1.

COAL
- Coal is an important primary solid fuel that has 4. Anthracite
been formed as a result of alteration of  Anthracite is the superior grade of coal.
vegetable matter under some favorable conditions.  Hard & most matured coal, burns without
- The process of conversion of lignite to anthracite is smoke.
called coalification (or) metamorphism of coal.  Its volatile, moisture and ash contents are very
- Coal is classified on the basis of its less.

rank. The rank of coal denotes its degree of maturity.

Vegetable matter, under the action of
pressure, heat and anaerobic conditions, gets
converted into different stages of coal namely,
wood peat lignite sub-bituminous coal
bituminous coal anthracite.
With the progress of coal forming reaction, moisture
content and oxygen content
reduces and percentage of carbon increases. Also
calorific value increases from peat to
bituminous.

CLASSIFICATION OF COAL
1. Peat
 Peat is the first stage in the formation of coal.
 Highly fibrous light brown in color.
 It is an uneconomical fuel due to its high
proportion of (80 -90%) moisture and lower
calorific value.

Here, peat is the most immatured coal, hence it is

2. Lignite
 Lignite is an intermediate stage in the process of
coal formation.
 Fibrous, brown colored coal.
 Due to the presence of high volatile content, it
burns with long smoky flame.
lowest in rank whereas anthracite is the most
matured coal, and hence it is highest in rank. The
degree of 'metamorphism' or coalification undergone
by a coal, as it matures from peat to anthracite, has
an important bearing on its physical and chemical
properties, & is referred to as the 'rank' of the coal.
The general rule is “the higher the grade of coal, the
cleaner it burns, the more versatile its uses.”

3. Bituminous Coal ANALYSIS OF COAL

 Bituminous coal is further sub-classified on the In order to assess the quality of coal, the following
basis of its carbon content into three two types of analysis are made.

types as:
Sub- bituminous coal (Black colored, homogenous I. Proximate Analysis.
smooth mass) It means finding out weight percentage of moisture,
Bituminous coal (Black, brittle, burns with yellow volatile matter, fixed carbon and ash in coal. This
smoky flame) analysis gives the approximate composition of the
main constituents of coal. It is useful in deciding its
Semi-bituminous coal utilization for a particular industrial use.

