Authentik Leadership and High Performance Human Resource Implication For Work PDF

Research in Personnel and Human Resources
Management
Authentic Leadership and High-Performance Human Resource Practices: Implications
for Work Engagement
Elizabeth P. Karam, William L. Gardner, Daniel P. Gullifor, Lori L. Tribble, Mingwei Li,
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AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP AND
HIGH-PERFORMANCE HUMAN
RESOURCE PRACTICES:
IMPLICATIONS FOR WORK
ENGAGEMENT
Elizabeth P. Karam, William L. Gardner,

Daniel P. Gullifor, Lori L. Tribble and Mingwei Li
ABSTRACT
Academic and practitioner attention to the constructs of authentic leadership

and work engagement and their implications for organizations has grown
dramatically over the past decade. Consideration of the implications of these
constructs for high-performance human resource practices (HPHRP) is lim-
ited, however. In this monograph, we present a conceptual model that inte-
grates authentic leadership/followership theory with theory and research on
HPHRP. Then, we apply this model to systematically consider the implica-
tions of skill-enhancing, motivation-enhancing, and opportunity-enhancing
HR practices in combination with authentic leadership for authentic follower-
ship, follower work engagement, and follower performance. We contend
that authentic leadership, through various influences processes, promotes
HPHRP, and vice versa, to help foster enhanced work engagement. By culti-
vating greater work engagement, individuals are motivated to bring their
Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, Volume 35, 103153

Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Publishing Limited
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
ISSN: 0742-7301/doi:10.1108/S0742-730120170000035004
103
104 ELIZABETH P. KARAM ET AL.
best, most authentic selves to the workplace and are more likely to achieve
higher levels of both well-being and performance.
Keywords: Authentic leadership; authentic followership; high-
performance human resource practices (HPHRP); intrinsic motivation;
work engagement
We are all born with a bundle of aptitudes, most of which we are not even aware of having.
According to some, the highest level of happiness self-actualization is being able to
express all the potentialities inherent in the organism. It is as if evolution has built a safety
device in our nervous system that allows us to experience full happiness only when we are liv-
ing at 100 percent when we are fully using the physical and mental equipment we have
been given. This mechanism would ensure that after all our other needs were taken care of,
we would still seek to use the full complement of our talents, thereby making it possible not
just to preserve the status quo, but also to innovate and grow (Csikszentmihalyi, 2004, p. 24).
Self-actualization… 100% fulfillment… using the full complement of our talents.

These phrases reflect the means whereby we can bring forth our best, most
authentic self, at work vital engagement. Nakamura and Czikzentmihalyi
(2003, p. 87) defined vital engagement “as a relationship to the world that is char-
acterized both by experiences of flow (enjoyed absorption) and by meaning (sub-
jective significance).” Flow, in turn, is defined as “the state in which people are so
involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter; the experience itself is so
enjoyable that people will do it even at great cost, for the sheer sake of doing it”
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 4). What separates vital engagement from flow, then,
is the knowledge that the experiences the actor finds to be so engrossing are simul-
taneously meaningful and significant for others. That is, they serve a larger pur-
pose. It is the fulfillment of this larger purpose that enables the individual to
flourish (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2003). These attributes of vital engage-
ment are reflected in more general conceptions of work engagement that empha-
size the vigor, dedication, and absorption in one’s work that engaged employees
exude (Schaufeli, Salanova, González-Romá, & Bakker, 2002).
Given the inherent benefits of work engagement for self and others, one
would expect the management of today’s organizations to embrace human
resource (HR) practices that help their employees to flourish. Sadly, this is too
often not the case. A recent 2015 poll by the Gallup organization revealed that
only 32% of the U.S. workforce report feeling engaged in their work (http://
www.gallup.com/poll/188144/employee-engagement-stagnant-2015.aspx).
Why is that? Why are modern organizations unable or unwilling to embrace
HR practices that enable members to fully utilize their talents? Part of the
answer to this question involves the focus of traditional HR practices and
the organizational leadership that enshrines them on extrinsic rewards, rather
than intrinsic motivation. As Csikszentmihalyi (1990, p. 16) pointed out in
Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience, most organizations and their lea-
ders emphasize the rewards and benefits that will accrue to hard-working
Authentic Leadership and HPHRP 105
employees sometime in the future: “[T]he company vice president tells junior
employees to have patience and work hard, because one of these days they will
be promoted to the executive ranks. At the end of the long struggle for
advancement, the golden years of retirement beckon. ‘We are always getting to
live,’ as Ralph Waldo Emerson used to say, ‘but never living.’”
We propose that an alternative form of leadership that focuses on intrinsic
motivation and the attainment of work engagement authentic leadership is
uniquely suited to promoting more effective HR practices that enable employ-
ees to thrive. Authentic leadership is achieved when a leader finds a way to be
his or her true and best self at work and to help followers do likewise (Avolio &
Gardner, 2005; Gardner, Avolio, Luthans, May, & Walumbwa, 2005a).
More specifically, we contend that when authentic leadership permeates an

organization’s HR practices, the talents of its members can be applied to pro-
mote elevated levels of engagement, performance, and psychological well-being.
Based on that assumption, this monograph systematically explores the implica-
tions of authentic leadership for high-performance HR practices (HPHRP),
with the goal of explicating processes whereby such leadership can promote the
engagement of people at work, as well as the many benefits that can accrue for
the organizations to which they belong.
To frame this discussion, we employ the ability-motivation-opportunity
(AMO) model of HR management (Boxall & Purcell, 2008; Jiang, Lepak, Hu, &
Baer, 2012; Lepak, Liao, Chung, & Harden, 2006). This model explores the
effects of three dimensions of human resource management (HRM) systems
skill-enhancing, motivation-enhancing, and opportunity-enhancing practices
on both proximal (employee performance) and distal outcomes (organizational
performance). We consider this model to be especially well-suited to our goal of
exploring the means whereby authentic leadership can promote engagement at
work because it explicitly recognizes the role of HR practices in securing and
applying human capital, eliciting intrinsic motivation, and providing opportu-
nities for employee growth and development. Note that while we posit effects
on both proximal and distal outcomes, we focus our discussion primarily on
the former, given our interest in the effects of authentic leadership and HPHRP
on follower work engagement and performance.
This monograph is organized as follows. First, we integrate elements of
extant theories (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa,
Luthans, & May, 2004; Gardner et al., 2005a; Ilies, Morgeson, & Nahrgang,
2005; Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, & Peterson, 2008) to provide a
more comprehensive model of authentic leadership and its development that
recognizes the role that HPHRP can play in fostering authentic leader-follower
relationships. Then, we use the integrative authentic leadership model to exam-
ine the means whereby authentic leaders can promote HPHRP, and vice versa,
to help foster greater work engagement. Finally, we conclude by emphasizing
how authentic leaders and HPHRP can help employees flourish in their jobs.
INTEGRATIVE MODEL OF AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP

Since the introduction of an initial model of the process of authentic leadership
development by Luthans and Avolio (2003), several alternative conceptual
models of this process have been advanced (Avolio et al., 2004; Gardner et al.,
2005a; Ilies et al., 2005). While each of these models provide valuable insights
into the development of authentic leadership, as well as its antecedents and con-
sequences, none fully reflect the processes whereby such development evolves.
To best reflect the state of knowledge regarding authentic leadership and fol-
lowership, we advance an integrated model of these processes that adds recog-
nition of the role that HPHRP can play in promoting their development
(see Fig. 1).

Before we describe the elements of this model in detail, we first provide an
overview of its major components. As Fig. 1 indicates, we follow the precedent
set by Gardner and colleagues (2005a) in their self-based model by recognizing
authentic leadership, authentic followership, follower outcomes, organizational
climate, and follower performance as key components of the development of
authentic leadership and followership. However, since the advancement of this
self-based model, the conceptual dimensions of authentic leadership have been
refined and empirically verified to include self-awareness, balanced processing,
Fig. 1. Integrated Human Resource Management and Authentic Leadership/

Followership Model.
relational transparency, and an internalized moral perspective (Neider &

Schriesheim, 2011; Steffens et al., 2014; Walumbwa et al., 2008); note that the
latter dimension had not been explicitly included in prior models of authentic
leadership.
Another noteworthy shortcoming of the Gardner and associates (2005a)
self-based model was the inclusion of positive modeling as the sole influence
process whereby authentic leadership promotes authentic followership. In this
regard, the conceptual framework advanced by Ilies and colleagues (2005) is
superior because it identifies multiple processes whereby authentic leadership
influences authentic followership, including personal and organizational identi-
fication, positive emotional contagion, positive behavioral modeling, support-
ing self-determination, and positive social exchanges. As such, one of the

enhancements made in our integrated model is to likewise recognize these mul-
tiple forms of authentic leadership influence.
Finally, given our focus on the complementary relationships between
authentic leadership and HPHRP, we explicitly recognize the role that skill-
enhancing, motivation-enhancing, and opportunity-enhancing HR practices
can play in promoting authentic leadership and authentic followership, and
vice versa. In the sections that follow we provide a more detailed description of
the various components of the integrated authentic leadership model and their
interrelationships.
Definitions: Authenticity, Authentic Leadership, and Organizational Climate
Before we consider the implications of the proposed integrated model of

HPHRP and authentic leadership development, we first provide definitions of
the key components of authenticity, authentic leadership, and organizational
climate.
Authenticity
Although the notion of authenticity can be traced back at least to ancient
Greek philosophy, as illustrated by the adage “to thine own self be true”
(Harter, 2002), modern conceptions of authenticity evolved over the past cen-
tury (Erickson, 1995a, 1995b). Based on a comprehensive review of the psychol-
ogy literature, Harter (2002, p. 382) defined authenticity as “owning one’s
personal experiences, be they thoughts, emotions, needs, wants, preferences, or
beliefs, processes captured by the injunction to know oneself.” As such, authen-
ticity is achieved when actors own their personal experiences (be they values,
emotions, thoughts or beliefs) and, subsequently act in accordance with their
true self (Gardner et al., 2005a; Harter, 2002).
Authentic Leadership
While there has been some debate on the definition of authentic leadership (see
review by Gardner, Cogliser, Davis, & Dickens, 2011), we adopt a definition
that is based on the self-based perspective advanced by the work of Avolio,
Gardner, Walumbwa and colleagues (Gardner et al., 2005a), which emerged as
the most prevalent psychological-based conception of the construct.
Specifically, Walumbwa et al. (2008, p. 94) define authentic leadership as:
A pattern of leader behavior that draws upon and promotes both positive psychological
capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-awareness, an internalized
moral perspective, balanced processing of information, and relational transparency on the
part of leaders working with followers, fostering positive self-development.
Let’s consider the core dimensions of authentic leadership reflected in this

definition. The foundational element required for the development of authentic
leadership is the personal insight or self-awareness of the leader (Gardner et al.,
2005a). Through self-reflection, authentic leaders achieve clarity regarding their
core values, motives, identity, goals and affective experiences. By knowing who
they are and what they value, authentic leaders gain a strong sense of self that
provides a solid anchor for their decisions and actions. Balanced processing
refers to the relatively unbiased gathering and interpretation of both positive
and negative ego-related information. That is, the leader strives to achieve accu-
rate self-knowledge by reducing the operation of defense mechanisms that serve
to distort and bias private knowledge, internal experiences, or externally based
evaluations of the self. Relational transparency refers to high levels of candor,
self-disclosure, openness and trust being achieved with close others. Finally,
authentic leaders possess an internalized moral perspective that provides them
with the moral capacity, efficacy and courage to make value driven ethical deci-
sions, even in the face of strong opposition and personal sacrifices (Walumbwa
et al., 2008). Specifically, the leader’s moral strength and compass contributes
to their ability to recognize the potential harm or benefits to the stakeholders
involved, consider their duties and obligations to those stakeholders, and select
the alternative that respects the rights of those involved.
Note that with respect to the latter dimension, disagreement exists within
the authentic leadership literature regarding the extent to which the construct
should reflect a moral component (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Gardner, Avolio, &
Walumbwa, 2005b). For instance, Shamir and Eilam (2005) purposefully
declined to include a moral component in their conception of authentic leader-
ship because they believe a leader can be “true to the self” and authentic with-
out achieving a high level of moral development or embracing high ethical
standards. In contrast, Gardner et al. (2005b, p. 395) strongly disagree with this
position for “definitional, theoretical/empirical, and philosophical reasons.”
We side with Gardner and associates in this debate. To explain the reasons
why, we provide a brief review of their arguments below.
First, with respect to the definitional reasons advanced by Gardner et al.

