobiles.

OR
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The sequence of processes in elementary operation of SI Engine is :

Process 1-2 Intake : The Inlet volve is open, piston moves down admitting air fuel mixture into cylinder at constant
pressure.
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Process 2-3 Compression : Both the volves are closed, the piston compresses the combustible mixture to the minimum
volume.
Process 3-4 Combustion : The mixture is then ignited by means of spark, combustion takes place and there is increase in
temperature and pressure.
Process 4-5 Expansion : The products of combustion do work on the piston, which moves down and temperature and
pressure decreases.
Process 5-6 Blow down : The exhaust volve opens and the pressure drops to initial pressure.

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 Process 6-1 Exhaust : With the exhaust volve open, the piston move inwards to expel the combustion products from the
cylinder at constant pressure. The cycle is completed in four strokes of piston. The above processes constitute a mechanical
cycle and not a thermodynamic cycle.

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Otto cycle is thermodynamic cycle corresponding to SI engine. It consists of two reversible adiabatic and two reversible
Isochores.

Let m be the fixed mass of air undergoing the cycle of operations.

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Heat supplied Q1 = MCV (T3 – T2)
Heat rejected Q2 = MCV (T4 – T1)

Q2 (T − T )
η=1– = 1− 4 1
Q1 (T3 − T2 )

 −1
T2  v1   T2 = T3
=   T T
T1  v2   1 4

 −1  −1 
⇒
T3  v4   v1   T3 T4
=   =    =
T4  v3   v2   T2 T1
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 −1
T1  v2  T3 T
so η = 1 –   −1= 4 −1
T2 = 1 –  v1  T2 T1

T3 − T2 T4 − T1
=
T2 T1

1 T3 − T2 T2
η=1– =
 v1 
 −1 T4 − T1 T1
 
 v2 
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1 T4 − T1 T1
η=1– =
rk −1 T3 − T2 T2

1
ηotto = 1 –  −1
rk
where rk is called compression ratio.

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 v1 V1 Volume at beginning of compression
rk = = =
v2 V2 Volume at end of compression
The efficiency of air standard Otto cycle is thus function of compression ratio only. The higher the compression ratio, higher

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the efficiency. It is independent of temperature level at which cycle operates. The compression ratio can not however be
increased beyond a certain limit, because of a noisy and destructive combustion phenomena, known as detonation. It also
depends upon the fuel, engine design and operating conditions.
Diesel Cycle : The limitation on compression ratio in SI Engine can be overcome by compressing air alone, instead of fuel
air mixture, then injecting the fuel into cylinder in spray form when combustion is desired.
The temperature of air after compression must be high enough so that the fuel sprayed into hot air burns spontaneously. The
rate of burning can, to some extent, be controlled by the rate of injection of fuel.
The sequence of processes in the elementary operation of CI Engine is as follows :
Process 1-2 Intake : Inlet volve is open. The piston moves out admitting air into cylinder at constant pressure.

OR
Process 2-3 Compression : The air is then compressed by the piston to the minimum volume with all the volves closed.
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Process 3-4 Fuel Injection & Combustion : The fuel value is open, fuel is sprayed into hot air and combustion takes place
at constant pressure.

Process 4-5 Expansion : The combustion products expand, doing work on the piston which moves out to maximum
volume.
Process 5-6 Blow Down : Exhaust value opens and pressure drops to initial pressure.
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Process 6-1 Exhaust : With the exhaust valve open, the piston moves towards the cylinder cover driving away the
combustion products from cylinder at constant pressure.
The above process constitute an engine cycle, which is completed in four strokes of the piston or two revolutions of
crankshaft.
Diesel cycle is airstandard cycle corresponding to C.I. Engine. The cycle is composed of two reversible adiabatic, one
reversible Isobar and one reversible isochore.