a. Determination of Moisture Content in Coal
About 1 gm of powdered, air dried coal sample is
heated in silica crucible at 100 to 105 °C for one
hour. Percentage of moisture can be calculated from
the loss in weight of the coal sample as:
% of moisture content=
Significance or Importance of Proximate
Analysis (Moisture):
- High moisture content in coal is undesirable
- Reduces calorific value of coal Increases the
consumption of coal for heating purpose
- Lengthens the time of heating
- Hence, lesser the moisture content, better is the
quality of coal.
b. Determination of Volatile Matter in Coal After
the analysis of moisture content the crucible with
residual coal sample is covered with a lid, and it is
heated at 950 ± 20 °C for 7.0 minutes in a muffle
furnace. Percentage of volatile matter can be
calculated from the loss in weight of the coal sample
as:
% of volatile matter
Significance or Importance of Proximate
Analysis (Volatile Matter):
- Ignites easily (has lower ignition temperature)
- Burns with long yellow smoky flame Has lower
calorific value
- Will give more quantity of coal gas when it is
heated in absence of air.
c. Determination of Ash in Coal
After the analysis of volatile matter the crucible with
residual coal sample is heated without lid at 700 ± 50
°C for 30 minutes in a muffle furnace. Percentage of
ash content can be calculated from the loss in weight
of the coal sample as:
% of ash
Significance or Importance of Proximate
Analysis (Ash):
- High ash content in coal is undesirable
- Increases transporting, handling and storage costs.
- Harder and stronger
- Has lower calorific value.
d. Determination of Fixed Carbon in Coal The
percentage of fixed carbon is determined by
difference when moisture, volatile matter and ash
have been accounted for.
% of fixed carbon = 100 – [% of (moisture +
volatile matter + ash)]
Significance or Importance of Proximate
Analysis (Fixed Carbon):
- It is the pure carbon present in coal.
- Higher the fixed carbon content of the coal, higher
will be its calorific value.
II. Ultimate Analysis.
It means finding out the weight percentage of
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur of
the pure coal free from moisture and inorganic
constituents. This analysis gives the elementary
constituents of coal. It is useful to the designer of
coal burning equipment and auxiliaries.
a. Determination of Carbon and Hydrogen in Coal
A known amount of coal is burnt in presence of
oxygen there by converting carbon and hydrogen of
coal into CO2 (C + O2 →CO2) and H2O (H2 + ½ O2
→H2O) respectively. The products of combustion
(CO2 and H2O) are made to pass over weighed
tubes of anhydrous CaCl2 and KOH, which absorb
H2O and CO2 respectively. The increase in the
weight of CaCl2 tube represents the weight of water
formed while increase in the weight of KOH tube
represents the weight of CO2 formed.
% of carbon
% of hydrogen
Significance or Importance of Ultimate Analysis
(Carbon and Hydrogen):
- Higher the % of carbon and hydrogen, better the
quality of coal and higher is its calorific value.
- The % of carbon is helpful in the classification of
coal.
- Higher the % of carbon in coal reduces the size of
combustion chamber required.
b. Determination of Nitrogen in Coal
- Nitrogen estimation is done by Kjeldahl’s method. A
known amount of powdered coal is heated with con.
H2SO4 and K2SO4 in a long necked flask (called
Kjeldahl’s flask), thereby converting nitrogen of coal
to ammonium sulphate.
- When the clear solution is obtained (the whole
nitrogen is converted into ammonium sulphate), it is
heated with 50% NaOH solution.
(NH4)2 SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2NH3 ⬆
- The ammonia thus formed is distilled over and is
absorbed in a known quantity of standard 0.1N HCl
solution. The volume of unused 0.1 N HCl is then
determined by titrating against standard NaOH
solution.
- Thus, the amount of acid neutralized by liberated
ammonia from coal is determined.
% of nitrogen =
Significance or Importance of Ultimate Analysis
(Nitrogen):
Nitrogen has no calorific value and hence, its
presence in coal is undesirable. Thus, a good
quality coal should have very little nitrogen content.
c. Determination of Sulphur in Coal
A known amount of coal is burnt completely in bomb
calorimeter in presence of oxygen. Ash thus
obtained contains sulphur of coal as sulphate, which
is extracted with HCl. The acid extract is then treated
with BaCl2 solution to precipitate sulphate as
BaSO4. The precipitate is filtered, washed, dried,
and weighed, from which the sulphur in coal can be
computed as follows.
% of sulphur
Significance or Importance of Ultimate Analysis
(Sulfur):
- Sulphur increases the calorific value, its presence
in coal is undesirable.
- The combustion products of sulphur, i.e, SO2 and
SO3 are harmful and have corrosion effects on
equipment.
- The coal containing sulphur is not suitable for the
preparation of metallurgical coke as it affects the
properties of the metal.
d. Determination of Oxygen in Coal
Oxygen is a combined form with hydrogen in coal
and thus, hydrogen available for combustion is
lesser than actual one. An increase in 1% oxygen
content decreases the calorific value by about 1.7%
and hence, oxygen is undesirable. Thus, a good
quality coal should have low percentage of oxygen.
It is determined indirectly by deducting the
combined percentage of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
sulfur and ash from 100.
% of oxygen
Significance or Importance of Ultimate Analysis
(Oxygen):
- Lower the % of oxygen higher is its calorific value
- As the oxygen content increases its moisture
holding capacity increases and the calorific value of
the fuel is required.
COAL COMBUSTION
It is a two-phase process and the objective of the
burner is, as always, to achieve complete
combustion of the fuel with maximum energy
efficiency. When heated, the organic matter of coal is
pyrolyzed, and then evolves as volatile. The
remaining solid is a mixture of carbon and mineral
matter, which is referred to as “char.” The
combustion of coal is primarily the combustion of
carbon as well as the volatile matter.
BASIC PROCESS OF COAL COMBUSTION
Depending upon specific combustion conditions, the
burning process of volatile matter and coal char may
take place simultaneously, sequentially, or with some
overlapping.
1. Release of volatile matter resulting from the
heating of coal
2. Burning of the released volatile matter
3. Burning of the remaining char APPLICATION OF COAL
- Domestic fue
COAL DEVOLATILIZATION AND VOLATILE - Power generation
COMBUSTION
- Manufacture of producer gas and steam\-
- The release of the volatile matter resulting from the Manufacture of gaseous fuels
heating of coal belongs to the devolatilization stage.
- Coke making
- During this stage, moisture present in the coal will
- Boiler heating
evolve as the temperature of coal rises.
- Metallurgical furnace
- As the temperature further increases, gases and
heavy tarry substances are emitted.
-mThe content of these matters can vary from a few STORING AND HANDLING OF COAL
percent up to 70–80 percent of the total coal weight,
with coal types and heating conditions, etc. Preparation of coal before feeding it into the boiler
plays a crucial role for achieving a better
- Depending on the size, type, and temperature combustion. Irregular and big sized lumps of coals
condition of coal, devolatilization takes a few may cause the following problems:
milliseconds or several minutes to complete.
o Improper combustion and inadequacy in furnace
- A variety of products including tar, hydrocarbon temperature.
gases, etc. are produced during coal devolatilization.
These products are combustible. o Increment in unburnt of the ash.

- They react with oxygen in the vicinity of coal o Reduction in thermal efficiency.
particles and form bright diffusion flames.
- The reactions taking place in the devolatilization COAL STORAGE TYPES:
and volatile combustion process are so complex that
detailed discussion is beyond the scope of this 1. Open coal storage
article.
2. Covered coal storage

COAL CHAR COMBUSTION

- The residual char particles, enriched in carbon,
containing most of the mineral matter of the original
coal and some surplus nitrogen as well as sulfur, are
often spherical (especially for small particles)
- They are usually very porous and have many
cracks, which result from the escape of gaseous
products and heat stress. The characteristics of the
char depend on the type and size of the original coal
as well as on the heating conditions.
The salient features and benefits of the covered
coal as compared to open coal storage as
follows:
 Reduction in spontaneous combustion of coal,
by virtue of no exposure to sun
 Minimum dust emission in the stockpile
 No air pollution
 Elimination of rainfall and moisture problem