(2005b), we agree with their argument that defining the construct of authentic-
ity as involving high levels of self-awareness and self-ownership is inconsistent
with the notion that authentic leaders may possess low levels of moral develop-
ment. Indeed, it is difficult to understand how a person who operates at a low
level of moral development could fully understand themselves or others. To
avoid this logical inconsistency, Gardner and colleagues (2005b) decided to
build a moral component into their definition of authentic leadership. They
elaborated on this point as follows:
To be clear, we have specifically taken the stand that authentic leaders by our definition and
in terms of development are of high moral character… which is a prerequisite for such leader-
ship, in the same way that Burns (1978) defined transforming leaders as being of high moral
character. Recall that Bass (1985) originally labeled leaders such as Adolph Hitler as trans-
formational, but corrected that mistake when he agreed that transformational leaders had to
be “morally uplifting” and Hitler was clearly not such a leader (pp. 395396).
With regard to the theoretical and empirical justification for including a

moral component, they draw upon Kernis’ (2003) perspective of authenticity,
which provides important theoretical foundations for the self-based conception
of authentic leadership (Gardner et al., 2005a; Ilies et al., 2005). Indeed,
Kernis’ (2003) conception of authenticity as involving self-awareness, unbiased
processing, relational transparency, and authentic behavior is grounded in an
extensive review of social psychological research and served as the theoretical
inspiration for the four components of authentic leadership described above.
Hence, as conceived by Kernis (2003) and supported by social psychological
research (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Kernis & Goldman, 2006; Sheldon & Kasser,
1998), the notion that authentic persons display high levels of internal self-
regulation and stick with their personal values and beliefs by exhibiting authen-
tic behavior is entirely consistent with the assertion that authentic leaders
would possess an internalized moral perspective. Moreover, this perspective of
authenticity is aligned with the notion that authentic persons have progressed
to advanced stages of moral development, such as Stage 6 (universal ethical
principles) of Kohlberg’s (1969) and Stage 4 of Kegan’s (1982) models of moral
development. Finally, the assertion that the quest for authenticity is aligned
with a progression to higher levels of moral development is consistent with
May and colleagues’ (2003) contention that more versus less authentic leaders
have a greater moral capacity for ethical decision-making.
With respect to the philosophical reasons for recognizing a moral compo-
nent of authentic leadership, Gardner and colleagues (2005b, p. 397) advanced
the following rationale:
[W]e believe any effort to develop leaders should devote attention to their moral development
(Avolio, 2005; Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Kanungo & Mendonca, 1996). As Cuilla (2004)
persuasively argues, ethics lies at the heart of leadership and we add to that “development.”
Hence, we believe leader development will be incomplete and miss the mark if it does not
result in increased awareness of, and attention to, the ethical responsibilities that accompany
the leader role.
Thus, for definitional, theoretical/empirical, and philosophical reasons,

Gardner et al. (2005b, p. 396) “consider the inclusion of a positive moral per-
spective as a basic component of authentic leadership to be crucial to advancing
a theory of authentic leadership development.” We fully agree with this
conclusion.
Organizational Climate
Contributing to the success of the leader and followers is a positive strength-
based organizational climate in which both parties are embedded (Gardner
et al., 2005a). The strength-based organizational climate supports the growth of

members to continually build on personal strengths while supporting moral
actions. In a strength-based organizational climate, continuous learning and a
transparent exchange of information are encouraged; members know what each
other are best at so that all parties’ strengths can be leveraged. Hence, the cli-
mate promotes greater openness and sharing of knowledge about what one can
and can’t do, allowing others with complementary strengths to take the lead as
necessary.
High-Performance Human Resource Practices
Also contributing to the success of leaders and followers are HPHRP, which
have been discussed as high commitment work systems, high-involvement work
systems, or high-performance work systems (Jiang et al., 2012; Sun, Aryee, &
Law, 2007). HR practices (distinct from HR policies and HR systems) are
specific activities designed to affect particular outcomes (Jackson, Schuler, &
Jiang, 2014). HRM research has introduced a variety of classifications of HR
practices including resource and control-based HR practices (Sun et al., 2007),
inducement and investment practices (Batt & Colvin, 2011), flexibility HR prac-
tices (Bal & De Lange, 2015), empowerment-focused HR practices (Van De
Voorde, Van Veldhoven, & Veld, 2016), and supportive HR practices (Beltrán-
Martı́n & Roca-Puig, 2013). Yet, the dominant emerging theoretical paradigm
for HPHRP is the AMO model of HRM which suggests that performance is a
function of employee skills, motivation, and opportunity (Boxall & Purcell,
2008; Jiang et al., 2012; Lepak et al., 2006; Subramony, 2009).
The AMO model is based in the behavioral perspective of strategic HRM,
and the theory suggests that organizations communicate and stimulate desired
behaviors by directly impacting employees’ abilities, motivations, and opportu-
nities to contribute (Jackson et al., 2014). This occurs by shaping employees’
knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs), providing incentives, and ensuring
opportunities for performance. Lepak and colleagues (2006, pp. 233234)
argued that “organizations that are able to provide employees with the neces-
sary skill levels to successfully perform their jobs, encourage employees to use
the appropriate level of discretionary effort toward organizational goals, and
provide opportunities to maximize their potential contributions will outperform
organizations that fail to do so.”
There are three dimensions of HR practices described in the AMO model:
skill-enhancing, motivation-enhancing, and opportunity-enhancing HR prac-
tices (Jiang et al., 2012; Lepak et al., 2006). Within each dimension, scholars
have articulated specific HR practices that impact both proximal and distal
organizational outcomes. There has been some discussion in the literature
regarding the specific HR practices that are categorized as skill-enhancing,
motivation-enhancing, or opportunity-enhancing (Lepak et al., 2006; Sun et al.,

2007). In fact, some practices may meet multiple organizational objectives (e.g.,
training programs may increase an employee’s skill level as well as their motiva-
tion and opportunity to perform). However, for the purposes of our discussion,
we follow the Jiang et al. (2012) categorization of HR practices (described
below). Additionally, given our interest in how authentic leadership in concert
with HPHRP can promote follower intrinsic motivation and work engagement,
we have intentionally limited our discussion to HPHRP that are most relevant
to intrinsic (e.g., recruitment, employee involvement, flexible job design) as
opposed to extrinsic (e.g., compensation) motivation.
Skill-enhancing HR Practices
Jiang et al. (2012) refer to HR practices designed to ensure that employees have
the appropriate level of KSAs for their roles within the organization as skill-
enhancing practices. As work roles vary from firm to firm, the challenge for
HR managers is to ensure a match between employees’ skill levels and their
roles within the organization (Lepak et al., 2006). Further, different industries
or environments may place a particular emphasis on specific types of skills
(e.g., teamwork skills, problem-solving skills, customer service skills).
Therefore, ensuring the appropriate skill level and/or providing training oppor-
tunities to enhance employees’ competencies is the focus of skill-enhancing
HR practices. That is, recruitment and selection practices ensure that indivi-
duals who join the organization have the necessary technical and interpersonal
skills while training practices ensure that competency levels are improved as
needed.
Motivation-enhancing HR Practices
HPHRP that attempt to enhance employee motivation, or discretionary effort,
are referred to as motivation-enhancing practices (Jiang et al., 2012).
Motivation has been described as having four elements: directing attention,
intensifying effort, persisting toward the achievement of goals, and developing
task strategies (Locke & Latham, 1990). Therefore, individuals can choose
when to expend effort; how much effort to expend; and how long to expend
effort. Jiang et al. (2012) proposed that performance management, compensation,
incentives and rewards, benefits, career development, and job security are all
examples of motivation-enhancing HR practices. Notably, meta-analytic evi-
dence suggests that both skill-enhancing and motivation-enhancing HR prac-
tices are positively and directly related to proximal (i.e., human capital and
employee motivation) and distal (i.e., operational and financial performance)
organizational outcomes, underscoring the important role these practices play
in contributing to follower and organizational success (Jiang et al., 2012).
Opportunity-enhancing HR Practices
Finally, opportunity-enhancing practices empower employees to work toward

personal and organizational goals (Jiang et al., 2012; Lepak et al., 2006). Bos-
Nehles, Van Riemsdijk, and Kees Looise (2013) suggested organizations are
responsible for providing opportunities for employees to use their skills through
supportive work environments. Therefore, organizations must maximize oppor-
tunities for employees to engage through HR practices such as flexible job
design and work teams. Further, HR practices such as employee involvement
and information/knowledge sharing can empower and encourage employees to
participate, to share knowledge, and to use their skills toward the accomplish-
ment of organizational goals. Importantly, opportunity-enhancing HR prac-
tices are often implemented by leaders within the organization. Therefore, there
is tremendous potential for authentic leaders to increase follower engagement
through the targeted and consistent enactment of opportunity-enhancing HR
practices.
Influence Processes
As noted in our model overview, Gardner and colleagues (2005a) included posi-
tive behavioral modeling as the sole process whereby authentic leaders influence
followers. To provide a more comprehensive consideration of the processes
whereby authentic leaders exert influence, we examine the full range of influ-
ence mechanisms identified by Ilies et al. (2005) below.
Positive Behavioral Modeling

The primary mechanism identified by Gardner and colleagues (2005a) in their
self-based model through which authentic leaders develop authentic followers is
positive behavioral modeling. Specifically, they assert that by modeling positive
values, transparency, balanced processing, and a quest for self-development,
authentic leaders inculcate such values, cognitive processes, and development
behaviors in followers. Indeed, by leading by example, authentic leaders serve
as role models whom followers emulate, as they learn often vicariously to
likewise strive to be their best selves. Moreover, as Bandura (1997) noted, per-
sons high in credibility, prestige, and trustworthiness are most likely to gain the
attention and tap the values of observers, and hence motivate their selection as
models worthy of emulation. To the extent that authentic leaders demonstrate
integrity, competence, openness, and genuine concern for the growth of others,
they serve as powerful exemplars of positive values and authentic functioning
and thereby inspire the development of authentic followers.
Personal and Organizational Identification

Both Ilies and colleagues (2005) and Avolio and associates (2004) recognized
the importance of personal and collective identification processes to the forma-
tion of authentic leader-follower relationships. Specifically, they assert that the

self-awareness of authentic leaders, in combination with relational transparency
and their value commitment demonstrated by an internalized moral perspec-
tive, elicited stronger feelings of identification with the leader and his or her
organization among followers. Such identification is especially strong when a
high degree of value-congruence emerges for leaders and their followers.
Indeed, under such conditions, followers are likely to display a high level of
personal identification with the leader, as their beliefs about the leader become
self-defining or self-referential (Kark & Shamir, 2002). That is, to the extent
that followers come to admire a leader for transparently articulating values
that resonate with their ideals and demonstrating behavior that is aligned with
those values, the identities of such followers will be tied to that of the leader
(Avolio et al., 2004).
Beyond such personal identification with the leader, to the extent that indi-
vidual followers see themselves as members of a group that collectively identi-
fies with the leader, they are likely to see themselves as belonging to that group
and incorporating such an identity into their self-concept (Lord & Brown,
2001, 2004; Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993). Thus, as members of an organiza-
tion headed by an authentic leader, followers who personally identify with the
leader are also likely to identify with that organization. Here, the process of
organizational identification, which is rooted in social identity theory (Hogg,
2001; Tajfel & Turner, 1986), refers to members’ feelings of belongingness to
the organization (Ashforth, Harrison, & Corley, 2008; Ashforth & Mael, 1989).
Through such identification, group members tend to incorporate attributes that
are shared by members of the group into their self-concepts (i.e., they define
themselves in terms of the shard social identity of the group), while differentiat-
ing themselves from outgroup members who lack these attributes (Ashforth &
Mael, 1989; Ilies et al., 2005). To the extent that followers come to personally
identify with an authentic leader, and the organization he or she represents, we
anticipate they will internalize the leader’s values in general, and in particular,
the value the leader places on authenticity both to oneself and in one’s rela-
tions with others. Thus, such identification processes constitute a second
mechanism whereby the authenticity of the leader contributes to the develop-

ment of the authenticity of followers, as well as the formation of authentic
leader-follower relationships (Avolio et al., 2004; Gardner et al., 2005a; Ilies
et al., 2005).
Positive Emotional Contagion