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Q1 = MCp (T3 – T2)

Q2 (T4 − T1 )
Q2 = MCv (T4 – T1) η=1–
Q1 = 1 – r (T − T )
3 2

The efficiency may be expressed in term of any two of the following three ratios :
V1 v1
Compression ratio rk = V = v OR
2 2

V4 v4
Expansion ratio re = V = v
3 3

V3 v3
Cut off ratio rc = V = v
2 2

v4 v3
It is seen that re . rc = v ⋅ v
3 2

v1
re rc = v ⇒
2
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re . rc = rk
It may be derived that :

1 1 rc − 1
η=1–
 rk −1 rc − 1
Limited Pressure Cycle / Mixed cycle or Dual Cycle : The air standard diesel cycle does not simulate exactly the pressure
volume variation in an actual compression. Ignition engine, where the fuel injection is started before the end of compression
stroke. A closer approximation is the limited pressure cycle in which some part of heat is added to air at constant volume and
remainder at constant pressure.
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 Heat supplied Q1 = mCV (T3 – T2) + mCP (T4 – T3)
Heat rejected Q2 = mCV (T5 – T1)

Q1 (T5 − T1 )
η=1– =1–

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Q2 (T3 − T2 ) +  (T4 − T3 )
The efficiency can be expressed in terms of following ratios :

V1 V5 V4 p3
Compression ratio rk = Expansion ratio re = Cutoff Ratio rc = and Pressure ratio rp =
V2 V4 V3 p2

ηDual = 1 –
1 (
rp rc − 1)
 −1
rk (rp − 1) +  rp (rc − 1)
Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual Cycle : The three cycles can be compared on basis of either the same compression
ratio or same maximum pressure and temperature.
Comparison on basis of same compression ratio :

1–2–6–5 Otto cycle

OR 1–2–7–5
1–2–3–4–5
Diesel cycle
Dual cycle

For the same Q2, higher the Q1

higher is the cycle
efficiency. For T-S diagram,
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ηotto > ηdual > ηdiesel

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PERFORMANCE AND TESTING OF
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I.C. ENGINE
Performance and Testing of IC Engine : The performance parameters of IC engine are :
(i) Engine Power – Indicated power / Brake power
(ii) Engine efficiency
(iii) Fuel consumption
(iv) Mean effective pressure
Engine Power :

OR
Fuel Power : Energy released from Combustion of fuel.
Fuel Power = mf × CV
mf → Fuel consumption (Kg / hr)
CV → Calorific value of fuel (kJ / kg)
Indicated Power : Indicated Power is power produced inside cylinder. It is computed from the measurement of pressure in
cylinder (pressure-volume diagram, also known as Indicator diagram).
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Net work of cycle

Indicated Mean effective Pressure (Pm) : Pm =
Swept volume

Net work of cycle

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Pm =
L×A
so Cycle work = Pm × L × A

N
If engine is running at N rpm, then, Number of sec. rev =
60
N N
Number of cycles / sec (for four stroke engine) = =
60 × 2 120
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 N
Number of cycle / sec (for two stroke engine) =
60
Work Work Cycle

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Hence = = ×
sec Cycle sec

N
= Pm × L × A ×
120
Pm × L × A × N
IP = (For four stroke engine)
120
Pm × L × A × N
= (For two stroke engine)
60
Brake Power (BP) : Indicated power is based on indicated network and is thus measure of forces developed within the
cylinder. More practical interest is power developed at delivery point (i.e. at engine crank shaft).
This power is known as Brake Power / Shaft Power / Delivery Power.

OR
Brake power is usually measured by attaching a power absorption device (Brake) to the crank shaft of engine.
bP = T × W
where T is brake torque

 2N 
bP = T × 
 60 

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T=F×R

Engine Efficiencies : Various engine efficiencies are :

(i) Air standard efficiency
(ii) Brake Thermal efficiency
(iii) Indicated Thermal efficiency
(iv) Mechanical efficiency
(v) Relative efficiency
(vi) Volumetric efficiency
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Air Standard Efficiency : This is also known as thermodynamic efficiency. It is mainly function of compression ratio and
other parameters.

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 Indicated Thermal Efficiency / Brake Thermal Efficiency / Mechanical Efficiency :

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IP
Indicated Thermal Efficiency =
m f × CV

BP

Mechanical Efficiency =
BP
IP
OR
Brake Thermal Efficiency = m × CV
f

Actual Thermal efficiency

Relative Efficiency : Relative Efficiency =
Air standard efficiency
Volumetric Efficiency : Volumetric Efficiency is defined as ratio of actual mass of air drown into engine during given period
of time to theoretical mass of air (based upon piston displacement of engine and temperature / pressure of surrounding
atmosphere).

 M 3   Kg 
  
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M actual  sec   sec 

ηV = M theoretical  M 3   Kg 
   
 sec   sec 

 N   2 
mth = (Pair) ×  × D L
 120   4 

Kg Strokes m3
× ×
m3 sec stroke
P
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Pair =
RT
where P and T is Pressure and Temperature of surrounding atmosphere.