- The residual char particle can be burned out under  Prevention of loss of gross calorific value (GCV)
an oxidizing condition at sufficiently high of coal
temperature. The reaction between the char and
oxygen is a gas-solid heterogeneous reaction. The
gaseous oxygen diffuses to, and into, the char SAFETY MEASURE TO AVOID HAZARDS IN
particle, being absorbed, and reacting on the pore COAL STORAGE
surface of the particle.
 The coal stockpiles should be kept away from
- This heterogeneous process is often much slower moisture
than the devolatilization process, requiring seconds
 Coal storage or lignite storage piles should be
to several minutes or more. The rate of this process
emphasized to prevent those pockets of coal,
varies with coal types, temperature, pressure, char
which are potential source of spontaneous
characteristics, (the size, surface area, etc.), and
combustion.
oxidizer concentration.
 Coal stockpiles should be monitored constantly
for hot spots using temperature system. These
systems are designed to avoid harsh condition
in coal handling and processing.
 A management strategy should be followed to
replace the ignite coal on its occurrence. In
addition to this, the access should be provided
for firefighting.
 There should be no scope for dust to
accumulate inside the coal storage shed.
Otherwise, dust should systems should be
provided for all surfaces where dust may
accumulate.
 An absolute minimum distance should be
maintained between ignition sources and coal
stockpile. All machinery and electrical equipment
inside coal storage shed should be checked
properly for use in hazardous locations.
 There should be automation in turning all
electrical circuits on/off without the need for
personnel to enter dust emitting locations.
 In order to reduce the chance of methane (and,
in case of fire, smoke) to occur around the coal
storage, a sufficient ventilation system should be
provided. At the apex, adequate ventilation
should be provided to take advantage of the
chimney effect.
ADVANTAGES OF COAL
 Most abundant sources of energy, more so than
oil and natural gas.
 Inexpensive when compared to other fossil fuel
(or alternative energy sources)
 Versatile enough to be used for recreational
activities or home fires.
 World has more coal than any other fossil fuel.
 Can lower overall amount of greenhouse gases
(liquefaction or gasification)
 Byproduct of burning (ash) can be used for
concrete and roadways.
 Easy to exploit by surface mining
 Easy to handle and transport
DISADVANTAGES OF COAL
 Coal mining scar the landscape and the
equipment used for mining is large and noisy
which may affect local wildlife.
 Burning of coal by large-scale factories to power
industry has led to acid rain in some regions.
 Source of pollution: emits waste (low rank,
pollutes more)
 More difficult to burn than liquid or gases.
 Health problems
 Releases impurities into air when burned.
 Trace metals (mercury, lead, arsenic) are found
in coal.
 Combustion leads to increased levels of sulfur
dioxide and air pollutants into atmosphere.
 Carbon is released into the atmosphere which
contributes to climate change.
2. CARBONIZATION
 Is the conversion of an organic
substance into carbon or a carbon-containing
residue through pyrolysis or destructive
distillation. In the organic chemistry it is
referred as the generation of coal gas or from
raw coal materials. It is also applied to the
pyrolysis of coal to produce coke and charcoal
etc.
 The thermal decomposition of coal on a
commercial scale is often more commonly
referred to as carbonization and is more usually
achieved by the use of temperatures up to 1500
°C.
 It is entirely possible, and indeed often done, to
pyrolyze a hydrocarbon feedstock for the
purpose of carbonization, but carbonization is
not simply pyrolysis by another name.
Pyrolysis - is the thermal decomposition of
materials at elevated temperatures in an inert
atmosphere. It involves the change of chemical
composition and is irreversible.
Destructive Distillation - decomposition of a solid
by heating it in a closed container and collecting the
volatile constituents given off.
History of Carbonization
Back in time, Charcoal was used as the main
fuel for melting metals, irons and ores. It is produced
from wood it was a big need for the industry.
Furnaces used in 14th century in Germany could
produce about 4000lb of iron every day with a fuel
rate of 250lb of charcoal per 100lb of iron produced.
During the 1600s, the government passed rules to
protect the nature. Many Furnaces were closed and
shutdown.
The development of coke coexisted with charcoal
production during the 1700s and 1800s.
It then spread to other countries in Europe. The
Mary Ann Furnace is where the 1st attempt to use
coke as an exclusive fuel in Pennsylvania, USA.
Types of Carbonization (based on temperature)
Low Temperature - is normally carried out in the
temperature range of 500°C to 700°C. In this type of
carbonization, the yields of liquid products are higher
and there is lower gaseous product yield. The coke
produced is having higher volatile matter and is free
burning.
Medium Temperature - is done at temperature
range of around 800°C. This carbonization produces
smokeless soft coke. By products produced are
similar in characteristics to high temperature
carbonization. Medium temperature carbonization is
rarely practiced these days.
High Temperature - is carried out at a temperature
which is above 900°C. This carbonization gives
higher yield of gaseous products and lower yield of
liquid products. This carbonization produces hard
coke and is normally employed for the production of
metallurgical coke from coking coals.
Carbonization Process
3 Major factors which affects the carbonization
process:
1.Moisture content of wood at the time of
carbonization
2.Type of carbonizing equipment use
3.Care which the process is carried out
Wood to Charcoal
 The wood absorbs heat as it is dried giving off
the moisture as water vapour. (20° to 110°C)
 The final traces of the water are given off and
the wood starts to decompose by giving off
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, acetic acid,
methanol etc. (110° to 270°C)
 This is the point at which the exothermic
decomposition takes place. (270° to 290°C)
 As the breakdown of the wood continues the
vapours given off consists of the combustible
gases like carbon monoxide, hydrogen,
methane along with carbon dioxide. (290° to
400°C)
 The transformation of the wood to charcoal is
completed. (400° to 500°C)
Coal to Coke (Coke Making)
1. The coal to coke transformation takes place
as the coal is heated. When the state of
fusing is reached, the layer of heated coal
softens and fuses. From about 375°C to 475°
C, the coal decomposes to form plastic
layer. Destructive distillation reactions
proceed rapidly in the plastic layer with
evolution of volatile products.
2. At about 475°C to 600°C, there is a marked
evolution of coal tar, and aromatic
hydrocarbon compounds. The gas and
condensable vapour are entrapped in the
plastic mass and, as they expand tend to
swell it. As the reactions proceed and as the
temperature of the fused zone increases, the
plasticity of the coal decreases. With
continued heating and evolution of the gas
the fused layer gradually resolidifies into semi
coke having typical, cellular coke structure.
The coke at this stage still contains
substantial volatile matter. As the
temperature increases further beyond 600
deg C, the destructive distillation reaction
continues with the evolution of gas and a little
tar.
3. The coke stabilization takes place as the
temperature increases from 600°C to
1100°C. This is characterized by contraction
of coke mass, structural development of coke