Another form of influence that Ilies and colleagues (2005) posited serves as a
conduit whereby authentic leadership fosters greater authenticity and well-being
among followers involves positive emotional contagion. Specifically, they posit
that because leaders and followers work closely together, often on a daily basis,
their emotions and moods be they positive or negative tend to converge
and feed off one another through a contagion process. Moreover, they argue
that more versus less authentic leaders are more likely to experience positive
affective states, due to heightened levels of self-awareness and relational trans-
parency (Kernis, 2003). These positive emotions, in turn, are more likely to spill
over to followers, thereby positively elevating their affective state as well. While
Gardner and colleagues (2005a) do not posit emotional contagion processes per
se in their self-based model, they do concur with Ilies and associates’ (2005)
assertion that more versus less authentic leaders will be more self-aware of their
emotions, and generally experience higher levels of well-being. Moreover,
Avolio and colleagues (2004) proposed that more versus less authentic leaders
will experience a higher propensity of positive emotions, which will in turn
broaden and build their intellectual, social, physical, and psychological
resources and reserves (Frederickson, 1998, 2000, 2001), and spread to elicit
positive emotions in followers. Hence, we expect positive emotional contagion
processes to serve as an additional mechanism whereby authentic leaders posi-
tively develop and elicit positive affective states within followers, which in turn
promote greater receptivity to authentic leader-follower relationships.
Supporting Self-determination
One of the primary theoretical foundations that underlies psychological per-
spectives on authentic leadership (Gardner et al., 2005a; Ilies et al., 2005) is
Deci and Ryan’s (2000) self-determination theory (SDT). As a general theory
of human motivation, SDT has been effectively employed to explain human
behavior across a wide variety of domains, including health, parenting, sports,
education, and work (see Vansteenkiste, Niemec, & Soens, 2010, for an over-
view). SDT asserts that human beings are naturally predisposed to integrate
their ongoing experience into an coherent, evolving sense of self (Ryan, 1995).
Further, consistent Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) observations about the organiza-
tional forces that inhibit employees’ opportunities to experience work engage-
ment, SDT assumes that despite the innate inclination of humans to be
intrinsically motivated, certain contexts (e.g., work settings) are infused with
role demands that conflict with self-determination (Gagné & Deci, 2005).
Under these circumstances, SDT asserts that people will strive to integrate
themselves into the larger social context to make externally mandated behaviors
congruent with their sense of self. SDT uses the term autonomous motivation
to refer to the extent to which extrinsic motivational forces have been effec-
tively internalized. Furthermore, SDT assumes that this internalization process
requires certain fundamental nutriments. Within work settings, such nutriments
are provided through the satisfaction of one’s basic psychological needs for
autonomy (perceiving that one is the initiator of work-related behavior), com-
petence (perceiving that one is capable of performing work-related tasks), and
relatedness (perceiving that one is supported by the people at work). “The prin-
ciple underlying these fundamental needs is that their satisfaction provides a
subjective feeling that one’s work-related behavior resonates with one’s true
self” (Leroy, Anseel, Gardner, & Sels, 2015, p. 1681).

A second core principle of SDT is that both the person and the environment
impact these integrative tendencies and the satisfaction of these basic needs
(Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2003). With regard to individual influences,
SDT posits that there are dispositional differences in the degree to which people
are predisposed toward self-determination and hence the future satisfaction of
their basic needs. However, SDT also recognizes that the degree to which the
environment is supportive of individual efforts to fulfill basic needs is likewise a
key influence on self-determination. SDT further asserts that neither the indi-
vidual nor the environment serves as a primary determinant of basic need satis-
faction; instead, a dialectic relationship exists between the individual (e.g., a
follower), and the environment (e.g., his or her leader), such that they jointly
operate to achieve the fulfillment of the individual’s (e.g., follower’s) basic
needs (Leroy et al., 2015).
From a HR perspective, the implications for organizations and their leaders
of SDT are clear. Leaders and the HR systems they create should strive to pro-
duce an environment that not only supports and facilitates employee efforts to
achieve self-determination, intrinsic motivation, and the satisfaction of their
basic needs, but actively cooperates with employees in their efforts to do so.
Indeed, given the influence that organizational leaders have over deadlines,
competition, rewards, and performance management processes, they are in
an especially advantageous position for fostering employees’ sense of self-
determination and the intrinsic motivation that it instills (Deci, Connell, &
Ryan, 1989). Furthermore, because authentic leaders provide support for
autonomy, non-controlling and constructive development feedback, and recog-
nition of others’ perspectives, they are particularly inclined to promote follower
self-determination (Ilies et al., 2005).
Empirical evidence of the benefits that can accrue when leaders provide such
support is readily available. For example, leader support for employee self-
determination has been linked to heightened levels of employee trust in the
organization, work satisfaction, and motivation (Deci et al., 1989; Tetrick,
1989). Moreover, evidence that authentic leadership is particularly well-suited
for promoting follower self-determination is provided by Gardner and collea-

gues’ (2011) review of the extant literature, which revealed positive relationships
between authentic leadership and follower work engagement (Giallonardo,
Wong, & Iwasiw, 2010), trust in leadership (Clapp-Smith, Vogelgesang, &
Avey, 2009), and organizational commitment (Walumbwa et al., 2008). More
recently, Leroy and colleagues (2015) demonstrated that when followers who
were predisposed to authentic functioning (i.e., authentic followers) and worked
within a work unit lead by an authentic leader, they experienced higher levels
of basic need satisfaction which, in turn, was positively related to follower in-
role and extra-role performance. These results illustrate well the extent to an
employee’s capacity for self-determination and intrinsic motivation, when nur-
tured by an authentic leader and the work context (e.g., HR practices) he or

she enacts, can promote elevated levels of employee performance.
Positive Social Exchanges

The final influence process identified by Ilies and colleagues (2005) involves
positive social exchanges between authentic leaders and their followers. In
contrast to an economic exchange, a social exchange involves a perceived giv-
ing and receiving of social resources between interaction partners (Blau, 1964;
Gouldner, 1960). Within the leadership discipline, scholars have focused in
particular on leader-member exchange (LMX), as the perceived obligations
that followers experience to reciprocate positive social resources bestowed by
leaders that are posited to help foster high quality leader-member relation-
ships (Cogliser, Schriesheim, Scandura, & Gardner, 2009; Dienesch & Liden,
1986; Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995; Liden, Sparrowe, & Wayne, 1997;
Schriesheim, Castro, & Cogliser, 1999; Sparrowe & Liden, 1997). As Ilies and
associates (2005) noted, authentic leaders are especially likely to form positive
social exchanges with followers due to their self-awareness of how others per-
ceive them, relational transparency, balanced processing of information, and
internalized moral perspective. Such positive social exchanges, in turn, are
posited to promote elevated levels of respect, positive affect, and trust, which
are key components of high quality leader-follower relationships (Graen &
Uhl-Bien, 1995; Liden & Maslyn, 1998; Liden et al., 1997). Importantly,
meta-analytical reviews provide empirical support for these positive effects of
LMX on leader and follower work outcomes (Dulebohn, Bommer, Liden,
Brouer, & Ferris, 2012; Gerstner & Day, 1997; Ilies, Nahrgang, & Morgeson,
2007). Additionally, empirical support for Ilies and colleagues’ (2005) predic-
tion that authentic leadership is positively related to LMX has been forth-
coming (Gill & Caza, 2015; Hirst, Walumbwa, Aryee, Butarbutar, & Chen,
2016; Hsiung, 2012; Wang, Sui, Luthans, Wang, & Wu, 2014), further
reinforcing the importance of positive social exchanges to authentic leader-
follower relationships.
Authentic Followership
A central thesis of the self-based perspective of authentic leadership is the asser-

tion that authentic leaders model for followers elevated levels of self-awareness,
relational transparency, balanced processing, an internalized moral perspective,
and authentic behavior (Gardner et al., 2005a). As such, authentic leadership
operates as a key input for the development of authentic followership. As fol-
lowers encounter transparent leader decision-making based on core values and
a commitment to integrity, they come to trust the leader and thereby exhibit
open, ethical, and authentic behavior in turn. That is, the leaders’ authentic
moral actions raise followers’ self-awareness about moral issues, develop their
capacity to address such issues, and strengthen their level of moral efficacy and
courage to confront moral challenges and address them over time. Hence, we
posit that authentic followership serves to mediate the relationship between the
influence processes used by authentic leaders and the follower outcomes
described below.
Follower Outcomes
The key follower outcomes that authentic leadership theory posits arise from
the formation of authentic leader-follower relationships are trust, work engage-
ment, and workplace well-being. We discuss each of these outcomes below.
Trust
As noted above, a key assumption of social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) is
that expectations of certain obligations based on trust are formed that ensure
positive acts will be reciprocated at some time in the future. Gardner et al.
(2005a) suggested that because authentic leaders fully appreciate the impor-
tance of transparency, they establish psychological contracts that are especially
strong and resilient (Rousseau, 1995; Sherman & Morley, 2015). Once formed,
the psychological contract between the authentic leader and his or her followers
produces a common understanding of their goals, plans, and responsibilities.
As each party meet these expectations over time, a strong foundation for trust
is established that promotes further growth in the relationship and ultimately
elevated and sustained levels of performance. Extensive empirical support
for this prediction has accumulated (Agote, Aramburu, & Lines, 2016;
Clapp-Smith et al., 2009; Dan-Shang & Chia-Chun, 2013; Hsieh & Wang, 2015;
Wang & Hsieh, 2013; Xiong, Lin, Li, & Wang, 2016).
Work Engagement
The central theme of this monograph is that, authentic leadership, HPHRP,
and authentic followership combine to produce high levels of work engagement
among employees, which in turn, leads to sustained veritable performance.

Schaufeli and colleagues (2002, p. 74) defined engagement as “a positive, fulfill-
ing, work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and
absorption.” Two of these dimensions, dedication and absorption, are similar
to Nakamura and Czikzentmihalyi’s (2003) elements of vital engagement.
That is, Nakamura and Czikzentmihalyi (2003) suggested that vital engagement
includes subjective significance which is akin to the dedication dimension of
engagement where employees feel a sense of pride, inspiration, challenge, and
significance in their work. Nakamura and Czikzentmihalyi (2003) also asserted
that vital engagement is characterized by enjoyed absorption or flow which is
similar to Schaufeli et al.’s (2002) description of absorption whereby one is fully
engrossed in one’s work so that time moves quickly. The distinction between
the two definitions lies in the inclusion of vigor by Schaufeli et al. (2002). Vigor
reflects high energy, persistence, and mental resilience by engaged employees.
So, whereas vital engagement is characterized by peak, short-term experiences
of enjoyed absorption, engagement refers to a longer, “more pervasive and per-
sistent state of mind” (Schaufeli et al., 2002, p. 75). Hence, for our purposes,
we use the terms vital engagement at work and work engagement somewhat
synonymously with the distinction reflecting the period of absorption (vital
engagement indicates a shorter term; engagement is more pervasive). This is
also consistent with the summary of engagement definitions provided
by Christian, Garza, and Slaughter (2011) in their meta-analysis on engage-
ment where they describe engagement as a relatively enduring state.
Moreover, we consider work engagement to be the more inclusive term, as it
encompasses shorter term episodes of vital engagement that persist over time,
as well as more common and pervasive, but less intense, experiences of work
absorption. Importantly, both forms of engagement arise from and foster
authenticity as they enable individuals to enact their best self in terms of skills,
abilities, and values through work-related activities (Gardner et al., 2005a;
Ilies et al., 2005).
Most engagement research is based in the job demands-resources (JD-R)
model (Demerouti, Bakker, & Nachreiner, 2001). The JD-R model suggests that
work conditions can be categorized into either job demands (which lead to
exhaustion or burnout) or job resources (which lead to engagement). Job
resources are comprised of “those physical, psychological, social, or organiza-
tional aspects of the job that may do any of the following: (a) be functional
in achieving work goals; (b) reduce job demands at the associated physiological
and psychological costs; (c) stimulate personal growth and development”
(Demerouti et al., 2001, p. 501). Job resources can include motivation-enhancing
HR practices (e.g., incentives and rewards, job security, performance feedback),
opportunity-enhancing HR practices (e.g., employee involvement in decision-
making, information sharing), and leadership support. Considerable empirical
(e.g., Tuckey, Bakker, & Dollard, 2012; Van De Voorde et al., 2016;
Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2009) and meta-analytic
(Christian et al., 2011; Crawford, LePine, & Rich, 2010) evidence has demon-
strated that job resources are important predictors of engagement because they
increase intrinsic motivation by fulfilling psychological needs related to learn-
ing, growth, and development (Saks & Gruman, 2014).
The JD-R model has been extended to include personal resources in the the-
ory as well (Bakker, Demerouti, & Sanz-Vergel, 2014; Xanthopoulou, Bakker,
Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2007). Personal resources are defined as “positive self-
evaluations that are linked to resiliency and refer to individuals’ sense of their
ability to control and impact their environments successfully” (Bakker et al.,
2014, p. 402). The addition of personal resources to the JD-R model was based
in conservation of resources (COR) theory which suggests that individuals seek
to acquire, retain, and protect resources including personal characteristics and