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 Measurement and Testing : Measurement and Testing of certain basic parameters is discussed here :
(i) Friction power
(ii) Indicated power

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(iii) Brake power
Friction Power : Difference between Indicated Power and Brake Power is known as Friction power.
Following methods are used to find friction power :
(a) Willian Line Method
(b) Morse Test
Willian’s Line Method : A graph connecting fuel consumption (y-axis) and brake power (x-axis) at constant speed is
drawn. It is extrapolated in negative axis of brake power.

OR
Morse Test : Morse test is done to obtain indicated power of the multicylinder engine. The test consists of making
inoperative in turn each cylinder of the engine and noting brake power.
For Four Cylinder Engine, when first cylinder is cut off, the BP is measured. Let it be known as B 1.
B1 = (I2 + I3 + I4) – (f1 + f2 + f3 + f4) .....(1)
similarly B2 = (I1 + I3 + I4) – (f1 + f2 + f3 + f4) .....(2)
B3 = (I1 + I2 + I4) – (f1 + f2 + f3 + f4) .....(3)
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B4 = (I1 + I2 + I3) – (f1 + f2 + f3 + f4) .....(4)
where I1, I2, I3, I4 is indicated power of each cylinder and f1, f2, f3, f4 is friction power of cylinder.
so B = (I1 + I2 + I3 + I4) – (f1 + f2 + f3 + f4) ..... (5)
We get indicated power of each cylinder by :
I1 = B – B1
I2 = B – B2
I3 = B – B3
I4 = B – B4
Indicated Power (IP) : In order to estimate the indicated power of engine, following methods are usually followed :
(a) Using Indicator diagram.
(b) By adding two measured quantities viz. Brake power and friction power.
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 Pressure volume (P – V) diagram is known as Indicator Diagram.

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Brake Power : Measurement of Brake power is one of most important measurement in test schedule of engine. It involves
the determination of torque and angular speed of engine output shaft. The torque measuring device is called dynamometer.
The term brake and dynamometer mean the same. A dynamometer is also brake except measuring devices are included to
indicate the amount of force required to stop the engine.
Prony Brake

OR
BP = (2πN) T
T = Wl
Rope Brake
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BP = πDN (W – s)
where D is brake drum diameter,
W is weight
S is spring scale reading
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FUEL COMBUSTION 4

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Fuel : Usually the fuel used in Internal Combustion engine are mixture of hydrocarbons made by refining petroleum.
Petroleum is mixture of hydrocarbon.
The constituents of crude petroleum are classified in four main groups :
Formula Molecular arrangement Example
1) Paraffin CnH2n + 2 Chain Propane, Methane
2) Olefin CnH2n Chain Hexlene, ethylene
3) Napthenes CnH2n – 2 Ring Cyclo propane
4) Aromatic CnH2n – 6 Ring Benzene
Important Products of Refining Process of Crude Petroleum :
1) Natural Gas : Natural gas mainly consists of Methane and Small amount of ethane, butane and other hydrocarbons.
2) Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) : Propane and Butane stored under pressure in form of liquid is called liquified Petroleum

3)

4)

5)
gas.

OR
Gasoline (Petrol) : All liquid fraction of Petroleum having boiling point upto 200°C are called gasoline. Specific gravity of
petrol is 0.70 to 0.78.
Kerosene : These have boiling point from 150 to 300°C.
Specific gravity is 0.78 – 0.85
Diesel : These have boiling point between 200 – 370°C.
Specific gravity more than petrol.
Voltality of Liquid fuels and its effect on Performance of Engine : Volatility, the tendency of the fuel to go from liquid
state to gaseous state is an extremely important property of petrol which affects engine performance.
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 Front End volatality (0-20% Evaporation) :
1) Cold Starting : High front end volatality is required for easy starting of engine. If front end volatality is low, then less vapour
will be present in combustion chamber, making mixture too lean to ignite. Choke is used to restrict air quantity.