and final hydrogen evolution. At this stage the
final reactions take place. These reactions
split off hydrogen from extremely complex,
high molecular weight hydro- carbons. With
increasing temperature, the coke mass
shrinks with the development of shrinkage
cracks.
The Inverted V Diagram
The formation of carbon rich products, such as coke,
is inevitably accompanied by some hydrogen-rich
products (gases and tars), resulting from transfer of
internally available hydrogen
Modern Coke Ovens highly mechanized, thus
minimizing atmospheric pollution and lessening the
labour needed.
6.5 metres (21 feet) high
15.5 metres (50 feet) long
0.46 metre (1.5 feet) wide
Each oven holding up to about 36 tons of coal.
Coking time – 15hrs
3. METALLURGICAL COAL
- also known as coking coal
- is a grade of low-ash, low-sulfur and low-
phosphorus
- is used in the process of creating coke necessary
for iron and steel production.
The three main categories of metallurgical coal are:
 Hard coking coals (HCC)
 Semi-soft coking coal (SSCC)
 Pulverized coal injection (PCI) coal
Hard coking coals like anthracite have better coking
properties than semi-soft coking coals, allowing them
to garner a higher price. Australian HCC is regarded
as the industry benchmark.
While PCI coal is not often classified as a coking
coal, it still is used as a source of energy in the
steelmaking process and can partially replace coke
in some blast furnaces.
COKE
- a hard, gray,massive, porous fuel.
- composed mainly of carbon and ash and is
produced when the coal is heated to drive off volatile
matter. Good quality coke is hard, has a high
crushing strength and is mainly used in blast
furnaces that produce iron. Iron is then used to
produce steel and a range of other products. For
steel production there is no substitute for coking
coal.
HISTORY OF COKE
Coke was produced in ancient China as per
historical sources dating to the fourth century. The
Chinese people first used coke for heating and
cooking no later than the 9th century. In 1709, a
coke-fired blast furnace to produce cast iron was
established in Great Britain. During early 18th
century, the coke was manufactured by burning coal
in heaps on the ground in such a way that only the
outer layer burned, leaving the interior of the pile in a
carbonized state.
The “hearth" process of coke-making, using
lump coal. continued to be used in many areas
during the first half of the 19th century. This process
was similar to that of charcoal burning but using a
heap of coals covered with coke dust instead of a
heap of prepared wood, covered with twigs, leaves
and earth.
USES OF COKE
 used as a fuel and as a reducing
agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace
 commonly used as fuel for blacksmithing.
 was used in Australia in the 1960s and early
1970s for house heating
 was widely used as a substitute for coal in
domestic heating following the creation
of smokeless zones in the United Kingdom
 may be used to make synthesis gas, a mixture
of carbon monoxide and hydrogen
COKING OF COAL
 Coal carbonization is used for processing of coal
to produce coke using metallurgical grade coal.
 Coal carbonization involves heating of coal in
the absence of air. Coke making process is
multistep complex process and variety of solid
liquids and gaseous products are produced
which contain many valuable products.
 Various products from coal carbonization in
addition to coke are coke oven gases, coal tar,
light oil, and aqueous solution of ammonia and
ammonia salt.
PROCESS OF COKING COAL
 Coal is heated
 Fusing state: the layer of heated coal softens
and fuses 375°C to 475°C - the coal
decomposes to form plastic layer. Destructive
distillation reactions proceed rapidly in the
plastic layer with evolution of volatile products.
 475°C to 600°C - there is a marked evolution of
tar, and aromatic hydrocarbon compounds. The
gas and condensable vapour are entrapped in
the plastic mass and, as they expand tend to
swell it.
- As the reaction proceed and as the temperature of
the fused zone increases, the plasticity of the coal
decreases.
- With continued heating and evolution of the gas the
fused layer gradually resolidifies into semi coke
having typical, cellular coke structure. The coke at
this stage still contains substantial volatile matter.
 Above 600°C - the destructive distillation
reaction continues with the evolution of gas and
a little tar.
 600°C to 1100°C - the coke stabilization takes
place. This characterized by contraction of coke
mass, structural development of coke and final
hydrogen evolution.
- At this stage the final reactions take place. These
reactions split off hydrogen from extremely complex,
high molecular weight hydro-carbons. With
increasing temperature, the coke mass shrinks with
the development of shrinkage cracks.
CARBONIZATION OF COAL CAN BE CARRIED
OUT AT THE FOLLOWING THREE
TEMPERATURE RANGES
1.Low temperature carbonization
- normally carried out in the temperature range of
500°C to 700°C. In this type of carbonization, the
yields of liquid products are higher and there is lower
gaseous product yield. The coke produced is having
higher volatile matter, is free burning and soft.
Disadvantage of LTC:
- coke is not mechanically strong
- pollutes the air
- inconsistent quality of soft coke
- co-product can not be utilized
- heat liberated by combustion is not use
2.Medium temperature carbonization
- is done at temperature range of around 800°C. This
carbonization produces smokeless soft coke. By
products produced are similar in characteristics to
high temperature carbonization. Medium
temperature carbonization is rarely practiced these
days.
3.High temperature carbonization
- carried out at a temperature which is above 900°C
to 1100°C. This carbonization gives higher yield of
gaseous products and lower yield of liquid products.
This carbonization produces hard coke and is
normally employed for the production of metallurgical
coke from coking coals.
2 types of oven are used:
1.Beehive coke oven
- A beehive oven is a type of oven in use since the
Middle Ages in Europe.[1] It gets its name from its
domed shape, which resembles that of an old-
fashioned beehive
- A fire brick chamber shaped like a dome is used. It
is typically 4 metres wide and 2.5 metres high. The
roof has a hole for charging the coal or other kindling
from the top. The discharging hole is provided in the
circumference of the lower part of the wall. In a coke
oven battery, a number of ovens are built in a row
with common walls between neighboring ovens. A
battery consisted of a great many ovens, sometimes
hundreds of ovens, in a row.
PROCESS OF USING BEEHIVE
- Air is supplied initially to ignite the coal.
- Carbonization starts and produces volatile matter,
which burns inside the partially closed side door.
- Carbonization proceeds from top to bottom and is
completed in two to three days.
- Heat is supplied by the burning volatile matter so
no by-products are recovered.
- The exhaust gases are allowed to escape to the
atmosphere. The hot coke is quenched with water
and discharged, manually through the side door. The
walls and roof retain enough heat to initiate
carbonization of the next charge.
ADVANTAGES OF BEEHIVE OVEN
- Strong coke with good reactivity are produced
- Low capital and running cost
- Can be shut down without any damage to
refractory
- Produces hard coke for foundry
- Simplicity of construction
- No extra fuel is required for heating
DISADVANTAGES OF BEEEHIVE OVEN
- No by-products recovery is possible
- Lower coke yield due to partial combustion of coal
- Lack of flexibilty of operation
-Large coking time (2 to 3 days)
2.By-product coke ovens: Oil Producing Countries
(a) Waste heat ovens  Russia,
(b) Regenerative ovens  USA,
 Egypt,
 Saudi Arabia,