energy (Xanthopoulou et al., 2007). Therefore, personal resources, such as self-
efficacy, self-esteem, optimism, positive affect, and proactive personality, are
important intrinsic motivational factors that lead to engagement in addition
to job resources and leadership because they determine how well an individ-
ual adapts to his or her work environment (Christian et al., 2011; Kühnel,
Sonnentag, & Bledow, 2012; Tims, Bakker, & Xanthopoulou, 2011;
Xanthopoulou et al., 2007, 2009). High levels of personal resources are also
related to authentic functioning in that they support owning personal experi-
ences and acting in accordance with behaviors that reflect what the individual
truly believes (Gardner et al., 2011). As we describe below, skill-enhancing HR
practices such as recruitment and selection can be used to target candidates
with high levels of personal resources and greater capacity for authentic func-
tioning, and training and development practices can be used to develop both
personal and job resources for employees within the organization.
Gardner and colleagues (2005a) asserted that the demonstrated integrity
and, over time, sustained performance by authentic leaders, coupled with devel-
opmental experiences and meaningful work, produce high levels of work
engagement among followers and leaders alike. Here too, empirical support for
this prediction has been obtained (Agote et al., 2016; Clapp-Smith et al., 2009;
Hsieh & Wang, 2015; Joo, Lim, & Kim, 2016; Mehmood, Nawab, & Hamstra,
2016; Wang & Hsieh, 2013; Wei, Li, Zhang, & Liu, 2016; Xiong et al., 2016).
Work engagement, in turn, has been shown to be is positively related to a host
of performance outcomes, including productivity, customer satisfaction, profit,
safety, and employee turnover (Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002). Moreover,
engaged employees have more positive emotions, are more creative, and
exhibit more proactive behaviors (Bakker et al., 2014). Therefore, both organi-
zational-level outcomes and individual outcomes can be enhanced by authentic
leadership and followership coupled with HPHRP aimed at increasing job and
personal resources and authentic functioning. The result is high levels of work
engagement which promote veritable and sustainable performance outcomes
and which allow individuals and organizations to flourish.
Workplace Well-being
The construct of work engagement is closely related to eudemonic well-being,
which encompasses psychological health, self-congruence, life satisfaction, and
vital functioning (Ryan & Deci, 2001). As Ilies and colleagues (2005) explained,
eudemonic well-being differs from hedonic well-being, which reflects a desire to
achieve pleasure and avoid pain while maximizing experienced happiness (e.g.,
subjective well-being). In contrast, the eudemonic conception of well-being con-
stitutes an effort whereby individuals live in accordance with their true self, and
hence links the attainment of authenticity to well-being (Waterman, 1993).
Importantly, empirical evidence linking engagement, authenticity, and eudemo-
nic well-being is replete in the social psychology literature (Kahneman, Diener, &
Schwartz, 1999; Kernis, 2003; Ryan & Deci, 2001; Sheldon & Elliot, 1999;
Sheldon et al., 2004). Based on the extant theory and empirical findings,
Gardner and associates (2005a) predicted that workplace well-being would nat-
urally arise as a result of authentic leadership and authentic followership
(Gardner et al., 2005a), and subsequent empirical research has provided sup-
port for this proposition (Adil & Kamal, 2016; Rahimnia & Sharifirad, 2015).
Veritable and Sustained Performance
The ultimate outcome of the self-based model of AL advanced by Gardner and

associates (2005a) and our refinement of that model is veritable and sustained
follower performance. That is, we assert that the elevated levels of follower
trust, work engagement, and workplace well-being that accrue from authentic
leadership and authentic followership produce gains in follower performance
that are real and can be sustained. Importantly, ample support for the argu-
ment that authentic leadership is associated with heightened levels of follower
performance, as well as support for these mediating processes, has been
obtained (Hmieleski, Cole, & Baron, 2012; Leroy et al., 2015; Mehmood et al.,
2016; Wang et al., 2014; Wei et al., 2016).
INTEGRATING HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

AND AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP
The preceding sections have described the updated conceptual model of authen-
tic leadership and the AMO model of HRM. Here, we turn to articulating how
authentic leadership combined with specific HPHRP can increase engagement
by promoting authentic functioning and enhancing employees’ personal and
job resources. We begin by discussing the skill-enhancing HR practices
recruitment, selection, and training that set the stage for work engagement.
Skill-enhancing HR Practices
Skill-enhancing HR practices focus on acquiring and developing employees

with the requisite KSAs to be successful in an organization. In fact, recruitment
and selection are typically the centerpiece of an organization’s HR practices
because they affect the types of employees that are hired and the potential these
employees have to perform (Breaugh, 2013). Training, on the other hand,
focuses on systematically developing the skills of employees within the organi-
zation (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009). Therefore, recruitment and selection are criti-
cal to bringing individuals into the organization with a high capacity for
authentic functioning, high levels of personal resources, and an understanding
of potential job demands. Training, on the other hand, is critical for ensuring
that employees continue to develop personal resources and are supported with
essential job resources.
Recruitment
Barber (1998, p. 5) defined recruitment as “those practices and activities carried
on by the organization with the primary purpose of identifying and attracting
potential employees.” It has been characterized as a cornerstone of HR strategy
because it defines: (a) the people who will be affected by all other HR practices,
and (b) those who will be supporting the organization’s mission, strategy, and
goals. Given the fundamental role that people play in an organization’s success
(e.g., Schneider, 1987), the practice aimed at attracting potential employees is
particularly important. Moreover, the way an organization recruits can affect
numerous employee outcomes including performance, retention, and engage-
ment (Griepentrog, Harold, Holtz, Klimoski, & Marsh, 2012).
The process of recruitment has three primary stages (Barber, 1998; Dineen &
Soltis, 2011). In the first stage, viable candidates are generated through target-
ing and messaging strategies. The second stage involves maintaining the status
of candidates, and the third stage involves post-offer closure (i.e., influencing
job choice). Throughout all three stages, authentic leaders working in HR or in
other areas within the organization have an opportunity to recruit individuals
with the capacity for authentic functioning and with high levels of personal
resources. For example, authentic leaders may have the opportunity to interact
with candidates throughout the recruitment process, and candidates often make
assessments about the organization and their potential fit within the organiza-
tion through these interactions (Breaugh, 2013; Uggerslev, Fassina, & Kraichy,
2012). During interactions with recruits, authentic leaders can demonstrate
their commitment to openness, concern for others, positive values, and positive
emotions. This conveys to the candidate the type of organization that is
reflected in its leadership and is likely to attract candidates with similar values
who see their capacity for growth in the organization.
Schneider’s (1987) attraction-selection-attrition framework is particularly

relevant here. In Schneider’s model, the personal attributes (e.g., skills, abilities,
values) that characterize representative organizational members attract job can-
didates who possess the same or similar attributes. Such candidates are then
more likely to be selected into the organization due to their perceived fit, and
they are less likely to turnover. The collective and shared personal attributes of
organizational members and the social context they create, in turn, serves as
the basis for behavior in organizations (Jackson, Brett, & Sessa, 1991).
Therefore, to the extent that authentic leaders are involved in both recruitment
messaging and the recruitment process, the organization will be more likely to
attract candidates with a heightened capacity for authentic functioning.
Furthermore, those candidates will be more likely to be selected into the organi-
zation and more like to stay with the organization for long term.
The extent to which information presented in the recruitment process pro-
vides a realistic portrayal of the organization to job candidates can also play a
role in enhancing job resources. Realistic job previews (RJPs) involve sharing
“both favorable and unfavorable job-related information to job candidates”
(Phillips, 1998, p. 673). Providing realistic information throughout the recruit-
ment process equips new hires with greater role clarity and a greater ability to
manage job demands, thereby enhancing job resources (Breaugh, 2013). As a
result, RJPs have been shown to promote higher levels of employee retention
(Buckley et al., 2002). Given the attention to balanced processing and relational
transparency that characterize authentic leadership, we anticipate that authen-
tic leaders will be predisposed toward providing recruits with RJPs, and thereby
promote better person-organization fit and employee retention.
Organizations face considerable challenges in identifying and attracting job
seekers, and although some organizational characteristics are broadly favored,
many others are subject to the individual preferences of the candidates (Rynes &
Cable, 2003). For example, individual values, personality, and the beliefs that
job seekers have about their potential career development can have a strong
impact on perceived favorability of a work environment (Dineen & Soltis,
2011). Therefore, to the extent that authentic HR leaders or authentic leaders
in other roles can serve as positive behavioral role models, exhibit positive
emotions, and demonstrate an interest in promoting self-determination, the
organization is more likely to attract candidates with greater capacity for
authentic functioning as well as greater personal and job resources. This, in
turn, will likely lead to employees who subsequently join the organization
having a heightened capacity for engagement.
Selection
Personnel selection is one of the most studied HPHRP and, it “is considered by
many to be one of the great success stories of industrial and organizational
(I/O) psychology” (Ployhart, 2012, p. 222). This is in large part because of the
success scholars have had in matching selection predictors with employee job
performance after joining the organization. To accomplish this goal, a variety
of selection techniques have been utilized including cognitive ability tests, per-
sonality tests, structured interviews, job knowledge tests, situational judgment
tests, assessment centers, and reference checks (Ryan & Tippins, 2004). Indeed,
several meta-analyses have established the positive, significant relationships
that exist between selection strategies and job performance, including personal-
ity and job performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991), situational judgment tests
and performance (McDaniel, Hartman, Whetzel, & Grubb III, 2007), and inter-
views and performance (McDaniel, Whetzel, Schmidt, & Maurer, 1994).
Therefore, we view selection as a HPHRP with tremendous potential for
acquiring job seekers with greater capacity for authentic functioning and
heightened levels of personal resources.

As previously discussed, authentic leaders are more likely to experience posi-
tive affective states because of their heightened levels of self-awareness and
relational transparency. In addition, authentic leaders tend to possess higher
levels of psychological capital (e.g, self-efficacy, hope, optimism and resilience;
Jensen & Luthans, 2006), optimal self-esteem (Gardner et al., 2005a; Kernis,
2003), and emotional intelligence (Avolio et al., 2004; Gardner, Fischer, &
Hunt, 2009). Such positive emotions, traits, and psychological states serve as
personal resources that contribute to how well individuals adapt to the work
environment. Given the interplay between individual differences (i.e., optimal
self-esteem, emotional intelligence), psychological capital, and positive affective
states that contribute to authentic functioning and heightened levels of personal
resources, there exists an opportunity to select individuals with these qualities
to increase the potential for enhanced levels of engagement.
One example of how firms can use selection techniques to pursue individuals
with high levels of positive affect, optimism, and emotional intelligence is
through the use of personality and intelligence tests in the selection process.
These types of test are generally low cost in development and administration
and have the potential to add incremental value to the selection strategies
already in place (Ryan & Tippins, 2004). As with the implementation of any
selection technique, the incremental value is only truly realized when the selec-
tion strategy is properly validated in the given context. However, nonpropri-
etary tests are widely available and meta-analytic evidence has already
established the positive significant relationship between emotional intelligence
and job performance; therefore the utility in being able to assess potential for
engagement as well as other performance outcomes of interest to organizations
is apparent (Van Rooy & Viswesvaran, 2004).
To assess relevant employee characteristics such as psychological capital,
self-esteem, and emotional intelligence, firms could use a combination of psy-
chometric measures (e.g., Luthans, Avolio, Avey, & Norman, 2007), behavioral
interview questions, and reference checks. For example, a behavioral interview
question such as, “Tell me about a time when you exhibited resilience in
overcoming a setback at work?” could be added to a structured interview to

assess resilience. Although structured interviews are relatively costly to adminis-
ter (i.e., they require a firm representative to personally meet with job candi-
dates), the expense incurred through the addition of one or two questions
aimed at assessing potential for authentic functioning and engagement would
be marginal, if the organization already utilizes structured interviews during the
selection process. Alternately, firms could assess these qualities through refer-
ence checks with past employers. Here, questions about how candidates
respond to performance obstacles and/or their confidence in their abilities to
effectively perform tasks could be administered in a lower cost format while still
providing insight into the candidate’s capacity for authentic functioning and
level of personal resources.