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2) Hot Starting : Choke is used to restrict air quantity. If front end voltality is very high, more fuel vapour will be present in
combustion chamber making the mixture too rich to ignite.
3) Vapour Lock : Low front end voltality is required to prevent vapour lock as more vapourization makes air fuel mixture lean.
Mid End Voltality : It affects engine warm up, acceleration, smoothness and fuel economy.
Tail End Voltality : It affects crank case deposits, spark plug fouling, crank case dilution, gum formation etc.
Requirement of Diesel Fuel :
1) Flash Point : It is temperature at which visible flame occurs for less than 5 seconds. It should be high.
2) Fire Point : It is temperature at which flame can sustain for more than 5 second. It should be high.
3) Cloud Point : It is temperature at which wax content of diesel seperates out in form of solid. It should be low.
4) Pour Point : It is temperature below which entire fuel freezes. It should also be very low.
Octane Number : It is percentage of Iso-octane in fuel mixture containing iso-octane and n-heptane that gives same
knocking intensity as that of fuel whose octane number is calculated.
Iso-octane has very slight tendency to knock and hence arbitrarily assigned Octane Number 100.
OR
n-heptane detonates very rapidly, hence assigned Octane Number 0.
High octane number signifies less tendency to knock.
The advantage of high octane fuel are :
(a) The engine can be operated at high compression ratio.
(b) The engine can be supercharged to high output without detonation.
(c) Optimum spark advance may be timed raising both power and efficiency.
Octane number of fuel can be increased by adding Tetra Ethyl Lead (TEL).
The engine used for the test is CFR (Cooperative Fuel Research) variable compression ratio engine. In order to find the
Octane Number of fuel, the fuel is tented in the engine until condition of detonation is reached. Then different mixture of Iso-
octane and n-heptane is prepared to produce detonation under same condition.
Cetane Number : The Cetane rating of diesel fuel is measure of its ability to autoignite quickly when it is injected into
compressed and heated air in engine.
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Though Ignition delay is affected by several engine design parameters (like compression ratio, injection rate, inlet air
temperature) etc. It is also dependent on hydrocarbon composition of fuel. The cetane number is numerical measure of
influence of diesel fuel on ignition delay (hence knocking). Higher the Cetane number, less tendency for diesel knock.
The Cetane number of diesel fuel is the percentage by volume of Cetane in mixture of Cetane and α-methylnaphelene that has
same performance in standard test engine as that of fuel.
Cetane (C16H34) is given Cetane number 100 and α-methyl naphthalene is given number O.
Relation between Cetane Number and Octane Number is given by :

104 − ON
CN =
2.75
It is clear that good diesel engine fuel is bad gasoline engine fuel.
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Combustion in CI Engine : There are four phases in combustion.

1) Ignition delay period : During this period, fuel is admitted but has not yet been ignited.
2) Rapid Combustion : During this period, pressure rise is rapid as fuel droplets have spread over wide area and they have
fresh air all around them.
3) Controlled Combustion : At the end of second stage, the temperature and pressure are so high that fuel droplet injected
during this period burn almost as they enter.
4) After burning : Due to poor distribution of fuel particle, combustion may continue during remaining part of expansion
stroke.

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Diesel Knock : If delay period is long, a large amount of fuel will be injected and accumulated in combustion chamber. The
auto ignition of this may cause high rate of pressure rise which may cause knocking.

c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r f r o m
OR
Detonation in SI Engine (Abnormal Combustion) : In Normal combustion, normal flame front travels across the
A toward D. The speed of the flame front is about 15 to 30 m/sec.
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As the flame front advances, it compresses the unburnt charge BB′D raising its temperature. The temperature is also
increased by radiation from advancing flame front and due to reaction taking place in the unburnts mixture itself. If this
unburnt charge does not reach its critical temperature for autoignition, the flame front will pass through this unburnt charge
to farthest point of chamber D in normal manner. The pressure crank angle diagram for normal combustion is smooth curve.
In the abnormal combustion called detonation or knocking, the end charge autoignites before flame front reaches it. In order
to auto ignite, the last unburnt portion of charge must reach above certain critical temperature and remain at this temperature
for certain length of time (The time required is called Ignition delay).
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 Here, flame front has reached BB′ and unburnt charge BB′D has reached the critical condition for auto ignition.
If flame front BB′ can proceed from BB′ to D and consume the unburnt charge in normal manner, (prior to completion of
delay period) there will be no detonation.