4. PETROLEUM  Kuwait,

 Also known as “crude oil”  Iran

 The name petroleum is derived from “petra”

meaning rocks and “oleum” meaning oil.
Therefore petroleum means oil from rocks
 A naturally occurring liquid found beneath the
earth’s surface that can be refined into fuel
 A dark colored, viscous, strong smelling liquid
 Due to its great economic importance petroleum
is also called black gold
Production of Petroleum
Petroleum is obtained by drilling holes (oil wells)
into the earth’s crust when the presence of oil has
been predicted by survey. When the well is drilled
through the rocks, natural gas comes out first with a
great pressure and after some time, the oil comes
out by itself due to gas pressure. After the pressure
has subsided, the crude oil is pumped out of the oil
well.

Origin of Petroleum
Petroleum was formed from the dead remains of
microscopic marine plants and animals which settled
in muddy sediments at the bottom of the sea millions
of years ago. Due to prolonged sedimentation and
accumulation of organic debris, these remains got
buried deep below the surface of the earth. Intense
heat and high pressure underneath and in the
presence of natural catalysts, the remains of plants
and animals were ultimately converted into
petroleum. For this reason, petroleum is also called
a fossil fuel.
Composition of Petroleum
Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons
and other chemicals. The composition varies widely
depending on where and how the petroleum was
formed. However, raw petroleum or crude oil has
characteristic properties and composition.
Hydrocarbons in Petroleum
There are four main types of hydrocarbons found in
crude oil.
 Paraffins (15-60%)
 Naphthenes(30-60%)
 Aromatics (3-30%)
 Asphaltics (remainder)
The hydrocarbons primarily are alkanes,
cycloalkanes, and aromatic hydrocarbons.
 Classifications of Petroleum
1.Geographical location (Brent Blend, West Texas
Intermediate, Russian Export Blend)
2. American Petroleum institute (API) Gravity
-a measure of density of petroleum liquid compared
to water.
3.Sulphur content
-Crude oil with high levels of sulphur is termed as
“sour” while crude oil with low levels of sulphur
content is termed as “sweet”.