Selection, as a field, has historically focused on using selection techniques to
acquire individuals who will perform well on the job. However, more recent
research has expanded the criterion dimensions of interest to include organiza-
tional citizenship behaviors and counterproductive work behaviors (Sackett &
Lievens, 2008). In this monograph, we assert that there is value in expanding
the criterion space to include work engagement and to use selection strategies
such as personality tests, behavioral interview questions, and reference checks
to pursue specific types of prospective employees. This is an attempt to ensure
that those who join the organization are intrinsically motivated and have the
personal resource potential to achieve heightened levels of vigor, dedication,
and absorption. In today’s knowledge economy where firms compete through
innovative ideas and information supplied by their human capital, this is partic-
ularly important (Ployhart, 2012). Without engaged employees, firms are more
likely to struggle to maintain competitiveness and individuals are less likely to
flourish in their roles.
Training and Development

The final skill-enhancing HPHRP that we consider is training and development.
Whereas recruitment and selection practices emphasize attracting and selecting
employees with important skills before they join the organization, training and
development activities are aimed at enhancing the skills of employees who are
already a part of the organization. Training and development have been differ-
entiated in the literature such that training has been defined as “a systematic
approach to learning and development to improve individual, team, and orga-
nizational effectiveness” whereas development focuses on “activities leading to
the acquisition of new knowledge or skills for the purpose of personal growth”
(Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009, p. 452). Indeed, the focus of training or development
initiatives can be differentially aimed at improving behavioral, cognitive, and/
or interpersonal aspects of job performance (Birdi et al., 2008). We suggest,
however, that both training and development efforts have the potential to
increase an individual’s personal and job resources. In fact, there already exists
considerable evidence to suggest that training and development initiatives have

many positive benefits for organizations (e.g., for reactions, learning, and
behavioral criteria, see Arthur, Bennett, Edens, & Bell, 2003; for safety perfor-
mance, see Burke et al., 2011). Therefore, we describe below how personal and
job resources are relevant across the three phases of training (pre-training,
training, post-training/transfer of training) and how authentic leaders can play
an important role in the training and development process.
Pre-training. The first phase of the training and development process occurs
before formal training begins. In the pre-training phase, specific individual char-
acteristics of trainees and structural characteristics of the organization have
been shown to be important antecedents for favorable training and its subse-
quent outcomes. For example, a meta-analysis conducted by Colquitt, LePine,
and Noe (2000) identified several individual characteristics that were positively
related to training motivation. Significantly, self-efficacy, a personal resource,
was shown to be positively related to both job performance (rc ¼ .22) and train-
ing transfer (rc ¼ .47). This finding underscores the importance of recruiting
and selecting individuals with high levels of personal resources. Likewise,
Facteau, Dobbins, Rusell, Ladd, and Kudisch (1995) found that both intrinsic
motivation to attend training (rather than required attendance) and support
from supervisors were important elements related to training motivation.
Therefore, in the pre-training phase, authentic leaders can provide valuable
support for self-determination by encouraging employees to seek training
opportunities and pursue their professional development goals. Further,
authentic leaders can serve as positive role models by regularly seeking personal
training and development opportunities for themselves as well.
Training. The actual training phase of training and development is where
both personal and job resources can be targeted for enhancement. Training and
development can take many forms including traditional instructor-led training,
e-learning, coaching, mentoring, multisource feedback, and assessment centers
(Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001). Regardless of the type of training, it is impor-
tant to conduct a training needs analysis to determine who and what needs to
be trained (Salas, Tannenbaum, Kraiger, & Smith-Jentsch, 2012). In essence,
the training needs analysis can identify specific deficiencies in job and personal
resources in employees. For example, if the analysis demonstrates that employ-
ees have skill deficiencies related to their assigned roles, then training could be
developed to reduce these deficits and enhance the employees’ level of job
resources. Similarly, if the analysis reveals that employees have low levels of
self-efficacy, positive affect, and/or psychological capital, authentic leaders can
engage in coaching and mentoring to raise these levels of personal resources.
For example, because authentic leaders tend to exhibit positive emotions when
coaching employees, there is likely to be positive emotional contagion between
the leader and follower such that the follower begins to experience more posi-
tive emotions as well. Likewise, when authentic leaders serve as mentors, posi-
tive social exchanges and support of self-determination are likely to raise the
levels of self-efficacy in followers. In sum, through targeted training and devel-

opment efforts aimed at increasing job and personal resources, authentic lea-
ders can work with employees to better equip them to handle task challenges,
achieve work goals, and grow personally which can foster greater engagement
(Demerouti et al., 2001).
Post-training/transfer of training. In the final phase of training and develop-
ment, the emphasis shifts to transferring the knowledge gained during training
to the job. Transfer of training consists of two components: “(a) generalization
the extent to which the knowledge and skill acquired in a learning setting
are applied to different settings, people, and/or situations from those trained,
and (b) maintenance the extent to which changes that result from a learning
experience persist over time” (Blume, Ford, Baldwin, & Huang, 2010,
pp. 10671068). Here again, authentic leaders can play an important role in
ensuring that the job and personal resources gained during training and devel-
opment activities can be transferred to the employee’s work role. First, authen-
tic leaders can provide employees with opportunities to perform their new skills
in current and related contexts, thereby promoting both the generalization and
maintenance of such skills. Research from Ford and colleagues (1992) sug-
gested employees who are given opportunities to perform tasks following train-
ing are more likely to apply and maintain those skills over time. Second,
authentic leaders can encourage attempts to apply new skills by removing
obstacles; ensuring employees have the time necessary to try out and master
new skills; and by providing positive feedback for skill enhancement and reten-
tion (Boudreau & Ramstad, 2003; Salas et al., 2012). Third, authentic leaders
can foster a supportive climate for transfer so that employees are encouraged to
continuously develop new skills and achieve mastery over existing skills (Blume
et al., 2010; Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001).
We would like to conclude this section with a note about the benefits of
training and development opportunities for authentic leaders. Research sug-
gests that the benefits of training leaders can extend beyond those that relate
directly to their job performance (Dvir, Eden, Avolio, & Shamir, 2002). That
is, there can be an indirect effect to others through providing training to leaders
(Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Avolio & Hannah, 2008; Hannah & Avolio, 2010).
Therefore, we suggest that there could be cascading benefits to followers in pro-
viding training for authentic leadership in organizations. Ilies and colleagues
(2005) addressed this by suggesting several developmental initiatives that could
promote the components of authentic leadership. For example, to enhance a
leader’s level of self-awareness, they suggest providing multisource feedback to
increase the understanding of how authentic leaders are viewed by others. To
develop greater capacity for balanced processing, the organization could pro-
vide assessment centers and, “[t]hrough the use of role plays, leaderless group
discussions, and the like, [makes it] possible to help leaders process information
in an unbiased manner” (Ilies et al., 2005, p. 389). Further, they suggest that by
providing a mechanism for continuous upward feedback, authentic leaders may
cultivate greater relational transparency by giving leaders the opportunity to

quickly respond to situations, thereby increasing trust between the leader and
follower.
Hannah and Avolio (2010, p. 1182) extended this thinking further by introduc-
ing the construct of leader developmental readiness which they define as “the abil-
ity and motivation to attend to, make meaning of, and appropriate new leader
KSAAs (knowledge, skills, abilities, and attributes) into knowledge structures
along with concomitant changes in identity to employ those KSAAs.” Note that
this definition reflects two general parameters of a leader’s developmental readi-
ness: the ability and the motivation to develop. The former is fostered through
leader’s self-awareness, self-complexity, and meta-cognitive ability; the latter
through the leader’s interests and goals, learning goal orientation, and develop-
mental efficacy (Hannah & Avolio, 2010). While an explication of these subcom-
ponents of leader developmental readiness is beyond the scope of this
monograph, we refer interested readers to Avolio and Hannah’s (2008; Hannah &
Avolio, 2010) work for guidance on how organizations can accelerate the devel-
opment of their leaders. With regard to HPHRP, however, the implications of
leader developmental readiness are clear: whether training and development
methods focus on enhancing job and personal resources in employees or devel-
oping authentic leaders, they have the capacity to raise skill levels in employees
and foster authentic functioning throughout the organization which can
ultimately lead to greater engagement. Moreover, Avolio and Hannah’s (2008;
Hannah & Avolio, 2010) explicit recognition of the importance of both ability
and motivation to the development of leaders, is consistent with Jiang et al.’s
(2012) more general emphasis on the interplay between ability-enhancing and
motivation-enhancing HR practices. As such, we consider the implications of
authentic leadership for motivation-enhancing HR practices next.
Motivation-enhancing HR Practices
Whereas skill-enhancing HR practices focus on acquiring and developing

employees, motivation-enhancing practices are intended to direct effort toward
work goals and provide appropriate incentives to engage in high levels of per-
formance (Subramony, 2009). As mentioned above, work engagement is
improved primarily through HR practices aimed at increasing intrinsic motiva-
tion through enhanced job and personal resources. Therefore, our discussion
here is focused on two practices that are expected to increase intrinsic motiva-
tion and engagement: career development and performance management.
Career Development
Van Maanen and Schein (1977, p. 36) defined career development as “a lifelong
process of working out a synthesis between individual interests and the
opportunities (or limitations) present in the external work-related environment,

so that both individual and environmental objectives are fulfilled.” There are
many different types of career development, both formal and informal, includ-
ing employee assessment (Bolt, 1989; Hinrichs & Hollenbeck, 1991), on-the-job
experiences (McCall, Lombardo, & Morrison, 1988), formal courses and pro-
grams (Tansky & Cohen, 2001), and mentoring relationships (Chao, Walz, &
Gardner, 1992), among others. Career development contributes to the growth
of enduring abilities and behaviors that not only help employees in their current
positions, but also enable them to grow both personally and professionally
(Noe, Wilk, Mullen, & Wanek, 1997). Historically, career development was the
responsibility of the individual (Lee, Kwon, Kim, & Cho, 2016). However,
organizations are increasingly focused on career development as a means of
strategically enhancing the value of their HRs.