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If however, the frame front is able to proceed only up to CC′ during the ignition delay period, unburnt charge CC′D will
autoignite and cause pressure fluctuations known as detonation.
Combustion in SI Engine : Combustion is a chemical reaction in which heat is released by oxidation of fuel.
C8H18 + 12.5O2 = 8 CO2 + 9 H2O + Heat
Stages of Combustion in SI Engine :

OR
Stage I – Ignition Lag : Time for development of nucleus of flame after spark is known as Ignition log or preparation phase
in which growth of self propaging nucleus of flame takes place.
Stage II – Flame Propagation : During the second stage, the flame propagates to entire length of cylinder. The rate of heat
release depends largely on the turbulence inside combustion chamber and also on reaction rate which is dependent on
mixture composition.
Stage III – After burning : During this stage, remaining unburnt charge is burnt. The rate of combustion is slow. There is
no pressure rise during this stage as piston is moving in expansion stroke.
Comparison of detonation in SI Engine and knocking in CI Engine :
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1) In SI engine, detonation occurs near end of combustion, whereas in CI Engine, detonation occurs in beginning.
2) In SI engine, pressure rise is high compound to CI engine.
3) In SI engine, it is relatively easy to distinguish between knocking and non-knocking engine.
Factors tending to reduce knocking in SI Engine and CI Engine
SI CI
Self Ignition temperature of fuel high low
Ignition delay long short
Compression ratio low high
Inlet temperature low high
Inlet pressure low high
Speed high low
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Cyl size small large

So good CI engine fuel is bad SI engine fuel and good SI engine fuel is bad CI engine fuel.
Diesel oil has low self ignition temperature and short ignition delay. Petrol has high self Ignition temperature and long ignition
delay.
In terms of fuel rating, diesel oil has high Cetane Number (40-60) but Low Octane Number (about 30)
Petrol has high Octane number (80-90) and low Cetane Number (18).

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CARBURETION 5

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Carburetion : In SI Engine, a combustible fuel air mixture is prepared outside the engine cylinder. The process of
preparation of this mixture is called carburetion.

OR
The design of Carburetion system in SI engine is complicated because Optimum air fuel ratio required by it varies widely
over its operational range.
Effect of Air Fuel ratio on Power output, efficiency and specific fuel consumption for an SI Engine (Properties of
Air Fuel Mixture) :
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IES FORUM MANAGING DIRECTOR : A.K. PANDEY (Ex. IES) Mob. : 8953479954 20
A. Work Mixture (Air Fuel Ratio 16 – 18)
Power output — About 10% less than maximum
Specific fuel Consumption – Minimum

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Efficiency – Maximum
B. (Air Fuel ratio 15) Stochiometric (Chemically correct)
Power Output – About 4% less than maximum
Efficiency – About 4% less than maximum
Specific Fuel Consumption – About 4% more than minimum.
C. Air Fuel Ratio (12-14) Rich :
Power output – Maximum sfc – 50% more than minimum eff – 20% less than maximum.
A Simple or Elementary Society : To understand complicated modern carburetor, it is helpful to first study simple
(or elementary carburetor) which provides airfuel mixture for cruising or normal range at single speed.
Subsequently, other mechanism to provide for other duties like starting. Idling, variable speed, variable load and acceleration
may be studied.

OR
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Mixture requirement for Steady State Operations :

Range of Operation Load Governing A/F Ratio
Factor
Idline and low load 0-20% of Dilution of 12.5 (Rich mixture)
Rated Power mixture
Normal Power or 20% – 75% of Fuel 16.7 (Lean mixture)
Cruising Range Rated Power Economy
Maximum power 75% – 100% of Full utilisation 14 (Rich mixture)
Rated Power of air
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Mixture requirement for Transient State :

Operation Governing Factor Air Fuel Ratio
Starting and Less fuel vapour due 3 (Very rich)
Worm up to low temperature
Acceleration Inertia of liquid fuel Rich

IES FORUM MANAGING DIRECTOR : A.K. PANDEY (Ex. IES) Mob. : 8953479954 21
 UM
Approximate Analysis : Density of air is assumed constant in approximate analysis.
Bernauli Equation between Section (1) and (2) :

P1 P2 C22
= +
a a 2

2( P1 − P2 )
C2 =
a
Mass of air per second Ma = A2 C2 ρa

P1
=
OR
M a = A2 2  a ( P1 − P2 )
Bernauli Equation between Section (1) and (3)

P2
+
C 2f
+ Zg
f f 2
Mass of fuel / sec Mf = Af Cf f

M f = A f 2  f ( P1 − P2 − Zg f )
where Af is the crosssectional area of fuel nozzle in M2.
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Mf A f 2  f ( P1 − P2 − Zg f )
=
Ma A2 2  a ( P1 − P2 )
Comments :
1) At low Air flow i.e. when (p1 – p2) is less than Zgρf there will be no fuel flow.