Elemental Composition of Petroleum

Although there is considerable variation between the
ratios of organic molecules, the elemental
composition of petroleum is well-defined:
Carbon - 83 to 87%
Hydrogen - 10 to 14%
Nitrogen - 0.1 to 2%
Oxygen - 0.05 to 1.5%
Sulfur - 0.05 to 6.0%
Metals - < 0.1%
 The most common metals are iron, nickel,
copper, and vanadium.

Combustion or Petroleum
The primary form of hydrocarbons in the
chemistry of petroleum are the alkanes, which are
also named as paraffins. These are unsaturated
hydrocarbons and exhibit either branched or straight
molecule chains. The paraffins are very pure
hydrocarbons and contain only hydrogen and
carbon. It is the alkanes which give petroleum its
combustible nature.
For fuel purposes only the alkanes from the following
groups will be used. Pentane and Octane will be
refined into gasoline, hexadecane and nonane will
be refined into kerosene or diesel, hexadecane will
be refined into fuel oil or heating oil.
The cycloalkanes, which are often referred as
naphthenes. These saturated hydrocarbon display
almost identical properties to paraffins but have
much higher point of combustion.
Aromatic hydrocarbons are unsaturated
hydrocarbons which contain benzene rings. They
tend to produce more emissions when combusted,
many will have a sweet, sickly smell to them, hence
the name aromatic hydrocarbons.
Refining
- process of separating petroleum into more useful
fractions
Fractional Distillation
– done by using a tall fractioning column or
fractioning tower.
Refining of Petroleum
The crude oil is heated to a temperature of about
400˚C in a furnace and then vapours are formed.
The vapours are then passed into a tall fractioning
column through pipelines near its bottom. The
vapours of the high boiling fractions of petroleum
condense first and the vapours of low boiling
fractions rise up to in to the tower and condense
later. Fractional distillation is continued until the
crude oil is separated into five or six fractions. Each
fraction boils over a different range of temperature.
Storage & Handling
- Liquid petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel,
and kerosene must be stored safely to prevent leaks
and spills. These products can pollute both
underground and surface water sources.
- It only takes few quarts of leaked fuel to severely
pollute underground drinking water. Small amounts
of petroleum products dissolved in water are hard to
detect because they are almost impossible to smell
or taste. Water that seems pure may be
contaminated and adversely affect human health.
Safety Measures
- Explosions are another potential danger from
stored petroleum products. Vapors from an
underground leak can collect in basements, sumps,
pits or other underground structures, and can
explode.
- The explosion hazard from leaking aboveground
storage tanks, underground storage tanks, and
piping must all be protected against corrosion when
in contact with the ground. Large losses can occur
from not adequately protecting even small
underground pipes from corrosion. Even new tank
piping may leak if they are not properly installed.
- Frequently, the only way to discover a leak before it
becomes major problem, is to keep track of the
amount of fuel you use and subtract it from the
amount you received. This is one method of
inventory control.
Application of Petroleum
Some of the largest companies in the world are
involved in the extraction and processing of
petroleum, with other companies creating products
that either require hydrocarbons to operate or are
petroleum-based: plastics, fertilizers, automobiles,
and airplanes. Asphalt, which is used to pave
highways, is made from petroleum. Vehicles that
drive on highways are made of materials derived
from petroleum and run on fuels refined from
petroleum.
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)- Domestic and
industrial fuel
Gasoline (petrol)- Fuel for sparking ignition and
internal combustion engine
Naphtha- Used as paint thinner, solvents, blending
of motor fuel
Jet Fuel- Fuel for jet planes, motor engines
Diesel- Fuel for compression ignition internal
combustion engine
Gas oil- Gasified for fuel gas production
Lubricating oil- Used as lubricants in machines and
engines
Petrolatum- Also a lubricant used as a base material
for grease manufacture
Light fuel oil- Used as a fuel in industrial furnace
Heavy fuel oil- Used as furnace fuel after blending
with light fuel oil
Bitumen or tar- Used for road making as a binder
and for moisture proof coating
Wax: Used for making candles
Residue Pitch-used for making roads and electrodes
Advantages
1. It can be extracted easily.
2. It has high density.
3. It can be extracted at a low cost.
4. It can easily be transported.
5. It is a crucial element in industries.
6. It can power up almost all types of vehicles.
7. It can support constant power use.
8. It is a powerful source of energy.
9. Its technology and infrastructure are already in
place.
10. It can be used in a wide range of applications.
11. It provides products in the field of medicine.
Disadvantages
1. It can lead to environmental pollution.
2. Its sources are finite.
3. It can be harmful to health.
4. It is a non-renewable form of energy.
5. Its transport can cause oil spills.
6. It sustains growth of terrorism and violence.
5. SECONDARY LIQUID FUELS
These are prepared artificially from the primary fuels.
Secondary fuels are fuels that are derived from
some primary fuel or fuels through chemical or
physical processes
EXAMPLES OF SLF:
⬆ DIESEL
⬆ GASOLINE
⬆ KEROSENE
⬆ NAPHTHA
⬆ LPG
SOURCES AND COMPOSITION
Diesel
⬆ Diesel fuel is a refined petroleum product made
from crude oil. Diesel is a fossil fuel, meaning it is
distilled from crude oil, or petroleum. Petroleum is
mined from deep within the earth.
⬆ Today, the majority of diesel fuels are derived from
petroleum, although some may come from other
fossil fuel resources such as coal liquefaction
fractions and through synthesis, such as Fischer -
Tropsch distillates.
⬆ Petroleum-derived diesel is composed of about 75
percent saturated hydrocarbons (primarily paraffins
including n, iso, and cycloparaffins), and 25 percent
aromatic hydrocarbons (including naphthalenes and
alkylbenzenes).The average chemical formula for