Research regarding career development has shifted from considering the
career as a lifelong pursuit, to a more immediate emphasis on career explora-
tion and continuous learning (Lee et al., 2016). Therefore, it is important to
understand how organizations can facilitate this type of learning. One such way
to facilitate learning and development is through the employee’s relationship
with their leader. Authentic leaders have several qualities that enable them to
facilitate career development effectively in their followers. As Ilies et al. (2005)
noted, authentic leaders’ self-awareness provides them with the personal
insights required to provide valuable career advice and feedback to employees,
while their balanced processing enables them to make realistic assessments of
followers’ strengths and weaknesses, and thereby engage in effective mentoring.
Moreover, Shamir and Eilam (2005) suggested that by the telling of their life
stories, authentic leaders can use these stories to enhance the development of
employees.
Mentoring activities, including feedback, are an integral component of
career development (Chao et al., 1992). Mentoring occurs when an experienced
manager (mentor) relates to an employee (protégé) and facilitates that employ-
ee’s personal and professional development for the benefit of the individual as
well as the organization (Kram, 1985). Mentoring enhances the development of
employees and has been shown to be positively related to their personal learn-
ing (Lankau & Scandura, 2002) and rate of promotion (Scandura, 1992;
Wayne, Liden, Kraimer, & Graf, 1999). Indeed, James, McKechnie, and
Swanberg (2010) found that promotion and development, such as personal
learning derived from mentoring, emerged as one of the major predictors of
engagement. Given authentic leaders’ knowledge of their own strengths and
weaknesses, and their openness in relationships with others, they are well-suited
for mentoring employees. Indeed, the self-knowledge of strengths and weak-
nesses that characterizes authentic leadership serves to promote self-clarity
(Chan, Hannah, & Gardner, 2005). Leader self-clarity enhances the mentor/
protégé relationship by making it easier for the leader to provide honest feed-
back based on his/her experiences, thereby promoting relational transparency.
Ultimately, the formation of authentic leader-follower mentoring relationships

is posited to promote personal identification with the leader, positive behavioral
modeling, positive social exchanges, and support for follower self-determination
(Ilies et al., 2005) and, in turn, elevated levels of work engagement (Eby, 2007).
As Godshalk and Sosik (2007) noted, the developmental relationship that arises
from effective mentoring leads to an increased protégé learning and excitement
for the job, and therefore higher levels of engagement.
Enabling employee growth, development, and learning can greatly impact
how employees view their work environment (Dineen & Soltis, 2011). As
Bakker and colleagues (2004) described, job resources that promote career
development include increased career opportunities, performance feedback,
training, and other developmental activities. Further, job resources that support
career development serve to increase intrinsic motivation for learning and sub-
sequent promotion opportunities, thereby enhancing work engagement (James
et al., 2010; Saks & Gruman, 2014). Moreover, Schaufeli and Bakker (2004)
found that developmental job resources such as performance feedback, social
support, and supervisory coaching were all positively related to engagement.
Subsequent work by Schaufeli, Bakker, and Van Rhenen (2009) confirmed that
autonomy, social support, and learning and development opportunities foster
enhanced levels of engagement. Together, these studies suggest that a focus on
the career development of followers through the provision of feedback and
social support, coaching, and learning opportunities serve as important motiva-
tion-enhancing HR practices whereby authentic leaders can foster follower
engagement.
Performance Management
The next motivation-enhancing practice, performance management, encom-
passes a broad set of HR practices whose intention is to enhance employee per-
formance and subsequent organizational effectiveness (Den Hartog, Boselie, &
Paauwe, 2004; DeNisi & Pritchard, 2006). Performance management can be
defined as the “interrelated processes, including goal setting, feedback, recogni-
tion, coaching, development and learning, and appraisal, all based on a founda-
tion of trust and empowerment, with a constant focus on communication”
(Mone, Eisinger, Guggenheim, Price, & Stine, 2011, p. 206). Traditionally, the
effectiveness of performance management was evaluated based on the extent to
which employee performance was achieved. As such, the performance appraisal
process was viewed as the essence of performance management for years
(Latham, Almost, Mann, & Moore, 2005). The emphasis on performance
appraisals was warranted, as they are commonly used as a basis for promotion,
compensation, and termination decisions. However, this focus produced a ten-
dency to consider performance appraisals in isolation from other performance
management HR practices, which hindered explication of the performance
managementperformance relationship.
To address this shortcoming, researchers drew attention to the role of other

performance dimensions in the performance management and evaluation pro-
cess and called for further research to incorporate these dimensions (Ferris,
Munyon, Basik, & Buckley, 2008). In an answer to this call, Gruman and Saks
(2011) introduced an engagement management model. Specifically, they sug-
gested that to best achieve favorable performance outcomes, the goal of the
performance management process should be to foster work engagement.
Gruman and Saks’s (2011) engagement management process resembled tradi-
tional performance management approaches that emphasize performance
appraisal as a means of improving performance. However, the engagement
management model shifted the immediate focus from performance to improv-
ing work engagement and did so by incorporating the JD-R model. In doing
so, the emphasis was placed on providing employees with the support and
resources necessary to become completely engaged with their job. For example,
when practicing performance management, Gruman and Saks (2011) suggested
that providing feedback a key job resource would drive work engagement.
This is consistent with prior research on work engagement which has found
that coaching feedback leads to enhanced engagement by providing employees
with knowledge of the actual results of their work and how well they are meet-
ing job demands (Xanthopoulou et al., 2009).
Accompanying the shift to the JD-R model and the focus on engagement
was a recognition that performance management is a dynamic process
(Gruman & Saks, 2011; Singh, 2008). Prior research placed too great an
emphasis on the annual review in performance management. As a result, per-
formance management became manifest as a discrete, once a year exchange,
whereby the manager was presumed to evaluate and direct an employee’s per-
formance for an entire year through one appraisal. However, performance is
dynamic in nature and warrants ongoing managerial involvement in the perfor-
mance management process (Fletcher & Perry, 2001; Gruman & Saks, 2011).
To make the case for such constant involvement, Latham and colleagues (2005)
advocated a performance management system that is comparable to the judi-
ciary system of “due process.” Specifically, they recommend a more integrative
“due process” approach whereby the manager records multiple observations of
the employee at work, provides ongoing feedback, and applies the evaluation
criteria in a consistent manner. The adoption of a due process system in perfor-
mance management produces multiple positive outcomes, such as improve-
ments in assessment accuracy, employee satisfaction, and perceptions of
fairness (Taylor, Tracy, Renard, Harrison, & Carroll, 1995). However, to make
it work, a strong commitment from the organizations leadership is required.
A core element of authentic leadership is the strong commitment to follower
development (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Gardner et al., 2005a). To foster such
development, authentic leaders are likely to invest significant time in the perfor-
mance management process. For example, authentic leaders are likely to dis-
close both their strengths and their weaknesses during interactions at work due
to their heightened level of relational transparency. Through positive behav-

ioral modeling (Gardner et al., 2005a; Ilies et al., 2005), followers become more
likely to emulate the leader and disclose their strengths and weaknesses as part
of the performance management process to further their own development and
improve performance. Moreover, positive social exchanges provide opportu-
nities for leaders and followers to jointly identify developmental activities and
performance enhancing strategies (Ilies et al., 2005; Spitzmuller & Ilies, 2010).
Additionally, through positive social exchanges, authentic leaders provide feed-
back to help followers advance their KSAs and further engage with their job.
Thus, as Fig. 1 depicts, we posit that these influence processes serve to mediate
the relationship between authentic leadership and follower work engagement
(Joo et al., 2016; Mehmood et al., 2016; Wang & Hsieh, 2013).
Opportunity-enhancing HR Practices
When employees have the skills necessary to be successful and the motivation
to achieve, opportunity-enhancing HR practices empower them to perform.
These practices enable action by providing the right environment or context
and removing unnecessary constraints (Bos-Nehles et al., 2013). Importantly, a
leader within the organization is likely to have considerable discretion over the
implementation of these practices. Therefore, the discussion that follows
describes how authentic leaders, combined with four opportunity-enhancing
HR practices (i.e., employee involvement, flexible job design, information/knowl-
edge sharing, work teams) can enhance work engagement by increasing intrinsic
motivation and job and personal resources.
Employee Involvement
The first opportunity-enhancing HPHRP, employee involvement, is actually a
broad HR approach that gives employees input or control over how work is
organized and accomplished (Fenton-O’Creevy, 1998). This can occur through
the enactment of a variety of formal or informal HR practices. Examples of
formal employee involvement practices include town hall meetings, autono-
mous work teams, quality circles, and employee feedback surveys (Lawler,
1986; Marchington, 2015). Informal employee involvement practices include
casual or ad hoc interactions between leaders and employees where information
is shared or consultation is requested. Given the breadth of practices in this cat-
egory, we advocate using Lawler’s (1986) description of involvement in charac-
terizing the types of HR practices that promote employee involvement. He
suggests that involvement occurs when employees have power, information,
knowledge, and rewards. That is, they have the power to make decisions;
information about organizational processes and results; knowledge about the
work system; and intrinsic and extrinsic rewards to support involvement
(Lawler, 1986; Zatzick & Iverson, 2011). We describe below how authentic leaders
can support employee involvement through formal and/or informal HR practices.
The primary mechanism through which authentic leaders can support
employee involvement is by supporting self-determination. SDT asserts that
employees have a desire for personal growth and that intrinsic motivation arises
from opportunities to satisfy basic psychological needs for autonomy, compe-
tence, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2000). By supporting self-determination,
authentic leaders are giving employees power from Lawler’s (1986) perspective,
which arises from autonomy in their work, from an SDT perspective.
Employees that are psychologically empowered take greater ownership and
have a greater sense of responsibility about their work. They also feel a greater
sense of trust toward their leaders all elements that lead to greater intrinsic
work motivation (Pare & Tremblay, 2007). When employees experience choice
in actions related to work activities and have higher levels of intrinsic motiva-
tion, they are likely to engage more fully (May, Gilson, & Harter, 2004;
Wallace, Butts, Johnson, Stevens, & Smith, 2016).
Authentic leaders also share information and reward employee involvement
efforts. Authentic leadership theory suggests that authentic leaders are trans-
parent in decision-making (i.e., they share the rationale for the decision), and
they are more likely to utilize employee input when making decisions (Gardner
et al., 2005a). The transparency and pattern of seeking consultation from
employees in decision-making is a clear distinction between authentic leadership
theory and more top-down leadership approaches, such as charismatic (House,
1977), autocratic (De Cremer, 2007; Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939), directive
(House, 1971), and paternalistic (Pellegrini & Scandura, 2008) leadership, sug-
gesting that authentic leaders are well-suited to promote employee involvement.
Research has demonstrated that leaders can actually reduce employee
involvement by resisting HR practices aimed at employee involvement (e.g.,
Fenton-O’Creevy, 1998). In contrast, by supporting self-determination and
transparently sharing information during decision-making, authentic leaders
promote high degrees of involvement. Further, employees look to leaders to
ascertain whether there are rewards for investing in the involvement efforts of
the organization. In fact, Richardson and Vandenberg (2005, p. 562) suggested
that perceptions of leadership often “become the filter through which an orga-
nization’s involvement efforts are recognized by employees.” Therefore, authen-
tic leaders can provide recognition for employees who engage in employee
involvement practices, further supporting self-determination.
In a meta-analysis of involvement, Brown (1996) suggested that personal
resources, job resources, and leadership jointly influence employee involvement.
Specifically, he found that self-efficacy (a personal resource discussed in the
skill-enhancing section), meaningfulness of the task (a job resource discussed
in the flexible job design section below), and several leadership behaviors (con-
sideration, participation, and communication) were all positively related to
involvement. Highly involved employees who experience autonomy and
meaningfulness in their work are, then, more likely to experience enhanced levels
of engagement. Support for this assertion is provided by Christian et al.’s (2011)
meta-analysis, which revealed a .52 corrected correlation between job involve-
ment and work engagement. Moreover, Kuhnel and colleagues (2012) found
that highly involved employees invested more job resources in their work, pro-
viding further evidence of the connection to work engagement. As we have sug-
gested above, authentic leaders can encourage employee involvement through
the promotion or enactment of employee involvement practices that support
self-determination in employees. Therefore, job involvement practices constitute
a valuable opportunity-enhancing HR practice whereby authentic leaders foster
high levels of intrinsic work motivation and work engagement among followers.
Flexible Job Design