2( P1 − P2 ) 2 Zg f
2) Fuel flow will start when (ρ1 – ρ2) > Zgρf Minimum air velocity to cause fuel flow C2 = =
a a
3) At higher air flows, when (ρ1 – ρ2) becomes large compared to Zgρf

Mf Af f
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=
Ma A2 a
4) The simple carburetor has major draw back, mixture becomes richer with increasing air flow / high altitude when the density
of air is small.
5) It does not supply rich mixture during idling and low load operation. It does not supply rich mixture for starting or during
acceleration.

IES FORUM MANAGING DIRECTOR : A.K. PANDEY (Ex. IES) Mob. : 8953479954 22
 Complete Carburetor : In order to satisfy the demand of engine under all conditions of operation, following additional
systems are added to simple carburetor :
(i) Main Metering system (ii) Idling system

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(iii) Power Enrichment system (iv) Acceleration pump system
(v) Choke
Main Metering System : It is designed to supply nearly constant A/F ratio over wide range of speed and load.
This device uses compensating jet which allows increasing flow of air as mixture flow increases.

OR
2) Idling System : At idling and low load, the engine requires rich mixture. However, main metering system fails to enrich the
mixture at low air flow.
Hence, an idling system must be added to carburetor.
3) Power Enrichment System : As the maximum power range of operation (75% to 100% load) some device must allow
richer mixture.
Meter rod simply provides a large orifice opening to main jet as the throttle is opened beyond a certain point.
SF
4) Acceleration Pump System : When it is desired to accelerate the engine rapidly, rich mixture is required.
5) Choke : During cold starting, rich mixture is required which is obtained by choke.
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FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM 6

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Fuel Injection : Fuel is directly injected in the Combustion chamber at the end of compression stroke in diesel engine.
Requirement of Diesel Injection System :
1) The fuel should be introduced in combustion chamber precisely.
2) The amount of fuel injected per cycle should be metered accurately.
3) The rate of injection should be such that it results in desired heat release pattern.
4) Good atomization should be obtained.
5) Spray pattern should be in such a way to have rapid mixing of air and fuel.
6) Beginning and end of Injection should be sharp.
7) Distribution of fuel should be uniform in all the cylinders.
Fuel Injection System : To accomplish the objective of precise metering, distributing, timing and atomising the following
functional elements are required in fuel injection system.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
OR
Pumping Element : To move the fuel from fuel tank to cylinder.
Metering Element : To measure and supply the fuel according to load and speed.
Metering Control Element : To adjust the rate of metering element for change in speed and load.
Distributing Elements : To divide the metered fuel equally among the cylinders.
Timing Element : To adjust the start and stop of injection.
Mixing Element : To atomise and distribute the fuel within combustion chamber.
Types of Injection System : Diesel Injection can be divided into two basic types :
(i) Air Injection (ii) Solid Injection
(Primary atomisation of (Injection of fuel directly into combustion
fuel by blast air) chamber without primary atomisation)
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Individual pump and Injector Common rail system Distribution system
Air Injection System : Fuel is metered and pumped to fuel valve by a camshaft driven fuel pump. Fuel valve is opened by
means of mechanical linkage operated by camshaft.
Fuel valve is also connected to high pressure air line fed by multistage compressor which supplies air at 60-70 bar.
When the fuel valve is opened, the blast air sweaps the fuel along with it and well atomised fuel spray is sent to combustion
chamber.
Solid Injection System : Injection of fuel directly into combustion chamber without primary atomisation is termed as solid
injection.
Individual Pump and Injector System : There is separate pump and separate injector for each cylinder.
Quantity and time of injection is controlled by pump itself.
Common rail system : A high pressure fuel pump delivers fuel to an accumulator whose pressure is kept constant with
helps of PRV.
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For each cylinder, there is separate metering and timing element which is connected to automatic injector injecting fuel into
cylinder.
Distributor System : In this system, the pump which pressurises the fuel also meters it and times it. The fuel pump after
metering the fuel supplies it to rotating distributor at correct time for supply to each cylinder.
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IES FORUM MANAGING DIRECTOR : A.K. PANDEY (Ex. IES) Mob. : 8953479954 24