common diesel fuel is C12H23, ranging from approx.
C10H20 to C15H28.
GASOLINE
⬆ Gasoline or petrol is a derivative product of crude
oil/petroleum. It is derived during fractional distillation
process and has a translucent liquid form. It's not
used in its crude form.
⬆ Gasoline is made from crude oil. The crude oil
pumped out of the ground is a black liquid called
petroleum. This liquid contains hydrocarbons, and
the carbon atoms in crude oil link together in chains
of different lengths.
Compounds of organic lead were added to gasoline
in the past to reduce knocking in engines, but due to
environmental concerns this is no longer common.
Other chemicals are also added to gasoline to
further stabilize it and improve its color and smell in
a process called "sweetening."
⬆ The characteristics of the gasoline depend on the
type of crude oil that is used and the setup of the
refinery where the gasoline is produced.
⬆ Gasoline is a mixture of C4 to C12 hydrocarbons
specially blended with a few additives to meet the
performance needs of automobile engines.
⬆ The exact chemical composition of gasoline varies
depending on its grade or octane rating, but
generally speaking it is a mixture of combustible
hydrocarbons.
Two important measures for gasoline are the Reid
vapor pressure and the octane number
NAPHTHA
⬆ Naphtha is a flammable liquid made from distilling
petroleum. Naphtha is a name given to several
mixtures of liquid hydrocarbons that are extremely
volatile and flammable. it is known by different
names, such as petroleum naphtha.
⬆ Naphtha is the lightest liquid distillate product of
crude distillation consisting of C5 to C10
hydrocarbons boiling in the 100 to 310°F range.
⬆ It is used as a feedstock for the manufacture of
plastics and polymers, synthetic fiber,
petrochemicals, fertilizer, insecticides and pesticides,
industrial solvents for making specialty solvents such
as food grade hexane, dyes, and chemicals
Naphtha is produced from the following units:
a) Crude distillation units in the refinery.
b) Secondary processing units in the refinery.
c) Gas-processing units separating LPG from field
gases. Naphtha thus separated is known as natural
gas liquid.
Almost 10 percent of total naphtha production comes
from associated gas processing. A large quantity of
associated gas is also produced as a by-product
during crude oil production. Gas separated from oil
may contain carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide,
methane, ethane, propane, normal butane and
isobutane, and C5+ hydrocarbons.
Production from secondary processing units:
⬆ Naphtha is also produced from secondary
conversion units such as distillate hydrocrackers,
delayed coker units, and resid hydrocrackers.
⬆ The composition of a given naphtha depends on
the type of crude oil, the boiling range of the
naphtha, and whether it is obtained directly from
crude oil distillation or produced by catalyric or
thermal cracking of heavier oil fractions. A typical
straight-run medium naphtha contains 40-70%
paraffins, 20-50% napthenes, 5-2-& aromatics and
only 0-2% olefins. Olefins or alkenes are unsaturated
alipathic hydrocarbons. Napthenes or Cycloalkenes
are saturated cyclic hydrocarbons at least one ring
structure.
KEROSENE
⬆ also known as paraffin, lamp oil, and coal oil (an
obsolete term), is a combustible hydrocarbon liquid
which is derived from fractional distillation of
petroleum, and also at Kerosene is extracted from a
mixture of petroleum chemicals found deep within
the earth. This mixture consists of oil, rocks, water,
and other contaminates in subterranean reservoirs
made of porous layers of sandstone and carbonate
rock.
⬆ Kerosene is a distillate fraction of crude oil boiling
between 300 and 480°F. It is heavier than naphtha
and gasoline cut but lighter than diesel cut
⬆ Chemically, kerosene is a mixture of
hydrocarbons. The chemical composition depends
on its source, but it usually consists of about 10
different hydrocarbons, each containing 10 to 16
carbon atoms per molecule. The main constituents
are saturated straight-chain and branched-chain
paraffins, as well as ring-shaped cycloparaffins (also
known as naphthenes).
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
⬆ Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is a hydrocarbon
gas that exists in a liquefied form which comes from
natural gas processing and petroleum refining.
COMBUSTION OF DIESEL
⬆ In diesel engine, like other internal combustion
engines, converts chemical energy contained in the
fuel into mechanical power. Diesel fuel is a mixture
of hydrocarbons which—during an ideal combustion
process—would produce only carbon dioxide (CO2)
and water vapor.
⬆ diesel exhaust gases are primarily composed of
CO2, H2O and the unused portion of engine charge
air.
The volumetric concentrations of these gases in
diesel exhaust are typically in the following ranges:
⬆ CO2 - 2 ... 12%
⬆ H2O - 2 ... 12%
⬆ O2 - 3 ... 17%
⬆ N2 - balance. care must be taken to vaporize it so that the
combustion will be more complete and uniform.
⬆ INTAKE
⬆ COMPRESSION
APPLICATION
⬆ COMBUSTION
DIESEL
⬆ OUTLET
⬆ Transportation
⬆ Cars and light commercial vehicles
In the diesel process, liquid fuel is injected into the
cylinder at high pressure by camshaft operated ⬆ Heavy goods vehicles
pumps. The fuel is ignited instantly due to the high
⬆ Construction and agricultural
temperature resulting from the compression.
Combustion takes place under constant pressure ⬆ Mining
with fuel injected into the cylinder during combustion.
After the working phase, the exhaust gas valves
open and the cylinder is emptied of exhaust gases. KEROSENE
With the piston in its upper position the inlet valves
open just before the exhaust valves closed and the ⬆ Lamps and lightning fuel
cylinder is filled with air. In vassal engines, the inlet
⬆ Heating oil
valves close just before the piston reaches the
bottom dead center. ⬆ Jet engine Fuel
⬆ Fire entertainment
GASOLINE ⬆ Cooking
⬆ Gasoline contains carbon and hydrocarbons,
which are hydrogen(H) and carbon(C) atoms that are
bonded to form hydrocarbon molecules (CXHY). Air NAPHTHA
is primarily composed of Nitrogen (N) and oxygen ⬆ Power plant fuel
(O2)
⬆ Solvent
Fuel (CxHx) + oxygen(O2)+ spark = water(H20) +
carbon dioxide + heat ⬆ Industries
⬆ Fuel Products