Traditionally, job design research focused on the task structures of the job,
such as autonomy, task identity, task variety, task significance, and feedback
(Hackman & Oldham, 1976). More specifically, researchers examined how these
specific, fixed structures fit together to establish the job design that is both most
effective and promotes positive individual outcomes, such as experienced mean-
ingfulness of the work and experienced responsibility for the outcome of the
work (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). However, an underlying assumption of this
early research was that these structures were fixed and established by managers.
This meant that the overall task structure of the job was constructed by man-
agers who would never be performing the job, and the established task struc-
ture could not be altered. However, research has challenged this assumption on
the grounds that these task structures are not fixed and the individuals perform-
ing them often alter the structures themselves. This has led to enhanced consid-
eration of more flexible approaches to job design, such as job crafting
(Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001).
Job crafting captures “the actions employees take to shape, mold, and rede-
fine their jobs” (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001, p. 180). More specifically, job
crafters actively alter the physical, cognitive, and/or relational components of
their job to change both the meaning and identity associated with their work.
Traditional job design approaches, such as the Job Characteristics Model
(Hackman & Oldham, 1976), posit that employees’ attitudes result from job
design that is implemented in a top-down fashion. In contrast, job crafting the-
ory suggests a more bottom-up approach whereby employees’ attitudes inspire
them to deliberately modify their job to best fit their abilities and thereby create
more opportunities for their successful application (Tims & Bakker, 2010;
Tims, Bakker, Derks, & van Rhenen, 2013). For example, a sales employee
may alter both the amount and mode of communication used with certain cus-
tomers. Whereas many organizations have structured sales programs and pro-
tocols, customers may vary in the extent of desired interactions and
communications. Granting the sales employee the autonomy to tailor the
relationship may produce a better relationship with the customer as well as

allowing the employee to craft a more efficient schedule. This more efficient
schedule provides the employee with both the personal and the job resource of
time which could be spent in any number of ways. However, given that this
resource was made available by the organization’s willingness to allow employ-
ees to craft their jobs, we expect employees to reciprocate by reinvesting the
additional time into their work through enhanced engagement in other task
responsibilities (Gouldner, 1960). As such, a closer examination of this bottom-
up approach, and specifically its processes and outcomes, is warranted.
The practice of job crafting has become more common in the workplace and
has accordingly received increased attention from researchers (Berg,
Wrzesniewski, & Dutton, 2010). As such, findings have accumulated that docu-
ment the positive relationship between job crafting and favorable outcomes
such as individual well-being, job performance, and work engagement (Bakker,
Tims, & Derks, 2012; Petrou, Demerouti, Peeters, Schaufeli, & Hetland, 2012;
Tims et al., 2013). Much of this research is framed within the context of the
JD-R model, as individuals who alter their job do so to either enhance job
resources or diminish job demands (Tims, Bakker, & Derks, 2012). The JD-R
model provides a parsimonious approach for examining the specific elements of
the task structure, such as job characteristics (e.g., task identity, task variety,
task significance, feedback, and autonomy), that employees alter when engag-
ing in job crafting. For example, as part of their meta-analysis of work engage-
ment, Christian and colleagues (2011) included these flexible job characteristics,
as well as leadership, as antecedents of work engagement and subsequent per-
formance. Specifically, they found that autonomy, task variety, task signifi-
cance, feedback, problem-solving, job complexity, and social support were
positively related to work engagement. Hence, by crafting a job to promote
these characteristics, employees are more likely to experience work engagement
(Bakker, van Emmerik, & Euwema, 2006; Christian et al., 2011).
Despite the extensive attention devoted to flexible job design, the integration
of this construct with other fields of study is incomplete. For example, there are
still calls for future research to integrate job design with the field of leadership
(Oldham & Fried, 2016). While some initial work connecting leadership and
job design has been conducted (Griffin, 1981; Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006;
Piccolo, Greenbaum, Den Hartog, & Folger, 2010), this discussion has not pro-
gressed beyond the traditional, fixed, and managerially imposed top-down
approach. Authentic leadership theory is well-suited to serve as a conceptual
framework for recognizing the role that leadership plays in the bottom-up flexi-
ble job design process due to its roots in SDT (Deci & Ryan, 2000). As noted
previously, SDT helps to explain the dialectic relationship whereby the leader
and follower cooperate to achieve fulfillment of follower basic psychological
needs (Leroy et al., 2015). Accordingly, we expect authentic leaders to foster
follower self-determination (Ilies et al., 2005) through the active promotion of
follower job crafting, which may partially explain the positive relationship
between authentic leadership and work engagement (Joo et al., 2016;

Mehmood et al., 2016; Wang & Hsieh, 2013; Wei et al., 2016). The freedom to
carry out a job task in a customized manner increases both the awareness and
self-expression of the follower. Such heightened levels of awareness and expres-
sion, in turn, enhance follower’s KSAs (i.e., job resources), and enables them to
further grow and develop (Avolio & Walumbwa, 2006; Gardner et al., 2005a).
Authentic leaders can facilitate flexible job design and promote work
engagement through the various influence processes previously outlined. For
example, positive behavioral modeling may come into play when they alter
their own job to achieve a better fit with their strengths and values, thereby
inspiring followers to do likewise (Gardner et al., 2005a). As followers achieve
a better fit between job demands and their job and personal resources, they are
likely to experience higher levels of work engagement. Another example
involves the enhanced capacity for positive social exchanges that characterizes
authentic leadership (Ilies et al., 2005). Positive exchanges with followers that
reflect openness, positive affect, and trust are likely to encourage followers to
craft their job in ways that enhance opportunities for success, as well as the
dedication that underlies work engagement. Overall, we anticipate that job
crafting facilitated by authentic leaders will promote the fulfillment of employ-
ees’ work identity by altering their job and increasing necessary job resources.
Such enhancements will, in turn, contribute to work engagement (de Beer,
Rothmann, & Mostert, 2016; Lu, Wang, Lu, Du, & Bakker, 2014) and, ulti-
mately, veritable sustained performance.
Information/Knowledge Sharing
Another opportunity-enhancing HPHRP involves the provision of information
or knowledge sharing. Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995, p. 58) distinguished
between information and knowledge, defining the former as the “flow of mes-
sages,” whereas the latter is defined as a “dynamic human process of justifying
personal belief toward the truth”. For our purposes, however, this distinction is
not important and hence we follow the precedent set by other scholars (Kogut
& Zander, 1992) who view these terms as interchangeable. While much work
has been devoted to the study of knowledge itself, we focus on the facilitation
of information/knowledge sharing.
To adequately discuss information/knowledge sharing, we must first
acknowledge the disparate types of knowledge, as each type has unique charac-
teristics that influence its capacity to be shared. In recent years, scholarship
focused on knowledge has coalesced around two particular categories: explicit
and tacit (Grant, 1996; Kogut & Zander, 1992; Polanyi, 1966). Explicit knowl-
edge can be thought of as knowing about, while tacit knowledge can be consid-
ered as knowing how. Explicit knowledge is easily codifiable and can be shared
with minimal or no loss of content. Conversely, tacit knowledge is less codifi-
able and thus transferability is more problematic. Accordingly, tacit knowledge
is less easily shared, but once possessed, can be highly valuable. Typically,
explicit knowledge can be shared independent of individuals in the form of
written communication or verbal explanation. However, tacit knowledge can-
not be shared independent of the individual who possesses it and to be learned,
its application must be witnessed (e.g., through a mentoring program).
The extensive attention devoted over the years to the study of knowledge,
its categories, and its ability to be shared is due in part to its positive relation-
ship with favorable work outcomes. Knowledge sharing promotes the devel-
opment of feelings of competence and autonomy, important job resources
(Gagné, 2009). Feelings of competence and autonomy constitute basic psy-
chological needs, the satisfaction of which we have noted earlier is positively
related to work engagement (Baard, Deci, & Ryan, 2004). In contrast, Evans,
Hendron, and Oldroyd (2015) examined the impact of knowledge hoarding

within organizations and found a negative relationship with individual
performance.
Given the established positive effects of knowledge exchanges within the work-
place, researchers have shifted their attention to examine what motivates indivi-
duals to engage, or not engage, in the practice of information/knowledge sharing.
For example, Gagné (2009) proposed a model of knowledge sharing motivation
that draws from both the theory of planned behavior and SDT (Deci & Ryan,
1985) to gain insight into the quality of such motivation and not just the quantity.
Importantly, this model recognized the motivational implications of various HR
practices (e.g., job design, staffing, compensation, and performance evaluation).
Moreover, based on an examination of the role that motivation plays in knowl-
edge sharing, Bartol and Srivastava (2002) recommended that knowledge sharing
be included as a component of performance evaluation to better promote infor-
mation/knowledge sharing within organizations.
Mirroring research in the motivation literature, debate regarding the role of
intrinsic versus extrinsic motives for information/knowledge sharing has
emerged. For example, in a study of job design and its influence on knowledge
sharing, Foss, Minbaeva, Pedersen, and Reinholt (2009) found that intrinsic
motivation is positively related to both sending and receiving knowledge.
However, extrinsic motivation was unrelated to receiving knowledge and had a
negative relationship with sending knowledge to others. Foss and colleagues
(2009) suggested that reliance on extrinsic rewards may encourage employees to
share only enough knowledge to attain the external reward. While the potential
effects of intrinsic versus extrinsic rewards remains a much debated topic within
the motivation literature (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999; Eisenberger, Pierce, &
Cameron, 1999), the assertion that improvements in information/knowledge
sharing require some form of motivation is well established (Bartol &
Srivastava, 2002; Quigley, Tesluk, Locke, & Bartol, 2007).
Leadership has also been shown to play an important role in promoting or
inhibiting information/knowledge sharing. For instance, Srivistava, Bartol,
and Locke (2006) demonstrated that empowering leadership is related to both
knowledge sharing and team efficacy which, in turn, are positively related to team
performance. Similarly, authentic leadership which shares conceptual overlap
with empowering leadership is likely to support information sharing. Ilies and
colleagues (2005) asserted that the fulfillment of followers’ psychological needs is
achieved through positive social exchanges and support of self-determination that
characterize authentic leadership. As noted previously, positive social exchanges
include the giving and receiving of resources, including the key job resource of
knowledge. By creating an environment that supports follower self-determina-
tion, authentic leadership promotes intrinsic motivation among followers to not
only to present their true self (Leroy et al., 2015), but to actively share the explicit
and tacit knowledge that resides within that self. Such access to information pro-
vides additional job resources to which followers may not have previously been
privy. Thus, to the extent that authentic leadership promotes information/knowl-
edge sharing, followers gain access to additional job resources that can be
deployed to foster greater engagement (Crawford et al., 2010).
Work Teams
Most, if not all, organizations use work teams in some form (Cohen & Bailey,
1997; Kozlowski & Ilgen, 2006). According to Kozlowski and Ilgen (2006,
p. 79), “a team can be defined as (a) two or more individuals who (b) socially
interact (face-to-face or, increasingly, virtually); (c) possess one or more com-
mon goals; (d) are brought together to perform organizationally relevant tasks;
(e) exhibit interdependencies with respect to workflow, goals, and outcomes; (f)
have different roles and responsibilities; and (g) are together embedded in an
encompassing organizational system, with boundaries and linkages to the
broader system context and task environment.” Working in teams to achieve
various goals allows employees to seek out new challenges at work and satisfy
their individual psychological needs in the process (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The
social support provided to employees through work teams, for example, helps
to fulfill members’ relatedness needs. Social support is one of the most
researched job resources as it has been shown to influence employee attitudes,
perceptions, and in turn, development activities (Tansky & Cohen, 2001).
Moreover, it has been shown to buffer against various negative aspects of work
(Haines, Hurlbert, & Zimmer, 1991; Johnson & Hall, 1988; Van der Doef &
Maes, 1999), including work stress, anxiety, and decrements to employee health
and well-being (Viswesvaran, Sanchez, & Fisher, 1999). Thus, the social sup-
port available from working in teams serves as a job resource that can buffer
employees from job demands. When employees receive strong social support
from the organization, they are increasingly willing to go above and beyond
expectations at work (Bakker, Demerouti & Verbeke, 2004).
Authentic leadership can do much to foster social support in work teams.
For instance, by modeling relational transparency authentic leaders can encour-
age team members to be open and honest in their relationships with peers
(Avolio & Gardner, 2005), increasing the social support they provide to one
another. However, for members to avail themselves of the social support that
work teams have the potential to provide, they must first feel secure in the team
and the working environment. Within the leader-follower relationship, insight
into the factors that contribute to such security is provided by Bowlby’s (1969)
theory of attachment styles. Bowlby (1969) asserted that individuals develop
attachment styles during childhood that continue to evolve into adulthood that
predispose them to prefer more versus less secure relationships with others
(Ainsworth, Bell, & Stayton, 1971; Bowlby, 1969; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007).
As Hinojosa, McCauley, Randolph-Seng, and Gardner (2014, p. 596) noted, “a
secure relationship with close others promotes knowledge and confidence in
one’s abilities and provides a safe environment for people to apply those abili-
ties.” They go on to explore how the four components of authentic leadership
promote more secure leader-follower relationships. Specifically, by providing a
“secure base” for followers, authentic leaders promote positive social exchanges
that in turn contribute to the emergence of authentic followership (Hinojosa
et al., 2014).
Authentic leaders are likewise posited to put the interests of the team above
their own interests due to their heightened capacity for balanced processing
(Gardner et al., 2005a). That is, they give and receive positive and negative
feedback in a relatively objective fashion and consider other perspectives. By
engaging in perspective-taking, authentic leaders come to appreciate the impor-
tance of making decisions that benefit the team as a whole, rather than focusing
exclusively on personal interests (May, Chan, Hodges & Avolio, 2003).
Furthermore, because authentic leaders serve as models for followers’ authen-
ticity (Ilies et al., 2005), members of teams led by authentic leaders are expected
to emulate the leader by likewise putting the needs of the team above their
own. Therefore, a team composed of members who exhibit shared authentic
leadership would provide enhanced levels of social support to members
(Hmieleski et al., 2012). By promoting authentic followership within teams, and
therefore social support, authentic leadership enhances followers’ job resources
and, in turn, work engagement. Moreover, such work engagement is often man-
ifest through both in-role and extra-role performance (Bakker et al., 2004;
Leroy et al., 2015), contributing to sustained and veritable performance.
SUMMARIZING THE IMPACT OF AUTHENTIC LEADERS

AND HPHRP ON WORK ENGAGEMENT
The AMO model of HRM suggests that for employees to be successful,
they need the appropriate skills, motivation, and opportunities to perform
(Lepak et al., 2006). We suggest that work engagement, therefore, can be
enhanced through authentic leadership and skill-enhancing, motivation-

enhancing, and opportunity-enhancing HPHRP that increase employees’
personal and job resources and promote authentic functioning. The three skill-
enhancing HR practices recruitment, selection, and training focus on
ensuring that individuals who join the organization have the appropriate KSAs
to be successful and/or that they receive appropriate developmental opportu-
nities to increase their skills. Motivation-enhancing practices foster increased
levels of motivation and subsequent effort and action toward the achievement
of both proximal and distal goals. In our discussion, we focused specifically on
those practices that increase intrinsic motivation (i.e., performance manage-
ment and career development) because of authentic leadership’s emphasis
on intrinsic motivation and the connection between intrinsic motivation

and engagement. Finally, opportunity-enhancing practices such as employee
involvement, flexible job design, information/knowledge sharing, and work
teams, empower employees to perform.
We have also identified authentic leadership influence processes that com-
bine with specific HPHRP to enhance engagement. Three of the influence pro-
cesses positive behavioral role modeling, supporting self-determination, and
positive social exchanges were discussed in the skill-enhancing, motivation-
enhancing, and opportunity-enhancing HPHRP sections. For example, positive
behavioral role modeling during the performance management process can
encourage employees to emulate their leader and disclose their strengths and
weaknesses. Supporting self-determination through employee involvement
efforts can increase intrinsic motivation, and positive social exchanges can
include giving and receiving knowledge. Personal and organizational identifica-
tion is an important aspect of career development that can be enhanced
through mentoring, and positive emotional contagion is particularly important
during recruitment and selection because of the impact it can have on perceived
favorability of the work environment. In sum, all of these influence processes
promote authentic functioning or increase job or personal resources, which in
turn, leads to greater work engagement.
However, we do not intend to suggest that one HPHRP should be empha-
sized at the expense of others in support of enhancing work engagement. Lepak
and colleagues (2006, p. 237) suggested that “HR practices are context depen-
dent, their impact and effectiveness depends on other HR practices with which
they are paired”; and Subramony (2009) emphasized that it is actually the bun-
dles of HR practices that are superior for driving performance because of their
interactive, or synergistic, effects. Thus, our recommendations in each section
reflect specific mechanisms for authentic leaders to use HPHRP to promote
work engagement, and future research would be well-served to examine the HR
system with a focus on multiple skill-enhancing, motivation-enhancing, and
opportunity-enhancing practices.
CONCLUSION
Throughout this monograph, we have proposed that authentic leaders and
HPHRP can jointly enhance work engagement, and we have articulated the
mechanisms to indicate how this can occur. This discussion has been based in
revisions to the authentic leadership theoretical model presented herein. The
updated authentic leadership model includes four conceptual dimensions (i.e.,
self-awareness, balanced processing, relational transparency, internalized moral
perspective) as well as five distinct processes whereby authentic leaders influ-
ence authentic followership: positive behavioral role modeling, personal and
organizational identification, positive emotional contagion, supporting self-
determination, and positive social exchanges. Further, the model incorporates

skill-enhancing, motivation-enhancing, and opportunity-enhancing HR prac-
tices based on the AMO model of HRM (in addition to organizational climate)
as social contextual factors that can combine with authentic leadership to pro-
mote follower outcomes.
We chose to focus specifically on the impact that authentic leaders and
HPHRP can have on the follower outcome of work engagement for several rea-
sons. First, engaged employees are positive and are characterized by feelings of
vigor, dedication, and absorption (Schaufeli et al., 2002). They are more likely
to be inspired and creative, to seek challenges, to feel pride, and to see the sig-
nificance in their work over sustained periods. Therefore, even though engage-
ment is on the decline in organizations today, authentic leaders and HPHRP
have the potential to have a dramatic effect on increasing engagement. Gruman
and Saks (2011, p. 124) suggested that “[b]ecause of the dynamic, multifaceted
nature of modern jobs, in the contemporary work environment achieving incre-
ments in performance often involves less ‘management’ of performance than
‘facilitation’ of performance.” That is, authentic leaders and HPHRP can facili-
tate the conditions for employees to engage and be successful in their work
roles by enhancing job and personal resources and by providing the supportive
conditions for employees to be successful.
In addition, leaders often have considerable discretion over the enactment
and support of HPHRP. We have provided numerous examples of this
throughout the monograph. Authentic leaders can encourage training and
development activities by removing work obstacles to attend training, offering
opportunities to perform newly acquired skills, and by providing positive feed-
back. Career development can be promoted through formal and informal men-
toring, feedback to employees regarding their strengths and weaknesses, and by
providing social support. Employee involvement can be encouraged by reward-
ing involvement efforts, ensuring transparent decision-making, and regularly
seeking follower input. Whereas authentic leaders (outside of the HR function)
within an organization may not be involved with the HR system or policy
decisions, there are likely to be numerous opportunities to promote greater

work engagement through the enactment of various HPHRP.
HR leaders who are involved in system or policy decisions have the potential
to enhance work engagement as well which we will elaborate on here briefly
with several recommendations. First, HR should proactively involve authentic
leaders from across the organization in the recruiting process as it conveys valu-
able information to job candidates about the climate of the firm. Authentic lea-
ders have the ability to demonstrate positive values, positive emotions, and a
concern for others, and this is likely to aid in attracting candidates with
a greater capacity for authentic functioning. HR should also revise selection
processes to include an emphasis on selecting candidates with high levels of
personal resources. Through minor adjustments to existing selection tools,

including adding questions during interviews and reference checks or modifying
measures to assess proactive personality, organizations can better evaluate job
seekers’ levels of personal resources. Further, we suggest that HR place a
greater emphasis on training and development initiatives that enhance personal
resources. Training activities within organizations are typically geared toward
enhancing employees’ technical or job-related skills; however, we have
highlighted the significant benefits of enhancing personal and job resources.
Therefore, HR can play a role in enhancing engagement by providing a broader
range of training courses and programs.
The performance management process is another area where there is tremen-
dous potential for HR professionals to demonstrate their strategic value to the
firm through a greater emphasis on enhancing engagement. This can occur in
two ways. First, performance management should be reframed as a regular,
ongoing aspect of a manager’s job. Managers should be encouraged to provide
continuous developmental feedback to employees that is aimed at promoting
engagement (in addition to positive job-related outcomes). Through this pro-
cess, managers should share work-related information enhancing employees’
job resources and encourage employees to engage in job crafting. By foster-
ing employee self-determination and providing flexibility in how work is done
or in work schedules, employees are more likely to experience greater levels of
work engagement.
Finally, HR should place greater emphasis on promoting employee involve-
ment practices. As we have discussed, employees who feel choice in work activi-
ties and those who have greater information about their work have higher
levels of intrinsic motivation, and they are more likely to engage more fully.
Employee involvement practices can aid considerably toward this goal as well.
For example, HR leaders can hold town hall meetings to disseminate important
organizational information, solicit feedback about potential policy changes, or
respond publicly to employee concerns. Similarly, quality circles could be more
regularly utilized to seek input from employees across organizational functions
to address problems rather than instituting exclusively “top-down” solutions.
HR should also regularly solicit employee feedback through surveys. Employee

feedback surveys enhance trust and allow everyone in the organization to pro-
vide input to management about issues that may not be readily apparent.
We conclude by noting that our focus in this monograph on work engage-
ment stems from our interest in promoting work environments where indivi-
duals can flourish. Historically, psychological research has focused on negative
states at work (Bakker, Schaufeli, Leiter, & Taris, 2008). However, we embrace
the positive psychology movement by articulating the single and combined
effects that authentic leaders and HPHRP can have on enhancing work engage-
ment and overall well-being. The essence of engagement is positive energy and
identification with one’s work, and we suggest that when individuals bring their
best, most authentic selves to the workplace, they are engrossed in meaningful
work that they view as serving a larger purpose. They are intrinsically moti-
vated to use the full complement of their talents, and hence, they thrive at
work.
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Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, Volume 35, 103153

Self-actualization… 100% fulfillment… using the full complement of our talents.

More specifically, we contend that when authentic leadership permeates an

INTEGRATIVE MODEL OF AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP

(see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Integrated Human Resource Management and Authentic Leadership/

relational transparency, and an internalized moral perspective (Neider &

ing self-determination, and positive social exchanges. As such, one of the

Definitions: Authenticity, Authentic Leadership, and Organizational Climate

Before we consider the implications of the proposed integrated model of

Let’s consider the core dimensions of authentic leadership reflected in this

First, with respect to the definitional reasons advanced by Gardner et al.

With regard to the theoretical and empirical justification for including a

Thus, for definitional, theoretical/empirical, and philosophical reasons,

et al., 2005a). The strength-based organizational climate supports the growth of

High-Performance Human Resource Practices

motivation-enhancing, or opportunity-enhancing (Lepak et al., 2006; Sun et al.,

Finally, opportunity-enhancing practices empower employees to work toward

Positive Behavioral Modeling

Personal and Organizational Identification

tion of authentic leader-follower relationships. Specifically, they assert that the

mechanism whereby the authenticity of the leader contributes to the develop-

Positive Emotional Contagion

self” (Leroy, Anseel, Gardner, & Sels, 2015, p. 1681).

for promoting follower self-determination is provided by Gardner and collea-

tured by an authentic leader and the work context (e.g., HR practices) he or

Positive Social Exchanges

A central thesis of the self-based perspective of authentic leadership is the asser-

among employees, which in turn, leads to sustained veritable performance.

to acquire, retain, and protect resources including personal characteristics and

Veritable and Sustained Performance

The ultimate outcome of the self-based model of AL advanced by Gardner and

INTEGRATING HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Skill-enhancing HR practices focus on acquiring and developing employees

Schneider’s (1987) attraction-selection-attrition framework is particularly

heightened levels of personal resources.

overcoming a setback at work?” could be added to a structured interview to

level of personal resources.

Training and Development

considerable evidence to suggest that training and development initiatives have

levels of self-efficacy in followers. In sum, through targeted training and devel-

cultivate greater relational transparency by giving leaders the opportunity to

Whereas skill-enhancing HR practices focus on acquiring and developing

opportunities (or limitations) present in the external work-related environment,

strategically enhancing the value of their HRs.

Ultimately, the formation of authentic leader-follower mentoring relationships

To address this shortcoming, researchers drew attention to the role of other

to their heightened level of relational transparency. Through positive behav-

Flexible Job Design

relationship may produce a better relationship with the customer as well as

between authentic leadership and work engagement (Joo et al., 2016;

Hendron, and Oldroyd (2015) examined the impact of knowledge hoarding

SUMMARIZING THE IMPACT OF AUTHENTIC LEADERS

enhanced through authentic leadership and skill-enhancing, motivation-

on intrinsic motivation and the connection between intrinsic motivation

determination, and positive social exchanges. Further, the model incorporates

decisions, there are likely to be numerous opportunities to promote greater