KEROSENE COMBUSTION ⬆ Fertilizer/ petrochemical industry

⬆ Kerosene is a mixture of 4 hydrocarbons:

dodecane (C12H26), tridecane (C13H28),
GASOLINE
tetradecane (C14H30), and pentadecane (C15H32).
⬆ Internal Combustion Engine
In Complete combustion of these 4 substances,
you'll get: ⬆ Transportation
a) dodecane + oxygen --> carbon dioxide + water. ⬆ Electricity Generators
b) tridecane + oxygen --> carbon dioxide + water ⬆ Machines
c) tetradecane + oxygen --> carbon dioxide + water
d) pentadecane + oxygen --> carbon dioxide + water STORAGE AND HANDLING

NAPHTHA LIQUID FUELS

⬆ Liquid naphtha is similar in characteristics to
kerosene. Naphtha is categorized, based on its
volatility, into light, intermediate, and heavy naphtha.
Naphtha is a major constituent of gasoline; however,
it generally requires further refining to make suitable
quality gasoline. Prior to firing naphtha in the burner,
⬆ Never overfill the container.
⬆ Keep containers closed.
⬆ Keep containers away from flames, pilot lights,
stoves, heaters, electric motors and other sources of
ignition. Vapors can be ignited by a spark or flame
source many feet away.
⬆ Store containers in well-ventilated area
KEROSENE ADVANTAGES:
GASOLINE ⬆ Storage
⬆ Avoid contact with skin ⬆ Lifespan
⬆ It should only be used for its intended purposes ⬆ Cost efficiency
⬆ Do not mix with kerosene and diesel
⬆ Storage must be labeled as FLAMMABLE KEROSENE DISADVANTAGES:
⬆ Do not transport gasoline unless in an approved ⬆ Toxicity
container
⬆ Flammable

DIESEL
GASOLINE ADVANTAGES:
⬆ No hotwork should be performed on the storage
⬆ Gasoline has higher density than any other energy
tank or container unless it is emptied and purged of
form of energy.
remaining diesel vapor.
⬆ Gasoline is obtained from distillation process
⬆ Drums should be located in an area where there is
no risk of collision with vehicles, such as fork-lift ⬆ Easy to produce
trucks, as diesel splashing onto a hot engine may
ignite. ⬆ Availability

⬆ Leaks and spills should be confined to the vicinity

of the drum and mopped up quickly, to lessen the GASOLINE DISADVANTAGES:
risk of slipping
⬆ Gasoline combustion produces toxic products
⬆ Highly Volatile
NAPHTHA
⬆ Health
⬆ Naphtha is not compatible with oxidizing agents
(such as perchrolates, peroxides, permaganates, ⬆ Environment
chlorates, nitrates, chlorine, bromine and fluorine).
⬆ Relies on fossil fuels
⬆ Use non sparking tools and equipments,
especially when opening and closing containers of
naphtha NAPHTHA ADVANTAGES
⬆ Metal containers involving the transfer of naphtha ⬆ Can be used as a feedstock when natural gas is
should be grounded and bonded. not available

DIESEL ADVANTAGES: NAPHTHA DISADVANTAGES

⬆ Diesel fuel is more efficient
⬆ Biofuel use is possible
⬆ Diesel engines last longer
⬆ Maintenance is simpler and cheaper
⬆ More expensive than natural gas
⬆ Exposure to naphtha may cause damage the
nervous system and may affect the kidneys.

DIESEL DISADVANTAGES:
⬆ Diesel fuel costs more
⬆ Diesel fuel pollutes more
⬆ Cold weather makes for a harder start
⬆ Diesel Vehicles are louder